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| {{Infobox Historical American Political Party| | |||
| party name= Black Panther Party| | |||
| party logo= ]| | |||
| party articletitle= Black Panther Party | | |||
| active= 1966-c.1976| | |||
| ideology= ]-]<br />]| | |||
| position= ]| | |||
| international= None | | |||
| preceded by= None | | |||
| succeeded by= None | | |||
| colors = ] | |||
| }} | |||
| {{POV|date=January 2009}} | |||
| The '''Black Panther Party''' (originally the '''Black Panther Party for Self-Defense''') was an ] organization established to promote ] and ] through acts of social agitation. It was active in the United States from the mid-1960s into the 1970s. | |||
| Founded in ], by ] and ] on October 15, 1966, the organization initially set forth a doctrine calling for the protection of ]s from ], in the interest of African-American justice.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9015498/Black-Panther-Party |title=Black Panther Party |accessdate=2008-03-27 |last= |first= |coauthors= |date= |work= |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica }}</ref> Its objectives and philosophy changed radically during the party's existence. While the organization's leaders passionately espoused ] doctrine, the Party's ] reputation attracted an ideologically diverse membership.<ref>Jessica Christina Harris. Revolutionary Black Nationalism: The Black Panther Party." Journal of Negro History, Vol. 85, No. 3 (Summer, 2000), pp. 162-174</ref> Ideological consensus within the party was difficult to achieve. Some members openly disagreed with the views of the leaders. | |||
| In 1967 the organization marched on the ] in ] in protest of a ban on weapons. The official newspaper ''The Black Panther'' was also first circulated that year. By 1968, the party had expanded into many cities throughout the United States, including ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ]. That same year, membership reached 5,000, and their newspaper had grown to a circulation of 250,000.<ref name= "Black studies" >{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Black Studies |last=Asante |first=Molefi K. |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2005 |publisher=Sage Publications Inc. |location= |isbn=076192762X |pages=135–137 }} </ref> | |||
| The group created a Ten-Point Program, a document that called for "Land, Bread, Housing, Education, Clothing, Justice and Peace", as well as exemption from military service for African-American men, among other demands.<ref>{{cite web |last=Newton |first=Huey |title=The Ten-Point Program |work=War Against the Panthers |publisher=Marxist.org |date=1966-10-15 |url=http://www.marxists.org/history/usa/workers/black-panthers/1966/10/15.htm |accessdate=2006-06-05 }}</ref> While firmly grounded in black nationalism and begun as an organization that accepted only African Americans as members, the party changed as it grew to national prominence and became an icon of the ].<ref>{{cite web |last=Da Costa |first=Francisco |authorlink=http://www.franciscodacosta.com |title=The Black Panther Party |url=http://www.franciscodacosta.com/articles/BPP.html |accessdate=2006-06-05 }}</ref> The Black Panthers ultimately condemned black nationalism as "black racism". They became more focused on ] without racial exclusivity.<ref>{{cite book|first=Bobby|last=Seale|title=Seize the Time|publisher=Black Classic Press|edition=Reprint edition|month=September|year=1997|pages=23, 256, 383}}</ref> They instituted a variety of community programs to alleviate ] and improve health among communities deemed most needful of aid. While the party retained its all-black membership, it recognized that different minority communities (those it deemed oppressed by the American government) needed to organize around their own set of issues and encouraged alliances with such organizations. | |||
| The group's political goals were often overshadowed by their confrontational and militant tactics, and by their suspicions of law enforcement agents.<ref>{{cite web |last=Westneat |first=Danny |title=Reunion of Black Panthers stirs memories of aggression, activism |publisher=The Seattle Times |date=2005-06-01 |url=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2002270461_danny11.html |accessdate=2006-06-05 }}</ref> | |||
| After party membership started to decline during ]'s 1968 manslaughter trial, the Black Panther Party collapsed in the early 1970s. Writers such as Black Panther and ] ] and American writer and political activist ] have alleged that law enforcement officials went to great lengths to discredit and destroy the organization, including ].<ref>''The Angela Y. Davis Reader'', p.11, "olice, assisted by federal agents, had killed or assassinated over twenty black revolutionaries in the Black Panther Party." She cites on page 23 (citation # 26) ], ] and ] (see below), and ]. (Davis, Angela Yves. ''The Angela Y. Davis Reader'' Blackwell Publishers (1998))</ref> | |||
| ==Origins== | |||
| {{African American topics sidebar|right}} | |||
| In 1966, ] was released from jail. With his friend ] from ], he joined a black power group called the ] (RAM). RAM had a chapter in Oakland and followed the writings of ]. Originally from ], Williams published a newsletter called ''The Crusader'' from China, where he fled to escape kidnapping charges. | |||
| The Oakland chapter consisted mainly of students, who were not interested in this extreme form of activism. Newton and Seale's attitudes were more militant. The pair left RAM searching for a group more meaningful to them.<ref>The connection between RAM and the founding of the BPP is discussed in Pearson 1994, page 76-77</ref> | |||
| They worked at the North Oakland Neighborhood Anti-Poverty Center, where they also served on the advisory board. To combat police brutality, the advisory board obtained 5,000 signatures in support of the City Council's setting up a police review board to review complaints. Newton was also taking classes at the City College and at ]. Both institutions were active in the North Oakland Center. Thus the pair had numerous connections with whom they talked about a new organization. Inspired by the success of the ] and ]'s calls for separate black political organizations,<ref></ref> they wrote their initial platform statement, the Ten-Point Program. With the help of Huey's brother Melvin, they decided on a uniform of blue shirts, black pants, black leather jackets, black berets, and openly displayed loaded shotguns (in his studies, Newton had discovered a California law that allowed carrying a loaded rifle or shotgun, as long as it was publicly displayed and pointed at no one).<ref>For more on this, see Pearson 1994, page 109</ref> | |||
| ===The Ten Point Program=== | |||
| The Ten Point Program was as follows: | |||
| # We want power to determine the destiny of our black and oppressed communities' education that teaches us our true history and our role in the present day society. | |||
| # We want completely free health care for all black and oppressed people. | |||
| # We want an immediate end to police brutality and murder of black people, other people of color, all oppressed people inside the United States. | |||
| # We want an immediate end to all wars of aggression. | |||
| # We want full employment for our people. | |||
| # We want an end to the robbery by the capitalists of our Black Community. | |||
| # We want decent housing, fit for the shelter of human beings. | |||
| # We want decent education for our people that exposes the true nature of this decadent American society. | |||
| # We want freedom for all black and oppressed people now held in U. S. Federal, state, county, city and military prisons and jails. We want trials by a jury of peers for all persons charged with so-called crimes under the laws of this country. | |||
| # We want land, bread, housing, education, clothing, justice, peace and people's community control of modern technology.<ref> from Its About Time (itsabouttimebpp.com)</ref><ref>{{cite web | |||
| |url=http://history.hanover.edu/courses/excerpts/111bppp.html | |||
| |title=The Black Panther Party Platform (October 1966) | |||
| |accessdate=2008-03-27 | |||
| |publisher=Hanover College Department of History}}</ref>. | |||
| ==Action== | |||
| ===Survival programs=== | |||
| ] | |||
| Inspired by ]'s advice to revolutionaries in the '']'', Newton called on the Panthers to "serve the people" and to make "survival programs" a priority within its branches. The most famous and successful of their programs was the ], initially run out of an ] church. | |||
| Other survival programs were free services such as clothing distribution, classes on politics and economics, ], lessons on ] and ], transportation to upstate prisons for family members of inmates, an emergency-response ] program, ], and testing for ].<ref></ref> | |||
| The BPP also founded the "Intercommunal Youth Institute" in January 1971,<ref>Jones, Charles Earl. The Black Panther Reconsidered . Black Classic Press, 1998. Pg. 186</ref> with the intent of demonstrating how black youth ought to be educated. Ericka Huggins was the director of the school and Regina Davis was an administrator.<ref> | |||
| Brown, Elaine. A Taste of Power: A Black Woman's Story. 1st ed. New York: Pantheon Books, 1992. Pg.391</ref> The school was unique in that it didn't have grade levels but instead had different skill levels so an 11 year old could be in second-level English and fifth-level science.<ref> | |||
| Brown, Elaine. A Taste of Power: A Black Woman's Story. 1st ed. New York: Pantheon Books, 1992. Pg. 391</ref> Elaine Brown taught reading and writing to a group of 10 to 11 year olds deemed "uneducable" by the system.<ref> | |||
| Brown, Elaine. A Taste of Power: A Black Woman's Story. 1st ed.. New York: Pantheon Books, 1992. Pg.392</ref> At the school children were given free busing; breakfast, lunch, and dinner; books and school supplies; children were taken to have medical checkups; and many children were given free clothes.<ref> | |||
| Brown, Elaine. A Taste of Power: A Black Woman's Story. 1st ed.. New York: Pantheon Books, 1992. Pg.393</ref> | |||
| ===Political activities=== | |||
| The Party briefly merged with the ], headed by the fiery ] (later Kwame Ture). In 1967, the party organized a march on the California state capitol to protest the state's attempt to outlaw carrying loaded weapons in public. Participants in the march carried rifles. In 1968, BPP Minister of Information ] ran for Presidential office on the ] ticket. They were a big influence on the ], that was tied to the Detroit/Ann Arbor rock band ] and their manager ], author of the book ''Guitar Army'' that also promulgated a ten-point program. | |||
| ===Conflict with law enforcement=== | |||
| As the Black Panther Party was beginning to gain a national presence, police began a crackdown on the party and their activities. ] was arrested for an alleged murder, which sparked a "free Huey" campaign, organized by ] to help Newton's legal defense. Newton was convicted, though his conviction was overturned in the 1970s. | |||
| In April 1968, the party was involved in a gun battle, where ], a Panther, was killed. Cleaver later said that he had led the Panther group on a deliberate ambush of the police officers, thus provoking the shoot-out.<ref>Kate Coleman, 1980, New West Magazine.</ref> In Chicago, two Panthers were killed in a police raid.<ref name= "Black studies" /> | |||
| One of the central aims of the BPP was to stop abuse by local police departments. When the party was founded in 1966, only 16 of ]'s 661 police officers were African American.<ref>''The Black Panthers'' by Jessica McElrath, published as a part of , accessed on December 17, 2005.</ref> Accordingly, many members questioned the Department's objectivity and impartiality. This situation was not unique to ]. Most police departments in major cities did not have proportional membership by African Americans. Throughout the 1960s, ]s and civil unrest broke out in impoverished African-American communities subject to policing by disproportionately white police departments. The work and writings of ], ] ] chapter president and author of '']'', also influenced the BPP's tactics. | |||
| The BPP sought to oppose police brutality through neighborhood patrols (an approach since adopted by groups such as ]). Police officers were often followed by armed Black Panthers who sought at times to aid African-Americans who were alleged victims of police brutality and perceived racial prejudice. Both Panthers and police died as a result of violent confrontations. By 1970, 34 Panthers had died as a result of police raids, shoot-outs and internal conflict.<ref>from an interview with Kathleen Cleaver on May 7, 2002 published by the ] program P.O.V. and being published in ''Introduction to Black Panther 1968: Photographs by Ruth-Marion Baruch and Pirkle Jones'', (Greybull Press). </ref> Various police organizations claim the Black Panthers were responsible for the deaths of at least 15 law enforcement officers and the injuries of dozens more. During those years, juries found several BPP members guilty of violent crimes.<ref></ref> | |||
| From 1966 to 1972, when the party was most active, several departments hired significantly more ] police officers. Some of these black officers played prominent roles in shutting down the Panthers' activities. In Chicago in 1969 for example, Panthers ] and ] were both killed in a police raid (In which five of the officers present were ]) by Sergeant James Davis, an ] officer.{{Fact|date=December 2008}} In cities such as New York City, black police officers were used to infiltrate Panther meetings. By 1972, almost every major police department was fully integrated. | |||
| Prominent member ] is serving ] for the 2000 murder of Ricky Leon Kinchen, a ] sheriff's deputy, and the wounding of another officer in a gunbattle. Both officers were black.<ref>, ]</ref> | |||
| ;Conflict with COINTELPRO | |||
| In August 1967, the ] (FBI) instructed its program "]" to "neutralize" what the FBI called "black nationalist hate groups" and other dissident groups. In September of 1968, FBI Director ] described the Black Panthers as "the greatest threat to the internal security of the country."<ref>Stohl, Michael. ''The Politics of Terrorism'' CRC Press. Page 249</ref> By 1969, the Black Panthers were the primary target of COINTELPRO. They were the target of 233 of the 295 authorized "]" COINTELPRO actions. The goals of the program were to prevent the unification of militant black nationalist groups and to weaken the power of their leaders, as well as to discredit the groups to reduce their support and growth. The initial targets included the ], the ], the ] and the ]. Leaders who were targeted included the Rev. ], ], ], ] and ]. | |||
| Although COINTELPRO was commissioned ostensibly to prevent violence, it used some tactics to foster violence. For instance, the FBI tried to "intensify the degree of animosity" between the Black Panthers and the ], a Chicago gang. They sent an anonymous letter to the Ranger’s gang leader claiming that the Panthers were threatening his life, a letter whose intent was to induce "reprisals" against Panther leadership. In ] similar actions were taken to exacerbate a "gang war" between the Black Panther Party and a group called the ]. Violent conflict between these two groups, including shootings and beatings, led to the deaths of at least four Black Panther Party members. FBI agents claimed credit for instigating some of the violence between the two groups. <ref>Gentry, Curt, ''J. Edgar Hoover: The Man and the Secrets''. W. W. Norton & Company (2001) page 622</ref> | |||
| On January 17, 1969, Los Angeles Panther Captain ] and Deputy Minister ] were killed in Campbell Hall on the ] campus, in a gun battle with members of US Organization stemming from a dispute over who would control UCLA's ] program. Another shootout between the two groups on March 17 led to further injuries. It was alleged that the FBI had sent a provocative letter to US Organization in an attempt to create antagonism between US and the Panthers. <ref></ref> | |||
| One of the most notorious actions was a Chicago Police raid of the home of Panther organizer ] on December 4, 1969. The raid had been orchestrated by the police in conjunction with the FBI. The FBI was complicit in many of the actions. The people inside the home had been drugged by an FBI informant, ], and were asleep at the time of the raid. Hampton was shot and killed, as was the guard, ]. The others were dragged into the street, beaten, and subsequently charged with assault. These charges were later dropped. The Chicago Police and FBI were never investigated or charged for their role in the event. <ref>The FBI's involvement is noted in the ] Report on page 223. A full description of the night's events can be found in Rod Bush, ''We Are Not What We Seem: Black Nationalism and Class Struggle in the American Century.'' ] Press (March, 2000) p. 216</ref> | |||
| In May 1969, party members ]d and murdered ], a 19-year-old member of the New York chapter of the Black Panther party, because they suspected him of being a police informant. Three party officers — ], ], and ] — later admitted taking part. Sams, who gave the order to shoot Rackley at the murder scene, turned state's evidence and testified that he had received orders personally from ] to carry out the execution. After this betrayal, party supporters alleged that Sams was himself the informant and an ] employed by the FBI.<ref>Edward Jay Epstein, ''The Black Panthers and the Police: A Pattern of Genocide?''. New Yorker (February 13, 1971) </ref> The case resulted in the ] Black Panther trials of 1970. The trial ended with a hung jury, and the prosecution chose not to seek another trial. | |||
| ==Widening support== | |||
| Awareness of the group continued to grow, especially after the May 2, 1967 protest at the California State Assembly and the arrest of Newton in the fall of 1967. On February 17, 1968, a large rally was held for Huey in the Oakland Auditorium. The speakers included Stokely Carmichael, H. Rap Brown, and James Forman. After this event, membership grew rapidly. The structure of the group became more defined. New members had to attend a six-week training program and political education classes (largely based on Mao's ''Little Red Book''). <ref>Pearson 1994, page 176</ref> | |||
| In 1968, the group shortened its name to the Black Panther Party and sought to focus directly on political action. Members were encouraged to carry guns and to defend themselves against violence. An influx of college students joined the group, which had consisted chiefly of "brothers off the block." This created some tension in the group. Some members were more interested in supporting the Panther's social programs, while others wanted to maintain their "street mentality". For many Panthers, the group was little more than a type of gang. <ref>Pearson 1994, page 175</ref> | |||
| Panther slogans and iconography spread. At the ], ] and ], two American medalists, gave the black power salute during the playing of the American national anthem. The ] banned them from the Olympic Games for life. Some ] celebrities, such as ], became involved in their leftist program. She publicly supported Huey Newton and the Black Panthers in the early 1970s. The Black Panthers attracted a wide variety of left-wing revolutionaries and political activists, including former '']'' editor ] and left-wing lawyer ], who often acted as their counsel. Survival Committees and coalitions were organized with several groups across the United States. Chief among these in Chicago was the first Rainbow Coalition formed by Fred Hampton and the Black Panthers which included Young Patriots and Young Lords. | |||
| ==Criticism== | |||
| ===Violence=== | |||
| From the beginning the Black Panther Party's focus on militancy came with a reputation for violence. They often took advantage of a California law which permitted carrying a loaded rifle or shotgun as long as it was publicly displayed and pointed at no one <ref>Pearson 1994, page 109</ref>. Carrying weapons openly and making threats against police officers, for example, chants like "The Revolution has co-ome, it's time to pick up the gu-un. Off the pigs!",<ref>{{cite book |title=The Age of Great Dreams: America in the 1960s |page=207 |author=David Farber}}</ref> helped create the Panthers' reputation as a violent organization. The greater part of the reputation was earned in particular incidents such as the following. | |||
| In October 1967, Oakland police officer John Frey was shot to death in an altercation with Newton during a traffic stop. In the stop, Newton and backup officer Herbert Heanes also suffered gunshot wounds. Newton was convicted of voluntary manslaughter at trial. This incident gained the party even wider recognition by the radical American left, and a "Free Huey" campaign ensued<ref>Pearson 1994, page 3</ref>. Newton was released after three years, when his conviction was reversed on appeal. | |||
| On May 2, 1967, the California State Assembly Committee on Criminal Procedure was scheduled to convene to discuss what was known as the "Mulford Act", which would ban public displays of loaded firearms. Cleaver and Newton put together a plan to send a group of about 30 Panthers led by Seale from Oakland to Sacramento to protest the bill. The group entered the assembly carrying their weapons, an incident which was widely publicized, and which prompted police to arrest Seale and five others. The group pled guilty to misdemeanor charges of disrupting a legislative session<ref>Pearson 1994, 129</ref>. | |||
| On April 7, 1968, Panther Bobby Hutton, who held the title Minister of Defense, was killed, and Cleaver was wounded in a shootout with the Oakland police. Each side called the event an ambush by the other. Two policemen were shot in the incident<ref>A discussion of the event can be found in Epstein, Edward Jay. ''The Black Panthers and the Police: A Pattern of Genocide?'' The New Yorker, (February 13, 1971) page 4 (Accessed June 8, 2007)</ref>. | |||
| From the fall of 1967 through the end of 1969, nine police officers were killed and 56 were wounded in confrontations with the Panthers. The confrontations were believed to have resulted in ten Panther deaths and an unknown number of injuries. In 1969 alone, 348 Panthers were arrested for a variety of crimes <ref>Pearson 1994, page 206 discusses many of these events, including a partial list from the summer of 1968 through the end of 1969</ref>. | |||
| ===Death of Betty van Patter=== | |||
| When Panther ] was murdered in 1974, ] became certain that Black Panther members were responsible and he denounced the Panthers. When ] was shot to death 15 years later, Horowitz characterized Newton as a killer.<ref>David Horowitz's claim about van Patten's death is often discussed on blogs. It is mentioned in an ] book review of Horowitz's ''Radical Son: A Generational Odyssey'' called ''''. Horowitz's credibility as a critic of the left and especially of the Black Panther Party is called into question in Elaine Brown's ''The Condemnation of Little B: New Age Racism in America''. Beacon Press (February 15, 2003) pg. 250-251.</ref> When a former colleague at ''Ramparts'' alleged that Horowitz himself was responsible for the death of van Patter by recommending her for the position of BP accountant, Horowitz counter-alleged that "the Panthers had killed more than a dozen people in the course of conducting ], ] and drug rackets in the ] ghetto". He said further that the organization was committed "to doctrines that are false and to causes that are demonstrably wrongheaded and even evil."<ref>Horowitz, David. "Who Killed Betty Van Patter?" 13 December, 1999. Salon.com. </ref> | |||
| ==Decay and disintegration==<!-- This section is linked from ] --> | |||
| While part of the organization was already participating in local government and social services, another group was in constant conflict with the police. For some of the Party's supporters, the separation between political action, criminal activity, social services, access to power, and grass-roots identity became confusing and contradictory as the Panthers' political momentum was bogged down in the ]. A significant split in the Party occurred over disagreements among its leaders over how to confront these challenges. Some Panther leaders, such as ] and ], favored a focus on community service coupled with self-defense; others, such as ], embraced a more confrontational strategy. A schism was made inevitable when Cleaver publicly criticized the Party as adopting a "]" rather than "]" agenda and called for Hilliard's removal. Cleaver was expelled from the Central Committee but went on to lead a splinter group, the ], which had previously existed as an underground ] wing of the Party.<ref>Marxist Internet Archive: The Black Panther Party. </ref> | |||
| The Party eventually fell apart due to rising legal costs and internal disputes. Its final leader was ], a longtime Panther and the first and last woman to lead it where she addressed issues of ] within the party and attempted to stave off its disintegration. | |||
| ==Legacy== | |||
| ] | |||
| The National Alliance of Black Panthers was formed on July 31, 2004. It was inspired by the grassroots activism of the original organization but not otherwise related. Its chairwoman is ]. | |||
| In October 2006, the Black Panther Party held a 40-year reunion in ]. <ref></ref> | |||
| In January 2007, a joint California state and Federal task force charged eight men with the 1971 murder of a California police officer.<ref> (via ])</ref> The defendants have been identified as former members of the ]. Two have been linked to the Black Panthers.<ref> (via ])</ref> In 1975 a similar case was dismissed when a judge ruled that police gathered evidence through the use of ].<ref> (via ])</ref> | |||
| ;New Black Panther Party | |||
| {{seealso|New Black Panther Party}} | |||
| In 1989, a group calling itself the "]" was formed in ]. Ten years later, the NBPP became home to many former ] members when the chairmanship was taken by ]. | |||
| The ] has identified the New Black Panthers as a ]. Members of the original Black Panther Party have insisted that this New Black Panther Party is illegitimate and have strongly objected that there "is no new Black Panther Party".<ref name="no NBPP" >{{cite web |url=http://www.blackpanther.org/newsalert.htm |title=There Is No New Black Panther Party: An Open Letter From the Dr. Huey P. Newton Foundation |author=Dr. Huey P. Newton Foundation }}</ref> | |||
| ==See also== | |||
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| ==References== | |||
| <div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count: 2; column-count: 2;"> | |||
| <references/> | |||
| </div> | |||
| ==Bibliography== | |||
| *Austin, Curtis J. (2006). ''Up Against the Wall: Violence in the Making and Unmaking of the Black Panther Party''. University of Arkansas Press. ISBN 1-55728-827-5 | |||
| *Brown, Elaine. (1993). ''A Taste of Power: A Black Woman's Story''. Anchor Books. ISBN 0-679-41944-6 | |||
| *Dooley, Brian. (1998). ''Black and Green: The Fight for Civil Rights in Northern Ireland and Black America''. Pluto Press. | |||
| *Forbes, Flores A. (2006). ''Will You Die With Me? My Life and the Black Panther Party''. Atria Books. ISBN 0-7434-8266-2 | |||
| *Hilliard, David, and Cole, Lewis. (1993). ''This Side of Glory: The Autobiography of David Hilliard and the Story of the Black Panther Party''. Little, Brown and Co. ISBN 0-316-36421-5 | |||
| *Hughey, Matthew W. (forthcoming 2009). “Black Aesthetics and Panther Rhetoric – A Critical Decoding of Black Masculinity in The Black Panther, 1967-1980.” ''Critical Sociology''. | |||
| *Hughey, Matthew W. (2007). “The Pedagogy of Huey P. Newton: Critical Reflections on Education in his Writings and Speeches.” ''Journal of Black Studies'', 38(2): 209-231. | |||
| *Hughey, Matthew W. (2005).“The Sociology, Pedagogy, and Theology of Huey P. Newton: Toward a Radical Democratic Utopia.” ''Western Journal of Black Studies'', 29(3): 639-655. | |||
| *Joseph, Peniel E. (2006). ''Waiting 'Til the Midnight Hour: A Narrative History of Black Power in America''. Henry Holt and Company. ISBN 0-8050-7539-9 | |||
| *Lewis, John. (1998). ''Walking with the Wind''. Simon and Schuster, p. 353. ISBN 0-684-81065-4 | |||
| *Ogbar, Jeffrey O. G. (2004). ''Black Power: Radical Politics and African American Identity''. The Johns Hopkins University Press. | |||
| *Pearson, Hugh. (1994) ''The Shadow of the Panther: Huey Newton and the Price of Black Power in America'' De Capo Pres. ISBN 0201483416 | |||
| *{{cite journal |author=Phu, T. N. |date=2008 |month= |title=Shooting the Movement: Black Panther Party Photography and African American Protest Traditions |journal= Canadian Review of American Studies|volume= 38|issue=1 |pages= 165-189}} | |||
| * Shames, Stephen. "The Black Panthers," Aperture, 2006. A photographic essay of the organization, allegedly suppressed due to ]'s intervention in 1970. | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| * official website according to the Dr. Huey P. Newton Foundation. | |||
| ;News articles | |||
| * 2007 LA Weekly feature on the 1969 UCLA shootout that killed John Huggins and Bunchy Carter. | |||
| * By Jordan Green, '']''. Greensboro NC. Published April 11, 2006. Retrieved April 14, 2006. | |||
| ;Archives | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| ;Laudatory links | |||
| * from Libcom.org. | |||
| * from Marxists Internet Archive. | |||
| ;Critical links | |||
| *]. "" from '']'', 27 May 2003. Retrieved March 13, 2006. | |||
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Revision as of 17:10, 30 March 2009
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