| Macro-Gunwinyguan | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Arnhem | |||
| Geographic distribution | northern Australia | ||
| Linguistic classification | Macro-Pama–Nyungan?
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| Subdivisions |
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| Language codes | |||
| Glottolog | gunw1250 (Gunwinyguan)mani1293 (Maningrida) mang1423 (Mangarrayi-Maran)kung1259 (Kungarakany)gaga1251 (Gaagudju) | ||
 The Arnhem languages (purple), and other non-Pama–Nyungan languages (grey). Below (closeup): the individual families. | |||
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The Macro-Gunwinyguan languages, also called Arnhem or Gunwinyguan, are a family of Australian Aboriginal languages spoken across eastern Arnhem Land in northern Australia. Their relationship has been demonstrated through shared morphology in their verbal inflections.
Many of the languages have a fortis–lenis contrast in plosive consonants. Lenis/short plosives have weak contact and intermittent voicing, while fortis/long plosives have full closure, a more powerful release burst, and no voicing.
Languages
Rebecca Green (2004) reconstructed the paradigms of 28 Proto-Arnhem verbs. The languages included by Green are as follows, though Green only accepts Maningrida as a demonstrated branch:
- Macro-Gunwinyguan
- Maningrida
- ? East Arnhem:
- Nunggubuyu
- Ngandi †
- Anindilyakwa (Enindhilyagwa)*
- ? Marran:
- Marra
- Warndarang †
- ?Yugul †
- ?Alawa*
- ?Mangarayi †
- Kungarakany †
- Gaagudju †
- ? Gunwinyguan (Gunwinyguan proper)
- Gunwinggic:
- Kunwinjku (Gunwinggu, Bininj Kunwok)
- Gunbarlang †
- Jawoyn (Djauan)
- Dalabon (Ngalkbun) †
- Jala (Rembarngic):
- Warrayic: †
- Gunwinggic:
This is close to what Evans (1997) proposed under the name Gunwinyguan (cf. his very different proposal of Arnhem Land languages.)
Marra, Warndarrang, Alawa, and Mangarrayi have been argued to constitute a Marran family of considerable time depth (Sharpe 2008).
Heath (1990) demonstrated an East Arnhem family of Ngandi + Nunggubuyu, to which Enindhilyagwa was added (as a closer relative to Nunggubuyu) by Van Egmond (2012).
However, Green (2003) argues that only Maningrida has been established as a valid subgroup, and that the interrelationships of the other languages are as yet unclear. The evidence for Gunwinyguan and perhaps other nodes listed above may simply be reflections of a relationship of all Arnhem languages when only a subset of them was investigated. That is, these groups may be based on shared retentions of Proto-Arnhem rather than distinct historical developments. (However, in reviewing Green, Evans pointed out that much of the Maningrida morphology was also shared by Mangarrayi.) An agnostic view of the family would list each language separately, except for the established Maningrida branch:
- Kungarakany, Mangarrayi, Marra, Maningrida, Ngalakgan, Bininj Kunwok (Gunwinggu), Warndarrang, Uwinymil, Gaagudju, Dalabon, Kunbarlang, Rembarrnga, Nunggubuyu, Jawoyn, Warray, Ngandi
*Green does not address Anindilyakwa, Alawa, or Yugul. Yugul is too poorly attested for comparison based on her methods; the other two await validation.
Yangmanic, including Wardaman, had once been included in Gunwinyguan, but has been removed from recent classifications.
External classification
Evans (1997) proposes that these languages are related to Pama–Nyungan in a family he calls Macro-Pama–Nyungan, but this has not yet been demonstrated.
In 2003, he proposed that they are also related to the Eastern Daly languages.
Vocabulary
Capell (1940) lists the following basic vocabulary items for the Gunwinyguan languages:
gloss Gunwinggu Gunbarlang Ngaɖi man biniṉ giɖimarg ŋarga woman muli‘muliŋ baramimbaṉ gandar head gungɔidj gɔidjgɔidj waːlu eye gunmin wumu milba nose gungɛb wumɛːli mulju mouth gundaŋ djaːɖɛɽ lira tongue gundjɛn ŋaːg djälaṉ stomach gunjan mugmaɳɖi djaːla bone gunmuruŋ gɛːgɛg gidji blood gungulba moɭobin djugän kangaroo gɔɳɔbɔlɔ goːin djädji opossum djɛːbui gundärbu djaŋana emu gurugaiju maɳɖɛb crow waːg djidaːwun djäŋilga fly bɔːd mog ŋurin sun gunduŋ gaːnag bɽaŋu moon diːd wurana jagan fire gunɽag wiɖidj waɭu smoke gundɔlŋ wungawu gundjuru water gunɽɔin njunjug ŋaba
Capell (1942) lists the following additional basic vocabulary items for the Gunwinyguan languages:
gloss Southern Gunwinggu Muralidban Andiljaugwa Nunggubuyu Wandarang Ngandi Rainbarngo Buan Gundangbon man binin binin nanamamalja nawarinjuŋ nawaɽiji nijul biː jawurin biji woman dalug ŋalwareːrulg wudáriŋga ŋaramaninjuŋ ŋiwoibi namanaŋ diŋ‘ giɖigiɖ girigidj head gungoidj gungoidan ariŋga jinag wugululu gulaŋ djara gɔidj gɔidj eye gunmiːm gunmiːm meːnba bagaɭa mamaguɽ maŋandjula gaindjulja mïmï mumu nose gungəb gungəb aminda jɔmɔːr wundjíriba gwijiban giːja djɛː djɛː mouth gundaŋ gundaŋ adira ɽamadan wuŋaːndal gudagula diːjälŋ daːləː dalugaɽa‘ tongue gundjen gundjen aljäljigba laːn wudjijil gudälŋ diːjälŋ dɛl djɛn stomach gunjam gunmelem mulgwa ŋuɖan wuŋandja mowara giːna guː ŋu‘ bone gunmuruŋ gunmuruŋ adidira ŋagaɽa wuŋaɽaga guŋaɽaga balmana mɔː mɔː blood gungulba gungulba meːra wulaŋ maŋulidji mabaɳgo gulbana guraidj gulba kangaroo goɳobolo gundagi juburáda ŋargọ mulbia mulbia bulaidj-bulaidj guiṉ guiṉ opossum djɛːbui duri juguŋba jirgi ajirgin aɖawa marŋo dugula dugula emu gurugaiju wajin ŋiwurugan awurban ŋuroɖo ŋuroɖo crow waːg waːg jiŋwa wɔːwag waɽgwaɽg awa‘wa wa‘wa‘ wa‘wa‘ wa‘wa‘ fly bɔːd bɔːd juwama amun awamun abɔd buad mɔɽ bɔːd sun gunduŋ ŋalbɛnbe mamaːwura aɭir ŋinguŋaru mawaɭir muda walir bɛbagar moon diːɖ diːɖ jimaːwura labama nadaŋadaŋa nigurŋa gurŋa diɖ gurŋa fire gunag gunag aŋuɽa ŋuɽa wuŋambur gudaŋi ŋuɽa mimäl mimäl smoke gundɔlŋ gundɔlŋ aŋwara wuŋuban wundular gubán dɔːɭŋ dɔlgnɔ djunör water gogo gunɽɔːṉ aguŋwa agogo wuŋaladja gujärg djula waː waː
Proto-language
| Proto-Gunwinyguan | |
|---|---|
| Reconstruction of | Gunwinyguan languages |
Below are some reconstructed Proto-Gunwinyguan (i.e., Proto-Gunwinyguan proper) animal and plant names from Harvey (2003):
Proto-Gunwinyguan animal names no. gloss Proto-Gunwinyguan 8 gudgeon sp. *cakorlk 10 centipede *calarr 18 death adder *campVn/rn 26 frill-necked lizard *cangkurr 31 quoll *cappo 32 long-horned grasshopper *cappurtenyqrteny 35 crayfish *carla 38 jabiru *carnarran 39 whimbrel *carnpalcarnpal 42 water goanna *carrkka 44 female agile wallaby *carrurtrtu 49 green tree frog *catngerecngerec 53 koel *cawok 70 rifle fish *cetperte 77 willy wagtail *cikirricikirric 80 whistleduck *cilikuypi 96 quail *cirrirnrti(t) 102 bony bream *cirrpili 103 whistleduck *cirrpiyuk 105 scorpion *co(wo)c 107 hornet *cokparl 108 carpet snake *cokpiny 121 nail-tailed wallaby *cotet 127 water goanna *cucca 128 female black wallaby *cukerre 138 bowerbird *curerrk 139 kingfisher sp. *curk 142 black-headed python *curn 143 rock wallaby *curnrtupolq 145 taipan *currang 148 tawny frogmouth, owl sp. *currul 152 kangaroo rat *Cakot 154 fishtail palm *Calmarr 173 tawny frogmouth *Cawarl 178 willy wagtail *Ciningkirric 215 jabiru *kanci 230 bony bream *karlarlppa 232 Long Tom fish *karlerrq 237 black cockatoo *karnamarr 238 black flying fox *karnampal 239 emu, large feathers on emu *karnanganyca 241 big bandicoot *karnma 249 dingo *karnrteken 253 black cockatoo *karrak 255 spoonbill *karral/rla 264 goshawk *karrkkany 275 dingo *kawirVq 276 nankeen night heron *kawk 277 friarbird *kaworlk 336 kookaburra *korrowkkorrow 344 echidna *kowarrang 347 freshwater crocodile *koyow 353 emu *kulppiny 359 tawny frogmouth *kuluyqkuluy 364 blue-tongue lizard *kungar(l)ak 369 black-headed python *kunungu 374 paperbark sp. *kurlkurl 378 ibis sp. *kurnrtirnrtirn 384 blue-tongue lizard *kurri 385 blue-tongue lizard *kurrmul/rlu 388 olive python *kurrucartu 405 saltwater crocodile *kVngV 408 kookaburra *kVrVwVk 417 sugar glider *Lampalk 433 spotted bream *Leppal 442 black cockatoo *Lirrapin 448 butcherbird *Lopolopo 464 black-headed python *maccurn 467 pelican *makkakkurr 485 echidna *manappurn 495 centipede *marla 511 water goanna *marrampal 523 friarbird *martawk 528 barramundi *martpiny 530 barramundi *martukkal 561 blue-tongue lizard *milqtarl 570 barramundi *mirricci 586 blue-tongue lizard *morlel 598 rainbow serpent *muc 617 spoonbill *muqmu 625 flying fox *murru 637 frogmouth *Na-cik 639 barramundi *Namarnkorl 644 black flying fox *Nangamung 645 saltwater crocodile *Nangkurru 664 grey-crowned babbler *ngakngak 667 white corella *ngalelek 684 white cockatoo *ngarrac 685 saratoga *ngarrayarl 687 short-necked turtle *ngart 690 rifle fish *ngatpan 702 white cockatoo *ngerrk 756 tree rat; quoll *pakkaci 801 spotted nightjar *parnangka 807 kookaburra *parraca 808 darter (bird sp.) *parrakparrak 812 black wallaroo *parrk 820 march fly *partrti 824 pelican *paya 827 file snake *pekka 831 gecko spp. *pelerrk 839 bustard *penuk 845 plover *perrepperrep 846 rainbow bee-eater *perrertperrert 847 masked plover *pettelerrelerre 850 file snake *piccirri 856 galah *pilkpilk 866 barramundi *pirlmu 873 glossy ibis *pirnrtu 887 archer fish *poccalk 904 water python *porlokko 906 brolga *pornorrong 915 velvet-tailed gecko *poywek 923 pheasant *pukpuk 932 ghost bat *pumapuma 934 file snake *punupun 941 water goanna *purarr 954 water python *purrurtci 963 red-eyed pigeon *rakul 976 Torresian imperial pigeon *rumuq 981 sand goanna *Talak 997 black cockatoo *Tarrapiya 1009 plover *Tetterran 1012 dollar bird *Tewtew 1020 peewee *Tirlkrtirlk 1024 moon; moon snake *Tirt 1025 wedge-tailed eagle *Tiwana 1034 rock wallaby *Torriya 1045 ring-tailed possum *Tukula 1049 bony bream *Tulukkurr 1067 green tree frog *thakparrarraq 1093 Long Tom fish *thumpi 1097 bandicoot *thungkaq 1100 king brown snake *T(h)atpe 1115 crow *wakwak 1123 bustard *walppurrungku 1171 butcherbird *warrkcirt 1196 rainbow fish *werec 1206 possum *wirik 1216 bird sp.; rainbow bee-eater; kingfisher; whipbirds *wirritwirrit 1217 black-faced cuckooshrike *wirriwirriyak 1231 cockroach *wor(o)cwor(o)c 1244 possum sp. *wumpu 1274 yabby *yarr 1291 bird sp.; mopoke; kite *yerr/riny 1303 water rat *yirrkkup 1314 lightning; rain; Leichhardt's grasshopper *yurr
Proto-Gunwinyguan plant names no. gloss Proto-Gunwinyguan 2 Grevillea pteridifolia *caca ~ *yacca 12 spinifex *calng 30 wattle sp. *capec 36 king brown snake *carlung 40 banyan *carnqpa 54 water lily stem *cawqcaw 60 Grevillea sp. *cenkererr 63 milkwood *cenycok 67 pandanus mat *cerrpe 82 Capparis umbonata *ciliwirn 85 Pandanus aquaticus *cimcim 93 mistletoe *cirnirrin/ny 141 lancewood *curluq 223 ironwood *kappay 235 freshwater mangrove *karlngka/iny 236 wattle sp., woomera type *karlppu 244 Acacia sp. *karnpirr 258 spinifex sp. *karrarnrtalk 278 tree sp., Gardenia megasperma, Capparis umbonata *kayapam 321 plant sp., bush potato *kongkong 329 Planchonia careya *korlq 334 pandanus husk *korrmo 341 paperbark *kot 345 paperbark humpy, bark of stringybark *kowk 377 black plum *kurnrtalq 379 Flacourtia territorialis *kurnrtun/rn 398 Terminalia grandiflora *kutt/rtrtu 402 Banksia dentata *kuypuk 431 Opilia amentacea *Leklek 461 wild passionfruit *ma(rt)rtawk 482 Canthium lucidum *mamtak 513 palm sp., Cycas media *marrappi 527 eucalyptus sp. *martpa 529 paperbark, deep coolamon *martu 576 nut of pandanus *moc 599 coolibah *muccu 602 paperbark sp. *mul/rlmu 604 conkerberry *mululuk 607 ironwood *mulyurruny 627 black currant *murrungkurn 677 eucalyptus sp. *ngapak 689 cycad *ngaththu 704 black currant *ngik 708 pandanus sp. *ngokngo 711 river red gum *ngolongkoq 776 Ficus opposita *pampul/rla 802 Owenia vernicosa *parnarr 825 green plum *pe/irrke/iq 826 quinine tree *pecca 843 eucalyptus sp. *pernpern 865 Acacia holosericea *pirliwirli 880 tea tree *pirtippirti 896 Dalabon *pon 898 wattle sp. *pongka 925 paperbark sp. *pul(p)pul 935 clump of bamboo; Bambusa arnhemica *-puny 953 Cassytha filiformis *purrurnpurrurn 955 Xanthostemon paradoxus *purt/lu 958 tree sp. - Brachychiton diversifolium *putput 962 paperbark *rakkalaq 971 pandanus *rok 977 ridge; blacksoil area; grass used in corroborees *ruwurr 999 Phragmites *Tarrin 1058 Leichhardt tree *Tupal 1089 quinine brush *thorrowq 1091 Acacia holosericea *thukkul 1095 Canthium attenuatum, Exocarpos latifolius *thumuk 1096 bloodwood *thumurluk 1101 pandanus *T(h)ayarr 1154 vine sp. - Cynanchum pedunculatum *warnpek 1169 plant sp.; Exocarpos latifolus; lemon grass *warrinycalan 1181 Grevillea pteridifolia *watpar 1239 black plum *wucal 1259 pandanus *yakngarra
References
- Bowern, Claire and Harold Koch, 2004. Australian Languages: Classification and the Comparative Method, p 44
- ^ Green, Rebecca (2003). "Proto-Maningrida within Proto-Arnhem: evidence from verbal inflectional suffixes". In Nicholas Evans (ed.). The Non-Pama-Nyungan languages of northern Australia. Pacific Linguistics 552. Canberra: Australian National University. pp. 369–421. doi:10.15144/PL-552. hdl:1885/146725. ISBN 9780858835382.
- Sharpe, Margaret C. (2008). "Alawa and its Neighbours: Enigma Variations 1 and 2". In Bowern, Claire; Evans, Bethwyn; Miceli, Luisa (eds.). Morphology and Language History: In honour of Harold Koch. John Benjamins Publishing. pp. 59–70. ISBN 9789027290960.
- N92 Alawa at the Australian Indigenous Languages Database, Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies
- Heath, Jeffrey, 1990, A case of intensive lexical diffusion: Arnhem Land, Australia
- Van Egmond, M-E. (2012). "Enindhilyakwa phonology, morphosyntax and genetic position." Doctoral thesis. University of Sydney. pp. 314–70. hdl:2123/8747
- Bowern, C. (2017). "Language isolates of Australia." in Campbell, L., ed. Language Isolates. Abingdon: Routledge: 323–43
- McConvell, Patrick and Nicholas Evans. (eds.) 1997. Archaeology and Linguistics: Global Perspectives on Ancient Australia. Melbourne: Oxford University Press
- Evans, Nicholas, 2003, The non-Pama-Nyungan languages of northern Australia
- Capell, Arthur. 1940. The Classification of Languages in North and North-West Australia. Oceania 10(3): 241-272, 404-433. doi:10.1002/j.1834-4461.1940.tb00292.x
- Capell, Arthur. 1941-1942, 1942-1943. Languages of Arnhem Land, North Australia. Oceania 12: 364-392, 13: 24-51.
- Harvey, Mark. 2003. An initial reconstruction of Proto Gunwinyguan phonology. In Evans, Nicholas (ed.), The non-Pama-Nyungan languages of northern Australia: comparative studies of the continent's most linguistically complex region, 205-268. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
| Australian Aboriginal and Tasmanian languages | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Pama–Nyungan subgroups |
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| Tangkic | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Garrwan | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Macro-Gunwinyguan ? |
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| Iwaidjan |
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| Marrku–Wurrugu ? | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Darwin Region ? |
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| Daly River Sprachbund |
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| Mirndi |
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| Jarrakan | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Bunuban | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Worrorran | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Nyulnyulan |
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| isolates | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Tasmanian family-level groups |
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| New Indigenous languages and Aboriginal Englishes |
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| Primary language families | |||||
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| Africa |
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| Eurasia (Europe and Asia) |
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| New Guinea and the Pacific |
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| Australia |
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| North America |
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| Mesoamerica |
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| South America |
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| Sign languages |
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