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| {{Globalize/Canada}} | |||
| {{otheruses}} | |||
| {{Infobox Ethnic group | |||
| |group=Inuit | |||
| |image=]<br>Inuit grandmother & grandchild | |||
| |poptime=150,000<ref>Hessel, pg. 9</ref> | |||
| |popplace=], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] | |||
| |rels=], <br>],<br> ] | |||
| |langs=]<br>various national languages | |||
| |related=]s, ], ], ]s}} | |||
| {{Indigenous Peoples of Canada}} | |||
| '''Inuit''' (plural; the singular ''Inuk'' means "man" or "person") is a general term for a group of culturally similar ] inhabiting the ] regions of ], ], ] and the ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/tresors/ethno/etb0170e.shtml |title=First Nations Culture Areas Index |work=the Canadian Museum of Civilization }}</ref> The ] is grouped under ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bambusspiele.de/spiele/nanuuk/e_nunavut.htm |title=The Hunters of the Arctic |publisher=bambusspiele.de |accessdate=2008-01-07}}</ref> | |||
| The Inuit people live throughout most of the ] and ]: in the ] of '']'' ("our land"); the northern third of ], in an area called '']'' ("place to live"); the coastal region of ], in an area called '']'' ("our beautiful land"); in various parts of the ], mainly on the coast of the ] and formerly in the ]. Collectively these areas are known as '''Inuit Nunangat'''.<ref></ref><ref></ref> In the US, ]n ] live on the ] and the ]. Greenland's ] are citizens of ]. The ] live in both Alaska and the ]. | |||
| In Alaska, the term ] is commonly used, because it includes both ''Yupik'' and ''Inupiat'', while ''Inuit'' is not accepted as a collective term or even specifically used for ''Inupiat'' (which technically is ''Inuit''). No universal replacement term for Eskimo, inclusive of all Inuit and Yupik people, is accepted across the geographical area inhabited by the Inuit and Yupik peoples.<ref name="kaplan"/> In Canada and Greenland, the term ''Eskimo'' has fallen out of favour, as it is considered ] by the natives and has been replaced by the term ''Inuit''. In Canada, the ], ] and ] recognised the '''Inuit''' as a distinctive group of ], who are neither '']'' nor '']''.<ref name="defe">{{cite web |url=http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/const/annex_e.html#II |title=Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms |work=Department of Justice Canada }}</ref> | |||
| ==Early history== | |||
| {{Seealso|Aboriginal peoples in Canada#Lithic Period}} | |||
| ] | |||
| The Inuit are the descendants of what ]s call the ], who emerged from western Alaska around 1000 AD and spread eastwards across the Arctic, displacing the related ], the last major ] culture (in ], the ''Tuniit''). Inuit legends speak of the Tuniit as "giants", although they were sometimes called "dwarfs",<ref></ref> people who were taller and stronger than the Inuit.<ref>, Nunavut Handbook</ref> Researchers believe that the Dorset culture lacked dogs, larger weapons and other technologies that gave the expanding Inuit society an advantage. By 1300, the Inuit had settled in west Greenland, and they moved into east Greenland over the following century. | |||
| Faced with population pressures from the Thule and other surrounding groups such as the ] and ] the Tuniit gradually receded,<ref>{{cite book | title=The Dorset : An enigma = Le Dorset : une énigme| last=PALMER| first=J. W|year=1998 | pages=201-222 | volume=19 | editiong=3 | publisher=North American archaeologist}}</ref> and were thought to have become completely extinct by about 1400 AD. However, in the mid 1950s researcher Henry B. Collins determined that, based on the ruins found at ], the ] were likely the last remnants of the Dorset culture.<ref>{{cite book | publisher=National Geographic Magazine | title=Vanished Mystery Men of Hudson Bay | first=Henry B. | last=Collins | volume=Vol. CX No. 5 | year=1956 | page=674}}</ref> The Sadlermiut population survived up until winter 1902-03, where exposure to new diseases brought by contact with Europeans led to their extinction.<ref>{{cite web | publisher=] | title=Aboriginal 7 - Life in Canada| url =http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/art/050602/0506020222_e.html| accessdate=2008-03-21}}</ref> More recent ] research has supported the continuity between the Sadlermiut and the Tuniit,<ref>{{cite web | url = http://sci.tech-archive.net/Archive/sci.anthropology/2004-07/1342.html | first = Floyd L. | last = Davidson | date =2004-04-26 | accessdate =2008-10-13| title =Re: Barrow Boy gibberish...}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.mnh.si.edu/arctic/html/pdf/news02.pdf |format=PDF| title = Arctic Studies Center Newsletter | accessdate=2008-10-13 | month=June | year=2002 | publisher=] | work=]}}</ref> and also provided evidence that a population displacement did not occur within the ] between the Dorset and Thule transition.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.physanth.org/annmeet/aapa2001/ajpasuppl32.pdf |format=PDF| title=Ancestor descendant relationships in North American Arctic prehistory: Ancient DNA evidence from the Aleutian Islands and the Eastern Canadian Arctic. | accessdate=2008-10-13 | first=M.G. | last=Hayes | year=2001}}</ref> In contrast to other Tuniit populations, the ] and Sadlermiut benefited from both geographical isolation and the ability to adopt certain Thule technologies. | |||
| In Canada and Greenland, the Inuit circulated almost exclusively north of the "]", the '']'' southern border of Inuit society; to the south, ] cultures were well established. The culture and technology of Inuit society that served them so well in the Arctic were not suited to subarctic regions, so they did not displace their southern neighbours. | |||
| The Inuit had trade relations with more southern cultures; boundary disputes were common and gave rise to aggressive actions. ]fare, in general, was not uncommon among those Inuit groups with sufficient population density. Inuit, such as the '']'' ('']'') who inhabited the ] delta area, often engaged in warfare, whereas the Central Arctic Inuit lacked the population density to do so. | |||
| The first ]an contacts were with the ]s who settled in Greenland and explored the eastern Canadian coast. Their ] literature noted '']ar'', most likely an undifferentiated label for all the native peoples of the ] whom the Norse contacted: Tuniit, Inuit and ]s alike. | |||
| Sometime in the 13th century, the Thule culture began arriving in the area from what is now Canada. Norse accounts are scant, however, Norse-made items have been found at Inuit campsites in Greenland. It is unclear whether they were there as the result of trade or plunder. One old account speaks of "small people" with whom the Norsemen fought. ]'s<ref></ref> 14th-century account noted that the western settlement, one of the two Norse settlements, had been taken over by the ''skrælings''. The reason why the Norse settlements failed is unclear, but the last record of them is from 1408, roughly the same period as the earliest Inuit settlements in east Greenland. | |||
| After about 1350, the climate grew colder during the period known as the ] and the Inuit were forced to abandon hunting and whaling sites in the high Arctic. ] disappeared in Canada and Greenland and the Inuit had to subsist on a much poorer diet and lost access to essential raw materials for the tools and architecture derived from whaling. Alaskan natives were, however, able to continue their whaling activities. | |||
| The changing climate forced the Inuit to work their way south, pressuring them into marginal niches along the edges of the tree line which Native Americans had not occupied, or where they were weak enough for coexistence. It is difficult for researchers to define when the Inuit stopped territorial expansion but there is evidence that they were still moving into new territory in southern Labrador when they first began to interact with ] in the 17th century. | |||
| ==Nomenclature== | |||
| {{main|Eskimo#Nomenclature}} | |||
| In Canada and Greenland, the term ''Eskimo'' has fallen out of favour, as it is considered pejorative by the natives,<ref name="bartleby"></ref><ref name="natlang"></ref> and has been replaced by the term ''Inuit''. However, while ''Inuit'' describes all of the Eskimo peoples in Canada and Greenland, that is not true in Alaska and ]. | |||
| In Alaska, the term ''Eskimo'' is commonly used, because it includes both ''Yupik'' and ''Inupiat'', while ''Inuit'' is not accepted as a collective term or even specifically used for ''Inupiat'' (which technically is ''Inuit''). No universal replacement term for Eskimo, inclusive of all Inuit and Yupik people, is accepted across the geographical area inhabited by the Inuit and Yupik peoples.<ref name="kaplan"/> | |||
| ==Inuit, Inupiat and Yupik== | |||
| ] | |||
| The ], a ]-recognised ] (NGO), defines its constituency to include Canada's Inuit and ], Greenland's Kalaallit Inuit, Alaska's Inupiat and ] people, and the ] people of Russia.<ref name="ICCcharter">Inuit Circumpolar Council. (2006). Inuit Circumpolar Council (Canada). Retrieved on 2007-04-06.</ref> But, the ''Yupik'' of Alaska and Siberia do not consider themselves ''Inuit'', and ethnographers agree they are a distinct people. They prefer to be called Yupik, Yupiit, or Eskimo. The ] are linguistically distinct from the Inuit languages.<ref name="kaplan">Kaplan, Lawrence. (2002). . ], ]. Retrieved on 2007-04-06.</ref> | |||
| Canada's Constitution Act, 1982 recognised the Inuit as Aboriginal peoples in Canada, which also include First Nations and Métis peoples.<ref name="defe">{{cite web |url=http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/const/annex_e.html#II |title=Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms |work=Department of Justice Canada }}</ref> The Inuit should not be confused with the '']'', a distinct First Nations people who live in northeastern Quebec and Labrador. | |||
| ==Cultural history== | |||
| {{Main|Inuit culture}} | |||
| ]. Displayed at the ], ], ].]] | |||
| ===Language=== | |||
| {{main|Inuit language}} | |||
| The Inuit speak chiefly one of the traditional Inuit ]s or ]s, sometimes grouped under the term ''Inuktitut'', but they may also speak the predominant language of the country in which they reside. Inuktitut is mainly spoken in Nunavut and, as the ], in some parts of Greenland. | |||
| Some of the Inuit dialects were recorded in the 18th century. Until the latter half of the 20th century, most Inuit were not able to read and write in their own language. In the 1760s, ] missionaries arrived in Greenland, where they contributed to the development of a written system of language called ''Qaliujaaqpait'', based on the ]. The missionaries later brought this system to Labrador, from which it eventually spread as far as Alaska.<ref>, the identification of Inuit portrayed on photographic collections at Library and Archives Canada</ref> | |||
| The ] used in Canada is based on the ] devised by the missionary ] and was developed by ]. The present form of the ] for Canadian Inuktitut was adopted by the ] in Canada in the 1970s. The Inuit in Alaska, the Inuvialuit, ] speakers, and Inuit in Greenland and Labrador use the Roman alphabet, although it has been adapted for their use in different ways. | |||
| Though conventionally called a syllabary, the writing system has been classified by some observers as an '']'', since syllables starting with the same consonant have related glyphs rather than unrelated ones. All of the characters needed for the Inuktitut syllabary are available in the ] character repertoire. (See ] character table.) The territorial government of Nunavut, Canada, has developed a ] font called ''Pigiarniq'' for computer displays, designed by ]-based Tiro Typeworks.<ref></ref><ref></ref> | |||
| The Inuit language is written in several different ways, depending on the dialect and region, but also on historical and political factors. In Greenland during the 1760s, Moravian ] intending to introduce Inuit peoples to ] through the Bible contributed to the development of an ] system that was based on Roman orthography. When they travelled to Labrador in the 1800s, they brought the written Inuktitut with them. The Roman alphabet-writing scheme is distinguished by its inclusion of the letter ]. The Alaskan Yupik and Inupiat, and the Siberian Yupik also adopted the system of Roman orthography. In addition, the Alaskan peoples developed their own system of ]ics. | |||
| Eastern Canadian Inuit were the last to adopt the written word when, in the 1860s, missionaries imported the written system ''Qaniujaaqpait''<ref name="langcom.nu.ca"/> they had developed in their efforts to convert the ] to Christianity. The last Inuit peoples introduced to missionaries and writing were the ] in ] and north ]. The Netsilik adopted ''Qaniujaaqpait'' by the 1920s. | |||
| The "Greenlandic" system has been substantially reformed in recent years, making Labrador writing unique to Nunatsiavummiutut. Most Inuktitut in Nunavut and Nunavik is written using a scheme called ''Qaniujaaqpait'', or Inuktitut syllabics, based on Canadian Aboriginal syllabics. The western part of Nunavut and the Northwest Territories use a Roman orthography (alphabet scheme) usually identified as '']'' or ''Qaliujaaqpait'',<ref name="langcom.nu.ca"></ref> reflecting the predispositions of the missionaries who reached this area in the late 19th century and early 20th century | |||
| ===Diet=== | |||
| {{Main|Inuit diet}} | |||
| The Inuit have traditionally been hunters and fishers. They still hunt whales, ], ], ], ]s, ]en, birds, and at times other less commonly eaten animals such as the ]. The typical Inuit diet is high in ] and very high in ] - in their traditional diets, Inuit consumed an average of 75% of their daily energy intake from fat.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://discovermagazine.com/2004/oct/inuit-paradox/article_print |title=The Inuit Paradox | Nutrition | DISCOVER Magazine |accessdate=2008-03-25 |format= |work=}}</ref> While it is not possible to cultivate plants for food in the Arctic the Inuit have traditionally gathered those that are naturally available. ], ]s, ]s, ], ], and ] (''kuanniq'' or edible seaweed) were collected and preserved depending on the season and the location.<ref> | |||
| {{cite book | last = Kuhnlein | first = Harriet | title = Traditional Plant Foods of Canadian Indigenous Peoples: Nutrition, Botany and Use (Food and Nutrition in History and Anthropology) | origdate = 1991 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=fPDErXqH8YYC&pg=PA26&lpg=PA26&dq=inuit+seaweed&source=web&ots=wD5q-Sz3Mi&sig=4ZZ_YdBbSLfsu7VZ2LkrTaVzg-E | accessdate = 2007-11-19 | edition = 1st edition | publisher = Taylor and Francis | isbn = 978-2881244650 | |||
| | pages = 26-29 | chapter = Chapter 4. Descriptions and Uses of Plant Foods by Indigenous Peoples | |||
| | chapterurl = http://books.google.com/books?id=fPDErXqH8YYC&pg=PA26&lpg=PA26&dq=inuit+seaweed&source=web&ots=wD5q-Sz3Mi&sig=4ZZ_YdBbSLfsu7VZ2LkrTaVzg-E }} | |||
| </ref><ref> | |||
| {{cite web | |||
| |url = http://www.itk.ca/environment/wildlife-index.php |title = Arctic Wildlife |accessdate = 2007-11-20 |author = Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami |authorlink = Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami |quote = Not included are the myriad of other species of plants and animals that Inuit use, such as geese, ducks, rabbits, ptarmigan, swans, halibut, clams, mussels, cod, berries and seaweed.}} | |||
| </ref><ref> | |||
| {{cite book | last = Bennett | first = John | coauthors = Rowley, Susan | title = Uqalurait: An Oral History of Nunavut | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=6cjGnMRRrcEC&pg=PA84&lpg=PA84&dq=inuit+seaweed&source=web&ots=sQbLTzuiNT&sig=TlIBLWJfqZfyL1mdUOMK4ycu_Jc#PPP1,M1 | year = 2004 | publisher = ] | isbn = 978-0773523401 | pages = 84–85 | chapter = Chapter 5. Gathering | chapterurl = http://books.google.com/books?id=6cjGnMRRrcEC&pg=PA84&dq=inuit+seaweed&sig=zIqIahWu8leC3FoRhzMnufW_QsU#PPR9,M1 | quote = ...shorelines, Inuit gathered seaweed and shellfish. For some, these foods were a treat;... }} | |||
| </ref><ref> | |||
| {{cite web|url=http://www.livingdictionary.com/term/viewTerm.jsp?term=132285700004 |title=kuanniq|work=Asuilaak Living Dictionary|accessdate=2007-02-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Bennett | first = John | coauthors = Rowley, Susan | title = Uqalurait: An Oral History of Nunavut | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=6cjGnMRRrcEC&pg=PA78&lpg=PA78&dq=%22in+the+land+where+it+was+flat%22&source=web&ots=sQbLTAucNS&sig=QU5LmIueYJ2fBqtFsx8Zzzpzepg | year = 2004 | publisher = ] | isbn = 978-0773523401 | pages = 78–85 | chapter = Chapter 5. Gathering }}</ref> | |||
| In the 1920s anthropologist ] lived with and studied a group of Inuit.<ref name=JAMA_Lieb>Lieb et al. (1926). "The Effects of an Exclusive Long-Continued Meat Diet." '']'', July 3, 1926</ref> The study focused on the fact that the Inuit's extremely ] had no adverse effects on their health, nor indeed, Stefansson's own health. Stefansson (1946) also observed that the Inuit were able to get the necessary vitamins they needed from their traditional winter diet, which did not contain any plant matter. In particular, he found that adequate ] could be obtained from items in their traditional diet of raw meat such as ] ] and whale skin (]). While there was considerable scepticism when he reported these findings, they have been borne out in recent studies.<ref>Fediuk, Karen. 2000 . MA Thesis, School of Dietetics and Human Nutrition, ] 5-7; 95. Retrieved on: December 8, 2007.</ref> | |||
| ===Transport, navigation, and dogs=== | |||
| ])]] | |||
| ], 1999]] | |||
| The natives hunted sea animals from single-passenger, covered seal-skin boats called ''qajaq''<ref name=livingdict>{{cite web|url=http://www.livingdictionary.com/term/viewTerm.jsp?term=49141890685|title=qajaq|work=Asuilaak Living Dictionary|accessdate=2007-05-12}}</ref> which were extraordinarily buoyant, and could easily be righted by a seated person, even if completely overturned. Because of this property the design was copied by ]s, and Americans who still produce them under the Inuit name ]. | |||
| Inuit also made '']'', larger open boats made of wood frames covered with animal skins, for transporting people, goods and dogs. They were {{convert|6|-|12|m|ft|abbr=on}} long and had a flat bottom so that the boats could come close to shore. In the winter, Inuit would also hunt ] by patiently watching an ''aglu'' (breathing hole) in the ice and waiting for the air-breathing seals to use them. This technique is also used by the polar bear, who hunts by seeking out holes in the ice and waiting nearby. | |||
| On land, the Inuit used ]s (''qamutik'') for transportation. The '']'' dog breed comes from Inuit breeding of dogs and wolves for transportation. A ] in either a tandem/side-by-side or fan formation would pull a sled made of wood, animal bones, or the ] from a whale's mouth, over the snow and ice. The Inuit used stars to navigate at sea and landmarks to navigate on land; they possessed a comprehensive native system of ]. Where natural landmarks were insufficient, the Inuit would erect an '']''. | |||
| Dogs played an integral role in the annual routine of the Inuit. During the summer they became pack animals, sometimes dragging up to {{convert|20|kg|abbr=on}} of baggage and in the winter they pulled the sled. Yearlong they assisted with hunting by sniffing out seals' holes and pestering polar bears. They also protected the Inuit villages by barking at bears and strangers. The Inuit generally favoured, and tried to breed, the most striking and handsome of dogs, especially ones with bright eyes and a healthy coat. Common husky dog breeds used by the Inuit were the ], the official animal of Nunavut,<ref></ref> (''Qimmiq''; Inuktitut for dog), the ], the ] and the ]. The Inuit would perform rituals over the newborn pup to give it favourable qualities; the legs were pulled to make them grow strong and nose was poked with a pin to enhance the sense of smell. | |||
| ===Industry, art, and clothing=== | |||
| {{main|Inuit art}} | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| Inuit industry relied almost exclusively on animal hides, ], and bones, although some tools were also made out of worked stones, particularly the readily worked ]. ] was a particularly essential material, used to make knives. Art played a big part in Inuit society and continues to do so today. Small sculptures of animals and human figures, usually depicting everyday activities such as ] and whaling, were carved from ] and bone. In modern times ] and figurative works carved in relatively soft stone such as ], ], or ] have also become popular. | |||
| Inuit made clothes and footwear from animal skins, sewn together using needles made from animal bones and threads made from other animal products, such as ]. The '']'' (parka) is made in a similar fashion by Arctic peoples from Europe through ] and the Americas, including the Inuit. In some groups of Inuit, the hood of an '']'', (women's parka, plural ''amautiit'') were traditionally made extra large, to allow the mother to carry a baby against her back and protect it from the harsh wind. Styles vary from region to region, from shape of the hood to length of the tails. Boots (''kamik'' or '']'') could be made of caribou or sealskin, and designs varied for men and women. | |||
| During the winter, certain Inuit lived in a temporary shelter made from snow called an ], and during the few months of the year when temperatures were above freezing, they lived in tents made of animal skins supported by a frame of bones. Some, such as the '']'', used driftwood,<ref></ref> while others built ] houses.<ref></ref> | |||
| ===Gender roles, marriage, birth, and community=== | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| The ] in traditional Inuit society had a strong gender component, but it was not absolute. The men were traditionally hunters and fishermen and the women took care of the children, cleaned huts, sewed, processed food, and cooked. However, there are numerous examples of women who hunted, out of necessity or as a personal choice. At the same time men, who could be away from camp for several days at a time, would be expected to know how to sew and cook.<ref>Inuit Women, by Janet Mancini Billson, Kyra Mancini. Published by Rowman & Littlefield, 2007. ISBN 0742535975, 9780742535978. p. 38</ref> | |||
| The marital customs among the Inuit were not strictly ]: many Inuit relationships were implicitly or explicitly sexual. ]s, ], ], and remarriage were known. Among some Inuit groups, if there were children, divorce required the approval of the community and particularly the agreement of the elders. Marriages were often ], sometimes ], and occasionally ] by the community.<ref>Billson 2007:65</ref> | |||
| Marriage was common for women at puberty and for men when they became productive hunters. ] was flexible: a household might consist of a man and his wife (or wives) and children; it might include his parents or his wife's parents as well as adopted children; it might be a larger formation of several siblings with their parents, wives and children; or even more than one family sharing dwellings and resources. Every household had its head, an elder or a particularly respected man.<ref>Billson 2007:56</ref> | |||
| There was also a larger notion of community as, generally, several families shared a place where they wintered. Goods were shared within a household, and also, to a significant extent, within a whole community. | |||
| The Inuit were ]s,<ref>Snow, Dean R. "The first Americans and the differentiation of hunter-gatherer cultures." North America. Eds. Bruce G. Trigger and Wilcomb E. Washburn. Cambridge University Press, 1996. Cambridge Histories Online. Cambridge University Press. 05 May 2008 DOI:10.1017/CHOL9780521573924.004]</ref> and have been referred to as ]ic.<ref></ref> It is mistakenly believed that they had no government and no conception of either private property or ownership of land but they actually had very sophisticated concepts of private property and land ownership. Because these were so radically different from the concepts held by Europeans,<ref name = tpm>{{cite web |url=http://nac.nu.ca/OnlineBookSite/vol2/introduction.html |title=Tirigusuusiit, Piqujait and Maligait: Inuit Perspectives on Traditional Law |accessdate=2007-10-17 |work=Nunavut Arctic College}}</ref> the latter failed to recognise or document them until well into the 20th century.{{Verify source|date=August 2008}} | |||
| One of the customs following the birth of an infant was for an '']'' (shaman) to place a tiny ] carving of a whale into the baby's mouth, in hopes this would make the child good at hunting. Loud singing and drumming were also customary after a birth. <ref>Olmert, Michael (1996). ''Milton's Teeth and Ovid's Umbrella: Curiouser & Curiouser Adventures in History'', p.158. Simon & Schuster, New York. ISBN 0684801647.</ref> | |||
| ===Raiding=== | |||
| Virtually all Inuit cultures have ]s of raids by other indigenous peoples, including fellow Inuit, and of taking vengeance on them in return, such as the ]. Western observers often regarded these tales as generally not entirely accurate historical accounts, but more as self-serving myths. However, evidence shows that Inuit cultures had quite accurate methods of teaching historical accounts to each new generation.<ref name="burch">{{cite web |title=From Skeptic to Believer|author=Ernest S. Burch, Jr., PhD|url=http://www.alaskool.org/projects/traditionalife/oralhistory/skeptic_to_believer.htm}}</ref> | |||
| The historic accounts of violence against outsiders does make clear that there was a history of hostile contact within the Inuit cultures and with other cultures.<ref>{{cite book | title = "Eskimo Essays" | first = Ann | last = Fienup-Reordan | publisher = Rutgers University Press| year = 1990 }}</ref> It also makes it clear that Inuit nations existed through history, as well as confederations of such nations. The known confederations were usually formed to defend against a more prosperous, and thus stronger, nation. Alternately, people who lived in less productive geographical areas tended to be less warlike, as they had to spend more time producing food. | |||
| Justice within Inuit culture was moderated by the form of governance that gave significant power to the elders. As in most cultures around the world, justice could be harsh and often included capital punishment for serious crimes against the community or the individual. During raids against other peoples, the Inuit, like their non-Inuit neighbours, tended to be merciless. | |||
| <ref name="attituq"></ref> | |||
| ===Suicide, murder, and death=== | |||
| "A pervasive European myth about Inuit is that they killed elderly and unproductive people.",<ref>{{cite journal |title=Book reviews |journal=Canadian Historical Review |volume=79 |issue=3 |pages=591 |year=1998 |month=September |doi=10.3138/CHR.79.3.577 |url=http://utpjournals.metapress.com/content/f874574400118740/fulltext.pdf |format=PDF |issn=0008-3755}}</ref> but this is not generally true.<ref>"Senilicide and Invalidicide among the Eskimos" by Rolf Kjellstrom in Folk: Dansk etnografisk tidsskrift, volume 16/17 (1974/75)</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Leighton,Alexander H.; Hughes, Charles C. |title=Notes on Eskimo Patterns of Suicide |journal=Southwestern Journal of Anthropology |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=327–38 |date=Winter 1955 |url=http://www.jstor.org/pss/3628908}}</ref><ref>Eskimos and Explorers, 2d ed., by Wendell H. Oswalt (1999)</ref> In a culture with an ], elders are the keepers of communal knowledge, effectively the community library.<ref name="nso0">{{cite web |url=http://www.nativescience.org/html/traditional_knowledge.html |title=What is Traditional Knowledge? |publisher=Alaska Native Science Commission |accessdate=2008-05-05}}</ref> There are cultural ]s against sacrificing elders because they are of extreme value as the repository of knowledge.<ref>{{cite book | last = Kawagley | first = Angayuqaq | title = A Yupiaq World View | publisher = Waveland Press Inc | year = 1995 | isbn = 0881338591}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title = The Eskimos | first =Ernest S | last = Burch | publisher = University of Oklahoma Press | isbn = 0806121262 | year = 1988 | pages = p21 | quote = Given the importance that Eskimos attached to the aged, it is surprising that so many Westerners believe that they systematically eliminated elderly people as soon as they became incapable of performing the duties related to hunting or sewing.}}</ref> | |||
| In Antoon A. Leenaars book ''Suicide in Canada'' he states that "] found that the death of elders by suicide was a commonplace among the Iglulik Inuit."<ref name="leenaars196">{{cite book |title= Suicide in Canada |last= Leenaars |first= Antoon A. |coauthors= Michael J. Kral, Ronald J. Dyck |year= 1998 |publisher= University of Toronto Press |isbn= 0802077919 |page= 196 |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=spGsTJFoMTAC&printsec=frontcover#PPA196,M1}}</ref> He heard of many old men and women who had hanged themselves.<ref name="leenaars196" /> By ensuring they died a violent death, Inuit elders purified their souls for journey to the afterworld.<ref name="leenaars196" /> | |||
| According to Franz Boas, suicide was "...not of rare occurrence..." and was generally accomplished through hanging.<ref>Boas, Franz (1964, p. 207)</ref> Writing of the Labrador Inuit, Hawkes (1916) was considerably more explicit on the subject of suicide and the burden of the elderly: | |||
| :"Aged people who have outlived their usefulness and whose life is a burden both to themselves and their relatives are put to death by stabbing or strangulation. This is customarily done at the request of the individual concerned, but not always so. Aged people who are a hindrance on the trail are abandoned."<ref name="leenaars195">{{cite book |title= Suicide in Canada |last= Leenaars |first= Antoon A. |coauthors= Michael J. Kral, Ronald J. Dyck |year= 1998 |publisher= University of Toronto Press |isbn= 0802077919 |page= 195 |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=spGsTJFoMTAC&printsec=frontcover#PPA195,M1}}</ref> | |||
| People seeking assistance in their suicide made three consecutive requests to relatives for help.<ref name="leenaars198">{{cite book |title= Suicide in Canada |last= Leenaars |first= Antoon A. |coauthors= Michael J. Kral, Ronald J. Dyck |year= 1998 |publisher= University of Toronto Press |isbn= 0802077919 |page= 198 |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=spGsTJFoMTAC&printsec=frontcover#PPA198,M1}}</ref> Family members would attempt to dissuade the individual at each suggestion, but with the third request by a person, assistance became obligatory.<ref name="leenaars198" /> In some cases, a suicide was a publicly acknowledged and attended event.<ref name="leenaars198" /> Once the suicide had been agreed to, the victim would dress him or herself as the dead are clothed, with clothing turned inside out.<ref name="leenaars198" /> The death occurred at a specific place, where the material possessions of deceased people were brought to be destroyed.<ref name="leenaars198" /> | |||
| When food is not sufficient, the elderly are the least likely to survive. In the extreme case of ], the Inuit fully understood that, if there was to be any hope of obtaining more food, a hunter was necessarily the one to feed on whatever food was left . However, a common response to desperate conditions and the threat of starvation was ].<ref> By Janet Mancini Billson</ref><ref></ref> A mother abandoned an infant in hopes that someone less desperate might find and adopt the child before the cold or animals killed it. The belief that the Inuit regularly resorted to infanticide may be due in part to studies done by Asen Balikci,<ref>{{cite book |author=Balikci, Asen |title=The Netsilik Eskimo |publisher=Doubleday |location=Garden City, N.Y |year=1970 |isbn=0-385-05766-0 }}</ref> Milton Freeman<ref>{{cite journal |author=Freeman, Milton M. R. |title=A Social and Ecologic Analysis of Systematic Female Infanticide among the Netsilik Eskimo |journal=American Anthropologist |volume=73 |issue=5 |pages=1011–8 |year=1971 |month=October |url=http://www.jstor.org/pss/672815}}</ref> and David Riches<ref>{{cite journal |author=Riches, David. |title=The Netsilik Eskimo: A Special Case of Selective Female Infanticide |journal=Ethnology |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=351–61 |year=1974 |month=October |url=http://www.jstor.org/pss/3773051}}</ref> among the Netsilik. | |||
| Anthropologists believed that Inuit cultures routinely killed children born with physical defects because of the demands of the extreme climate. These views were changed by late 20th century discoveries of burials at an archaeological site. Between 1982 and 1994, a storm with high winds caused ocean waves to erode part of the bluffs near ], and a body was discovered to have been washed out of the mud. Unfortunately the storm claimed the body, which was not recovered. But examination of the eroded bank indicated that an ancient house, perhaps with other remains, was likely to be claimed by the next storm. The site, known as the "Ukkuqsi archaeological site", was excavated. Several frozen bodies (now known as the "frozen family") were recovered, autopsies were performed, and they were re-interred as the first burials in the then-new Imaiqsaun Cemetery south of Barrow.<ref> {{cite book | last = Hess | first = Bill | title=Gift of the Whale: The Inupiat Bowhead Hunt, A Sacred Tradition | publisher = Sasquatch Books | year = 2003 | isbn = 1570613826 }}</ref> Years later another body was washed out of the bluff. It was a female child, approximately 9 years old, who had clearly been born with a ].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.echonsb.org/docs/BarrowVisitorsGuide2006.pdf |format=PDF| title = Barrow Visitors Guide 2006 | Touch Alaska}}</ref> This child had never been able to walk, but must have been cared for by family throughout her life.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.mnh.si.edu/arctic/html/dear_young_girl.html | title=Dear Young Girl }}</ref> | |||
| During the 19th century, the Western Arctic suffered a population decline of close to 90%, resulting from exposure to new diseases, including ], ], ], and ]. Autopsies near Greenland reveal that, more commonly ], ], ], ], and ] may have contributed to mass deaths among different Inuit tribes. The Inuit believed that the causes of the disease were of a spiritual origin.<ref>Information from "Inuit: Glimpses of an Arctic Past" by Morrison and Germain</ref> | |||
| ===Traditional law=== | |||
| Inuit traditional laws are anthropologically different from ] concepts. ']' was thought non-existent in Inuit society before the introduction of the Canadian legal system. Hoebel, in 1954, concluded that only 'rudimentary law' existed amongst the Inuit. Indeed, prior to about 1970, it is impossible to find even one reference to a Western observer who was aware that any form of governance existed among any Inuit people,<ref name=tpm/> however, there was a set way of doing things that had to be followed: | |||
| * ''maligait'' refers to what has to be followed | |||
| * ''piqujait'' refers to what has to be done | |||
| * ''tirigusuusiit'' refers to what has to be avoided | |||
| If an individual's actions went against the tirigusuusiit, maligait or piqujait, the ''angakkuq'' (shaman) might have to intervene, lest the consequences be dire to the individual or the community.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tradition-orale.ca/english/tirigusuusiit-and-maligait-58.html |title=Tirigusuusiit and Maligait |accessdate=2007-10-17 |work=Listening to our past}}</ref> | |||
| ::"We are told today that Inuit never had laws or "maligait". Why? They say because they are not written on paper. When I think of paper, I think you can tear it up, and the laws are gone. The laws of the Inuit are not on paper."<small><br />—Mariano Aupilaarjuk, Rankin Inlet, Nunavut, "Perspectives on Traditional Law"</small><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.voices-unabridged.org/article2.php?id_ss_article=14&id_rub=1&sous_rub=Indigenous%20Women&numero=0 |title=When Survival Means Preserving Oral Traditions |accessdate=2007-10-17 |last=Eileen |first=Travers |date=2003-01-01 |publisher=voices-unabridged.org}}</ref> | |||
| ==Traditional beliefs== | |||
| {{See also|Inuit mythology|Shamanism among Eskimo peoples}} | |||
| ] | |||
| The Inuit people lived in an environment that inspired a ] filled with adventure tales of whale and walrus hunts. Long winter months of waiting for caribou herds or sitting near breathing holes hunting seals gave birth to stories of mysterious and sudden appearance of ghosts and fantastic creatures. Some Inuit looked into the '']'', or northern lights, to find images of their family and friends dancing in the next life.<ref></ref> However, some Inuit believed that the lights were more sinister and if you ]d at them, they would come down and cut off your head. A tale that is still told to children today.<ref name="CAAE"></ref> For others they were invisible giants, the souls of animals, a guide to hunting and as a spirit for the ''angakkuq'' to help with healing.<ref></ref><ref name="CAAE"/> They relied upon the ''angakkuq'' (shaman) for spiritual interpretation. The nearest thing to a central deity was the Old Woman ('']''), who lived beneath the sea. The waters, a central food source, were believed to contain great gods. | |||
| The Inuit practised a form of ] based on ] principles. They believed that all things had a form of spirit, just like humans, and that to some extent these spirits could be influenced by a ] of supernatural entities that could be appeased when one required some animal or inanimate thing to act in a certain way. The ''angakkuq'' of a community of Inuit was not the leader, but rather a sort of healer and ], who tended wounds and offered advice, as well as invoking the spirits to assist people in their lives. His or her role was to see, interpret and exhort the subtle and unseen. ''Angakkuit'' were not trained; they were held to be born with the ability and recognised by the community as they approached adulthood. | |||
| Inuit religion was closely tied to a system of rituals integrated into the daily life of the people. These rituals were simple but held to be necessary. According to a customary Inuit saying, "The great peril of our existence lies in the fact that our diet consists entirely of souls." By believing that all things, including animals, have souls like those of humans, any hunt that failed to show appropriate respect and customary supplication would only give the liberated spirits cause to avenge themselves. | |||
| The harshness and randomness of life in the Arctic ensured that Inuit lived with concern for the uncontrollable, where a streak of bad luck could destroy an entire community. To offend a spirit was to risk its interference with an already marginal existence. The Inuit understood that they had to work in harmony with supernatural powers to provide the necessities of day-to-day life. Before the 1940s, Inuit had minimal contact with ]ns. Europeans passed through on their way to hunt whales or trade furs but very few of them had any interest in settling down on the frozen land of the Arctic. So the Inuit had the place to themselves. They moved between summer and winter camps to always be living where there were animals to hunt. In winter camps they lived in snow shelters called igloos. In summer camps they lived in tents made of animal skins and bones. | |||
| But that changed. As ] ended and the ] began, the Arctic became a place where countries that did not get along were close to each other. The Arctic had always been seen as inaccessible, but the invention of aircraft made it easier for non-Arctic dwellers to get there. Permanent settlements were created around new ] built to monitor rival nations and schools and health care centres were built in these permanent settlements. In many places, Inuit children were required to attend schools that emphasised non-native traditions. With better health care, the Inuit population grew too large to sustain itself solely by hunting. Many Inuit from smaller camps moved into permanent settlements because there was access to jobs and food. In many areas Inuit were required to live in towns by the 1960s. | |||
| ==Postcontact history== | |||
| ===Canada=== | |||
| ====Early contact with Europeans==== | |||
| The lives of Paleo-Eskimos of the far north were largely unaffected by the arrival of visiting Norsemen except for mutual trade.<ref>McGhee 1992:194</ref> Labrador Eskimo have had the longest continuous contact with Europeans.<ref>Kleivan 1966:9</ref> After the disappearance of the ], the Inuit had no contact with Europeans for at least a century. By the mid 16th century, ] fishermen were already working the Labrador coast and had established whaling stations on land, such as the one that has been excavated at ]. The Inuit appear not to have interfered with their operations, but they raided the stations in winter for tools and items made of worked iron, which they adapted to their own needs. | |||
| ]'s 1576 search for the ] was the first well-documented post-] contact between Europeans and Inuit. Frobisher's expedition landed in ], Baffin Island, not far from the town now called ] which was long known as ''Frobisher Bay''. Frobisher encountered Inuit on ] where five sailors jumped ship and became part of ]. The homesick sailors, tired of their adventure, attempted to leave in a small vessel and vanished. Frobisher brought an unwilling Inuk to ], doubtless the first Inuk ever to visit Europe. The Inuit oral tradition, in contrast, recounts the natives helping Frobisher's crewmen, whom they believed had been abandoned. | |||
| The semi-nomadic eco-centred Inuit were fishers and hunters harvesting lakes, seas, ice platforms and ]. While there are some allegations that Inuit were hostile to early ] and English explorers, fishers and whalers, more recent research suggests that the early relations with whaling stations along the Labrador coast and later ] were based on a mutual interest in trade.<ref>Mitchell 1996:49-62</ref> In the final years of the 18th century, the Moravian Church began missionary activities in Labrador, supported by the British who were tired of the raids on their whaling stations. The Moravian missionaries could easily provide the Inuit with the iron and basic materials they had been stealing from whaling outposts, materials whose real cost to Europeans was almost nothing, but whose value to the Inuit was enormous and from then on contacts in Labrador were far more peaceful. | |||
| ], 1819]] | |||
| The European arrival tremendously damaged the Inuit way of life, causing mass death through new diseases introduced by whalers and explorers, and enormous social disruptions caused by the distorting effect of Europeans' material wealth. Nonetheless, Inuit society in the higher latitudes had largely remained in isolation during the 19th century. The ] opened trading posts such as Great Whale River (1820), today the site of the twin villages of ] and ], where whale products of the commercial whale hunt were processed and ]. The British Naval Expedition of 1821-3 led by Admiral ], which twice over-wintered in ], provided the first informed, sympathetic and well-documented account of the economic, social and religious life of the Inuit. Parry stayed in what is now ] over the second winter. Parry's writings, with pen and ink illustrations of Inuit everyday life, and those of ], both published in 1824 were widely read.<ref>D'Anglure 2002:205</ref> Captain ]'s Inuit wife Shoofly, known for her sewing skills and elegant attire,<ref>Driscoll 1980:6</ref> was influential in convincing him to acquire more sewing accessories and beads for trade with Inuit. | |||
| ====Early 20th century==== | |||
| During the early 20th century a few traders and missionaries circulated among the more accessible bands, and after 1904 they were accompanied by a handful of ] (RCMP). Unlike most Aboriginal peoples in Canada, however, the lands occupied by the Inuit were of little interest to European settlers — to the southerners, the homeland of the Inuit was a hostile ]. Southerners enjoyed lucrative careers as bureaucrats and service providers to the north, but very few ever chose to visit there. Canada, with its more hospitable lands largely settled, began to take a greater interest in its more ], especially the fur and mineral-rich hinterlands. By the late 1920s, there were no longer any Inuit who had not been contacted by traders, missionaries or government agents. In 1939, the ] found, in a decision known as'']'', that the Inuit should be considered ] and were thus under the jurisdiction of the federal government. | |||
| Native customs were worn down by the actions of the RCMP, who enforced ] on Inuit, such as ], who often could not understand what they had done wrong, and by missionaries who preached a ] very different from the one they were used to. Many of the Inuit were systematically converted to Christianity in the 19th and 20th centuries, through rituals like the ]. | |||
| ====Second World War to the 1960s==== | |||
| World War II and the Cold War made Arctic Canada strategically important for the first time and, thanks to the development of modern aircraft, accessible year-round. The construction of ]s and the ] in the 1940s and 50s brought more intensive contacts with European society, particularly in the form of ], which instilled and enforced foreign values disdainful of the traditional structure of Inuit society. | |||
| In the 1950s the ] was undertaken by the ] for several reasons. These were to include protecting Canada's ], alleviating hunger (as the area currently occupied had been over-hunted), and attempting to solve the "Eskimo problem", meaning the assimilation and end of the Inuit culture. One of the more notable relocation's was undertaken in 1953, when 17 families were moved from ] (now Inukjuak, Quebec) to ] and ]. They were dropped off in early September when winter had already arrived. The land they were sent to was very different from that in the Inukjuak area; it was barren, with only a couple of months when the temperature rose above freezing and several months of ]. The families were told by the RCMP they would be able to return within two years if conditions were not right. However, two years later more families were relocated to the High Arctic and it was to be thirty years before they were able to visit Inukjuak.<ref></ref><ref>{{PDFlink||2 ]}}</ref><ref></ref> | |||
| By 1953, ] ] publicly admitted, "Apparently we have administered the vast territories of the north in an almost continuing absence of mind."<ref name=PK32>Parker 1996:32</ref> The government began to establish about forty permanent administrative centres to provide education, health and economic development services.<ref name=PK32/> Inuit from hundreds of smaller camps scattered across the north, began to congregate in these hamlets.<ref>Mitchell 1996:118</ref> | |||
| Regular visits from doctors, and access to modern medical care raised the ] and decreased the ], causing an enormous natural increase (see ]). Before long, the Inuit ] was beyond the ] of the ecosystem (that which hunting and fishing could support). By the mid-1960s, encouraged first by missionaries, then by the prospect of paid jobs and government services, and finally forced by hunger and required by police, all Canadian Inuit lived year-round in permanent settlements. The nomadic migrations that were the central feature of Arctic life had for the most part disappeared. The Inuit, a once self-sufficient people in an extremely harsh environment were, in the span of perhaps two generations, transformed into a small, impoverished minority, lacking skills or resources to sell to the larger economy, but increasingly dependent on it for survival. | |||
| Although anthropologists like ] (1964) were quick to predict that Inuit culture was facing extinction, Inuit political activism was already emerging. | |||
| ====Rejuvenation of culture==== | |||
| In the 1960s, the Canadian government funded the establishment of ], government-operated ]s in the Northwest Territories (including what is now Nunavut) and Inuit areas in Quebec and Labrador along with the ]. The Inuit population was not large enough to support a full high school in every community, so this meant only a few schools were built, and students from across the territories were boarded there. These schools, in ], Iqaluit, ], ] and ], brought together young Inuit from across the Arctic in one place for the first time, and exposed them to the rhetoric of ] and ] that prevailed in Canada in the 1960s. This was a real wake-up call for the Inuit, and it stimulated the emergence of a new generation of young Inuit activists in the late 1960s who came forward and pushed for respect for the Inuit and their territories. | |||
| The Inuit began to emerge as a political force in the late 1960s and early 1970s, shortly after the first graduates returned home. They formed new politically active associations in the early 1970s, starting with the ] in 1971, and more region specific organisations shortly afterwards, including the Northern Quebec Inuit Association (]) and the ]. These activist movements began to change the direction of Inuit society in 1975 with the ]. This comprehensive land claims settlement for Quebec Inuit, along with a large cash settlement and substantial administrative autonomy in the new region of Nunavik, set the precedent for the settlements to follow. The Labrador Inuit submitted their land claim in 1977, although they had to wait until 2005 to have a signed land settlement establishing Nunatsiavut. | |||
| In 1982, the ] (TFN) was incorporated, in order to take over negotiations for ] on behalf of the Northwest Territories Inuit from the Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami, which became a joint association of the Inuit of Quebec, Labrador and the Northwest Territories. | |||
| ====Land claims settlements==== | |||
| The TFN worked for ten years and, in September 1992, came to a final agreement with the Government of Canada. This agreement called for the separation of the Northwest Territories into an eastern territory whose aboriginal population would be predominately Inuit,<ref></ref> the future Nunavut, and a rump Northwest Territories in the west. It was the largest ]s agreement in Canadian history. In November 1992, the '']'' was approved by nearly 85 percent of the Inuit of what would become Nunavut. As the final step in this long process, the '']'' was signed on May 25, 1993, in Iqaluit by Prime Minister ] and by ], the president of ], which replaced the TFN with the ratification of the Nunavut Final Agreement. The ] passed the supporting legislation in June of the same year, enabling the 1999 establishment of Nunavut as a territorial entity. | |||
| The ] are western Canadian Inuit who remained in the Northwest Territories when Nunavut split off. They live primarily in the Mackenzie River delta, on ], and in parts of ] in the Northwest Territories. They are officially represented by the ] and received a comprehensive land claims settlement in 1984, with the signing of the ]. | |||
| With the establishment of Nunatsiavut in 2005, all the traditional Inuit lands in Canada are now covered by some sort of land claims agreement providing for regional autonomy. | |||
| Inuit communities in Canada continue to suffer under crushing ], overcrowded housing, ], crime, violence and ]. The problems Inuit face in the 21st century should not be underestimated. However, many Inuit are upbeat about the future. Arguably, their situation is better than it has been since the 14th century. ]s, carving, print making, textiles and ], are very popular, not only in Canada but globally, and Inuit artists are widely known. Indeed, Canada has, metaphorically, adopted some of the Inuit culture as a sort of national identity, using Inuit symbols like the inukshuk in unlikely places, such as its use as a symbol in the upcoming ] in Vancouver. Respected art galleries display Inuit art, the largest collection of which is at the ]. Some Inuit languages such as Inuktitut, appears to have a more secure future in Quebec and Nunavut. There are a surprising number of Inuit, even those who now live in urban centres such as ], ] and ], who have experienced living on the land in the traditional life style. People such as ] member, ] and former ] and the ], ] were born and lived the early part of their life "on the land". Inuit culture is alive and vibrant today in spite of the negative impacts of recent history. | |||
| ====Inuit cabinet members==== | |||
| On October 30, 2008, ] was appointed as ], " the first Inuk to hold a senior cabinet position, although she is not the first Inuk to be in cabinet altogether."<ref>, CBC News - Accessed 21 December 2008</ref> ] and ] were both ] respectively from 1993-96 and in 2003. | |||
| ===Greenland=== | |||
| {{main|Kalaallit|History of Greenland}} | |||
| The Thule people arrived in Greenland in the 13th century. There they encountered the Norsemen, who had established colonies there since the late 10th century, as well as a later wave of the Dorset people. Because most of Greenland is covered in ice, the Greenland Inuit (or Kalaallit) only live in coastal settlements, particularly the northern polar coast, the eastern Amassalik coast and the central coasts of western Greenland.<ref>Hessel, pg. 11</ref> In 1953, Denmark put an end to the colonial status of Greenland and granted ] in 1979 and in 2008 a ] was passed with 75% approval. Although a part of the Kingdom of Denmark, Greenland, known as Kalaallit Nunaat, maintains much autonomy today. Of a population of 55,000, 80% of Greenlanders identify as Inuit. Their economy is based on fishing and ].<ref>Hessel, p. 20</ref> | |||
| ===Alaska=== | |||
| {{see also|List of Alaska Native tribal entities}} | |||
| The Inuit people of Alaska are the Inupiat (from Inuit- people - and piaq/piat real, i.e. 'real people') who live in the ], the ] and the ]s region. Barrow, the ], is in the Inupiat region. Their language is ] (which is the singular form of Inupiat). | |||
| ===International issues=== | |||
| In recent years, circumpolar cultural and political groups like the Inuit Circumpolar Council have come together to promote the Inuit and other northern people and to fight against ] problems, such as ], which disproportionately affects the Inuit population. Global warming may cause Arctic mammal populations to decline. However, a recent study by Mitch Taylor shows that, contrary to the dire predictions, eleven of thirteen polar bear populations have remained stable or increased. The study also shows that the number of polar bears in western ] is decreasing due to the effect of global warming, while the decrease of the population in ] is directly associated with the over hunting of the bears by Greenland hunters.<ref>, (May 1, 2006) Toronto Star (Dr. Mitchell Taylor)</ref><ref>, Nunavut rethinks polar bear quotas as numbers drop, Last Updated: June 9, 2005</ref> | |||
| ==Modern culture== | |||
| ] ]] | |||
| Well-known Inuit politicians include former ], ], Nancy Karetak-Lindell, former MP for the ], and Leona Aglukkaq, current MP and Federal Health Minister since 2008.<ref>"", ], October 31, 2008.</ref> | |||
| An important biennial event, the ], is held in communities across the northern regions of the world, featuring traditional Inuit and northern sports as part of the events. A cultural event is also held. The games were first held in 1970, and while rotated usually among Alaska, Yukon and the Northwest Territories, they have also been held in ], Quebec in 1976, in ], ], and a joint Iqaluit, Nunavut-], Greenland staging in 2002. In other sporting events, ] became the first Inuk to play in the ] in the 2003-04 season, playing for the ]. | |||
| Although Inuit life has changed significantly over the past century, many traditions continue. '']'', or traditional knowledge, such as storytelling, mythology, ] and dancing remain important parts of the culture. Family and community are very important. The Inuktitut language is still spoken in many areas of the Arctic and is common on radio and in television programming. | |||
| Visual and performing arts are strong. In 2002 the first ] in Inuktitut, '']'', was released worldwide to great critical and popular acclaim. It was directed by ], and written, filmed, produced, directed, and acted almost entirely by the Inuit of Igloolik. In 2009 the film, ], a Greenlandic language feature film ] by ] and co-written by Magidson and French ] ].<ref name=R0> (]) by Samir Ardjoum, "Interview with Jean-Michel Huctin, co-author of Tour Inuk", accessed 01-20-2009</ref> One of the most famous Inuit artists is ]. ] is a popular singer. ] works at preserving Inuktitut and has written the first novel published in that language.<ref></ref> In 2006, ] was hailed as Canada's most artistic city, with 23% of the labour force employed in the arts.<ref></ref> Inuit art such as soapstone carvings is one of Nunavut's most important industries. | |||
| Recently, there has been an identity struggle among the younger generations of Inuit, between their traditional heritage and the modern society which their cultures have been forced to assimilate into in order to maintain a livelihood. With current dependence on modern society for necessities, (including governmental jobs, food, aid, medicine, etc.), the Inuit people have had much interaction with and exposure to the ] outside their previous cultural boundaries. The stressors regarding the ] among teenagers have led to disturbingly high numbers of suicide.<ref name="analysis">{{cite web|url=http://old.nrf.is/Open%20Meetings/Anchorage/Position%20Papers/Penney_Sen%C3%A9cal_Guimond_Bobet_and_Uppal_5thNRF_position_paper_session2.pdf|title=Suicide in Inuit Nunaat:An analysis of suicide rates and the effect of Community-level factors|last=Penney|first=Christopher|coauthors=Senecal S, Guimond E, Bobet E, Uppal S.|date=27 June 2008|work=Position paper for the 5th NRF open assembly|publisher=INAC|accessdate=2009-11-05}}</ref> | |||
| A series of authors has focused upon the increasing ] in the youngest generations of Inuit. Myopia was almost unknown prior to the Inuit adoption of ]. This phenomenon is also seen in other cultures (for example, ]). Principal theories are the change to a less nutritious western style diet, and extended education.<ref></ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Morgan RW, Speakman JS, Grimshaw SE |title=Inuit myopia: an environmentally induced "epidemic"? |journal=Can Med Assoc J |volume=112 |issue=5 |pages=575–7 |year=1975 |month=March |pmid=1116086 |pmc=1956268 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Bernard Gilmartin; Mark Rosenfield |title=Myopia and nearwork |publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann |location=Oxford |year=1998 |page=21 |isbn=0-7506-3784-6 |url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=mNT577S8uywC&pg=PA21&lpg=PA21&dq=myopia+inuit&source=web&ots=b0W9YSnILd&sig=zmp3zKNNQ2xLRf-Ctj7mi8SSUKI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=5&ct=result#PPA22,M1}}</ref> | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| {{Portal|Aboriginal Canadians|Flag of Canada.svg}} | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| ==Notes== | |||
| {{reflist|2}} | |||
| ==References== | |||
| * {{cite book |author=Briggs, Jean L. |title=Never in Anger: Portrait of an Eskimo Family |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |year=1971 |isbn=0-674-60828-3 }} | |||
| * {{cite book |author=Forman, Werner; Burch, Ernest S. |title=The Eskimos |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |location=Norman |year=1988 |isbn=0-8061-2126-2 }} | |||
| * De Poncins, Gontran. '']''. St. Paul, MN: Graywolf Press, 1996 (originally 1941). ISBN 1-55597-249-7 | |||
| * {{cite book |author=Hessell, Ingo. |title=Arctic Spirit: The Albrecht Collection of Inuit Art at the ] |publisher=Douglas & McIntyre |location=Vancouver |year=2006 |isbn=1-55365-189-8 }} | |||
| * {{cite book |author=McGrath, Melanie. |title=The long exile: a tale of Inuit betrayal and survival in the high Arctic |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |location=New York |year=2007 |isbn=1-4000-4047-7 }} | |||
| * {{cite book |author=Paver, Michelle. |title=Chronicles of Ancient Darkness Omnibus Edition (Volume 1, 2, and 3) |publisher=Orion |location=London |year=2008 |isbn=1-84255-705-X }} | |||
| * {{cite book |author=Ruesch, Hans. |title=Top of the World |publisher=Pocket |location=New York |year=1986 |isbn=950-637-164-4 }} () | |||
| * {{cite book |author=Walk, Ansgar. |title=]: the life story of an Inuit artist |publisher=Penumbra Press |location=Manotick, Ontario |year=1999 |isbn=0-921254-95-4 }} | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| {{commons|Inuit|Inuit}} | |||
| * | |||
| * , Canada's National Inuit Organization | |||
| * Films from the ]. | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * This site includes contextual materials, links to digitized primary sources and summaries of primary source documents. | |||
| * , an online glossary of terms related to Inuit culture. | |||
| * | |||
| *, ] | |||
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| {{Canadian history}} | |||
| {{Canada topics}} | |||
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