Misplaced Pages

Farefare or Frafra, also known by the regional name of Gurenne (Gurene), is a Niger–Congo language spoken by the Frafra people of northern Ghana, particularly the Upper East Region, and southern Burkina Faso. It is a national language of Ghana, and is closely related to Dagbani and other languages of Northern Ghana, and also related to Mossi, also known as Mooré, the national language of Burkina Faso.

Frafra consists of three principal dialects, Gurenɛ (also written Gurunɛ, Gudenne, Gurenne, Gudeni, Zuadeni), Nankani (Naane, Nankanse, Ninkare), and Boone. Nabit and Talni have been mistakenly reported to be Frafra dialects.

Names

The general and accepted name for the language is Farefare or Frafra. The varieties in Ghana are usually called "Gurene", and those in Burkina-Faso are called "Ninkare".

Orthography

The Frafra language uses the letters of the Latin alphabet except for c, j, q, x, and with the addition of ɛ, ɩ, ŋ, ɔ, and ʋ. The tilde is used for showing nasalization in Burkina Faso, but in Ghana it is shown using the letter n. The two nasal vowels /ɛ̃/ and /ɔ̃/ are spelt with ẽ and õ respectively. All long nasal vowels only get their tilde written on the first letter.

Acute, grave, circumflex, caron, and macron are sometimes used in grammar books to indicate tone, but not in general-purpose texts. The apostrophe is used to indicate the glottal stop.

Phonology

Consonants

Frafra has a system of 17 phonemes (or 19, counting /ɣ/, an allophone of /g/, and /ɾ/, an allophone of /d/):

The sound /ŋ/ appears in front of some words starting with /w/, leading them to change into the /j/ sound. /h/ only appears in loanwords, exclamations, and as an allophone of /f/. An example of both of these sound changes are weefo and yeho (both meaning "horse"). The only consonants Frafra words may end in are the two nasals /m/ and /n/.

Glottal stop

Glottal stops appear at the initial vowel of a word, but are not transcribed. Word-medially, vowel nasalization continues over the glottal stop. In rapid speech, the glottal stop is usually dropped, similar to how vowel hiatus gets dropped in Spanish.

Word medial glottal stops must be marked in writing.

Allophones

Allophones of /r/

and are two phonetic realizations of the same phoneme. occurs at the beginning of words, and is its counterpart everywhere else.

Allophones of /g/

is an allophone of /g/ that occurs after certain vowels. It is mostly written "g." Usage of the letter "ɣ" is quite rare.

Allophones of /j/

is an allophone of /j/ that occurs before a nasal vowel. It is always written as "y."

Sandhi

This section will describe all the morpho-phonological sandhi processes that affect Frafra.

Nasals

Nasal consonants undergo assimilation, coalescence, and elision.

Assimilation at Point of Articulation

Nasals assimilate to the point of articulation of the occlusive the proceed.

• /m/ goes before /p/ and /b/
• /n/ goes before /t/ and /d/
• /ŋ/ goes before /k/

Coalescence

When a nasal is followed by /g/, the two consonants amalgamate.

• /n/ + /g/ = /ŋ/

This rule does not apply to compound words (e.g. tẽŋgãnnɛ "sacred land") or loanwards (e.g. maŋgo "mango")

Elision

Nasals disappear when they go before /f/

• /m/ + /f/ = /f/
• /n/ + /f/ = /f/

Stops

Two voiced stops become their unvoiced form. Remember that is the word-medial allophone of /d/

• /g/ + /g/ = /k/
• /r/ + /r/ = /t/

Sonorants

Vibrant assimilation

Vibrant consonants, also called taps, assimilate to a preceding lateral or nasal.

• /l/ + /r/ = /ll/
• /n/ + /r/ = /nn/
• /m/ + /r/ = either /nn/ or /mn/

Lateral assimilation

• /n/ + /l/ = /nn/
• /m/ + /l/ = /nn/

Combination of these processes

C designates any consonant, and N designates any nasal.

• Cm + r = Cn
• Cl + r = Cl

Vowels

Frafra has 9 oral vowels and 5 nasal vowels.

All Frafra vowels have a long form.

Vowel harmony

Like many Mande languages, Frafra features vowel harmony. When suffixes are added to word roots, the vowel in the root selects whether the suffix will use the tense or lax form. The exception is suffixes ending in "-a" because /a/ is neutral in Frafra, meaning that it is only one form. Prefixes do not exist in Frafra.

Where all vowels must be in harmony

In disyllabic words, both vowels are always in harmony. The same applies in vowel sequences.

Mid vowels

The lax vowel -a in noun and verb endings will change the tense vowels /e/ and /o/ to lax vowels /ɛ/ and /ɔ/.

Close vowels

When a suffix's vowel is close, and stem's vowel is close and tense, it causes the suffix's vowel to become tense.

For example, the locative postposition "-ʋm" becomes "-um" after the vowels /i/, /ĩ/, /u/, and /ũ/.

• pʋʋrɛ ("belly") > pʋʋrʋm ("inside the belly")
• nifo ("eye") > nifum ("inside the eye")

However, tense vowels that are not close do not affect "ʋm". Therefore poore ("back") becomes poorʋm ("behind").

The particle "nɩ," which goes after a verbs to mark the incomplete aspect, becomes "ni" after /i/, /ĩ/, /u/, and /ũ/.

Grammar

Tone

Gurenɛ marks a high and a low tone. Changes in tone have an impact on either the lexical or grammatical function of a particular word.

Lexical Function

With low tones the word becomes a verb, whereas with high tones it is a noun.

vàlèŋà

vàlèŋà

„waist bead.“

váléŋá

váléŋá

„spider“

Grammatical Function

The low tone on the preverbal tense marker wà indicates future, while the high tone on the same element indicates aspect.

Átáŋá

Ataŋa

wà

FUT

nyù

drink

kò'òm

water

lá.

DEF

Átáŋá wà nyù kò'òm lá.

Ataŋa FUT drink water DEF

„Ataŋa will drink the water.“

Átáŋá

Ataŋa

wá

ASP

nyù

drink

kò'òm

water

lá.

DEF

Átáŋá wá nyù kò'òm lá.

Ataŋa ASP drink water DEF

„Ataŋa definitely drank the water.“

Noun Classes

Nouns in Gurunɛ have different "classes" with regard to plurals:

Pronouns

Source:

Personal Pronouns

Emphatic Pronouns

Only emphatic pronouns can appear in focus positions, whereas all other pronouns cannot appear in those positions. Emphatic pronouns are used in exclusive contexts, in which the speaker indicates that only one thing is true and not the other.

Mam

1SG.EMPH

ti

FOC

a

1SG

dikɛ

take

bo.

give

Mam ti a dikɛ bo.

1SG.EMPH FOC 1SG take give

„It is me that he gave it to.“

Yamam

2PL.EMPH

n

FOC

sagum

destroy

loore

lorry

lá.

DEF

Yamam n sagum loore lá.

2PL.EMPH FOC destroy lorry DEF

„It is you guys (not us) who destroyed the lorry.“

Reciprocal Pronoun

The reciprocal pronoun is taaba and occurs postverbally.

Budaa

man

lá

DEF

pɔka

woman

lá

DEF

nɔŋɛ

love

taaba

RECP

mɛ.

FOC

Budaa lá pɔka lá nɔŋɛ taaba mɛ.

man DEF woman DEF love RECP FOC

„The man and the woman love each other.“

Reflexive Pronouns

To form a reflexive pronoun in Gurenɛ the morphem -miŋa for singular or -misi for plural is attached to a particular personal pronoun. While in other Gur languages, the reflexive morphem is not sensitive to number, in Gurenɛ there exist two forms, one for each number.

Amaa

but

mami

1SG

daa

PST

guri

hold.PST

nmiŋa.

1SG.REFL

Amaa mami daa guri nmiŋa.

but 1SG PST hold.PST 1SG.REFL

„But I restrained myself.“

Ba

3PL

ka

NEG

le

again

ŋmɛ

beat

bamisi.

3PL.REFL

Ba ka le ŋmɛ bamisi.

3PL NEG again beat 3PL.REFL

„They will not beat themselves again.“

Relative Pronouns

There are two relative pronouns, ti and n. The former relativizes subjects, while the latter is used to relativize objects. Both pronouns are not sensitive to number or animacy, while this is the case in other Gur languages such as Dagbani for instance.

Budaa

man

lá

DEF

n

REL

wa'am

come

kalam

here

de

COP

là

FOC

ma

1SG

sɔ.

father

Budaa lá n wa'am kalam de là ma sɔ.

man DEF REL come here COP FOC 1SG father

„The man who came here is my father.“

Budaa

man

lá

DEF

ti

REL

fu

2SG

nyɛ

see

là

FOC

de

COP

là

FOCɛ

ma

1SG

sɔ.

father

Budaa lá ti fu nyɛ là de là ma sɔ.

man DEF REL 2SG see FOC COP FOCɛ 1SG father

„The man that you saw is my father.“

Interrogative Pronouns

Interrogative pronouns can either occur sentence-initially or sentence-finally.

Ani

who

n

FOC

di

eat.PFV

dia

food

lá?

DEF

Ani n di dia lá?

who FOC eat.PFV food DEF

„Who ate the food?“

Sukuu

school

kɔma

children

lá

DEF

siŋɛ

do

là

FOC

bɛ?

where

Sukuu kɔma lá siŋɛ là bɛ?

school children DEF do FOC where

„Where did the students go?“

Beni

what

dia

food

ti

that

ba

3PL

kɔɔsa

sell

da'a?

market

Beni dia ti ba kɔɔsa da'a?

what food that 3PL sell market

„What food are they selling at the market?“

Naafu

cow

lá

DEF

de

COP

là

FOC

alɛ?

how.much

Naafu lá de là alɛ?

cow DEF COP FOC how.much

„How much is the price of the cow?“

Demonstrative Pronouns

Each demonstrative pronoun refers to a single noun class.

Syntax

Word Order

The word order in Gurenɛ is strictly SVO.

N

1SG

wan

FUT

kule

go.home

beere.

tomorrow

N wan kule beere.

1SG FUT go.home tomorrow

„I will go home tomorrow.“

Dɔgeta

doctor

lá

DEF

wan

FUT

lu

inject

ma.

1SG

Dɔgeta lá wan lu ma.

doctor DEF FUT inject 1SG

„The doctor will inject me.“

À

3SG

bo

give

ma

1SG

ligeri

money

lá.

DEF

À bo ma ligeri lá.

3SG give 1SG money DEF

„S/he gave me the money.“

Verb Phrase

The verb phrase (VP) consists of pre- and postverbal particles surrounding the verb. Preverbal particles encode aspect, tense, negation, and mood, such as imperative and conditional. Postverbal particles also encode aspect and tense, but in addition to that they can also encode focus. The order of particles within the VP is strictly organized as shown below. Moreover, the maximal amount of pre- and postverbal particles is also strictly defined. There can be at maximum five preverbal and two postverbal particles within one clause in Gurenɛ.

Time > Tense > Conditional > Aspectual > Future > Negation > Emphatic > Epistemic > Purpose > Verb > Tense > Focus/Affirmative/Completive/Directional

Nɛreba

people

lá

DEF

zaamtext₁

yesterday

nyaa₂

then

kɔ'ɔm₃

just

sirum₄

surely

ta₅

in.order

iŋɛ

do

ba'asum₁

certainly

gaŋɛ

more

mɛ₂.

AFF

Nɛreba lá zaamtext₁ nyaa₂ kɔ'ɔm₃ sirum₄ ta₅ iŋɛ ba'asum₁ gaŋɛ mɛ₂.

people DEF yesterday then just surely in.order do certainly more AFF

„The people yesterday certainly did more than what was just expected.“

Particles

There are a lot of particles in Gurenɛ, such that the total number is not fully clear. The following table provides an overview of the most common particles.

Verb

The verb in Gurenɛ consists of an obligatory stem or root, that can take one or more morphemes. Verbs appear either in the perfective or imperfective form, depending on its aspect. The perfective expresses actions in the present, whereas the imperfective denotes actions in the past or progressive.

Question Formation

There are several ways of forming a question in Gurenɛ, but importantly the strict word order SVO is always to obey.

Ex situ

In subject questions the question word occurs as the first element of the clause and can either function as the subject or as the agent of the clause.

Ani

who

n

FOC

tum?

work.PFV

Ani n tum?

who FOC work.PFV

„Who worked?“

Ani

who

n

FOC

tun-i?

work-IPFV

Ani n tun-i?

who FOC work-IPFV

„Who is working?“

In situ

In general, questions are formed by raising intonation of the final tone. Questions without an explicit question word have a clause-final question marker -ì.

Fʊ

2SG

nyɛ

see

ʔí-ì?

3SG-Q

Fʊ nyɛ ʔí-ì?

2SG see 3SG-Q

„Did you see him?“

Fʊ

2SG

n

FOC

nyɛ

see

ʔí.

3SG

Fʊ n nyɛ ʔí.

2SG FOC see 3SG

„You saw him.“

Embedded

Questions can be embedded and are then preceded by the complementizer tí.

Má

1SG

m

FOC

sokè

ask

ʔì

3SG

tí

SUBR

3SG

3SG

nyɛ

see

Ádʊŋɔ.

Adongo

Má m sokè ʔì tí 3SG nyɛ Ádʊŋɔ.

1SG FOC ask 3SG SUBR 3SG see Adongo

„I asked him whether he had seen Adongo.“

Má

1SG

m

FOC

sokè

ask

ʔì

3SG

lá-à

TOP-Q

ánɪ

whom

tì

SUBR

à

3SG

nyɛ-ɛ`.

see-Q

Má m sokè ʔì lá-à ánɪ tì à nyɛ-ɛ`.

1SG FOC ask 3SG TOP-Q whom SUBR 3SG see-Q

„I asked him whom he saw.“

Multiple Questions

Question can also be formed by more than one question word. In these cases one question word occurs ex situ and the other(s) in situ. Again, a question word can only appear ex situ, if it replaces the subject or agent of the clause.

Ani

who

n

FOC

da

buy.PFV

(*là)

FOC

beni?

what

Ani n da (*là) beni?

who FOC buy.PFV FOC what

„Who bought what?“

*Beni

what

ti

FOC

ani

who

da?

buy.PFV

*Beni ti ani da?

what FOC who buy.PFV

„*What bought who?“

Napari

Napari

*(n)

FOC

da

buy.PFV

yire.

house

Napari *(n) da yire.

Napari FOC buy.PFV house

„Napari bought a house..“

Long distance extraction

Question words in Gurenɛ can also cross clause boundaries, such that they originated in the embedded clause and have been fronted to the clause-initial position.

Beni

what

ti

FOC

Ama

Ama

soke

ask

ti

SUBR

John

John

kõregɛ

slaughter

ya

COMPL

*(là).

FOC

Beni ti Ama soke ti John kõregɛ ya *(là).

what FOC Ama ask SUBR John slaughter COMPL FOC

„What did Ama ask that John slaughtered?“

Beni

what

ti

FOC

Ama

Ama

spoke

ask

ti

SUBR

John

John

kõregɛ-ri/-*ra

slaughter-IPFV

ya

COMPL

*(là)?

FOC

Beni ti Ama spoke ti John kõregɛ-ri/-*ra ya *(là)?

what FOC Ama ask SUBR John slaughter-IPFV COMPL FOC

„What did Ama ask that John is slaughtering?“

Beni

what

ti

FOC

Ama

Ama

bɔta

want

ti

SUBR

John

John

kõregɛ?

slaughter

Beni ti Ama bɔta ti John kõregɛ?

what FOC Ama want SUBR John slaughter

„What did Ama ask that John slaughtered?“

Greetings

Geography

Solemitẽŋa means "land of the white man" and is used to refer to all non-African countries.

Soleminɛ is theoretically referring to all non-African languages, however it is only used to refer to English.

Notes

1. Allophone of /g/ between lax vowels and is rarely represented in writing.

References

1. Farefare at Ethnologue (26th ed., 2023)
2. ISO change request
3. ^ Niggli (2007). "Equisse grammaticale du ninkãrɛ au Burkina Faso" (PDF). SIL International Burkina Faso. p. 6. Retrieved 24 November 2021.
4. Niggli 2007, p. 85.
5. Niggli 2007, p. 84.
6. Niggli 2007, p. 94.
7. ^ Bodomo, Adams; Abubakari, Hasiyatu; Issah, Samuel Alhassan (2020). Handbook of the Mabia Languages of West Africa. Glienicke: Galda Verlag.
8. ^ Atintono, Samuel (2011). Verb Morphology: Phrase structure in a Gur Language (Gurenɛ). Saarbrücken: Lambert Academic Publishing.
9. ^ "The VP-periphery in Mabia languages | Gurene". The VP-periphery in Mabia languages. Retrieved 2022-11-17.
10. ^ Kropp-Dakubu, M.E. (2009). Parlons farefari (gurenè): langue et culture de Bolgatanga (Ghana) et ses environs. Paris: L`Harmattan.

Bibliography

• Atintono, Samuel (2011). Verb Morphology: Phrase structure in a Gur Language (Gurenɛ). Saarbrücken: Lambert Academic Publishing.
• Bodomo, Adams, Hasiyatu Abubakari & Samuel Alhassan Issah (2020). Handbook of the Mabia Languages of West Africa. Glienicke: Galda Verlag
• Kropp-Dakubu,M.E., S. Awinkene Antintono, and E. Avea Nsoh, A Gurenɛ–English Dictionary and accompanying English–Gurenɛ Glossary
• Kropp-Dakubu, M.E. (2009). Parlons farefari (gurenè): langue et culture de Bolgatanga (Ghana) et ses environs. Paris: L`Harmattan
• Niggli, Idda; Niggli, Urs (2007). De la phonologie à l'orthographe : Le ninkãrɛ au Burkina Faso. SIL.
• Ninkare Frafra Dictionary

External links

• "Ninkare | SIL Burkina Faso". sil-burkina.org. Retrieved 2021-07-29.
• The VP-periphery in Mabia languages

• Languages of Ghana
• Oti–Volta languages