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Niko Tinbergen
Tinbergen in 1978
Born	Nikolaas Tinbergen (1907-04-15)15 April 1907 The Hague, Netherlands
Died	21 December 1988(1988-12-21) (aged 81) Oxford, England
Alma mater	Leiden University
Known for	One of the founders of ethology Hawk/goose effect Tinbergen's four questions
Spouse	Elisabeth Rutten (1912–1990)
Children	5
Awards	FRS (1962) Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1973)
Scientific career
Fields	Zoology Ethology
Institutions	University of Oxford
Doctoral advisor	Hilbrand Boschma
Doctoral students	John Michael Cullen Marian Dawkins Richard Dawkins Iain Douglas-Hamilton Aubrey Manning Desmond Morris Anthony Sinclair

Nikolaas "Niko" Tinbergen FRS (/ˈtɪnbɜːrɡən/ TIN-bur-gən, Dutch: [ˈnikoː(laːs) ˈtɪmbɛrɣə(n)]; 15 April 1907 – 21 December 1988) was a Dutch biologist and ornithologist who shared the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Karl von Frisch and Konrad Lorenz for their discoveries concerning the organization and elicitation of individual and social behavior patterns in animals. He is regarded as one of the founders of modern ethology, the study of animal behavior.

In 1951, he published The Study of Instinct, an influential book on animal behaviour. In the 1960s, he collaborated with filmmaker Hugh Falkus on a series of wildlife films, including The Riddle of the Rook (1972) and Signals for Survival (1969), which won the Italia prize in that year and the American blue ribbon in 1971.

Early life and education

Born in The Hague, Netherlands, he was one of five children of Dirk Cornelis Tinbergen and his wife Jeannette van Eek. His brother, Jan Tinbergen, won the first Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel in 1969. They are the only siblings to each win a Nobel Prize. Another brother, Luuk Tinbergen, was also a noted biologist.

Tinbergen's interest in nature manifested itself when he was young. He studied biology at Leiden University and was a prisoner of war during World War II in Kamp Sint-Michielsgestel. Tinbergen's experience as a prisoner of the Nazis led to some friction with longtime intellectual collaborator Konrad Lorenz, and it was several years before the two reconciled.

After the war, Tinbergen moved to England, where he taught at the University of Oxford and was a fellow first at Merton College, Oxford, and later at Wolfson College, Oxford. Several of his graduate students went on to become prominent biologists including Richard Dawkins, Marian Dawkins, Desmond Morris, Iain Douglas-Hamilton, and Tony Sinclair.

The Study of Instinct

In 1951 Tinbergen's The Study of Instinct was published. Behavioural ecologists and evolutionary biologists still recognise the contribution this book offered the field of behavioural science studies. The Study of Instinct summarises Tinbergen's ideas on innate behavioural reactions in animals and the adaptiveness and evolutionary aspects of these behaviours. By behaviour, he means the total movements made by the intact animal; innate behaviour is that which is not changed by the learning process. The major question of the book is the role of internal and external stimuli in controlling the expression of behaviour.

In particular, he was interested in explaining 'spontaneous' behaviours: those that occurred in their complete form the first time they were performed and that seemed resistant to the effects of learning. He explains how behaviour can be considered a combination of these spontaneous behaviour patterns and as set series of reactions to particular stimuli. Behaviour is a reaction in that to a certain extent it is reliant on external stimuli, however it is also spontaneous since it is also dependent upon internal causal factors.

His model for how certain behavioural reactions are provoked was based on work by Konrad Lorenz. Lorenz postulated that for each instinctive act there is a specific energy which builds up in a reservoir in the brain. In this model, Lorenz envisioned a reservoir with a spring valve at its base that an appropriate stimulus could act on, much like a weight on a scale pan pulling against a spring and releasing the reservoir of energy, an action which would lead an animal to express the desired behaviour.

Tinbergen added complexity to this model, a model now known as Tinbergen's hierarchical model. He suggested that motivational impulses build up in nervous centres in the brain which are held in check by blocks. The blocks are removed by an innate releasing mechanism that allows the energy to flow to the next centre (each centre containing a block that needs to be removed) in a cascade until the behaviour is expressed. Tinbergen's model shows multiple levels of complexity and that related behaviours are grouped.

An example is in his experiments with foraging honey bees. He showed that honey bees show curiosity for yellow and blue paper models of flowers, and suggested that these were visual stimuli causing the buildup of energy in one specific centre. However, the bees rarely landed on the model flowers unless the proper odour was also applied. In this case, the chemical stimuli of the odour allowed the next link in the chain to be released, encouraging the bee to land. The final step was for the bee to insert its mouthparts into the flower and initiate suckling. Tinbergen envisioned this as concluding the reaction set for honey bee feeding behaviour.

Nobel Prize

In 1973, Tinbergen, along with Konrad Lorenz and Karl von Frisch, were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for their discoveries concerning organization and elicitation of individual and social behaviour patterns". The award recognised their studies on genetically programmed behaviour patterns, their origins, maturation and their elicitation by key stimuli. In his Nobel Lecture, Tinbergen addressed the somewhat unconventional decision of the Nobel Foundation to award the prize for Physiology or Medicine to three men who had until recently been regarded as "mere animal watchers". Tinbergen stated that their revival of the "watching and wondering" approach to studying behaviour could indeed contribute to the relief of human suffering.

The studies performed by the trio on fish, insects and birds laid the foundation for further studies on the importance of specific experiences during critical periods of normal development, as well as the effects of abnormal psychosocial situations in mammals. At the time, these discoveries were stated to have caused "a breakthrough in the understanding of the mechanisms behind various symptoms of psychiatric disease, such as anguish, compulsive obsession, stereotypic behaviour and catatonic posture". Tinbergen's contribution to these studies included the testing of the hypotheses of Lorenz/von Frisch by means of "comprehensive, careful, and ingenious experiments" as well as his work on supernormal stimuli. The work of Tinbergen during this time was also regarded as having possible implications for further research in child development and behaviour.

He also caused some intrigue by dedicating a large part of his acceptance speech to FM Alexander, originator of the Alexander technique, a method which investigates postural reflexes and responses in human beings.

Other awards and honours

In 1950 Tinbergen became member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1962. He was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1961, the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1974, and the American Philosophical Society in 1975. He was also awarded the Godman-Salvin Medal in 1969 by the British Ornithologists' Union, and in 1973 received the Swammerdam Medal and Wilhelm Bölsche Medal (from the Genootschap ter bervordering van Natuur-, Genees- en Heelkunde of the University of Amsterdam and the Kosmos-Gesellschaft der Naturfreunde respectively).

Approach to animal behaviour

Tinbergen described four questions he believed should be asked of any animal behaviour, which were:

1. Causation (mechanism): what are the stimuli that elicit the response, and how has it been modified by recent learning? How do behaviour and psyche "function" on the molecular, physiological, neuro-ethological, cognitive and social level, and what do the relations between the levels look like? (compare: Nicolai Hartmann: "The laws about the levels of complexity")
2. Development (ontogeny): how does the behaviour change with age, and what early experiences are necessary for the behaviour to be shown? Which developmental steps (the ontogenesis follows an "inner plan") and which environmental factors play when / which role? (compare: Recapitulation theory)
3. Function (adaptation): how does the behaviour impact on the animal's chances of survival and reproduction?
4. Evolution (phylogeny): how does the behaviour compare with similar behaviour in related species, and how might it have arisen through the process of phylogeny? Why did structural associations (behaviour can be seen as a "time space structure") evolve in this manner and not otherwise?*

These have been long recognized in Philosophy of Biology to strongly correspond with the efficient, material, formal and final causes of Aristotelian causality, though Tinbergen does not reference Aristotle in his work. In ethology and sociobiology, causation and ontogeny are summarised as the "proximate mechanisms", while adaptation and phylogeny are the "ultimate mechanisms". They are still considered as the cornerstone of modern ethology, sociobiology and transdisciplinarity in Human Sciences.

Supernormal stimulus

A major body of Tinbergen's research focused on what he termed the supernormal stimulus. This was the concept that one could build an artificial object which was a stronger stimulus or releaser for an instinct than the object for which the instinct originally evolved. He constructed plaster eggs to see which a bird preferred to sit on, finding that they would select those that were larger, had more defined markings, or more saturated colour—and a dayglo-bright one with black polka dots would be selected over the bird's own pale, dappled eggs.

Tinbergen found that territorial male three-spined stickleback (a small freshwater fish) would attack a wooden fish model more vigorously than a real male if its underside was redder. He constructed cardboard dummy butterflies with more defined markings that male butterflies would try to mate with in preference to real females. The superstimulus, by its exaggerations, clearly delineated what characteristics were eliciting the instinctual response.

Among the modern works calling attention to Tinbergen's classic work is Deirdre Barrett's 2010 book, Supernormal Stimuli.

Autism

Tinbergen applied his observational methods to the problems of autistic children. He recommended a "holding therapy" in which parents hold their autistic children for long periods of time while attempting to establish eye contact, even when a child resists the embrace. However, his interpretations of autistic behaviour, and the holding therapy that he recommended, lacked scientific support and the therapy has been described as controversial and potentially abusive, particularly by individuals with autism themselves.

Bibliography

Some of the publications of Tinbergen are:

• 1939: 'The Behavior of the Snow Bunting in Spring.' In: Transactions of the Linnaean Society of New York, vol. V (October 1939). OCLC 885412024
• 1951: The Study of Instinct. Oxford, Clarendon Press. OCLC 249804809
• 1952: Derived activities; their causation, biological significance, origin, and emancipation during evolution. Q. Rev. Biol. 27:1–32. doi:10.1086/398642. .
• 1953: The Herring Gull's World. London, Collins. OCLC 781602203
• 1953: Social Behaviour in Animals: With Special Reference to Vertebrates. Methuen & Co. OCLC 513004 (reprinted 2014): London & New York : Psychology Press. ISBN 978-1-84872-297-2, 978-1-315-84999-7 (print & eBook)

Publications about Tinbergen and his work:

• Burkhardt Jr., RW (2005). Patterns of Behavior : Konrad Lorenz, Niko Tinbergen, and the Founding of Ethology. ISBN 0-226-08090-0
• Kruuk, H (2003). Niko's Nature: The Life of Niko Tinbergen and His Science of Animal Behaviour. Oxford, Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-851558-8
• Stamp Dawkins, M; Halliday, TR; Dawkins, R (1991). The Tinbergen Legacy. London, Chapman & Hall. ISBN 0-412-39120-1

Personal life

Tinbergen was a member of the advisory committee to the Anti-Concorde Project and was also an atheist.

Tinbergen married Elisabeth Rutten (1912–1990) and they had five children. Later in life he suffered depression and feared he might, like his brother Luuk, commit suicide. He was treated by his friend, whose ideas he had greatly influenced, John Bowlby. Tinbergen died on 21 December 1988, after suffering a stroke at his home in Oxford, England.

References

1. ^ Hinde, Robert A. (1990). "Nikolaas Tinbergen. 15 April 1907 – 21 December 1988". Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. 36: 547–565. doi:10.1098/rsbm.1990.0043.
2. Burkhardt, R. W. Jr. (2010). "Niko Tinbergen" (PDF). Elsevier. pp. 428–433. Retrieved 8 October 2016.
3. ^ Dawkins, Marian (1970). The Mechanism of Hunting by 'Searching Image' in Birds. jisc.ac.uk (DPhil thesis). University of Oxford. EThOS uk.bl.ethos.453252. Archived from the original on 12 September 2018. Retrieved 11 September 2018.
4. ^ Dawkins, Clinton Richard (1966). Selective pecking in the domestic chick. bodleian.ox.ac.uk (DPhil thesis). University of Oxford. EThOS uk.bl.ethos.710826.
5. "Aubrey Manning". University of Edinburgh. Retrieved 8 October 2016.
6. ^ Beale, Graeme Robert (2009). Tinbergian Practice, themes and variations: the field and laboratory methods and practice of the Animal Behaviour Research Group under Nikolaas Tinbergen at Oxford University. University of Edinburgh (PhD Thesis). hdl:1842/4103?show=full.
7. Tinbergen autobiography at nobelprize.org
8. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1973: von Frisch, Lorenz and Tinbergen
9. Tinbergen Nobel Lecture
10. Dewsbury, D. A. (2003). "The 1973 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine: Recognition for behavioral science?". American Psychologist. 58 (9): 747–752. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.58.9.747. PMID 14584992.
11. Raju, T. N. (1999). "The Nobel chronicles. 1973: Karl von Frisch (1886–1982); Konrad Lorenz (1903–89); and Nikolaas Tinbergen (1907–88)". Lancet. 354 (9184): 1130. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(05)76931-2. PMID 10509540. S2CID 54236399.
12. Lundberg, Erik (1969). "The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel 1969". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 27 January 2014.
13. "Nobel Prize Facts".
14. ^ "Encyclopedia.com Nikolaas Tinbergen". Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 16 March 2014.
15. Daston, Lorraine; Mitman, Gregg (2005). Thinking with Animals: New Perspectives on Anthropomorphism. Columbia University Press. p. 193. ISBN 978-0-231-50377-8.
16. Sinclair, Anthony (2012). Serengeti Story: Life and Science in the World's Greatest Wildlife Region. Oxford University Press. p. 33. ISBN 9780199645527.
17. ^ Hinde, R. A. Ethological Models and the Concept of 'Drive'. British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 6, 321–331 (1956)
18. Tinbergen, Nikolaas (1951). The Study of Instinct. Oxford University Press. pp. nnn–mmm.
19. Tinbergen, Nikolaas (1951). The Study of Instinct. Oxford University Press. pp. nnn–mmm.
20. "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1973".
21. Tinbergen, N. Ethology and stress diseases. Physiology Or Medicine: 1971–1980 19711980, 113 (1992)
22. Zetterström, R. The Nobel Prize for the introduction of ethology, or animal behaviour, as a new research field: possible implications for child development and behaviour: Nobel prizes of importance to Paediatrics. Acta Paediatrica 96, 1105–1108 (2007).
23. Cronholm, Börje (1973). "Award Ceremony Speech". Nobelprize.org.
24. Zetterström, R. The Nobel Prize for the introduction of ethology, or animal behaviour, as a new research field: possible implications for child development and behaviour: Nobel prizes of importance to Paediatrics. Acta Paediatrica 96, 1105–1108 (2007)
25. Tinbergen, Nikolaas (12 December 1973). "Nikolaas Tinbergen Nobel Lecture Ethology and Stress Diseases" (PDF). NobelPrize.org.
26. "Niko Tinbergen (1907–1988)". Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved 19 July 2015.
27. "Nikolaas Tinbergen". American Academy of Arts & Sciences. Retrieved 28 July 2022.
28. "Nikolaas Tinbergen". www.nasonline.org. Retrieved 28 July 2022.
29. "APS Member History". search.amphilsoc.org. Retrieved 28 July 2022.
30. "Medals and awards " British Ornithologists' Union". bou.org.uk. Archived from the original on 31 March 2017. Retrieved 27 July 2016.
31. Amsterdam, Universiteit van. "Swammerdam medaille – GNGH – Universiteit van Amsterdam". gngh.uva.nl. Retrieved 27 July 2016.
32. Anderson, Ted (2013). The Life of David Lack: Father of Evolutionary Ecology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 185. ISBN 978-0199922659.
33. Diagram on The Four Areas of Biology
34. Further Diagrams on The Four Areas of Biology by Gerhard Medicus (Documents No. 6, 7 and 8 of Block 1 in English)
35. Lorenz, K. (1937). "Biologische Fragestellung in der Tierpsychologie". Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie. 1: 24–32. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1937.tb01401.x. (in English: Biological Questions in Animal Psychology).
36. Tinbergen, N. (1963). "On aims and methods of Ethology". Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie. 20 (4): 410–433. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1963.tb01161.x.
37. Hladký, Vojtěch; Havlíček, Jan (31 December 2013). "Was Tinbergen an Aristotelian? Comparison of Tinbergen's Four Whys and Artistotle's Four Causes". Human Ethology. 28 (4). doi:10.22330/001c.89847. ISSN 2224-4476.
38. Tinbergen N, Tinbergen EA (1986). Autistic Children: New Hope for a Cure (new ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-04-157011-3.
39. Bishop, D. V. M. (2008). "Forty years on: Uta Frith's contribution to research on autism and dyslexia, 1966–2006". The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. 61 (1): 16–26. doi:10.1080/17470210701508665. PMC 2409181. PMID 18038335.
40. Betty Fry Williams; Randy Lee Williams (2011). Effective programs for treating autism spectrum disorder: applied behavior analysis models. Taylor & Francis. pp. 53–. ISBN 978-0-415-99931-1. Retrieved 4 February 2012.
41. Deirdre Barrett (2010). Supernormal Stimuli: How Primal Urges Overran Their Evolutionary Purpose. W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 21–22. ISBN 978-0-393-06848-1. Tinbergen had never been a religious man. Wartime atrocities, however, had highlighted the absence of a deity for him while both sides invoked one aligned with themselves, and this turned him into a militant atheist.
42. Van Der Horst, F. C. P. (2010). "John Bowlby's treatment of Nikolaas "Niko" Tinbergen's depressions". History of Psychology. 13 (2): 206–208. doi:10.1037/a0019381c.

External links

• Nikolaas Tinbergen on Nobelprize.org

Media related to Nikolaas Tinbergen at Wikimedia Commons

v t e Laureates of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
1901–1925	1901: Emil Behring 1902: Ronald Ross 1903: Niels Finsen 1904: Ivan Pavlov 1905: Robert Koch 1906: Camillo Golgi / Santiago Ramón y Cajal 1907: Alphonse Laveran 1908: Élie Metchnikoff / Paul Ehrlich 1909: Emil Kocher 1910: Albrecht Kossel 1911: Allvar Gullstrand 1912: Alexis Carrel 1913: Charles Richet 1914: Róbert Bárány 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919: Jules Bordet 1920: August Krogh 1921 1922: Archibald Hill / Otto Meyerhof 1923: Frederick Banting / John Macleod 1924: Willem Einthoven 1925
1926–1950	1926: Johannes Fibiger 1927: Julius Wagner-Jauregg 1928: Charles Nicolle 1929: Christiaan Eijkman / Frederick Gowland Hopkins 1930: Karl Landsteiner 1931: Otto Warburg 1932: Charles Scott Sherrington / Edgar Adrian 1933: Thomas Morgan 1934: George Whipple / George Minot / William Murphy 1935: Hans Spemann 1936: Henry Dale / Otto Loewi 1937: Albert Szent-Györgyi 1938: Corneille Heymans 1939: Gerhard Domagk 1940 1941 1942 1943: Henrik Dam / Edward Doisy 1944: Joseph Erlanger / Herbert Gasser 1945: Alexander Fleming / Ernst Chain / Howard Florey 1946: Hermann Muller 1947: Carl Cori / Gerty Cori / Bernardo Houssay 1948: Paul Müller 1949: Walter Hess / António Egas Moniz 1950: Edward Kendall / Tadeusz Reichstein / Philip Hench
1951–1975	1951: Max Theiler 1952: Selman Waksman 1953: Hans Krebs / Fritz Lipmann 1954: John Enders / Thomas Weller / Frederick Robbins 1955: Hugo Theorell 1956: André Cournand / Werner Forssmann / Dickinson W. Richards 1957: Daniel Bovet 1958: George Beadle / Edward Tatum / Joshua Lederberg 1959: Severo Ochoa / Arthur Kornberg 1960: Frank Burnet / Peter Medawar 1961: Georg von Békésy 1962: Francis Crick / James Watson / Maurice Wilkins 1963: John Eccles / Alan Hodgkin / Andrew Huxley 1964: Konrad Bloch / Feodor Lynen 1965: François Jacob / André Lwoff / Jacques Monod 1966: Francis Rous / Charles B. Huggins 1967: Ragnar Granit / Haldan Hartline / George Wald 1968: Robert W. Holley / Har Khorana / Marshall Nirenberg 1969: Max Delbrück / Alfred Hershey / Salvador Luria 1970: Bernard Katz / Ulf von Euler / Julius Axelrod 1971: Earl Sutherland Jr. 1972: Gerald Edelman / Rodney Porter 1973: Karl von Frisch / Konrad Lorenz / Nikolaas Tinbergen 1974: Albert Claude / Christian de Duve / George Palade 1975: David Baltimore / Renato Dulbecco / Howard Temin
1976–2000	1976: Baruch Blumberg / Daniel Gajdusek 1977: Roger Guillemin / Andrew Schally / Rosalyn Yalow 1978: Werner Arber / Daniel Nathans / Hamilton O. Smith 1979: Allan Cormack / Godfrey Hounsfield 1980: Baruj Benacerraf / Jean Dausset / George Snell 1981: Roger Sperry / David H. Hubel / Torsten Wiesel 1982: Sune Bergström / Bengt I. Samuelsson / John Vane 1983: Barbara McClintock 1984: Niels Jerne / Georges Köhler / César Milstein 1985: Michael Brown / Joseph L. Goldstein 1986: Stanley Cohen / Rita Levi-Montalcini 1987: Susumu Tonegawa 1988: James W. Black / Gertrude B. Elion / George H. Hitchings 1989: J. Michael Bishop / Harold E. Varmus 1990: Joseph Murray / E. Donnall Thomas 1991: Erwin Neher / Bert Sakmann 1992: Edmond Fischer / Edwin G. Krebs 1993: Richard J. Roberts / Phillip Sharp 1994: Alfred G. Gilman / Martin Rodbell 1995: Edward B. Lewis / Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard / Eric F. Wieschaus 1996: Peter C. Doherty / Rolf M. Zinkernagel 1997: Stanley B. Prusiner 1998: Robert F. Furchgott / Louis Ignarro / Ferid Murad 1999: Günter Blobel 2000: Arvid Carlsson / Paul Greengard / Eric Kandel
2001–present	2001: Leland H. Hartwell / Tim Hunt / Paul Nurse 2002: Sydney Brenner / H. Robert Horvitz / John E. Sulston 2003: Paul Lauterbur / Peter Mansfield 2004: Richard Axel / Linda B. Buck 2005: Barry Marshall / Robin Warren 2006: Andrew Fire / Craig Mello 2007: Mario Capecchi / Martin Evans / Oliver Smithies 2008: Harald zur Hausen / Luc Montagnier / Françoise Barré-Sinoussi 2009: Elizabeth Blackburn / Carol W. Greider / Jack W. Szostak 2010: Robert G. Edwards 2011: Bruce Beutler / Jules A. Hoffmann / Ralph M. Steinman (posthumously) 2012: John Gurdon / Shinya Yamanaka 2013: James Rothman / Randy Schekman / Thomas C. Südhof 2014: John O'Keefe / May-Britt Moser / Edvard Moser 2015: William C. Campbell / Satoshi Ōmura / Tu Youyou 2016: Yoshinori Ohsumi 2017: Jeffrey C. Hall / Michael Rosbash / Michael W. Young 2018: James P. Allison / Tasuku Honjo 2019: Gregg L. Semenza / Peter J. Ratcliffe / William Kaelin Jr. 2020: Harvey J. Alter / Michael Houghton / Charles M. Rice 2021: David Julius / Ardem Patapoutian 2022: Svante Pääbo 2023: Katalin Karikó / Drew Weissman 2024: Victor Ambros / Gary Ruvkun

v t e Natural history
Pioneering naturalists	Classical antiquity Aristotle (History of Animals) Theophrastus (Historia Plantarum) Aelian (De Natura Animalium) Pliny the Elder (Natural History) Dioscorides (De Materia Medica) Renaissance Ulisse Aldrovandi Gaspard Bauhin (Pinax theatri botanici) Otto Brunfels Hieronymus Bock Andrea Cesalpino Valerius Cordus Leonhart Fuchs Conrad Gessner (Historia animalium) Frederik Ruysch William Turner (Avium Praecipuarum, New Herball) John Gerard (Herball, or Generall Historie of Plantes) Enlightenment Robert Hooke (Micrographia) Marcello Malpighi Antonie van Leeuwenhoek William Derham Hans Sloane Jan Swammerdam Regnier de Graaf Carl Linnaeus (Systema Naturae) Georg Steller Joseph Banks Johan Christian Fabricius James Hutton John Ray (Historia Plantarum) Comte de Buffon (Histoire Naturelle) Bernard Germain de Lacépède Gilbert White (The Natural History of Selborne) Thomas Bewick (A History of British Birds) Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (Philosophie zoologique) 19th century George Montagu (Ornithological Dictionary) Georges Cuvier (Le Règne Animal) William Smith Charles Darwin (On the Origin of Species) Alfred Russel Wallace (The Malay Archipelago) Henry Walter Bates (The Naturalist on the River Amazons) Alexander von Humboldt John James Audubon (The Birds of America) William Buckland Charles Lyell Mary Anning Jean-Henri Fabre Louis Agassiz Philip Henry Gosse Asa Gray William Jackson Hooker Joseph Dalton Hooker William Jardine (The Naturalist's Library) Ernst Haeckel (Kunstformen der Natur) Richard Lydekker (The Royal Natural History) 20th century Martinus Beijerinck Abbott Thayer (Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom) Hugh B. Cott (Adaptive Coloration in Animals) Niko Tinbergen (The Study of Instinct) Konrad Lorenz (On Aggression) Karl von Frisch (The Dancing Bees) Ronald Lockley (Shearwaters)
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