Misplaced Pages

Revision as of 04:25, 21 January 2007

Rashtrakuta Empire

Rashtrakuta Empire during Dhruva Dharavarsha (780CE.),
Official languages	Kannada Sanskrit
Capitals	Mayurkhand (Bidar district), Manyakheta
Government	Monarchy
Preceding state	Badami Chalukya
Succeeding state	Western Chalukya

The Rastrakutas (Sanskrit:राष्ट्रकूट, Kannada: ರಾಷ್ಟ್ರಕೂಟ) were a dynasty which ruled the southern and the central parts or the Deccan, India during the 8th - 10th century. The Rashtrakutas came to power in South India around the same time as the Pala Dynasty of Bengal and the Prathihara dynasty of Gujarat. This period saw a tripartite struggle for the resources of the rich Gangetic plains, each empire annexing the seat of power at Kannauj for short periods of time. Their rule brought about great contributions from Jaina mathematicians and scholars in Kannada and Sanskrit. Architecture reached a pinnacle in dravidian style, finest examples of which are seen in Ellora and Elephanta in Maharashtra and the Kashivishvanatha temple and Jain temple at Pattadakal in Karnataka, all of which are UNESCOWorld Heritage Sites.

Origin

There are several controversies about the origin of the founders of the Rashtrakuta feudatory during their rule from central India as subordinates of the Badami Chalukya during the 6th. and 7th. century. Different scholars trace their origin to different ethnic groups such as Kannadigas, Maratha, Reddi and Rajput. However, the general understanding is that they originated from an area in the Deccan called by various names such as Kuntala, Maharashtra and Karnata.

The Empire

Irrespective of the early lineage of the Rashtrakuta kings, there is broad consensus among historians that the true builders of the imperial empire in the period 8th century - 10th century from their regal capital Manyakheta in Gulbarga district of Karnataka were of Kannada origin. This is proven by the fact that most of their inscriptions are in Kannada, while the rest are in Sanskrit. They encouraged literature in these languages, inherited the Dravidian style of architecture, best examples of which is scattered over present day Maharashtra and northern Karnataka.

The Rashtrakutas ruled nearly all of Karnataka, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh for several centuries as the heart of their empire. Dantidurga founded the kingdom in 735 C.E. He was the father-in-law of Pallava king Nandivarman of Kanchi. Dantidurga helped Nandivarman to regain Kanchi from the Chalukyas and finally overthrew the Badami Chalukya yoke to start the Rashtrakuta empire, with the family based in present day Gulbarga. The Rashtrakutas were involved in several wars and alliances with other southern deccan kingdoms like the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, Cholas and Gangas of southern Karnataka. They had marital alliances with the Gangas, Cholas and kingdoms in central India.

The consolidation of the kingdom started with Krishna I in whose time major portions of present day Karnataka and coastal Maharashtra came under control. During the rule of Dhruva Dharavarsha the Kingdom expanded into an empire encompassing all territory between the Kaveri River and Central India. His led successful expeditions to Kannauj also, but without long term land gains. According to some historians, the Rashtrakutas became an "All-India" power during his rule. The ascent of his third son Govinda III to the throne heralded an era like never before. During this time, the Rashtrakutas ruled a vast empire. One Sanjan inscriptions mentions that the horses of Govinda III drank the icy water of the Himalayas and his war elephants tasted the sacred water of Ganga. He conquered regions from Cape Comorin to Kannauj and from Banaras to Broach (Bharuch). Though his successorAmoghavarsha I ruled a large empire, his rule was not so flamboyant militarily, but was a great success for arts and literature and religion. He is widely seen as the most famous of the Rashtrakuta kings. Jaina scholars adorned his court. Comparison of him to emperor Ashoka has also been made. During the rule of Krishna II, the empire shrank and covered mostly the Western Deccan and Gujarat. Indra III recovered most of their fortunes in Kannaujand central India, while maintaining his influence over Vengi. After a succession of unsuccessful and weak kings during which time the empire shrank in area, Krishna III, the last great king who once again consolidated the empire to stretch from the Narmada River to Kaveri River including northern Tamil country.

The final decline was sudden, Tailapa II, a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta tracing his lineage back to the Chalukyas of Badami declared himself independent taking advantage of the defeated the successors of Krishna III at the hands of the Paramara who plundered Manyakheta. Indra IV, the last king committed Sallekhana and died (fasting unto death practised by Jain monks) at Shravanabelagola. However by this time, several branches of Rashtrakutas had established themselves in North India.

Art and Architecture

The Rashtrakutas were great patrons of learning, many literary, religious and scientific texts were written during their rule.

Kannada Literature

Kannada rose as a literary language during the Rashtrakuta rule with its language, script and literature showing remarkable growth during the Rashtrakuta period attaining dignity and productivity. The inscriptions mention a number of poets. However, the first extant work is Kavirajamarga of 850 C.E., a treatise on Kannada poetics. It is ascribed to the Rashtrakuta ruler Amoghavarsha I. Sri Ponna, honoured by the title Kavichakravarthi authored works like Bhuvanaika-karamabhyudaya, Shantipurana and Jinaksaramale and Gatapratiagata. Other famous works were Adipurana and Vikramarjuna Vijaya or Pampa Bharata by Adikavi Pampa. Adikavi Pampa and Sri Ponna are considered gems of Kannada literature. Sri Vijaya wrote Chandraprabha-purana, Asaga wrote Vardhamana Purana. Shivakotiacharya's Vaddaradhane is probably the earliest extant prose work in 900 C.E., Chavundaraya wrote Trishashti LaksanPuranaor Chavundarayapurana. Other poets mentioned in inscriptions are Rudrabhatta of Banahatti, Ravinagabhatta who wrote a record for Govinda IV, Kavi Rajaraja a minister patronised by Krishna II wrote the Kalasa record and Gajankusha, a minister of Krishna III wrote on erotics.

Sanskrit Literature

Literature in Sanskrit was prolific during this era. The Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha is thought to have written Prashottara Ratnamalike. Trivikrama patronised by Krishna III was the most important poet of the time. He authored Nalachampu, Madalasachampu and the Bagumra plates. Plates were used to write poems. Halayudha patronised by Krishna III wrote Kavirahasya, Mritasanjivini, Somadevasuri who was patronised by King Arikesari of Vemulavada wrote Yashastilaka Champu and Neetivakyamrita. Many Advitha scholars like Padmapada, Visvarupa who wrote Balakrida lived during this time. Great Jain scholars like Virasena and Jinasena were active then. They jointly wrote Dhavala and Jayadhavala. Jinasena who was guru of Amoghavarsha I also wrote Harivamsha , Parshvabhyudaya and Adipurana which was later completed as Uttarapurana by Gunabhadra, who was patronised by Krishna II. Mahapurana, Jasaurachariu and Nayakumara Chariu were written by Pushpadanta who was patronised by Krishna III. Sakatayana patronised by Amoghavarsha I wrote Sabdanusasana and Amoghavritti. Mahaveera wrote Ganithasarasangraha a work on Mathematices, Amoghavarsha I himself authored Prashnottara Ratnamala, Chavundaraya wrote Charitrasara. Great logicians like Manikyanandin, Mallavadin and Prabhachandra were of this period.

Architecture

The Rashtrakutas contributed much to the culture of the Deccan. The Rashtrakuta contributions to art and architecture are reflected in the splendid rock-cut shrines at Ellora and Elephanta, situated in present day Maharashtra. It is said that they altogether constructed 34 rock-cut shrines, but most extensive and sumptuous of them all is the Kailasanatha temple at Ellora. The temple is a splendid achievement of Dravidian art. The walls of the temple have marvellous sculptures from Hindy mythology including Ravana, Shiva and Parvathi while the ceilings have paintings.

The project was commissioned by King Krishna I after the Rashtrakuta rule had spread into South India from the Deccan. The architectural style used was dravidian. It does not contain any of the Shikharas common to the Nagara style and was built on the same lines as the Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal in Karnataka.

The achievement at the Kailasanath temple is considered an architectural freak and deserves be considered one of the wonders of the world.

As an accomplishment of art, the Kailasnatha temple is considered an unrivalled work of rock architecture, a monument that has always exited and astonished travellers.

While some scholars claim the architecture at Elephanta is attributable to the Kalachuri, others confirm that they were built by the Rashtrakutas. It has been pointed out that some of the sculptures like Nataraja and Sadashiva excel even the Ellora sculptures.Other famous sculptures are Ardhanarishvara and Maheshamurthy. The later is a three faced bust of Lord Shiva, is 25 feet tall and is considered one of the finest pieces of sculpture in India. About this sculpture it is said that few works of art depicting divinity is as balanced in the world of sculpture. Other famous rock cut temples in the Maharashtra region are the Dhumer Lena and Dashvatara cave temples in Ellora (famous for its sculptures of Vishnu and Shivaleela) and the Jogeshvari temple near Mumbai.

In Karnataka their famous temples are the Parameshwara temple at Konnur, Brahmadeva temple at Savadi, the Settavva, Kontigudi II, Jadaragudi and Ambigeragudi temples at Aihole being proposed for UNESCO World Heritage Site status, Mallikarjuna temple at Ron, Andhakeshwara temple at Huli, Someshwara temple at Sogal, Jain temples at Lokapura, Navalinga temple at Kukanur and a Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal, Kumaraswamy temple at Sandur, many temples at Shirival in Gulbarga and the Trikunteshwara temple at Gadag which was later expanded by Kalyani Chalukyas. Many of these temples have been studied by historians and some have the stellar (multigonal) plan later to be used profusely by the Hoysalas of Belur and Halebidu.

Administration

Cabinet

From inscriptions and other records it is known that the Rashtrakutas followed the practice of nominating the crown price based on heredity. The crown did not always pass on to the eldest son as in the case of Govinda III who was the third son crowned by Dhruva Dharavarsha. Abilities were given importance over age and chronology of birth. The most important positions under the king were Chief minister (Mahasandhivigrahi) whose position came with insignia commensurate with his position namely, a flag, conch, fan, white umbrella, a large drum and five muscical instruments called Panchamahashabdas. The commander (Dandanayaka), foreign minister (Mahakshapataladhikrita)., a prime minister (Mahamatya or Purnamathya) usually associated with one of the feudatory kings. They must have had a position in government equivalent to a premier also. A Mahasamantha was a feudatory or even a high ranking regal officer. All cabinet ministers were well versed in political science (Rajneeti) with military training. There were cases where woman took care of significant areas like Revakanimaddi, daughter of Amoghavarsha I who administered Edathore Vishaya.

Land governance

The kingdom was divided into Mandala or Rashtras (Province). The Rashtra was ruled by Rashtrapathi which sometimes was the emperor himself. Amoghavarsha's empire had sixteen Rashtras. Under a Rashtra was a Vishaya (district) overlooked by a Vishayapathi and under that was a Grama (taluk) looked after by Gramakuta. Trusted ministers sometimes ruled more than a Rashtra like Bankesha, commander of Amoghavarsha I who headed Banavasi-12000, Belvola-300, Puligere-300, Kunduru-500 and Kundarge-70. The suffix designated the number of villages in that territory. Below the Vishaya was also Nadu looked after by Nadugowda or Nadugavunda and sometimes there were two such officials, one appointed by heredity and another centrally. The lowest division was a village administered by a Gramapathi or Prabhu Gavunda. Taxes called Udranga, Uparika, Bhagakara and Bhuthotpatta Prathyaya existed on land and land revenue.

Army

The Rashtrakuta army consisted of a large infantry, numerous horseman and elephants. A standing army was always ready for war in a cantonment (Sthirabhuta Kataka) in the regal capital Manyakheta. Large armies were also maintained by the feudatory kings who were expected to contribute to the empire in case of war. Chieftains and all officials also served as commanders whose posting was transferable if the need arose..

Coinage

The Rashtrakutas issued coins with Nagari and Kannada legends such as Suvarrba, Drammas in silver and gold weighing 65 grains, Kalanju weighing 48 grains, Gadyanaka weighing 96 grains, Kasu weighing 15 grains, Manjati with 2 1/2 grains and Akkam of 1 1/4 grain. Coins were minted in Akkashale. Kannada inscriptions from this empire from the Bombay-Karnataka region have been deciphered and recorded by historians.

Religion

In ancient India, the rulers generally supported all existing faiths in the region. The concept of mutual exclusion of religious traditions was not common in ancient India. Scholars have various arguments about the religion followed by the Rashtrakutas. Some feel they were strongly inclined towards Jainism because many of the scholars who flourished in their rule, who wrote in Sanskrit, Prakrit, Kannada and Apabhramsha, were Jainas. Some of the most well known monuments built by their ardent feudatory, the Western Ganga Dynasty of Talakad were Jaina monuments in Shravanabelagola, Hassan district and Kambadahalli, Mandya district. Some scholars even opine that Jainsim was a dominant religion being that Karnataka was its stronghold in South India at that time.

However, there is sufficient proof that the Rashtrakuta kings were ardent Hindu. Almost all their inscriptions began with an invocation of Vishnu and sometimes Shiva. Many of their titles like Veeranarayana showed their Hindu leanings. From inscriptions it is well known that Amoghavarsha I sacrificed his finger at the Mahalakshmi temple at Kolhapur to avert a calamity. The famous Kailasnatha temple and other rock cut caves in Ellora show that Vedic Hinduism was flourishing. Some inscriptions of Dantidurga and Govinda IV also show that Brahminic Hinduism was popular.

In short, the Rashtrakuta rule was tolerant to multiple popular religions, Jainism, Vaishnavaism and Shaivism. Buddhism too found support, although it had declined significantly at this time

Rashtrakuta Branches

These branches emerged as a result of Rashtrakuta conquest of North India.

Rashtrakutas of Lata (Gujarat):

• Indra (807-818) (brother of Govinda III above)
• Karka and Govinda (818-826)
• Dhruva II (835-845)
• Akalavarsha Shubhatunga (867)
• Dhruva III (-871)
• Direct rule from Manyakhet by Krishna II

Rashtrakutas of Hastikundi (Hathundi) (Jodhpur)

• Harivarma
• Vidagdha (916-938)
• Mammata (939)
• Balaprasada (997)
• The Hathundi Rathores (descendants)

Rashtrakutas of Dahal (near Jabalpur) (Madhya Pradesh)

• Golhanadeva (1023)

Rashtrakutas of Kanauj (11th. century-13th. century)

• Gopal (4th king)
• Tribhuvana
• Madanapala (1119)
• Devapala (Lost Shravasti to Gahadavalas in 1128)
• Bhimapala
• Surapala
• Amritapala
• Lakhanpala (In 1202 defeated byQutub-ud-din)
• Mahasamanta Barahadeva (under Gahadavala Adakkhamalla)

Rashtrakutas of Mandore/Jodhpur

• The lineage of Rathors 1226 - To date (Mandore/Jodhpur)

Descendants Of Rashtrakuta

Their descendents are spread out over large areas of India. Rashtrakutas form one of 96 royal clans of Marathas.. The Rashtraudha dynasty of Mayuragiri, Maharashtra, described in the Rashtraudha Kavya (1596) of Rudrakavi, the Rathors Rajputs of Rajasthan and the Rattas of Saundatti in Karnataka also claim descent from them.

Impact

The rise of Rashtrakuts had a great impact even in North India. While some historians have called this as "Age of Imperial Kannauj", during these times, the Rashtrakutas successfully captured Kannauj and levied tribute on its rulers and on multiple occasions posed as masters of North India. Perhaps the era deserves to be called the "Age of Imperial Karnataka". In the 7th. century Chalukya Pulakesi II defeated Harshavardhana and stopped his southward march at the Narmada River. Vengi remained essentially a republic of Vatapi up to the middle of 9th century. During the period 7th - 12th. century, Central India was for much of the period under control of these empires and Vengi under their influence. The area between Kaveri River and Godavari River was known as "Kannada Nadu" from Kavirajamarga (850 CE). and formed the core area of these two ruling families. An Arab record of 851 CE wrote of the Rashtrakutas as one of the four great contemporary empires of the world. One of the richest traditions in Indian architecture took shape in the Deccan during this time and is called as Karnata Dravida style as opposed to traditional Dravida style.

References

• Dr. Suryanath U. Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, 2001, MCC, Bangalore (reprint 2002) OCLC: 7796041
• Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (1955). A History of South India, From Prehistoric times to fall of Vijayanagar, OUP, New Delhi (Reprinted 2002) ISBN 0-19-560686-8.
• Dr. Romila Thapar, The Penguin History of Early India, From Origins to 1300 AD., Penguin, 2003, New Delhi ISBN 0-14-302989-4.
• R. Narasimhacharya, History of Kannada Literature, 1988, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, Madras,1988 ISBN 81-206-0303-6

Notes

1. The rule of the Rashtrakutas saw a flowering of literature in Kannada and Sanskrit says Dr. Altekar (author of Rashtrakutas and Their Times)-Dr. Suryanath U. Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, 2001, MCC, (reprint 2002), pp 88-89
2. Dr. Jyotsna Kamat. "Kannada Literature under the Rashtrakutas". 1996-2006 Kamat's Potpourri. Retrieved 2006-12-20.
3. Dr. P.B. Desai, author of A History of Karnataka, 1970, Dr. A.S. Altekar, author of Rashtrakutas and Their Times, 1934, Dr. D.R. Bhandarkar and Dr. S.U. Kamath claim the Kannada origin in Dr. Suryanath U. Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, 2001, MCC, (reprint 2002), pp 72-73
4. The historians C. V. Vadiaya, R. G. Bhandarkar postulate a Maratha
5. Dr. A. C. Burnell and H. Krishna Shastri believe that the Rashtrakutas were descendants of Dravidian Reddis of Andhra Desha, Arthikaje, Mangalore. "The Rashtrakutas". 1998-2000 OurKarnataka.Com,Inc. Retrieved 2006-12-20.
6. Dr. J. F. Fleet, author of Dynasties of Canarese Districts of Bombay Presidency, 1896
7. The Rashtrakuta inscriptions are only in Kannada and Sanskrit, Dr. Suryanath U. Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, 2001, MCC (reprint 2002), p73
8. According to Dr. Romila Thapar, even royalty of the empire took part in Kannada poetic and literary activities, Dr. Romila Thapar, The Penguin History of Early India, From Origins to 1300 AD., Penguin, 2003, p334
9. According to Dr. Romila Thapar, The Penguin History of Early India, From Origins to 1300 AD, Penguin, 2003, p333
10. Dr. A.S. Altekar claims in his book Rashtrakutas and their Times, (1934)- Dr. Suryanath U. Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, 2001, MCC, (reprint 2002), pp 75-76
11. From the Sanjana plates, according to Dr. Suryanath U. Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, 2001, MCC, (reprint 2002), pp 76-77
12. Dr. Jyotsna Kamat. "The Rashrakutas". 1996-2006 Kamat's Potpourri. Retrieved 2006-12-20.
13. For his religious temperment, encouragement of arts and literature and peace loving nature, Prof. R.S. Panchamukhi called him "Ashoka of the South" - Dr. Suryanath U. Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, 2001, MCC, (reprint 2002), p80
14. Arthikaje, Mangalore. "The Rashrakutas". 1998-00 OurKarnataka.Com,Inc. Retrieved 2006-12-20.
15. Dr. Suryanath U. Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, 2001, MCC, (reprint 2002), pp 88-91
16. Arthikaje, Mangalore. "The Rashrakutas". 1998-00 OurKarnataka.Com,Inc. Retrieved 2006-12-20.
17. Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (1955), A History of South India, From Prehistoric times to fall of Vijayanagar, OUP, (Reprinted 2002), pp 355-357
18. Together with Poet Ranna, they form the three gems of Kannada literature, Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (1955), A History of South India, From Prehistoric times to fall of Vijayanagar, OUP, (Reprinted 2002), p356
19. Dr. Suryanath U. Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, 2001, MCC,(reprint 2002), p89
20. While Dr. Jyotsna Kamath opines this work was written in 930 CE, it is dated 900 CE in Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (1955), A History of South India, From Prehistoric times to fall of Vijayanagar, OUP, (Reprinted 2002), p356
21. Dr. Suryanath U. Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, 2001, MCC, (reprint 2002), pp 88-91
22. Arthikaje, Mangalore. "The Rashrakutas". 1998-00 OurKarnataka.Com,Inc. Retrieved 2006-12-20.
23. Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (1955), A History of South India, From Prehistoric times to fall of Vijayanagar, OUP, (Reprinted 2002), pp 309-330
24. Takeo Kamiya. "Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent,20 September 1996". Gerard da Cunha-Architecture Autonomous, Bardez, Goa, India. Retrieved 2006-11-10.
25. According to Vincent Smith, art critic, Arthikaje, Mangalore. "Society, Religion and Economic condition in the period of Rashtrakutas". 1998-2000 OurKarnataka.Com,Inc. Retrieved 2006-12-20.
26. Percy Brown and James Fergusson, art critics, Arthikaje, Mangalore. "Society, Religion and Economic condition in the period of Rashtrakutas". 1998-2000 OurKarnataka.Com,Inc. Retrieved 2006-12-20.
27. Grousset, art critic, Arthikaje, Mangalore. "Society, Religion and Economic condition in the period of Rashtrakutas". 1998-2000 OurKarnataka.Com,Inc. Retrieved 2006-12-20.
28. According to historians Dr. A. Sundara and Dr. Sindgi Rajashekar, Arthikaje, Mangalore. "Society, Religion and Economic condition in the period of Rashtrakutas". 1998-2000 OurKarnataka.Com,Inc. Retrieved 2006-12-20.
29. whose main responsibility was to draft and maintain inscriptions or Shasanas like an archivist, according to Dr. Altekar-Dr. Suryanath U. Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, 2001, MCC, (reprint 2002), p85
30. According to a record by Al Masudi, Dr. Suryanath U. Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, 2001, MCC, (reprint 2002), p88
31. Coins with Kannada legends have been discovered from the rule of the Rashtrakutas, according to Dr. Suryanath U. Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, 2001, MCC, (reprint 2002), pp 12
32. Archaeological Survey of India. "Indian Inscriptions". ASI, vol 9, 11,15,17 and 18, 20, 22-I. 2006 Copyright What Is India Publishers (P) Ltd, Wednesday, December 20, 2006. Retrieved 2006-12-20.
33. The Rise and Decline of Buddhism in India, K.L. Hazara, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1995, pp 288-294
34. The Chronology of Indian History, C.M. Duff, 1972, pp 300-301
35. The Age of Imperial Kannauj, R.C. Majumdar Ed, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1964, pp 97, 103
36. The Rise and Decline of Buddhism in India, K.L. Hazara, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1995, pp 154-155, 103
37. Pramukh Aitihasik Jain Purush aur Mahilayen, J.P. Jain, Bharatiya Jnanapith, 1975, p217
38. Bharatiya Digambar Jain Abhilekh: Madhya Pradesh, K. C. Jain, Digambar Jain Sahitya Samrakshan Samiti, 2001, pp 67-75
39. The Struggle for Empire, R.C. Majumdar Ed, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1966, pp 50-51
40. Marathyanchya Shahnav Kuli, A History Of Marhattas by Grant Duff, London
41. J.L. De Bruyne, Rudrakavis Great Poem of the Dynasty of Rastraudha, EJ Brill, 1968
42. Dr. Jyotsna Kamat. "The Rashrakutas". 1996-2006 Kamat's Potpourri. Retrieved 2006-12-20.
43. Dr. Suryanath U. Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, 2001, MCC, (reprint 2002), p94
44. Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (1955), A History of South India, From Prehistoric times to fall of Vijayanagar, OUP, (Reprinted 2002), p355
45. Arab traveller Sulaiman (851 C.E.) wrote of the Rashtrakutas -Dr. Suryanath U. Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, 2001, MCC, (reprint 2002), p94
46. Adam Hardy. "Indian Temple Architecture : Form and Transformation--The Karnata Dravida Tradition 7th to 13th Centuries,1995". Vedams Books from India, Vedams eBooks (P) Ltd. Retrieved 2006-12-19.

See also

• Chalukya Empire
• Ellora Caves

External links

• History of Karnataka, Mr. Arthikaje © 1998-00 OurKarnataka.Com,Inc
• List of rulers of Maharashtra
• Ancient India
• South Indian Inscriptions- Archeological Survey of India
• Kannada Literature under the Rashtrakutas - Dr. Jyotsna Kamat, Karnataka Literary Academy Award 1988,
  Rajyotsava Award 1991 , Member -The Indian Archaeology Society
• About Karnataka historian/writer Dr. Jyotsna Kamat
• The Rashtrakutas, Dr. Jyotsna Kamat
• Sanskrit Literature under the Rashtrakutas- Dr. Jyotsna Kamat
• Archaeological Survey of India
• Architecture of Indian Subcontinent, Takeo Kamiya, Japan Architects Academy
• Early Rashtrakuta history article in Nasik gazetteer

• Ruling clans of India
• Ruling Hindu clans
• Empires and kingdoms of India
• History of Karnataka