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Foreign influence on Chinese martial arts, or more specifically, Shaolin Kung Fu, is endorsed by the traditional Shaolin temple claims and the claims of a large number of martial arts historians. Both versions agree that while organized martial traditions in China predate the establishment of the Shaolin temple, foreign influence was vital on Shaolin's approach to institutionalized martial arts in China.

Centres of foreign influence

Mudras are used throughout the Buddhist and Hindu world in Asia, and not only in religious practice but also in dance, theatre, martial arts and so on. The earliest evidence of such cheironomy comes from Pharonic Egypt. A Babylonian copper stand, dating from the third Millennium B.C., shows two men trying to unbalance each other by controlling the hip. There was an extensive maritime trade network operating between the Indus Valley and Mesopotamian civilizations as early as the middle Harappan Phase, with much commerce being handled by the "middlemen merchants from Dilmun". Ancient Egypt had trading relations with India. Ancient Greece was in contact with India before Alexander the Great's invasion. The Greek Pankration system was practiced by Alexander the Great's army. It has been suggested that over time, concepts in primitive martial arts spread east to India, where they fell on fertile ground and began their development in relationship to Yoga, dharma, and dharmic religions, and were eventually transmitted to China. Historians, notably Tatsuo Suzuki, Hirokazu Kanazawa, and Masutasu Oyama have asserted on the possible Greek influence on Chinese martial arts.

Chinese wrestling is the oldest fighting system in China. This practice was later influenced by Mongolian sportive practices.

Establishment of the Shaolin temple

The Indian dhyana master Buddhabhadra (Chinese: 跋陀; pinyin: Bátuó) was the founding abbot and patriarch of the Shaolin temple.

According to the Deng Feng County Recording (Deng Feng Xian Zhi), Bátuó came to China in 464 CE to preach Nikaya (小乘) Buddhism. Thirty-one years later, in 495, the Shaolin Monastery was built by the order of Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei for Batuo's preaching. The temple originally consisted of a round dome used as a shrine and a platform where Indian and Chinese monks translated Indian Buddhist scriptures into native Chinese languages.

Bodhidharma

Origins of Bodhidharma

The major accounts regarding the origins of Bodhidharma are given by Yáng Xuànzhī, Tanlin and Daoxuan.

According to Yáng Xuànzhī:

At that time there was a monk of the Western Region named Bodhidharma, a Persian Central Asian. He traveled from the wild borderlands to China.

— Yang Xuanzhi, The Record of the Buddhist Monasteries of Lo-yang (547)

Jeffrey Broughton notes that Yáng Xuànzhī may have been referring to a different monk named Bodhidharma, as he mentions a Bodhidharma twice.

Bodhidharma's original name was Bodhitara. The suffix "dharma" means duty in context of Dharmic religions. Yáng Xuànzhī may have been honoring another dharma teacher with the suffix (of dharma). There have been other Indian monks sharing the prefix of "Bodhi" (Sanskrit word for "awakening" or "enlightenment"), such as Bodhiruci, regarded as the patriarch of the Ti-Lun School.

The claim that Bodhidharma was South Indian has its origins in Tanlin's preface to the Two Entrances and Four Acts.

The Dharma Master was a South Indian of the Western Region. He was the third son of a great Indian King.

— Tanlin, The Two Entrances and Four Acts (pre-645)

Daoxuan adds more detail concerning Bodhidharma's origins, writing that he was "of South Indian Brahman stock" (南天竺婆羅門種 nán tiānzhú póluómén zhŏng).

Bodhidharma of South Indian Brahman stock.

— Daoxuan, Xu Gaoseng Zhuan (645)

Broughton notes that Bodhidharma's royal pedigree implies that he was of the Kshatriya warrior caste, though South Indian inscriptions in the 4th and 5th centuries imply that the Pallava dynasty also had Brahmin origins; hence, they may have belonged to the caste of Braham-Kshatriya (Brahmin in origin and Kshatriya by profession). Other Indian social groups, such as the Nairs and the Kayasthas, also adhere to more than one varnas.

Bodhidharma's influence

Bodhidharma is credited with the establishment of the Zen sect of Mahayana Buddhism. Bodhidharma arrived in China during the 5th century. He stayed and taught for several years in the Shaolin temple.

The Mahayana school of Buddhism is noted for it's proximity with Yoga. In the west, Zen is often set alongside Yoga, the two schools of meditation display obvious family resemblences. The melding of Yoga with Buddhism -- a process that continued through the centuries-- represents a landmark on the path of Yoga through the history of India. This phenomenon merits special attention since the Yogic roots are to be found in the Zen Buddhist school of meditation. Certain essential elements of Yoga are important both for Buddhism in general and for Zen in particular -

Grandmaster Wong Kiew Kit, 4th generation successor of the Southern Shaolin Monastery writes :-

It was during this time that the Venerable Bodhidharma came from India to China to spread Buddhism. In 527 CE he settled down in the Shaolin monastery in Henan province, and inspired the development of Shaolin Kung Fu. This marked a watershed in the history of Kung Fu, because it led to a change of course, as Kung Fu became institutionalized. Before this, martial arts were known only in general sense.

Chinese martial arts, like martial arts of Greece and India, have existed before the arrival of Bodhidharma. Bodhidharma's status in martial arts is due to his role in the institutionalization of Chinese martial arts, presumably by introducing exercises, meditation, discipline, newer techniques etc. to the native fighting methods during his tenure at the Shaolin monastery.

In addition to being a master of Dhyana, Bodhidharma is also related to Yogacara (Sanskrit: "Practice of Yoga " ). He is described as a "master of the Lankavatara Sutra", and an early history of Zen in China is titled "Record of the Masters and Disciples of the Lankavatara Sutra" (Chin. Leng-ch'ieh shih-tzu chi).

It has been suggested that these techniques which are the foundation for many martial arts today were never originally intended to be utilized as methods of fighting but were a manner in which the monks could attain enlightenment while preserving their bodies' health. Gichin Funakoshi writes that during lectures on Buddhism, a number of Bodhidharma's followers succumbed to exhaustion. Daruma then presented method of developing the mind and body. The method is contained in the Ekkin Kyo (Ekkin Sutra). With it, the monks were able to recover their spiritual and physical strength.

Similarities

Historians have noted foreign influences on aspects of Chinese culture, such as mythology (Sun Wukong and Guan Yin, which were influenced by Hanumana and Avalokiteshvara respectively ) and architecture (Pagodas influenced by Buddhist Stupas) in the past.

The similarities between arts of India and Chinese martial arts have also been noted by martial arts practitioners, historians and news organisations.

Around the 3rd century BC, Patanjali wrote the Yoga Sutras, which taught how to meditate single-mindedly on points located inside one's body, which was used in later martial arts, while various mudra finger movements were taught in Yogacara Buddhism. These Yoga elements, as well as finger movements in the nata dances, were later incorporated into various martial arts.

References to martial arts are found in early Buddhist texts. The Lotus Sutra also categorized combat techniques as joint locks, fist strikes, grapples, and throws, and also referred to a martial art with dance-like movements called Nara. Other stories suggest that Siddhartha Gautama was a champion wrestler and archer before becoming the Buddha.

Knowledge of the Indian arts was carried into China by Buddhist monks. Joyotpaul Chaudhuri notes that far too much attention is given to the Bodhidharma alone. Buddhist monks were active in China before Bodhidharma.

The Lankavatara Sutra repeatedly refers to the 108 steps. The 108 of the Yang long form and Wing Chun, taught by Yip Man having 108 movements are noted in this regard. The similarities between the posture of the "Nataraja" and bong sau and bong gurk in one hand and one foot position are also noted. The Chinese school of martial arts agrees with the South Indian school of martial arts on the principle of 108 pressure points.

The foreign connection with China's martial heritage is marked visually in several ways within the Shaolin temple. A significant aspect in this respect is the Shaolin wall painting. The painting depicts Chinese and Indian monks practicing martial arts together for spirtual edification. Doshin So, the founder of Shorinji Kempo, has described the paintings as his main inspiration.

The pavillion named after Bodhidharma is in the main building of the Shaolin monastary, the First patricarch temple built in his honor still stands in the monastary complex some distance from the main building, and the cave behind the building is still called the Bodhidharma cave. The koan "What is the intention of the first patriarch coming from the west?" was frequently used to test the student' development in Zen cultivation.

Historians have also noted that Indian works of art and particularly in temple sculptures show warriors in positions similar to modern day East Asian martial arts.

Kalaripayattu and Chinese martial arts have division into Northern and Southern styles, separation of systems and techniques into "external" and "internal" categories, medical tradition (Ayurveda), vital points discipline, spiritual aspect and weapons training tradition. In some systems the empty hand arts are secondary - as in some South-East Asian martial disciplines.

Similarities were also recorded by the British Broadcasting Corporation in a television documentary in 1981 titled "Kalari, the Indian way" which noted that a Southern Kalaripayattu practitioner performed martial arts identical to one found in a branch lineage from the Wong-Hon-Wing line of Tibetan Hop-Gar Kung-Fu.

The Discovery Channel also notes "Possibly the oldest martial art in the world, Kalarippayattu is still being practiced widely today in the Indian state of Kerala. Shaolin chuan is said to have evolved from Kalarippayattu."

Views from the martial arts community

The foreign influence is noted in the works of prominent figures across the martial arts community, including Charles C. Goodin, Hidetaka Nishiyama, Simmone Kuo, Lawrence Galante, Robert Scaglione, George A. Kirby, and George E. Mattson.

Academic authors related to martial arts, including Bruce A. Haines, Joyotpaul Chaudhari, Howard Reid, Howard W. French and Christopher Wren have noted the foreign influence. Encyclopedia Brittanica and Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki note the Indian foundation of Zen/Chan.

The foreign influence has been recognized by legendary martial arts practitioners and authorities, including Steve De Masco, Dr. William Durbin, Jhoon Rhee, Doshin So, Chojun Miyagi, Funakoshi Gichin, Wong Kiew Kit, Tadashi Nakamura, Carlos Machado, Royler Gracie and Rickson Gracie.

Reputed organizations such as the British Broadcasting Corporation, the New York Times, The Hindu and the Discovery Channel to name a few, have also taken a note of the foreign influence.

Claims that that Chinese martial arts are independent of any foreign influence have been rejected by prestigious martial arts institutions, including the Gracie family, Gracie Barra, International Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Federation, Florida Federation of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu and the Shaolin temple.

In addition, journalists and writers, including June Lordi, Cezar Borkowski, Annellen M Simpkins and C Alexander Simpkins, Bruce Thomas, Thomas D. Seabourne and Yeon Hwan Park, Stephen Kuei, Pat Zukeran, Ervin de Castro, BJ Oropeza and Ron Rhodes, Prof. J. Roe, P. E. Katzer, Jess O'Brien and Tony Sims have noted the foreign influence on Chinese martial arts.

Opposing theories

Most accounts of martial arts history have credited the foreign influence. Given the long history of cultural exchange between China and her neighbors, claiming an absolute lack of foreign influence within the Chinese martial arts may be extreme -- though the extent and manner of influence is subject to debate.

A number of martial arts historians have conducted independent research on this matter and have reached separate conclusions. Some criticisms of the "Foreign Influence" theory have included:

• Questions on whether Bodhidharma provided more than simply religious influence upon China.
• Questions on whether Bodhidharma was simply a legendary character.
• Disputes over the dating of texts supposedly written by Bodhidharma.

Of note, these historians are not without criticism either. For example, historian Matsuda Ryuchi dates the Yi Jin Jing, a text often associated with Bodhidharma, to 1827. Another historian however, Lin Boyuan, dates it to over two centuries earlier in 1624. Ling Tingkan concluded that the author of the Yì Jīn Jīng must have been an "ignorant village master." This claim has also been rejected by Lin Boyuan who attributes the Yì Jīn Jīng to the Taoist priest Zining writing in 1624. Historian Paul Pelliot presents a version claiming that Bodhidharma did not exist at all, he is an entirely fictional creation, a proposal which conflicts with results of research conducted by Matsuda Ryuchi, Lin Boyuan and Ling Tingkan.

References

1. Shaolin.cn.com
2. The Art of Shaolin Kung Fu: The Secrets of Kung Fu for Self-Defense, Health and Enlightenment by Grandmaster Wong Kiew Kit
3. ^ "Of Monks and Martial Arts"; Sept. 11, 1983; New York Times
4. Pietism and the Making of Eighteenth-Century Prussia: Arrows to Heaven and Earth By Richard L. Gawthrop. Published 1996.Cambridge University Press.ISBN 0521431832
5. Official Website of Gracie Miami: History of BJJ
6. Neyland, R.S. (1992) “The seagoing vessels on Dilmun seals”, in D.H. Keith & T.L. Carrell (ed.), Underwater archaeology proceedings of the Society for Historical Archaeology Conference at Kingston, Jamaica 1992 pp. 68-74. Tucson (AZ): Society for Historical Archaeology.
7. Archaeologists Uncover Ancient Maritime Spice Route Between India, Egypt. Publication: Popular-Science.Net. Date: April 1, 2004
8. New Proof Of Ancient India's Flourishing Trade With Rome by Anand Parthasarathy
9. Military Combative Masters of the 20th Century By Tank Todd (page 21). ISBN 1411661966
10. Sport and Recreation in Ancient Greece: a sourcebook with translations By Erich Segal, Waldo E. Sweet. Published 1987. Oxford University Press.ISBN 0195041267
11. The Roots of Martial Arts
12. Martial Arts-Basic History by R. Gill
13. Kalaripayatt: Martial Art Of India by Steve Richards 2002
14. History and backgroud of Pankration
15. The Method of Chinese Wrestling By Tong Zhongyi, Zhongyi Tong, Tim Cartmell
16. Chinese Martial Arts Training Manuals: A Historical Survey By Brian L. Kennedy, Elizabeth Guo (248)
17. Faure, Bernard. Chan Insights and Oversights: an epistemological critique of the Chan tradition, Princeton University Press, 1993. ISBN 0-691029-02-4
18. The Founder Of Shaolinsi (Official English Sholin Temple Website
19. History of Kung Fu
20. Legacy of Shaolin Fighting Monks by Salvatore Canzonieri
21. Broughton 1999:54
22. Broughton 54
23. Denkoroku: Record of the Transmission of Luminosity by Keizan Jokin zenji, translated by Anzan Hoshin roshi and Joshu Dainen zenji
24. "Western Region" is the Chinese literary term for the region that encompasses the territory between present-day Kazakhstan in the north and the tip of the Indian subcontinent in the south. "The Dharma Master was from South India, which is part of the Western Region" is a valid interpretation of this sentence.
25. Broughton, Jeffrey L. (1999). The Bodhidharma Anthology: The Earliest Records of Zen. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-21972-4.
26. Dumoulin (2005), 87
27. Dumoulin, Heinrich (2005). Zen Buddhism: A History, India and China. Bloomington: World Wisdom. ISBN 0-941532-89-5.
28. Broughton 2
29. Mahajan 705–707
30. Manual of Zen Buddhism: NEW ED. By Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki. Page 182. ISBN 0802130658
31. Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China) By Heinrich Dumoulin, James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter (page 22)
32. Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China) By Heinrich Dumoulin, James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter (Page xviii)
33. Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China) By Heinrich Dumoulin, James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter (page 13)
34. ^ The Art of Shaolin Kung Fu: The Secrets of Kung Fu for Self-Defense, Health and Enlightenment by Wong Kiew Kit
35. Encyclopedia Britannica Article: Yogacara
36. Our Martial Arts History and Tradition: A Brief History Of Kempo by Prof. J. Roe
37. Systematic study and training in ancient Chinese discipline of Shaolin Kung Fu Wushu for holistic health and self-defense, including the study of various aspects of Eastern philosophy and religions - International Curriculum Proposal
38. ^ Karate-dō kyōhan: the master text By Gichin Funakoshi ("Although the way of Buddha is preached for the soul, the body and the soul are inseparable. As I look now, I think it is likely you will not complete your training because of your exhaustion. For this reason, I shall give you a method by which you can develop your physical strength enough to enable yourselves to attain the essence of the way of Buddha." - page 6)
39. ^ J. R. Svinth (2002). A Chronological History of the Martial Arts and Combative Sports. Electronic Journals of Martial Arts and Sciences.
40. The creation of Goddess of mercy from Aalokitesvara by Bagyalakshmi
41. Chinese Steles: pre-Buddhist and Buddhist use of a symbolic form By Dorothy C. Wong
42. Kalari Payatt: Martial Art Of India by Steve Richards 2002
43. The Bodhisattva warriors : the origin, inner philosophy, history, and symbolism of the Buddhist martial art within India and China by Terence Dukes (1994). Publisher: York Beach, Me. ISBN 0877287856
44. The Spiritual Legacy of Shaolin Temple: Buddhism, Daoism, and the Energetic Arts - Page 78 by Andy James
45. A Historical Prespective: The Origins of Kwon Bup, Chuan Fa, Kempo, Kuntao by Ian A. Cyrus, 9th Dan, Headmaster, Choson Kwon Bup International Chosondo Federation
46. History of Taekwondo. University Martial Arts Association.
47. Tim Steinwachs. History of Karate.
48. Ancient Okinawan Martial Arts: Koryu Uchinadi by Patrick McCarthy
49. ^ 108 STEPS: The Sino-Indian Connection in the Martial Arts by Joyotpaul Chaudhuri
50. Subramaniam Phd., P., (general editors) Dr. Shu Hikosaka, Asst. Prof. Norinaga Shimizu, & Dr. G. John Samuel, (translator) Dr. M. Radhika (1994). Varma Cuttiram வர்ம சுத்திரம்: A Tamil Text on Martial Art from Palm-Leaf Manuscript. Madras: Institute of Asian Studies. pp. 90 & 91. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
51. Reid Phd., Howard, Michael Croucher (1991). The Way of the Warrior: The Paradox of the Martial Arts. New York: Outlook Press. pp. 58–85. ISBN 0879514337.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
52. Zen Arts: An Anthropological Study of the Culture of Aesthetics Form in Japan By Rupert A. Cox, Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (page 157)
53. History of Shorinji Kempo compiled by R. Codling
54. UWE Shorinji Kempo club Since his first visit to the Shaolin Temple, Doshin So had been impressed with the wall paintings which depicted Indian and Chinese monks training and enjoying themselves together. This method of training together stood in contrast to his own training, and he developed the idea that training should be a collaboration between partner, for the purpose of mutual progress. In Japanese this concept is expressed as "otagai renshu" (training for each other) or "jita kyoraku" (enjoying things with other people).
55. Shorinji Kempo by Richard Killion - Dragon Times #14 The symbol of Shorinji Kempo is an commonly seen Buddhist symbol of Indian origin, and great antiquity. In Japan it is used to denote a Buddhist temple, on maps and the symbol itself is displayed in and around the temples. The religious device is composed of four Ls at right angles to each other similar to, but not to be confused with the swastika used in Nazi Germany which is its mirror image. Another form of the Manji in Shorinji Kempo is two flowing lines within a circle, somewhat similar to a double yin-yang symbol. This modified symbol commonly used in Shorinji Kempo dojos in the West.
56. The Art of Shaolin Kung Fu: The Secrets of Kung Fu for Self-Defense, Health and Enlightenment By Grandmaster Wong Kiew Kit (page 186)
57. Complete Book of Zen by Wong Kiew Kit
58. Tae kwon do: secrets of Korean karate By Sihak Henry CHO
60. Kalaripayatta- Discovery Channel
61. Daruma: Determination and Zen training in Budo by Charles C. Goodin
62. Karate: The Art of Empty-Hand Fighting By Richard C. Brown, Hidetaka Nishiyama
63. Long Life, Good Health Through Tai-Chi Chuan by Simmone L. Kuo
64. Yin-Yang in Tai-Chi Chuan and Daily Life by Simmone Kuo
65. Tai Chi: The Supreme Ultimate By Lawrence Galante, Betsy Selman
66. Building Warrior Spirit: With Gan Soku Tanden Riki By Robert Scaglione
67. Jujitsu: Basic Techniques of the Gentle Art By George A. Kirby
68. The Way of Karate By George E. Mattson
69. Karate's History and Traditions By Bruce A. Haines
70. 108 STEPS: The Sino-Indian Connection in the Martial Arts by Joyotpaul Chaudhuri
71. The Book of Soft Martial Arts: Finding Personal Harmony with Chi Kung, Hsing I, Pa Kua and T'ai Ch'i by Danny Connor and Howard Reid
72. So Many Paths. Which Shaolin Is Real? The Reply: Yes. by Howard W. French
73. Concise Encyclopedia Brittanica Article on Bodhidharma
74. D.T. Suzuki's The Zen Doctrine of No-Mind
75. MANUAL OF ZEN BUDDHISM - DAISETZ TEITARO SUZUKI, D.LITT. (1934)
76. An American's Journey to the Shaolin Temple by Steve De Masco
77. The History of Teaching Methods used in the Martial Arts by Dr. William Durbin
78. Chon-Ji of Tae Kwon Do Hyung By Jhoon Rhee
79. Shorinji Kempo by Doshin So
80. Breathing In and Breathing Out In Accordance With "Go" and "Ju": A Miscellaneous Essay on Karate by Chojun Miyagi
81. Okinawa Kata Classification: An Historical Overview by Mario McKenna
82. The Art of Shaolin Kung Fu: The Secrets of Kung Fu for Self-Defense, Health and Enlightenment by Grandmaster Wong Kiew Kit
83. Grandmaster Wong Kiew Kit's Homepage
84. Karate: Technique and Spirit by Tadashi Nakamura
85. Origins of Jiu-Jitsu at Carlosmachado.net
86. Historia do Jiu-Jitsu at Royler Gracie's official website
87. History of Jiu-Jitsu
88. Documentary used: 1981 Television documentary titled "Kalari, the Indian way"
89. How Hong Kong took Hollywood- BBC
90. So Many Paths. Which Shaolin Is Real? The Reply: Yes. by Howard W. French
91. Of Monks and martial arts by Christopher Wren. Published: September 11, 1983
92. Journey to self-discovery
93. Art most ancient by Karthi Sekar
94. The story of Bodhidharma
95. Zen and the art of storytelling
96. Kalaripayatta- Discovery Channel
97. Phoenix International Academy of Mixed Martial Arts
98. Official Gracie Miami Websites: History of BJJ
99. Historia do Jiu-Jitsu at Royler Gracie's official website
100. Origins of Jiu-Jitsu at Carlosmachado.net
101. History of Jiu-Jitsu
102. The History of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu at Gracie Barra
103. The History of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu: International Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Federation
104. The beginning: Florida Federation of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu
105. History Facts: The Founder Of Shaolinsi
106. Tai Chi by June Lordi
107. The Complete Idiot's Guide to Martial Arts By Cezar Borkowski, Marion Manzo
108. Zen in Ten: Easy Lessons for Spiritual Growth by C. Alexander Simpkins, Annellen M. Simpkins
109. Bruce Lee: Fighting Spirit: A Biography by Bruce Thomas
110. Tae Kwon Do Techniques & Tactics by Thomas D. Seabourne, Yeon Hwan Park
111. Beginning Qigong: Chinese secrets for health and longevity by Stephen Kuei, Stephen Comee
112. Martial Arts by Pat Zukeran
113. Patrick Zukeran: The Origins and Popularity of the Martial Arts
114. Enter the Dragon? Wrestling with the martial arts phenomenon. Part I: The historical-philosophical backdrop by Ervin de Castro, BJ Oropeza and Ron Rhodes
115. Our Martial Arts History and Tradition... by Prof. J. Roe
116. History of Shotokan Karate by P. E. Katzer
117. Nei Jia Quan: Internal Martial Arts Teachers of Tai Ji Quan, Xing Yi Quan, and Ba Gua Zhang edited by Jess O'Brien
118. Kempo Jitsu – Pre 1900 Martial Art System by Tony Sims
119. A Historical Prespective: The Origins of Kwon Bup, Chuan Fa, Kempo, Kuntao by Ian A. Cyrus, 9th Dan, Headmaster, Choson Kwon Bup International Chosondo Federation
120. Matsuda Ryuchi 松田隆智 (1986). Zhōngguó wǔshù shǐlüè 中國武術史略 (in Chinese). Taipei 臺北: Danqing tushu.
121. Lin 1996:183
122. Lin 1996:183
123. In his "Notes on some artists of the Six Dynasties and the Tang," Paul Pelliot asserts that all accounts of Bodhidharma are legendary.

Further reading

• Introduction of Red Pine, translator; The Zen Teaching of Bodhidharma. North Point Press, New York. (1987)
• Our ancient legacy
• Denkoroku: Record of the Transmission of Luminosity by Keizan Jokin zenji, translated by Anzan Hoshin roshi and Joshu Dainen zenji
• Prana
• Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms (by Soothill and Hodous)
• - An interview with the Shankaracharya of Kanchi
• The Sound of the One Hand - Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 107, No. 1 (Jan. - Mar., 1987), pp. 125-126
• Trinidad and Tobago's Guardian newspaper
• The Bodhisattva warriors: the origin, inner philosophy, history, and symbolism of the Buddhist martial art within India and China by Terence Dukes (1994). Publisher: York Beach, Me. ISBN 0877287856
• Karate Basics By Robin L. Rielly
• Luo Han 18 Monks
• History and backgroud of Pankration
• The five holy mountains

See also

• Chinese martial arts
• Indian martial arts

• Zen
• Chinese martial arts
• Indian martial arts