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{{Short description|Practitioner of Yoga}}
{{Other uses}} {{Other uses}}
{{pp-semi-indef}} {{pp-semi-indef}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2015}} {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2015}}
] (meditation) by ]]] ] (meditation) by ]]]
{{Contains Indic text}} {{Contains special characters|Indic}}


A '''yogi''' (sometimes spelled '''jogi''') is a practitioner of ].{{sfn|White|2012|p=8}} In ], yoga (from the root ''yuj'') means "to add", "to join", "to unite", or "to attach" in its most common literal sense, whereas in recent days, especially in the West, ] often means only the physical exercises of ], the ]s. The term ''yogi'' is used broadly to refer to ] or practitioners of ] in a number of ].<ref name="Banerjea">A. K. Banerjea (2014), ''Philosophy of Gorakhnath with Goraksha-Vacana-Sangraha'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120805347}}, pp. xxiii, 297-299, 331</ref> The feminine form is '']'', but is not always used, especially in the West. A '''yogi''' is a practitioner of ],{{sfn|White|2012|p=8}} including a ] or practitioner of ] in ].<ref name="Banerjea">A. K. Banerjea (2014), ''Philosophy of Gorakhnath with Goraksha-Vacana-Sangraha'', ], {{ISBN|978-8120805347}}, pp. xxiii, 297–299, 331</ref> The feminine form, sometimes used in English, is ].


''Yogi'', or ''jogi'', since the 12th century ], while meaning those dedicated to Yoga practice, has also referred to members of the ] ] tradition of ].{{sfn|White|2012|p=8-9}} Alternatively, in ] traditions of ], ] and ], a practitioner of tantra (a ''tantrika'') may also be called a ''yogi''.<ref name=ritagross87>Rita Gross (1993), ''Buddhism After Patriarchy'', SUNY Press, {{ISBN|978-0791414033}}, pages 85–88</ref><ref>David Gordon White (2013), Tantra in Practice, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120817784}}, pp. xiii–xv</ref> In Hindu mythology, god ] and goddess ] are depicted as an emblematic yogi–yogini pair.<ref>Stella Kramrisch (1994), ''The Presence of Siva'', Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0691019307}}, pp. 305-309, 356</ref> Yogi has since the 12th century ] also denoted members of the ] ] tradition of ],{{sfn|White|2012|p=8-9}} and in ], ] and ], a practitioner of ].<ref name=ritagross87>Rita Gross (1993), ''Buddhism After Patriarchy'', SUNY Press, {{ISBN|978-0791414033}}, pages 85–88</ref><ref>] (2013), ''Tantra in Practice'', ], {{ISBN|978-8120817784}}, pp. xiii–xv</ref> In Hindu mythology, the god ] and the goddess ] are depicted as an emblematic yogi–yogini pair.<ref>Stella Kramrisch (1994), ''The Presence of Siva'', ], {{ISBN|978-0691019307}}, pp. 305–309, 356</ref>


==Etymology== ==Etymology==
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The term yogini is also used for divine goddesses and enlightened mothers, all revered as aspects of the ], ].<ref>Vidya Dehejia and Thomas B. Coburn (1999), ''Devi: The Great Goddess'', Smithsonian Institution, {{ISBN|978-3791321295}}, p. 386</ref> The term yogini is also used for divine goddesses and enlightened mothers, all revered as aspects of the ], ].<ref>Vidya Dehejia and Thomas B. Coburn (1999), ''Devi: The Great Goddess'', Smithsonian Institution, {{ISBN|978-3791321295}}, p. 386</ref>


A yogi, states Banerjea, should not be confused with someone practicing ] and excessive self-mortification.<ref name="Banerjea" />{{rp|297}} A yogi should not be confused with someone practicing ] and excessive self-mortification.<ref name="Banerjea" />{{rp|297}}


==Hinduism== ==Hinduism==
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===Textual references=== ===Textual references===
{{further information|Yoga Vasistha|Yoga Yajnavalkya|Yoga-kundalini Upanishad|Yogasutra}} {{Further|Yoga Vasistha|Yoga Yajnavalkya|Yoga-kundalini Upanishad|Yogasutra}}
The earliest evidence of yogis and their spiritual tradition, states Karel Werner,<ref name=karelwernerkesinrv>{{cite journal |first=Karel |last=Werner |date=1977 |title=Yoga and the Ṛg Veda: An Interpretation of the Keśin Hymn (RV 10, 136) |work=Religious Studies |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=289–302 |quote=The Yogis of Vedic times left little evidence of their existence, practices and achievements. And such evidence as has survived in the Vedas is scanty and indirect. Nevertheless, the existence of accomplished Yogis in Vedic times cannot be doubted.}}</ref> is found in the ] hymn 10.136 of the ],{{refn|group=note|Sanskrit Original: ( of the Keśin hymn);<br /><poem> The earliest evidence of yogis and their spiritual tradition, states ],<ref name=karelwernerkesinrv>{{cite journal |first=Karel |last=Werner |author-link=Karel Werner |date=1977 |title=Yoga and the Ṛg Veda: An Interpretation of the Keśin Hymn (RV 10, 136) |journal=Religious Studies |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=289–302 |doi=10.1017/S0034412500010076 |s2cid=170592174 |quote=The Yogis of Vedic times left little evidence of their existence, practices and achievements. And such evidence as has survived in the Vedas is scanty and indirect. Nevertheless, the existence of accomplished Yogis in Vedic times cannot be doubted.}}</ref> is found in the ] hymn 10.136 of the ],{{refn|group=note|Sanskrit Original: ( of the Keśin hymn); Rigveda 10.136, 2nd millennium BCE}} though with the terminology of ] who evolved into ] worshipped as the lord of Yoga in later Hinduism.<ref name="karelwernerkesinrv" /> The Hindu scripture Rigveda uses words of admiration for the Yogis, whom it refers to as Kesin, and describes them as follows (abridged):<ref name="karelwernerkesinrv" />
केश्यग्निं केशी विषं केशी बिभर्ति रोदसी । केशी विश्वं स्वर्दृशे केशीदं ज्योतिरुच्यते ॥१॥
मुनयो वातरशनाः पिशङ्गा वसते मला । वातस्यानु ध्राजिं यन्ति यद्देवासो अविक्षत ॥२॥
उन्मदिता मौनेयेन वाताँ आ तस्थिमा वयम् । शरीरेदस्माकं यूयं मर्तासो अभि पश्यथ ॥३॥
अन्तरिक्षेण पतति विश्वा रूपावचाकशत् । मुनिर्देवस्यदेवस्य सौकृत्याय सखा हितः ॥४॥
वातस्याश्वो वायोः सखाथो देवेषितो मुनिः । उभौ समुद्रावा क्षेति यश्च पूर्व उतापरः ॥५॥
अप्सरसां गन्धर्वाणां मृगाणां चरणे चरन् । केशी केतस्य विद्वान्सखा स्वादुर्मदिन्तमः ॥६॥
वायुरस्मा उपामन्थत्पिनष्टि स्मा कुनन्नमा । केशी विषस्य पात्रेण यद्रुद्रेणापिबत्सह ॥७॥
</poem>– Rigveda 10.136, 2nd millennium BCE}} though with the terminology of ] who evolved into ] worshipped as the lord of Yoga in later Hinduism.<ref name="karelwernerkesinrv" /> The Hindu scripture Rigveda uses words of admiration for the Yogis, whom it refers to as Kesin, and describes them as follows (abridged):<ref name="karelwernerkesinrv" />


{{Quote| {{Quote|
Carrying within oneself fire and poison, heaven and earth, ranging from enthusiasm and creativity to depression and agony, from the heights of spritual bliss to the heaviness of earth-bound labor. This is true of man in general and the Keśin in particular, but the latter has mastered and transformed these contrary forces and is a visible embodiment of accomplished spirituality. He is said to be light and enlightenment itself. The Keśin does not live a normal life of convention. His hair and beard grow longer, he spends long periods of time in absorption, musing and meditating and therefore he is called "sage" (muni). They wear clothes made of yellow rags fluttering in the wind, or perhaps more likely, they go naked, clad only in the yellow dust of the Indian soil. But their personalities are not bound to earth, for they follow the path of the mysterious wind when the gods enter them. He is someone lost in thoughts: he is miles away. Carrying within oneself fire and poison, heaven and earth, ranging from enthusiasm and creativity to depression and agony, from the heights of spiritual bliss to the heaviness of earth-bound labor. This is true of man in general and the Keśin in particular, but the latter has mastered and transformed these contrary forces and is a visible embodiment of accomplished spirituality. He is said to be light and enlightenment itself. The Keśin does not live a normal life of convention. His hair and beard grow longer, he spends long periods of time in absorption, musing and meditating and therefore he is called "sage" (muni). They wear clothes made of yellow rags fluttering in the wind, or perhaps more likely, they go naked, clad only in the yellow dust of the Indian soil. But their personalities are not bound to earth, for they follow the path of the mysterious wind when the gods enter them. He is someone lost in thoughts: he is miles away.
|Karel Werner (1977)|"Yoga and the Ṛg Veda: An Interpretation of the Keśin Hymn"<ref name="karelwernerkesinrv" />}} |Karel Werner (1977)|"Yoga and the Ṛg Veda: An Interpretation of the ]"<ref name="karelwernerkesinrv" />}}


The term yogin appears in ''Katyayana Shrauta-sutra'' and chapter 6 of Maitri Upanishad, where the implied context and meaning is "a follower of the Yoga system , a contemplative saint".<ref>, ''Monier Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary'' (2008 revision), Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Germany</ref> The term yogin appears in ''Katyayana Shrauta-sutra'' and chapter 6 of Maitri Upanishad, where the implied context and meaning is "a follower of the Yoga system, a contemplative saint".<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190607113955/https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/cgi-bin/tamil/recherche |date=7 June 2019 }}, ''Monier Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary'' (2008 revision), Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Germany</ref>


The term sometimes refers to a person who belongs to the Natha tradition.{{sfn|White|2012|p=8-9}} They usually belong to ] tradition, but some Natha belong to the ] tradition.<ref name="lorenzenmunozx" /> In both cases, states David Lorenzen, they practice yoga and their principal god tends to be ], that is a god that is without form and semi-],<ref name="lorenzenmunozx" /> influenced in the medieval era by the ] school of Hinduism, ] school of Buddhism, as well as Tantra and Yogic practices.<ref>David Lorenzen (2004), ''Religious Movements in South Asia, 600-1800'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195664485}}, pp. 310-311</ref><ref>David N. Lorenzen and Adrián Muñoz (2012), ''Yogi Heroes and Poets: Histories and Legends of the Naths'', SUNY Press, {{ISBN|978-1438438900}}, pp. 24-25</ref> The term sometimes refers to a person who belongs to the Natha tradition.{{sfn|White|2012|p=8-9}} They usually belong to ] tradition, but some Natha belong to the ] tradition.<ref name="lorenzenmunozx" /> In both cases, states David Lorenzen, they practice yoga and their principal god tends to be ], that is a god that is without form and semi-],<ref name="lorenzenmunozx" /> influenced in the medieval era by the ] school of Hinduism, ] school of Buddhism, as well as Tantra and Yogic practices.<ref>David Lorenzen (2004), ''Religious Movements in South Asia, 600–1800'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195664485}}, pp. 310–311</ref><ref>David N. Lorenzen and Adrián Muñoz (2012), ''Yogi Heroes and Poets: Histories and Legends of the Naths'', SUNY Press, {{ISBN|978-1438438900}}, pp. 24–25</ref>


], and her eyes are closed in meditative state.]] ], and her eyes are closed in meditative state.]]
The Yoga-Bhashya (400 CE),{{sfn|Rosen|2012|p=72}} the oldest extant commentary on the Yoga-Sutra offers the following fourfold classification of yogis:<ref>Georg Feuerstein, ''Shambhala Encyclopedia of Yoga'', p. 343</ref><ref>SH Aranya (1983), ''Yoga Philosophy of Patanjali'', SUNY Press, {{ISBN|978-0873957281}}, pp. 334-337</ref> The Yoga-Bhashya (400 CE),{{sfn|Rosen|2012|p=72}} the oldest extant commentary on the Yoga-Sutra offers the following fourfold classification of yogis:{{sfn|Feuerstein|2000|p=343}}<ref>SH Aranya (1983), ''Yoga Philosophy of Patanjali'', SUNY Press, {{ISBN|978-0873957281}}, pp. 334–337</ref>
# Prathama-kalpika (neophyte/beginner, devotional) # Prathama-kalpika (neophyte/beginner, devotional)
# Madhu-bhumika (one who has begun to enjoy the spiritual pursuits without effort) # Madhu-bhumika (one who has begun to enjoy the spiritual pursuits without effort)
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===Sexuality=== ===Sexuality===
A yogi or yogini aspires to ] (Sanskrit: ब्रह्मचर्य), which means celibacy if single, or non-cheating on one's partner.<ref name=ad>Arti Dhand (2002), "The dharma of ethics, the ethics of dharma: Quizzing the ideals of Hinduism", ''Journal of Religious Ethics'', 30(3), pp. 347-372</ref><ref>Yajnavalkya tells Gargi in verse 1.55 of ] that one who copulates (मैथुन) only with and always with one's sexual partner is a Brahmachari; see "" (Sanskrit text of "Yoga Yajnavalkya"), ''SanskritDocuments Archives'' (2009)</ref> A yogi or yogini aspires to ] (Sanskrit: ब्रह्मचर्य), which means celibacy if single, or non-cheating on one's partner.<ref name=ad>Arti Dhand (2002), "The dharma of ethics, the ethics of dharma: Quizzing the ideals of Hinduism", ''Journal of Religious Ethics'', 30(3), pp. 347–372</ref><ref>Yajnavalkya tells Gargi in verse 1.55 of ] that one who copulates (मैथुन) only with and always with one's sexual partner is a Brahmachari; see " {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160120221014/http://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_yoga/yogayAjnyavalkya.pdf |date=20 January 2016 }}" (Sanskrit text of "Yoga Yajnavalkya"), ''SanskritDocuments Archives'' (2009)</ref>


There have been two parallel views, in Hindu texts, on sexuality for a yogi and yogini. One view asserts restraint in sexual activity, towards ]- and ]-like asexuality, as transmutation away from worldly desires and onto a spiritual path.<ref name=sovatskybrahmacharya/> It is not considered, states Stuart Sovatsky, as a form of moralistic repression but a personal choice that empowers the yoga practitioner to redirect his or her energies.<ref name=sovatskybrahmacharya>Stuart Sovatsky (1987), "The pleasures of celibacy", ''Yoga Journal'', March/April Issue, pp. 41-47</ref> The second view, found particularly in ] traditions according to David Gordon White, asserts that sexuality is an additional means for a yogi or yogini to journey towards and experience the bliss of "one realized god-consciousness for oneself".<ref>{{Citation |last=White | first=David Gordon |date=2012 |title=The Alchemical Body: Siddha Traditions in Medieval India |publisher=University of Chicago Press |pages=1–6}}</ref> In the second view, sexuality is a yogic practice,<ref>Machelle Seibel and Hari Kaur Khalsa (2002), ''A Woman's Book of Yoga'', Penguin, {{ISBN|978-1583331378}}, pp. 108-109</ref> and one broadly revered through the '']''–'']'' iconography of ]–], the divine yogi–yogini in Hindu mythology.<ref>Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1981), ''Siva: The Erotic Ascetic'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195202502}}, pp. 262-263</ref> There have been two parallel views, in Hindu texts, on sexuality for a yogi and yogini. One view asserts restraint in sexual activity, towards ]- and ]-like asexuality, as transmutation away from worldly desires and onto a spiritual path.<ref name=sovatskybrahmacharya/> It is not considered, states Stuart Sovatsky, as a form of moralistic repression but a personal choice that empowers the yoga practitioner to redirect his or her energies.<ref name=sovatskybrahmacharya>Stuart Sovatsky (1987), "The pleasures of celibacy", ''Yoga Journal'', March/April Issue, pp. 41–47</ref> The second view, found particularly in ] traditions according to ], asserts that sexuality is an additional means for a yogi or yogini to journey towards and experience the bliss of "one realized god-consciousness for oneself".{{sfn|White|2012|pp=1–6}} In the second view, sexuality is a yogic practice,<ref>Machelle Seibel and Hari Kaur Khalsa (2002), ''A Woman's Book of Yoga'', Penguin, {{ISBN|978-1583331378}}, pp. 108–109</ref> and one broadly revered through the '']''–'']'' iconography of ]–], the divine yogi–yogini in Hindu mythology.<ref>Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1981), ''Siva: The Erotic Ascetic'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195202502}}, pp. 262–263</ref>


===Ethical duties=== ===Ethical duties===
{{Quote box |width=30em | bgcolor=#FFE0BB |align=right |salign = right {{Quote box |width=30em | |align=right |salign = right
⚫ |quote=Both a yogi and a philosopher are seekers of an absolute truth. But they differ in their modes of approach. A philosopher advances in the path of rational logic (theory) and wants to intellectually understand the Truth. A yogi advances in the path of self discipline (practice) and aspires to spiritually realize truth.|source=—Akshaya Banerjea, ''Philosophy of ]''<ref name="Banerjea" />}}
|quote='''Yogi versus Philosopher'''<br><br>
⚫ A yogi or yogini lives by other voluntary ethical precepts called ] and ]s.<ref>K. N. Aiyar (1914), ''Thirty Minor Upanishads'', Kessinger Publishing, {{ISBN|978-1164026419}}, chapter 22, pp. 173–176</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Lorenzen |first=David |title=The Kāpālikas and Kālāmukhas |date=1972 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0520018426 |pages= |url=https://archive.org/details/kapalikaskalamuk0000lore/page/186 }}</ref> These include:<ref name=sanskrityogayajna1>" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160120221014/http://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_yoga/yogayAjnyavalkya.pdf |date=20 January 2016 }}" (Sanskrit text of "Yoga Yajnavalkya"), ''SanskritDocuments Archives'' (2009)</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Āgāśe |first=K. S. |title=Pātañjalayogasūtrāṇi |date=1904 |publisher=Ānandāśrama |location=Puṇe, India |page=102 |url=https://archive.org/stream/patanjaliyoga/yoga_sutras_three_commentaries#page/n111/mode/2up}}</ref><ref name=svatmaram>{{cite book |title=The Hatha Yoga Pradipika |author=Svātmārāma |first2=Pancham |last2=Sinh |edition=5th |date=1997 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=9sBFttVx6ukC |isbn=9781605066370 |page=14 |publisher=Forgotten Books |quote=अथ यम-नियमाः अहिंसा सत्यमस्तेयं बरह्यछर्यम कश्हमा धृतिः दयार्जवं मिताहारः शौछम छैव यमा दश १७}}</ref>
⚫ Both a yogi and a philosopher are seekers of an absolute truth. But they differ in their modes of approach. A philosopher advances in the path of rational logic (theory) and wants to intellectually understand the Truth. A yogi advances in the path of self discipline (practice) and aspires to spiritually realize truth.
|source=—Akshaya Banerjea, ''Philosophy of ]''<ref name="Banerjea" />}}
⚫ A yogi or yogini lives by other voluntary ethical precepts called ] and ]s.<ref>K. N. Aiyar (1914), ''Thirty Minor Upanishads'', Kessinger Publishing, {{ISBN|978-1164026419}}, chapter 22, pp. 173-176</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Lorenzen |first=David |title=The Kāpālikas and Kālāmukhas |date=1972 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0520018426 |pages=186–190}}</ref> These include:<ref name=sanskrityogayajna1>"" (Sanskrit text of "Yoga Yajnavalkya"), ''SanskritDocuments Archives'' (2009)</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Āgāśe |first=K. S. |title=Pātañjalayogasūtrāṇi |date=1904 |publisher=Ānandāśrama |location=Puṇe, India |page=102 |url= https://archive.org/stream/patanjaliyoga/yoga_sutras_three_commentaries#page/n111/mode/2up}}</ref><ref name=svatmaram>{{cite book |title=The Hatha Yoga Pradipika |author=Svātmārāma |first2=Pancham |last2=Sinh |edition=5th |date=1997 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=9sBFttVx6ukC |isbn=9781605066370 |page=14 |quote=अथ यम-नियमाः अहिंसा सत्यमस्तेयं बरह्यछर्यम कश्हमा धृतिः दयार्जवं मिताहारः शौछम छैव यमा दश १७}}</ref>
* ] (अहिंसा): ], non-harming other living beings<ref name=jl>James Lochtefeld, "Yama (2)", ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN|9780823931798}}, p. 777</ref> * ] (अहिंसा): ], non-harming other living beings<ref name=jl>James Lochtefeld, "Yama (2)", ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN|9780823931798}}, p. 777</ref>
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* ] (मितहार): moderation in diet both in terms of quantity and quality * ] (मितहार): moderation in diet both in terms of quantity and quality
* ] (शौच): purity, cleanliness * ] (शौच): purity, cleanliness
* ]: austerity, persistence and perseverance in one's purpose<ref>Kaelber, W. O. (1976). "'Tapas', Birth, and Spiritual Rebirth in the Veda", ''History of Religions'', 15(4), pp. 343–386</ref><ref name=sabha>SA Bhagwat (2008), "Yoga and Sustainability". ''Journal of Yoga'', Fall/Winter 2008, 7(1): 1-14</ref> * ]: austerity, persistence and perseverance in one's purpose<ref>W. O. Kaelber (1976). "'Tapas', Birth, and Spiritual Rebirth in the Veda", ''History of Religions'', 15(4), pp. 343–386</ref><ref name=sabha>S. A. Bhagwat (2008), "Yoga and Sustainability". ''Journal of Yoga'', Fall/Winter 2008, 7(1): 1–14</ref>
* ]: contentment, acceptance of others and of one's circumstances as they are, optimism for self<ref name=nt>N. Tummers (2009), ''Teaching Yoga for Life'', {{ISBN|978-0736070164}}, p 16–17</ref> * ]: contentment, acceptance of others and of one's circumstances as they are, optimism for self<ref name=nt>N. Tummers (2009), ''Teaching Yoga for Life'', {{ISBN|978-0736070164}}, p 16–17</ref>
* ]: generosity, charity, sharing with others<ref>William Owen Cole (1991), ''Moral Issues in Six Religions'', Heinemann, {{ISBN|978-0435302993}}, pp. 104-105</ref> * ]: generosity, charity, sharing with others<ref>William Owen Cole (1991), ''Moral Issues in Six Religions'', Heinemann, {{ISBN|978-0435302993}}, pp. 104–105</ref>


===Nath siddha=== ===Nath siddha===
], a celebrated yogi of Nath tradition and a major proponent of Hatha yoga.<ref>{{cite book|author=Akshaya Kumar Banerjea|title=Philosophy of Gorakhnath with Goraksha-Vacana-Sangraha|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ljn1koKa0CQC |year=1983|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0534-7 |pages=xxi }}</ref>]] ], a celebrated yogi of Nath tradition and a major proponent of Hatha yoga.<ref>{{cite book|author=Akshaya Kumar Banerjea|title=Philosophy of Gorakhnath with Goraksha-Vacana-Sangraha|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ljn1koKa0CQC |year=1983|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0534-7 |pages=xxi }}</ref>]]

According to David White, According to David White,
{{quote|'']'' means 'realized, perfected one',{{refn|group=note|Compare Siddhartha Gautama, one of the names of ].}} a term generally applied to a practitioner ('']'', '']'') who has, through his practice ('']''), realized his dual goal of superhuman powers ('']s'', 'realizations', 'perfections') and bodily immortality ('']'').{{sfn|White|2012|p=2}}}} {{Quote|'']'' means 'realized, perfected one',{{refn|group=note|Compare Siddhartha Gautama, one of the names of ].}} a term generally applied to a practitioner ('']'', '']'') who has, through his practice ('']''), realized his dual goal of superhuman powers ('']s'', 'realizations', 'perfections') and bodily immortality ('']'').{{sfn|White|2012|p=2}}}}


====Respect==== ====Respect====
Archeological evidence suggests that in some contexts and regions, yogi of the ] Siddha tradition were respected and recognized in India. For example, inscriptions suggest a general of the Yadava king Ramacandra donated a village to a yogi in 13th-century.{{sfn|White|2012|p=94}} Near Mangalore, that later became a hub of Nath yogis, a monastery and temple was dedicated to yogis in the 10th-century.{{sfn|White|2012|p=94}} Archeological evidence suggests that in some contexts and regions, yogi of the ] Siddha tradition were respected and recognized in India. For example, inscriptions suggest a general of the Yadava king Ramacandra donated a village to a yogi in 13th-century.{{sfn|White|2012|p=94}} Near Mangalore, that later became a hub of Nath yogis, a monastery and temple was dedicated to yogis in the 10th century.{{sfn|White|2012|p=94}}


David Lorenzen states that the Nath yogis have been very popular with the rural population in South Asia, with medieval era "tales and stories about Nath yogis such as Gorakhnath, Matsyendra, Jalandhar, Gopichand, Bharthari, Kanhapa and Chaurangi" continuing to be remembered in contemporary times, in the Deccan, western and northern states of India and in Nepal.<ref name=lorenzenmunozx>David N. Lorenzen and Adrián Muñoz (2012), ''Yogi Heroes and Poets: Histories and Legends of the Naths'', SUNY Press, {{ISBN|978-1438438900}}, pp. x–xi</ref> David Lorenzen states that the Nath yogis have been very popular with the rural population in South Asia, with medieval era "tales and stories about Nath yogis such as Gorakhnath, Matsyendra, Jalandhar, Gopichand, Bharthari, Kanhapa and Chaurangi" continuing to be remembered in contemporary times, in the Deccan, western and northern states of India and in Nepal.<ref name=lorenzenmunozx>David N. Lorenzen and Adrián Muñoz (2012), ''Yogi Heroes and Poets: Histories and Legends of the Naths'', SUNY Press, {{ISBN|978-1438438900}}, pp. x–xi</ref>


====Persecution==== ====Persecution====
In some contexts, adds White, the term ''yogi'' has also been a pejorative term used in medieval India for a Nath siddha, particularly on the part of India's social, cultural and religious elites.{{sfn|White|2012|p=8-9}} The term ''siddha'' has become a broad sectarian appellation, applying to Saiva-devotees in the ] (''] siddhas''), alchemists in Tamil Nadu (]''), a group of early Buddhist ] from Bengal ('']s'', ''siddhacaryas''), the alchemists of medieval India (''rasa siddha''), and a mainly north Indian group known as the ''Nath siddhas''.{{sfn|White|2012|p=2}} The Nath siddhas are the only still existing representatives of the medieval Tantric tradition, which had disappeared due to its excesses.{{sfn|White|2012|p=7}} While the Nath siddhas enjoyed persistent popular success, they attracted the scorn of the elite classes.{{sfn|White|2012|p=7}} In some contexts, adds White, the term ''yogi'' has also been a pejorative term used in medieval India for a Nath siddha, particularly on the part of India's social, cultural and religious elites.{{sfn|White|2012|p=8-9}} The term ''siddha'' has become a broad sectarian appellation, applying to Saiva-devotees in the ] (''] siddhas''), alchemists in Tamil Nadu (]), a group of early Buddhist ] from Bengal ('']s'', ''siddhacaryas''), the alchemists of medieval India (''rasa siddha''), and a mainly north Indian group known as the ''Nath siddhas''.{{sfn|White|2012|p=2}} The Nath siddhas are the only still existing representatives of the medieval Tantric tradition, which had disappeared due to its excesses.{{sfn|White|2012|p=7}} While the Nath siddhas enjoyed persistent popular success, they attracted the scorn of the elite classes.{{sfn|White|2012|p=7}}


] ]
According to White, the term ''yogi'', has "for at least eight hundred years, been an all-purpose term employed to designate those Saiva specialists whom orthodox Hindus have considered suspect, heterodox, and even heretical in their doctrine and practice".{{sfn|White|2012|p=8}} The yoga as practiced by these Yogis, states White, is more closely identified in the eyes of those critics with black magic, sorcery and sexual perversions than with yoga in the conventional sense of the word.{{sfn|White|2012|p=9}} According to White, the term ''yogi'', has "for at least eight hundred years, been an all-purpose term employed to designate those Saiva specialists whom orthodox Hindus have considered suspect, heterodox, and even heretical in their doctrine and practice".{{sfn|White|2012|p=8}} The yoga as practiced by these Yogis, states White, is more closely identified in the eyes of those critics with black magic, sorcery and sexual perversions than with yoga in the conventional sense of the word.{{sfn|White|2012|p=9}}


The Nath Yogis were targets of Islamic persecution in the ]. The texts of Yogi traditions from this period, state Shail Mayaram, refer to oppressions by Mughal officials such as governor. The Mughal documents confirm the existence of Nath Yogis in each ''pargana'' (household neighborhoods), and their persecution wherein Nath Yogis were beheaded by ].<ref>Shail Mayaram (2003), ''Against History, Against State'', Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0231127301}}, pp. 40-41, 39</ref> The Nath Yogis were targets of Islamic persecution in the ]. The texts of Yogi traditions from this period, state Shail Mayaram, refer to oppressions by Mughal officials such as governor. The Mughal documents confirm the existence of Nath Yogis in each ''pargana'' (household neighborhoods), and their persecution wherein Nath Yogis were beheaded by ].<ref>Shail Mayaram (2003), ''Against History, Against State'', Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0231127301}}, pp. 40–41, 39</ref>


====Resistance to persecution==== ====Resistance to persecution====
According to David Lorenzen, the religious groups in Hinduism that militarized and took up arms following the Muslim conquest of India, to resist persecution, appeared among the Nath or Kanphata yogis, often called simply yogis or jogis.<ref>David Lorenzen (2006), ''Who Invented Hinduism?'', Yoda Press, {{ISBN|978-8190227261}}, pp. 51-63</ref> According to David Lorenzen, the religious groups in Hinduism that militarized and took up arms following the ], to resist persecution, appeared among the Nath or Kanphata yogis, often called simply yogis or jogis.<ref>David Lorenzen (2006), ''Who Invented Hinduism?'', Yoda Press, {{ISBN|978-8190227261}}, pp. 51–63</ref>


The warrior ]s were institutionalized as a religious order by Gorakhnath and were expanding in the 13th century, after the establishment of the first Islamic Sultanate in India. They interacted and cooperated with '']s'' of Sufi Muslims.<ref name="whitesyogi198">David Gordon White (2011), ''Sinister Yogis'', University of Chicago Press, {{ISBN|978-0226895147}}, pp. 198-207</ref> The yogis feature prominently in Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire period official documents, states David White, both in terms of impressing the ruling elite in the Muslim administration and awards of receiving land grants in some cases such as by ], as well as those yogis who targeted the elite merchants and disrupted the business of administrative Islamic elites in urban areas.<ref name="whitesyogi198" /><ref name="williampinchwarascetic">William Pinch (2012), ''Warrior Ascetics and Indian Empires'', Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-1107406377}}, pp. 4-9, 28-34, 61-65, 150-151, 189-191, 194-207</ref> In other cases, yogis from the Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism traditions of Hinduism marshaled armed resistance against the Mughal and British colonial armies.<ref name="whitesyogi198" /><ref name="williampinchwarascetic" /> The warrior ]s were institutionalized as a religious order by Gorakhnath and were expanding in the 13th century, after the establishment of the first Islamic Sultanate in India. They interacted and cooperated with '']s'' of Sufi Muslims.<ref name="whitesyogi198">David Gordon White (2011), ''Sinister Yogis'', University of Chicago Press, {{ISBN|978-0226895147}}, pp. 198–207</ref> The yogis feature prominently in Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire period official documents, states David White, both in terms of impressing the ruling elite in the Muslim administration and awards of receiving land grants in some cases such as by ], as well as those yogis who targeted the elite merchants and disrupted the business of administrative Islamic elites in urban areas.<ref name="whitesyogi198" /><ref name="williampinchwarascetic">William Pinch (2012), ''Warrior Ascetics and Indian Empires'', Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-1107406377}}, pp. 4–9, 28–34, 61–65, 150–151, 189–191, 194–207</ref> In other cases, yogis from the Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism traditions of Hinduism marshaled armed resistance against the Mughal and British colonial armies.<ref name="whitesyogi198" /><ref name="williampinchwarascetic" />


====Cultural contributions: founding Hindu temples==== ====Cultural contributions: founding Hindu temples====
The history of Nath yogis has been diverse, such as in the 11th and 12th centuries, when Buddhists in South India converted to Nath siddha traditions and helped establish Shiva Hindu temples and monasteries.{{sfn|White|2012|pp=94-101}} The history of Nath yogis has been diverse, such as in the 11th and 12th centuries, when Buddhists in South India converted to Nath siddha traditions and helped establish Shiva Hindu temples and monasteries.{{sfn|White|2012|pp=94–101}}

==List of yogis==
⚫ {{further information|List of Hindu gurus and saints}}
<!--==External links==-->
<!--===========================({{NoMoreLinks}})===============================-->
<!--| Do not add names to this list without reliable sources that can verify he or she to be a Yogi |-->
<!--| Names without a source or that can not been verified will be deleted. |-->
<!--| See ] and ] guidelines for why and other details |-->
<!--===========================({{NoMoreLinks}})===============================-->
Historical yogis and yoga gurus:
* ]<ref name="Banerjea" />{{rp|331}}
* ]<ref>{{cite book |last=Feuerstein |first=Georg |title=The Yoga Tradition: Its History, Literature, Philosophy and Practice| date=2001 |publisher=Hohm Press |location=Prescott, Arizona |isbn=978-1890772185 |at=location 5720 |edition=Kindle e-book}}</ref>
* ] (1880–1935)<ref name="Prajnanananda2006">{{cite book |author=Paramahamsa Prajnanananda |title=My Time with the Master |date=15 August 2006 |publisher=Sai Towers Publishing |isbn=978-81-7899-055-2 |pages=25 ''ff.'' |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=9hrnJd9cRMcC&pg=PA25 |access-date=18 March 2011}}</ref><ref name="Ray1965">{{cite book |first=Benoy Gopal |last=Ray |title=Religious Movements in Modern Bengal |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=6eVWAAAAMAAJ |access-date=23 May 2011 |date=1965 |publisher=Visva-Bharati |page=101}}</ref><ref name="TripathyTripathy2006">{{cite book |first1=Amulya Kumar |last1=Tripathy |first2=P. C. |last2=Tripathy |author3=Jayadeva |title=The Gita Govinda of Sri Jayadev |date=2006 |publisher=Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Hd5jAAAAMAAJ |access-date=23 May 2011}}</ref>
* ] (1950-2011)<ref>{{cite web |url= http://blogs.yogajournal.com/yogabuzz/2011/03/larry-schultz-founder-of-its-yoga-dies.html |title=Iconic Bay Area Yoga Teacher Dies |date=2 March 2011 |at="Blog" section |work=Yoga Journal |access-date=13 April 2011}}</ref>


==See also== ==See also==

{{Portal|Yoga}}
* ] * ]
⚫ * ]
* ] * ]
* ] * ]


==Notes== ==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}} {{Reflist|group=note}}


==References== ==References==
Line 126: Line 105:


==Sources== ==Sources==
{{refbegin}} {{Refbegin}}
* {{Citation |last=Feuerstein |first=Georg |date=2000 |title=The Shambhala Encyclopedia of Yoga |publisher=Shambhala Publications}} * {{Citation |last=Feuerstein |first=Georg |author-link=Georg Feuerstein |date=2000 |title=The Shambhala Encyclopedia of Yoga |publisher=Shambhala Publications}}
* {{Citation |last=Rosen |first=Richard |date=2012 |title=Original Yoga: Rediscovering Traditional Practices of Hatha Yoga |publisher=Shambhala Publications |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=6ZeOYkgOQTUC&dq=Yoga-Bhashya&hl=en&source=gbs_navlinks_s}} * {{Citation |last=Rosen |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Rosen (yoga teacher) |date=2012 |title=Original Yoga: Rediscovering Traditional Practices of Hatha Yoga |publisher=Shambhala Publications |isbn=9780834827400 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=6ZeOYkgOQTUC&q=Yoga-Bhashya}}
* {{Citation |last=White |first=David Gordon |date=2012 |title=The Alchemical Body: Siddha Traditions in Medieval India |publisher=University of Chicago Press |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=pQuqAAAAQBAJ}} * {{Citation |last=White |first=David Gordon |author-link=David Gordon White |date=2012 |title=The Alchemical Body: Siddha Traditions in Medieval India |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=9780226149349 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=pQuqAAAAQBAJ}}
{{refend}} {{Refend}}


==External links== ==External links==
*{{wikibooks-inline|Yoga/Yoga Tales}} *{{Wikibooks-inline|Yoga/Yoga Tales}}
*{{Commons category-inline}}


{{Yoga}} {{Yoga}}
{{Worship in Hinduism}} {{Worship in Hinduism}}
{{Authority control}}


] ]

Latest revision as of 07:04, 31 January 2024

Practitioner of Yoga For other uses, see Yogi (disambiguation).

Bronze figure of a Yogi in Dhyana (meditation) by Malvina Hoffman
This article contains Indic text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks or boxes, misplaced vowels or missing conjuncts instead of Indic text.

A yogi is a practitioner of Yoga, including a sannyasin or practitioner of meditation in Indian religions. The feminine form, sometimes used in English, is yogini.

Yogi has since the 12th century CE also denoted members of the Nath siddha tradition of Hinduism, and in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism, a practitioner of tantra. In Hindu mythology, the god Shiva and the goddess Parvati are depicted as an emblematic yogi–yogini pair.

Etymology

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In Classical Sanskrit, the word yogi (Sanskrit: masc yogī, योगी; fem yoginī) is derived from yogin, which refers to a practitioner of yoga. Yogi is technically male, and yoginī is the term used for female practitioners. The two terms are still used with those meanings today, but the word yogi is also used generically to refer to both male and female practitioners of yoga and related meditative practices belonging to any religion or spiritual method.

The term yogini is also used for divine goddesses and enlightened mothers, all revered as aspects of the mother goddess, Devi.

A yogi should not be confused with someone practicing asceticism and excessive self-mortification.

Hinduism

In Hinduism the term yogi refers to an adherent of yoga.

Textual references

Further information: Yoga Vasistha, Yoga Yajnavalkya, Yoga-kundalini Upanishad, and Yogasutra

The earliest evidence of yogis and their spiritual tradition, states Karel Werner, is found in the Keśin hymn 10.136 of the Rigveda, though with the terminology of Rudra who evolved into Shiva worshipped as the lord of Yoga in later Hinduism. The Hindu scripture Rigveda uses words of admiration for the Yogis, whom it refers to as Kesin, and describes them as follows (abridged):

Carrying within oneself fire and poison, heaven and earth, ranging from enthusiasm and creativity to depression and agony, from the heights of spiritual bliss to the heaviness of earth-bound labor. This is true of man in general and the Keśin in particular, but the latter has mastered and transformed these contrary forces and is a visible embodiment of accomplished spirituality. He is said to be light and enlightenment itself. The Keśin does not live a normal life of convention. His hair and beard grow longer, he spends long periods of time in absorption, musing and meditating and therefore he is called "sage" (muni). They wear clothes made of yellow rags fluttering in the wind, or perhaps more likely, they go naked, clad only in the yellow dust of the Indian soil. But their personalities are not bound to earth, for they follow the path of the mysterious wind when the gods enter them. He is someone lost in thoughts: he is miles away.

— Karel Werner (1977), "Yoga and the Ṛg Veda: An Interpretation of the Keśin Hymn"

The term yogin appears in Katyayana Shrauta-sutra and chapter 6 of Maitri Upanishad, where the implied context and meaning is "a follower of the Yoga system, a contemplative saint".

The term sometimes refers to a person who belongs to the Natha tradition. They usually belong to Shaiva tradition, but some Natha belong to the Vaishnava tradition. In both cases, states David Lorenzen, they practice yoga and their principal god tends to be Nirguna, that is a god that is without form and semi-monistic, influenced in the medieval era by the Advaita Vedanta school of Hinduism, Madhyamaka school of Buddhism, as well as Tantra and Yogic practices.

A 10th-century Yogini statue from Tamil Nadu, India. She is seated in an asana, and her eyes are closed in meditative state.

The Yoga-Bhashya (400 CE), the oldest extant commentary on the Yoga-Sutra offers the following fourfold classification of yogis:

  1. Prathama-kalpika (neophyte/beginner, devotional)
  2. Madhu-bhumika (one who has begun to enjoy the spiritual pursuits without effort)
  3. Prajna-jyoti (the advanced practitioner who knows spiritual concepts)
  4. Atikranta- bhavaniya (those who have attained what can be taught, achieved siddhas, and are on their personal path to ultimate insights)

Sexuality

A yogi or yogini aspires to Brahmacharya (Sanskrit: ब्रह्मचर्य), which means celibacy if single, or non-cheating on one's partner.

There have been two parallel views, in Hindu texts, on sexuality for a yogi and yogini. One view asserts restraint in sexual activity, towards monk- and nun-like asexuality, as transmutation away from worldly desires and onto a spiritual path. It is not considered, states Stuart Sovatsky, as a form of moralistic repression but a personal choice that empowers the yoga practitioner to redirect his or her energies. The second view, found particularly in Tantra traditions according to David Gordon White, asserts that sexuality is an additional means for a yogi or yogini to journey towards and experience the bliss of "one realized god-consciousness for oneself". In the second view, sexuality is a yogic practice, and one broadly revered through the lingam–yoni iconography of Shiva–Parvati, the divine yogi–yogini in Hindu mythology.

Ethical duties

Both a yogi and a philosopher are seekers of an absolute truth. But they differ in their modes of approach. A philosopher advances in the path of rational logic (theory) and wants to intellectually understand the Truth. A yogi advances in the path of self discipline (practice) and aspires to spiritually realize truth.

—Akshaya Banerjea, Philosophy of Gorakhnath

A yogi or yogini lives by other voluntary ethical precepts called Yamas and Niyamas. These include:

  • Ahiṃsā (अहिंसा): nonviolence, non-harming other living beings
  • Satya (सत्य): truthfulness, non-falsehood
  • Asteya (अस्तेय): not stealing
  • Dayā (दया): kindness, compassion
  • Ārjava (आर्जव): non-hypocrisy, sincerity
  • Kṣamā (क्षमा): forgiveness
  • Dhṛti (धृति): fortitude
  • Mitāhāra (मितहार): moderation in diet both in terms of quantity and quality
  • Śauca (शौच): purity, cleanliness
  • Tapas: austerity, persistence and perseverance in one's purpose
  • Santoṣa: contentment, acceptance of others and of one's circumstances as they are, optimism for self
  • Dāna: generosity, charity, sharing with others

Nath siddha

A sculpture of Gorakhnath, a celebrated yogi of Nath tradition and a major proponent of Hatha yoga.

According to David White,

[S]iddha means 'realized, perfected one', a term generally applied to a practitioner (sādhaka, sadhu) who has, through his practice (sadhana), realized his dual goal of superhuman powers (siddhis, 'realizations', 'perfections') and bodily immortality (jivanmukti).

Respect

Archeological evidence suggests that in some contexts and regions, yogi of the Nath Siddha tradition were respected and recognized in India. For example, inscriptions suggest a general of the Yadava king Ramacandra donated a village to a yogi in 13th-century. Near Mangalore, that later became a hub of Nath yogis, a monastery and temple was dedicated to yogis in the 10th century.

David Lorenzen states that the Nath yogis have been very popular with the rural population in South Asia, with medieval era "tales and stories about Nath yogis such as Gorakhnath, Matsyendra, Jalandhar, Gopichand, Bharthari, Kanhapa and Chaurangi" continuing to be remembered in contemporary times, in the Deccan, western and northern states of India and in Nepal.

Persecution

In some contexts, adds White, the term yogi has also been a pejorative term used in medieval India for a Nath siddha, particularly on the part of India's social, cultural and religious elites. The term siddha has become a broad sectarian appellation, applying to Saiva-devotees in the Deccan (Maheśvara siddhas), alchemists in Tamil Nadu (siddhars or sittars), a group of early Buddhist tantrikas from Bengal (mahasiddhas, siddhacaryas), the alchemists of medieval India (rasa siddha), and a mainly north Indian group known as the Nath siddhas. The Nath siddhas are the only still existing representatives of the medieval Tantric tradition, which had disappeared due to its excesses. While the Nath siddhas enjoyed persistent popular success, they attracted the scorn of the elite classes.

17th century Hindu female Nath yogis. The earliest records mentioning female Nath yogis (or yogini) trace to 11th century.

According to White, the term yogi, has "for at least eight hundred years, been an all-purpose term employed to designate those Saiva specialists whom orthodox Hindus have considered suspect, heterodox, and even heretical in their doctrine and practice". The yoga as practiced by these Yogis, states White, is more closely identified in the eyes of those critics with black magic, sorcery and sexual perversions than with yoga in the conventional sense of the word.

The Nath Yogis were targets of Islamic persecution in the Mughal Empire. The texts of Yogi traditions from this period, state Shail Mayaram, refer to oppressions by Mughal officials such as governor. The Mughal documents confirm the existence of Nath Yogis in each pargana (household neighborhoods), and their persecution wherein Nath Yogis were beheaded by Aurangzeb.

Resistance to persecution

According to David Lorenzen, the religious groups in Hinduism that militarized and took up arms following the Muslim conquest of India, to resist persecution, appeared among the Nath or Kanphata yogis, often called simply yogis or jogis.

The warrior ascetics were institutionalized as a religious order by Gorakhnath and were expanding in the 13th century, after the establishment of the first Islamic Sultanate in India. They interacted and cooperated with fakirs of Sufi Muslims. The yogis feature prominently in Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire period official documents, states David White, both in terms of impressing the ruling elite in the Muslim administration and awards of receiving land grants in some cases such as by Akbar, as well as those yogis who targeted the elite merchants and disrupted the business of administrative Islamic elites in urban areas. In other cases, yogis from the Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism traditions of Hinduism marshaled armed resistance against the Mughal and British colonial armies.

Cultural contributions: founding Hindu temples

The history of Nath yogis has been diverse, such as in the 11th and 12th centuries, when Buddhists in South India converted to Nath siddha traditions and helped establish Shiva Hindu temples and monasteries.

See also

Notes

  1. Sanskrit Original: (Wikisource of the Keśin hymn); Rigveda 10.136, 2nd millennium BCE
  2. Compare Siddhartha Gautama, one of the names of Buddha.

References

  1. ^ White 2012, p. 8.
  2. ^ A. K. Banerjea (2014), Philosophy of Gorakhnath with Goraksha-Vacana-Sangraha, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805347, pp. xxiii, 297–299, 331
  3. ^ White 2012, p. 8-9.
  4. ^ Rita Gross (1993), Buddhism After Patriarchy, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0791414033, pages 85–88
  5. David Gordon White (2013), Tantra in Practice, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120817784, pp. xiii–xv
  6. Stella Kramrisch (1994), The Presence of Siva, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691019307, pp. 305–309, 356
  7. Vidya Dehejia and Thomas B. Coburn (1999), Devi: The Great Goddess, Smithsonian Institution, ISBN 978-3791321295, p. 386
  8. ^ Werner, Karel (1977). "Yoga and the Ṛg Veda: An Interpretation of the Keśin Hymn (RV 10, 136)". Religious Studies. 13 (3): 289–302. doi:10.1017/S0034412500010076. S2CID 170592174. The Yogis of Vedic times left little evidence of their existence, practices and achievements. And such evidence as has survived in the Vedas is scanty and indirect. Nevertheless, the existence of accomplished Yogis in Vedic times cannot be doubted.
  9. yogin Archived 7 June 2019 at the Wayback Machine, Monier Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary (2008 revision), Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Germany
  10. ^ David N. Lorenzen and Adrián Muñoz (2012), Yogi Heroes and Poets: Histories and Legends of the Naths, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-1438438900, pp. x–xi
  11. David Lorenzen (2004), Religious Movements in South Asia, 600–1800, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195664485, pp. 310–311
  12. David N. Lorenzen and Adrián Muñoz (2012), Yogi Heroes and Poets: Histories and Legends of the Naths, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-1438438900, pp. 24–25
  13. Rosen 2012, p. 72.
  14. Feuerstein 2000, p. 343.
  15. SH Aranya (1983), Yoga Philosophy of Patanjali, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0873957281, pp. 334–337
  16. ^ Arti Dhand (2002), "The dharma of ethics, the ethics of dharma: Quizzing the ideals of Hinduism", Journal of Religious Ethics, 30(3), pp. 347–372
  17. Yajnavalkya tells Gargi in verse 1.55 of Yoga Yajnavalkya that one who copulates (मैथुन) only with and always with one's sexual partner is a Brahmachari; see "योगयाज्ञवल्क्य १-५५ Archived 20 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine" (Sanskrit text of "Yoga Yajnavalkya"), SanskritDocuments Archives (2009)
  18. ^ Stuart Sovatsky (1987), "The pleasures of celibacy", Yoga Journal, March/April Issue, pp. 41–47
  19. White 2012, pp. 1–6.
  20. Machelle Seibel and Hari Kaur Khalsa (2002), A Woman's Book of Yoga, Penguin, ISBN 978-1583331378, pp. 108–109
  21. Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1981), Siva: The Erotic Ascetic, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195202502, pp. 262–263
  22. K. N. Aiyar (1914), Thirty Minor Upanishads, Kessinger Publishing, ISBN 978-1164026419, chapter 22, pp. 173–176
  23. Lorenzen, David (1972). The Kāpālikas and Kālāmukhas. University of California Press. pp. 186–190. ISBN 978-0520018426.
  24. "योगयाज्ञवल्क्य प्रथमोऽध्याय Archived 20 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine" (Sanskrit text of "Yoga Yajnavalkya"), SanskritDocuments Archives (2009)
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