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==Early life and education== ==Early life and education==
His father, also Josef Thorak, was from ]; his mother was from Salzburg, where she returned soon after his birth and the couple married in 1896. That year he was placed in a religious boarding school for neglected children, but his schooling ended after he set fire to his bed in late 1898 and was injured by a nun ] him, which led to a dispute in the press and the courts. In 1903 he began an apprenticeship as a ] in ]; after completion of this and of ] years in Austria and Germany, he started work at a factory in Vienna and took classes from the sculptor ]. From 1911 to 1915 he studied sculpture at the ], interrupted by two periods of service in the ] and a study trip to the Balkans. ], Director of the ], recommended him and he secured a studio under ] at the ] in ]; he joined the ] in 1917.<ref name=Salzburg>, City of Salzburg, retrieved 29 July 2021 {{In lang|de}}.</ref><ref name=Bio>Josephine Gabler, , ''Neue Deutsche Biographie'', 2016, retrieved 29 July 2021 {{In lang|de}}.</ref> Some ] influences can be noticed in his generally ] style. Thorak was born out of wedlock in Vienna. His father, also Josef Thorak, was from ]; his mother was from Salzburg, where she returned soon after his birth and the couple married in 1896. That year he was placed in a religious boarding school for neglected children, but his schooling ended after he set fire to his bed in late 1898 and was injured by a nun ] him, which led to a dispute in the press and the courts. In 1903 he began an apprenticeship as a ] in ]; after completion of this and of ] years in Austria and Germany, he started work at a factory in Vienna and took classes from the sculptor ]. From 1911 to 1915 he studied sculpture at the ], interrupted by two periods of service in the ] and a study trip to the Balkans. ], Director of the ], recommended him and he secured a studio under ] at the ] in ]; he joined the ] in 1917.<ref name=Salzburg>, City of Salzburg, retrieved 29 July 2021 {{In lang|de}}.</ref><ref name=Bio>Josephine Gabler, , ''Neue Deutsche Biographie'', 2016, retrieved 29 July 2021 {{In lang|de}}.</ref> Some ] influences can be noticed in his generally ] style.


==Career== ==Career==
In Berlin in the 1920s, Thorak lived mainly on commissions to design cemetery monuments for soldiers, also assisting wealthy friends, many of them Jewish, with design work. He was helped by friendships with ], President of the ], and above all with the art museum director ], who wrote a monograph on Thorak in 1929,<ref name=Salzburg/><ref name=Adam190>Peter Adam, ''Art of the Third Reich'', New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1992, {{ISBN|0-8109-1912-5}}, p.&nbsp;190.</ref> said to have been his only book on a living artist.<ref name=Faust>Jonathan Petropoulos,''The Faustian Bargain: The Art World in Nazi Germany'', Oxford University, 2000 (unpaginated online edition).</ref> He won a state prize in 1928. To promote himself, he began calling himself "professor". His commissions were reduced by the ] and the ]; eventually in 1932 he received a commission to design fittings for a church in Tegel,<ref name=Salzburg/> and he entered work in the ] in the ] at the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.olympedia.org/athletes/920735 |title=Josef Thorak |work=Olympedia |accessdate=8 August 2020}}</ref> In Berlin in the 1920s, Thorak lived mainly on commissions to design cemetery monuments for soldiers, also assisting wealthy friends, many of them Jewish, with design work. He was helped by friendships with ], President of the ], and above all with the art museum director ], who wrote a monograph on Thorak in 1929,<ref name=Salzburg/><ref name=Adam190>Peter Adam, ''Art of the Third Reich'', New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1992, {{ISBN|0-8109-1912-5}}, p.&nbsp;190.</ref> said to have been his only book on a living artist.<ref name=Faust>Jonathan Petropoulos,''The Faustian Bargain: The Art World in Nazi Germany'', Oxford University, 2000 (unpaginated online edition).</ref> He won a state prize in 1928. To promote himself, he began calling himself "professor". His commissions were reduced by the ] and the ]; eventually in 1932 he received a commission to design fittings for a church in Tegel,<ref name=Salzburg/> and he entered work in the ] in the ] at the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.olympedia.org/athletes/920735 |title=Josef Thorak |work=Olympedia |accessdate=8 August 2020}}</ref>


After the Nazis ] in 1933, Thorak took advantage of friendships with many prominent members of the Party. Through the film maker ], he was engaged after Hanak's death in 1934 to complete the ''Emniyet'' monument (Security Monument; now the ]) in ], Turkey,<ref name=Salzburg/><ref>, Ankara Enstitüsü Vakfı, archived from on 25 May 2013 {{In lang|tr}}.</ref> and he sculpted busts of ] and ] in addition to ] and ].<ref name=Salzburg/><ref name=Bio/> After the death of ] in August 1934, Thorak sculpted his ]; his bust of ] was given as an official gift by Hitler in 1940. For a bust of Hitler, he stayed for several days in 1936 at Hitler's ] compound.<ref name=Salzburg/> ] arranged a solo exhibition for him in 1935.<ref name=Bio/><ref name=Adam190/> He became wealthy and in 1937 or 1938 bought {{ill|Schloss Hartmannsberg|de}} near the ] in Bavaria; in 1943 he also acquired {{ill|Schloss Prielau|de}}, which had been ] from the family of ] because of their Jewish ancestry.<ref name=Salzburg/><ref name=Bio/> At Schloss Hartmannsberg he had a collection of medieval carvings and antique furnishings, some of which was obtained from the prominent ] ].<ref name=Faust/> After the Nazis ] in 1933, Thorak took advantage of friendships with many prominent members of the Party. Through the film maker ], he was engaged after Hanak's death in 1934 to complete the ''Emniyet'' monument (Security Monument; now the ]) in ], Turkey,<ref name=Salzburg/><ref>, Ankara Enstitüsü Vakfı, archived from on 25 May 2013 {{In lang|tr}}.</ref> and he sculpted busts of ] and ] in addition to ] and ].<ref name=Salzburg/><ref name=Bio/> After the death of ] in August 1934, Thorak sculpted his ]; his bust of ] was given as an official gift by Hitler in 1940. For a bust of Hitler, he stayed for several days in 1936 at Hitler's ] compound.<ref name=Salzburg/> ] arranged a solo exhibition for him in 1935.<ref name=Bio/><ref name=Adam190/> He became wealthy and in 1937 or 1938 bought {{ill|Schloss Hartmannsberg|de}} near the ] in Bavaria; in 1943 he also acquired ], which had been ] from the family of ] because of their Jewish ancestry.<ref name=Salzburg/><ref name=Bio/> At Schloss Hartmannsberg he had a collection of medieval carvings and antique furnishings, some of which was obtained from the prominent ] ].<ref name=Faust/>
] in 1939]] ] in 1939]]
With ], he became one of the two "official sculptors" of the Third Reich.<ref name=Adam190/><ref name=Time>, '']'', 31 July 1950, archived from on 31 January 2011.</ref> In 1937, he was named professor of sculpture at the ]; in 1939, Hitler decreed that a studio should be built for him in ] to ]'s design.<ref name=Salzburg/><ref name=Bio/> Although he did not join the ] until 1941, Hitler ordered his membership backdated to 1933 for appearance's sake.<ref name=Faust/> After a visit with Hitler to Thorak's studio in 1937, Goebbels described him in his diary as "our greatest sculptural talent. He needs to be given commissions."<ref name=Salzburg/> In his ''Spandau Diaries'' written in prison after the war, Speer referred to Thorak as "more or less ''my'' sculptor, who frequently designed statues and reliefs for my buildings".<ref>Albert Speer, ''Spandau: the Secret Diaries'', New York: Macmillan, 1976, p. 261.</ref> Well known for his "grandiose monuments",<ref>Anthony Rhodes, ''Propaganda: The Art of Persuasion: World War II'', New York: Chelsea House, 1976, p. 28.</ref> Thorak was nicknamed "Professor Thorax" because of his preference for muscular neo-classical nude sculpture,<ref>F.K.M. Hillenbrand, ''Underground Humour in Nazi Germany'', Routledge, 1995, {{ISBN|0-415-09785-1}}, p.&nbsp;105.</ref> typically "gazing fervently into the distance".<ref>Margaret Walters, ''The Nude Male: A New Perspective'', Paddington, 1978, p.&nbsp;260.</ref> In the late 1930s, he became less popular with the Nazi leadership than Breker, because of his less voluptuous female nudes; he returned to favour during the war years after producing female statues expressing pathos.<ref name=Bio/> With ], he became one of the two "official sculptors" of the Third Reich.<ref name=Adam190/><ref name=Time>, '']'', 31 July 1950, archived from on 31 January 2011.</ref> In 1937, he was named professor of sculpture at the ]; in 1939, Hitler decreed that a studio should be built for him in ] to ]'s design.<ref name=Salzburg/><ref name=Bio/> Although he did not join the ] until 1941, Hitler ordered his membership backdated to 1933 for appearance's sake.<ref name=Faust/> After a visit with Hitler to Thorak's studio in 1937, Goebbels described him in his diary as "our greatest sculptural talent. He needs to be given commissions."<ref name=Salzburg/> In his ''Spandau Diaries'' written in prison after the war, Speer referred to Thorak as "more or less ''my'' sculptor, who frequently designed statues and reliefs for my buildings".<ref>Albert Speer, ''Spandau: the Secret Diaries'', New York: Macmillan, 1976, p. 261.</ref> Well known for his "grandiose monuments",<ref>Anthony Rhodes, ''Propaganda: The Art of Persuasion: World War II'', New York: Chelsea House, 1976, p. 28.</ref> Thorak was nicknamed "Professor Thorax" because of his preference for muscular neo-classical nude sculpture,<ref>F.K.M. Hillenbrand, ''Underground Humour in Nazi Germany'', Routledge, 1995, {{ISBN|0-415-09785-1}}, p.&nbsp;105.</ref> typically "gazing fervently into the distance".<ref>Margaret Walters, ''The Nude Male: A New Perspective'', Paddington, 1978, p.&nbsp;260.</ref> In the late 1930s, he became less popular with the Nazi leadership than Breker, because of his less voluptuous female nudes; he returned to favour during the war years after producing female statues expressing pathos.<ref name=Bio/>
{{clear}} {{clear}}
==Later life and death== ==Later life and death==
After the ], Thorak at first produced decorative ceramics, and then focussed on religious sculpture.<ref name=Bio/> He was pronounced legally ] in 1948 and, after two challenges, finally in 1951, and in July 1950 was permitted to hold a final exhibition at the ] in Salzburg, which was well attended but poorly reviewed.<ref name=Salzburg/><ref name=Bio/><ref name=Faust/><ref name=Time/> His Austrian citizenship was restored in 1951. In February 1952, he died at Schloss Hartmannsberg in Bavaria, and was buried with his mother in ].<ref name=Salzburg/> After the ], Thorak at first produced decorative ceramics, and then focussed on religious sculpture.<ref name=Bio/> He was pronounced legally ] in 1948 and, after two challenges, in July 1950 and finally in 1951, he was permitted to hold a final exhibition at the ] in ], which was well attended but poorly reviewed.<ref name=Salzburg/><ref name=Bio/><ref name=Faust/><ref name=Time/> His Austrian citizenship was restored in 1951. In February 1952, he died at Schloss Hartmannsberg in ], and was buried with his mother in ].<ref name=Salzburg/>


==Personal life== ==Personal life==
Thorak married three times. In 1918 he married Hertha Kroll; they had two sons, the older born before their marriage, in January 1917. The couple divorced in 1926 but continued to live together until her death in 1928. The following year he married Hilda Lubowski, with whom he had a third son, but after the Nazis ] in 1933, the couple agreed to divorce because of her Jewish ancestry. She emigrated in 1939 to France and subsequently to England. In 1946, Thorak married Erna Hoenig, an American who had been living at Schloss Hartmannsberg since 1944; their son was born in 1949.<ref name=Salzburg/> Thorak married three times. In 1918, he married Hertha Kroll; they had two sons, the older born before their marriage, in January 1917. The couple divorced in 1926 but continued to live together until her death in 1928. The following year he married Hilda Lubowski, with whom he had a third son, but after the Nazis ] in 1933, the couple agreed to divorce because of her Jewish ancestry. She emigrated in 1939 to France and subsequently to England. In 1946, Thorak married Erna Hoenig, an American who had been living at Schloss Hartmannsberg since 1944; their son was born in 1949.<ref name=Salzburg/>


==Works== ==Works==
Line 41: Line 41:
]'', 1939]] ]'', 1939]]
] ]
In 1939 Thorak sculpted three oversize horses ({{convert|3|m|ft}} high) for the Nuremberg rally grounds.<ref name=SZ>, '']'', 23 August 2015 {{In lang|de}}.</ref> Two of these, which had been placed in 1939 outside the ] built by ], were discovered along with other Nazi art in a ] on a storehouse in ], ], in May 2015. The two horses had been removed in 1989 from a barracks ground in ], northeast of Berlin, at the time in ], where they had sat since sometime after the ].<ref> '']'', 20 May 2015 {{In lang|de}}.</ref><ref>, '']'', 14 December 2015 {{In lang|de}}.</ref><ref name=DW>Gabriel Borrud, , '']'', 12 August 2015.</ref> The third Thorak horse was displayed in the ] in Munich as part of the '']'' (Great German Art Exhibition) in 1939, then stood outside Thorak's studio. In August 2015, it was rediscovered on the grounds of a boarding school in ], Bavaria, {{ill|Landschulheim Schloss Ising|de}}, having been donated to the school by Thorak's widow in 1961 in lieu of tuition fees for her son.<ref name=SZ/><ref name=DW/> In 1939, Thorak sculpted three oversize horses ({{convert|3|m|ft}} high) for the Nuremberg rally grounds.<ref name=SZ>, '']'', 23 August 2015 {{In lang|de}}.</ref> Two of these, which had been placed in 1939 outside the ] built by ], were discovered along with other Nazi art in a ] on a storehouse in ], ], in May 2015. The two horses had been removed in 1989 from a barracks ground in ], northeast of Berlin, at the time in ], where they had sat since sometime after the ].<ref> '']'', 20 May 2015 {{In lang|de}}.</ref><ref>, '']'', 14 December 2015 {{In lang|de}}.</ref><ref name=DW>Gabriel Borrud, , '']'', 12 August 2015.</ref> The third Thorak horse was displayed in the ] in Munich as part of the '']'' (Great German Art Exhibition) in 1939, then stood outside Thorak's studio. In August 2015, it was rediscovered on the grounds of a boarding school in ], Bavaria, {{ill|Landschulheim Schloss Ising|de}}, having been donated to the school by Thorak's widow in 1961 in lieu of tuition fees for her son.<ref name=SZ/><ref name=DW/>


==Honours== ==Honours==

Latest revision as of 06:15, 30 May 2024

Austrian-German sculptor
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Josef Thorak by Fritz Erler, 1939
Familie (The Family), German Pavilion, 1937 Paris World's Fair

Josef Thorak (7 February 1889 in Vienna, Austria – 26 February 1952 in Bad Endorf, Bavaria) was an Austrian-German sculptor. He became known for oversize monumental sculptures, particularly of male figures, and was one of the most prominent sculptors of the Third Reich.

Early life and education

Thorak was born out of wedlock in Vienna. His father, also Josef Thorak, was from East Prussia; his mother was from Salzburg, where she returned soon after his birth and the couple married in 1896. That year he was placed in a religious boarding school for neglected children, but his schooling ended after he set fire to his bed in late 1898 and was injured by a nun disciplining him, which led to a dispute in the press and the courts. In 1903 he began an apprenticeship as a potter in Slovakia; after completion of this and of journeyman years in Austria and Germany, he started work at a factory in Vienna and took classes from the sculptor Anton Hanak. From 1911 to 1915 he studied sculpture at the Academy of Fine Arts, interrupted by two periods of service in the First World War and a study trip to the Balkans. Julius von Schlosser, Director of the Kunsthistorisches Museum, recommended him and he secured a studio under Ludwig Manzel at the Prussian Academy of Arts in Berlin; he joined the Berlin Secession in 1917. Some expressionist influences can be noticed in his generally neoclassical style.

Career

In Berlin in the 1920s, Thorak lived mainly on commissions to design cemetery monuments for soldiers, also assisting wealthy friends, many of them Jewish, with design work. He was helped by friendships with Hjalmar Schacht, President of the Reichsbank, and above all with the art museum director Wilhelm von Bode, who wrote a monograph on Thorak in 1929, said to have been his only book on a living artist. He won a state prize in 1928. To promote himself, he began calling himself "professor". His commissions were reduced by the German economic crisis of the 1920s and the Great Depression; eventually in 1932 he received a commission to design fittings for a church in Tegel, and he entered work in the sculpture event in the art competition at the 1932 Summer Olympics.

After the Nazis came to power in 1933, Thorak took advantage of friendships with many prominent members of the Party. Through the film maker Luis Trenker, he was engaged after Hanak's death in 1934 to complete the Emniyet monument (Security Monument; now the Güven (Trust) Monument) in Ankara, Turkey, and he sculpted busts of Joseph Goebbels and Ernst Hanfstaengl in addition to Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and Józef Piłsudski. After the death of Paul von Hindenburg in August 1934, Thorak sculpted his death mask; his bust of Mussolini was given as an official gift by Hitler in 1940. For a bust of Hitler, he stayed for several days in 1936 at Hitler's Obersalzberg compound. Alfred Rosenberg arranged a solo exhibition for him in 1935. He became wealthy and in 1937 or 1938 bought Schloss Hartmannsberg [de] near the Chiemsee in Bavaria; in 1943 he also acquired Schloss Prielau, which had been seized from the family of Hugo von Hofmannsthal because of their Jewish ancestry. At Schloss Hartmannsberg he had a collection of medieval carvings and antique furnishings, some of which was obtained from the prominent Nazi art dealers Kajetan and Josef Mühlmann.

Thorak's studio in Baldham, near Munich, designed by Albert Speer in 1939

With Arno Breker, he became one of the two "official sculptors" of the Third Reich. In 1937, he was named professor of sculpture at the Munich Academy of Fine Arts; in 1939, Hitler decreed that a studio should be built for him in Baldham to Albert Speer's design. Although he did not join the Nazi Party until 1941, Hitler ordered his membership backdated to 1933 for appearance's sake. After a visit with Hitler to Thorak's studio in 1937, Goebbels described him in his diary as "our greatest sculptural talent. He needs to be given commissions." In his Spandau Diaries written in prison after the war, Speer referred to Thorak as "more or less my sculptor, who frequently designed statues and reliefs for my buildings". Well known for his "grandiose monuments", Thorak was nicknamed "Professor Thorax" because of his preference for muscular neo-classical nude sculpture, typically "gazing fervently into the distance". In the late 1930s, he became less popular with the Nazi leadership than Breker, because of his less voluptuous female nudes; he returned to favour during the war years after producing female statues expressing pathos.

Later life and death

After the Second World War, Thorak at first produced decorative ceramics, and then focussed on religious sculpture. He was pronounced legally denazified in 1948 and, after two challenges, in July 1950 and finally in 1951, he was permitted to hold a final exhibition at the Mirabell Palace in Salzburg, which was well attended but poorly reviewed. His Austrian citizenship was restored in 1951. In February 1952, he died at Schloss Hartmannsberg in Bavaria, and was buried with his mother in St. Peter's cemetery.

Personal life

Thorak married three times. In 1918, he married Hertha Kroll; they had two sons, the older born before their marriage, in January 1917. The couple divorced in 1926 but continued to live together until her death in 1928. The following year he married Hilda Lubowski, with whom he had a third son, but after the Nazis came to power in 1933, the couple agreed to divorce because of her Jewish ancestry. She emigrated in 1939 to France and subsequently to England. In 1946, Thorak married Erna Hoenig, an American who had been living at Schloss Hartmannsberg since 1944; their son was born in 1949.

Works

  • 1922: Der sterbende Krieger (The Dying Warrior), World War I memorial in Stolpmünde, now Ustka, Poland
  • 1928: Heim (Home) and Arbeit (Work), Charlottenburg
  • 1936: Boxer, modelled on Max Schmeling, one of many sculptures commissioned for the grounds of the Olympic Stadium in Berlin.
  • 1937: Familie (The Family) and Kameradschaft (Comradeship): 23-foot-tall figural groups outside the German pavilion at the Paris World's Fair, the latter consisting of two nude males clasping hands and standing defiantly side by side in a pose of racial camaraderie.
  • 1937–43: Goddess of Victory sculptural group for the Nazi party rally grounds at Nuremberg, unfinished
  • 1940: Der königliche Reiter (The Royal Rider), model for an equestrian monument to Frederick the Great in Linz, exhibited in 1943
  • 1941: Couple
  • 1942: Letzter Flug (Last Flight), wartime sculpture of a woman holding a dead soldier
  • The Judgement of Paris, for a fountain.
  • 1943: Paracelsus, commissioned for Salzburg
  • 1943: Copernicus, also in Salzburg
  • Denkmal der Arbeit (Monument to Work), for the Reichsautobahn: model exhibited in 1938–39, work unfinished. A group of workers (variously described as three, four, or five), 17 metres (56 ft) high, straining to move a boulder.
  • 1949: Pietà, St. Peter's Cemetery, Salzburg, now over his grave

Reich Chancellery striding horses

Neue Reichskanzlei, 1939
Bronze Striding Horse at Schloss Ising

In 1939, Thorak sculpted three oversize horses (3 metres (9.8 ft) high) for the Nuremberg rally grounds. Two of these, which had been placed in 1939 outside the Reich Chancellery built by Albert Speer, were discovered along with other Nazi art in a police raid on a storehouse in Bad Dürkheim, Rhineland-Palatinate, in May 2015. The two horses had been removed in 1989 from a barracks ground in Eberswalde, northeast of Berlin, at the time in East Germany, where they had sat since sometime after the Second World War. The third Thorak horse was displayed in the Haus der Deutschen Kunst in Munich as part of the Große Deutsche Kunstausstellung (Great German Art Exhibition) in 1939, then stood outside Thorak's studio. In August 2015, it was rediscovered on the grounds of a boarding school in Ising, Bavaria, Landschulheim Schloss Ising [de], having been donated to the school by Thorak's widow in 1961 in lieu of tuition fees for her son.

Honours

Thorak received the grand prize of the Prussian Academy of Arts in 1928 and a golden Papal medal in 1934 for his contribution to the Exhibition for International Christian Art. He was nominated in 1937 for the first German National Prize for Art and Science. A street was named for him in Salzburg in 1963.

  • Dying Warrior (1922) Ustka Dying Warrior (1922) Ustka
  • Home (1928) Charlottenburg Home (1928) Charlottenburg
  • Last Flight (1942), exhibition postcard Last Flight (1942), exhibition postcard
  • Paracelsus (1943) Salzburg Paracelsus (1943) Salzburg
  • Pietà (1949) and grave, Salzburg Pietà (1949) and grave, Salzburg

See also

References

  1. ^ "NS-Strassennamen: Josef Thorak", City of Salzburg, retrieved 29 July 2021 (in German).
  2. ^ Josephine Gabler, "Thorak, Josef", Neue Deutsche Biographie, 2016, retrieved 29 July 2021 (in German).
  3. ^ Peter Adam, Art of the Third Reich, New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1992, ISBN 0-8109-1912-5, p. 190.
  4. ^ Jonathan Petropoulos,The Faustian Bargain: The Art World in Nazi Germany, Oxford University, 2000 (unpaginated online edition).
  5. "Josef Thorak". Olympedia. Retrieved 8 August 2020.
  6. "GÜVENPARK ve ANIT", Ankara Enstitüsü Vakfı, archived from the original on 25 May 2013 (in Turkish).
  7. ^ "Art: Bigger Than Life", Time, 31 July 1950, archived from the original on 31 January 2011.
  8. Albert Speer, Spandau: the Secret Diaries, New York: Macmillan, 1976, p. 261.
  9. Anthony Rhodes, Propaganda: The Art of Persuasion: World War II, New York: Chelsea House, 1976, p. 28.
  10. F.K.M. Hillenbrand, Underground Humour in Nazi Germany, Routledge, 1995, ISBN 0-415-09785-1, p. 105.
  11. Margaret Walters, The Nude Male: A New Perspective, Paddington, 1978, p. 260.
  12. Adam, p. 203.
  13. Adam, p. 244.
  14. Richard Overy, The Dictators: Hitler's Germany, Stalin's Russia, ISBN 0-393-02030-4, p. 260.
  15. Adam, pp. 193–94.
  16. Adam, p. 158.
  17. ^ Adam, p. 194.
  18. Meinhold Lurz, "Denkmäler an der Autobahn—die Autobahn als Denkmal", in: Reichsautobahn: Pyramiden des Dritten Reichs. Analysen zur Ästhetik eines unbewältigten Mythos, ed. Rainer Stommer with Claudia Gabriele Philipp, Marburg: Jonas, 1982, ISBN 9783922561125, pp. 154–92, pp. 161, 162 (in German).
  19. Erhard Schütz and Eckhard Gruber, Mythos Reichsautobahn: Bau und Inszenierung der 'Straßen des Führers' 1933–1941, Berlin: Links, 1996, ISBN 978-386153117-3, p. 63 (in German).
  20. ^ "Putzkraft gesucht, halbtags", Süddeutsche Zeitung, 23 August 2015 (in German).
  21. "Verschollene Nazi-Kunst entdeckt" Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 20 May 2015 (in German).
  22. "Rechtsstreit um Hitlers Bronzepferde", Der Tagesspiegel, 14 December 2015 (in German).
  23. ^ Gabriel Borrud, "Nazi propaganda horse winds up at German school", Deutsche Welle, 12 August 2015.

External links

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