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| Handel has generally been accorded high esteem by fellow composers, both in his own time and since.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2009/01_january/13/composer6.shtml |title=BBC Press Release |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date=13 January 2009 |access-date=13 April 2012 |archive-date=27 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131127140028/http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2009/01_january/13/composer6.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> ] attempted, unsuccessfully, to meet Handel while he was visiting ].<ref>{{harvnb|Dent|2004|p=23}}</ref> (Handel was born in the same year as Bach and ].) ] is reputed to have said of him, "Handel understands ] better than any of us. When he chooses, he strikes like a thunder bolt."<ref name="YoungMM">{{cite book |last=Young |first=Percy Marshall |url=https://archive.org/details/handel00youn_0 |title=Handel (Master Musician series) |date=1 April 1975 |publisher=J. M. Dent & Sons |isbn=0-460-03161-9 |page= |author-link=Percy Young |url-access=registration |orig-year=1947}}</ref> To ] he was "the master of us all... the greatest composer that ever lived. I would uncover my head and kneel before his tomb."<ref name="YoungMM" /> Beethoven emphasised above all the simplicity and popular appeal of Handel's music when he said, "Go to him to learn how to achieve great effects, by such simple means." | |||
| {{short description|Architectural style historically developed in the western Islamic world}} | |||
| {{Infobox art movement | |||
| | name = Moorish architecture | |||
| |image = {{photomontage | |||
| |photo1a= Córdoba (5157827355).jpg | |||
| |photo2a= Bab Oudaia2.jpg | |||
| |photo3a= Pavillon Cour des Lions Alhambra Granada Spain.jpg | |||
| |size = 250 | |||
| |color_border = #AAAAAA | |||
| |color = #F9F9F9 | |||
| }} | |||
| | caption = | |||
| Top: ], ] (8th century); Centre: ] in ], ] (late 12th century); Bottom: ] at the ] in ], Spain (14th century) | |||
| | yearsactive = 8th century to present day | |||
| | countries = ] | |||
| }} | |||
| '''Moorish architecture''', is a style within ] which developed in the western ]ic world, including ] (Muslim-ruled ] and ] between 711 and 1492), and what is now ], ], and ] (part of the ]).<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|last=Marçais|first=Georges|title=L'architecture musulmane d'Occident|publisher=Arts et métiers graphiques|year=1954|location=Paris}}</ref><ref name=":122">{{Cite book|last=Parker|first=Richard|title=A practical guide to Islamic Monuments in Morocco|publisher=The Baraka Press|year=1981|location=Charlottesville, VA}}</ref><ref name=":63">{{Cite book|last=Gaudio|first=Attilio|title=Fès: Joyau de la civilisation islamique|publisher=Les Presse de l'UNESCO: Nouvelles Éditions Latines|year=1982|isbn=2723301591|location=Paris}}</ref><ref name=":13">{{Cite book|last1=Touri|first1=Abdelaziz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FTbdBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT3|title=Andalusian Morocco: A Discovery in Living Art|last2=Benaboud|first2=Mhammad|last3=Boujibar El-Khatib|first3=Naïma|last4=Lakhdar|first4=Kamal|last5=Mezzine|first5=Mohamed|publisher=Ministère des Affaires Culturelles du Royaume du Maroc & Museum With No Frontiers|year=2010|isbn=978-3902782311|edition=2|location=|pages=}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite book|title=Al-Andalus: The Art of Islamic Spain|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|year=1992|isbn=0870996371|editor-last=Dodds|editor-first=Jerrilynn D.|location=New York}}</ref> The term "Moorish" comes from the ]an designation of the Muslim inhabitants of these regions as "]".<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last1=Barrucand|first1=Marianne|title=Moorish architecture in Andalusia|last2=Bednorz|first2=Achim|publisher=Taschen|year=1992|isbn=3822876348}}</ref><ref name=":052">{{Cite book|last1=Lévi-Provençal|first1=E.|title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition|last2=Donzel|first2=E. van|publisher=Brill|year=2012|editor-last=Bearman|editor-first=P.|chapter=Moors|editor-last2=Bianquis|editor-first2=Th.|editor-last3=Bosworth|editor-first3=C.E.|editor-last4=van Donzel|editor-first4=E.|editor-last5=Heinrichs|editor-first5=W.P.}}</ref>{{efn|The word comes from ] "]", originally a designation of the inhabitants of the ] kingdom of ] (present-day Algeria and Morocco),<ref name="camps">{{Cite book|title=Les Berbères, Mémoire et Identité|author=Gabriel Camps|date=2007|pages=116–118}}</ref> but the term was later also applied to ] and ].<ref>Menocal (2002). , p. 16; Richard A Fletcher, (University of California Press, 2006), pp.1,19.</ref> The word later acquired more racial connotations and has fallen out of use since the mid-20th century. Its usage today is generally limited to adjectival uses in terms like "Moorish architecture" or "Moorish art".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Assouline|first=David|title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2009|isbn=9780195305135|editor-last=Esposito|editor-first=John L.|language=en|chapter=Moors}}</ref>}} Some scholars also use the term '''Western Islamic architecture''' or "architecture of the Islamic west" for this subject.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":8">{{Cite book|last=Bloom|first=Jonathan M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IRHbDwAAQBAJ&q=Islamic+Palace+Architecture+in+the+Western+Mediterranean&pg=PP1|title=Architecture of the Islamic West: North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, 700–1800|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2020|isbn=9780300218701|location=|pages=}}</ref> | |||
| This architectural style blended influences from ] culture in ], pre-Islamic ] (], ], and ]), and contemporary artistic currents in the Islamic ] to elaborate a unique style over centuries with recognizable features such as the ], '']'' gardens (courtyard gardens with a symmetrical four-part division), and elaborate ] and ] motifs in wood, ], and ]work (notably '']'').<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":122" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":23">{{Cite book|last=Bennison|first=Amira K.|title=The Almoravid and Almohad Empires|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|year=2016|isbn=9780748646821}}</ref><ref name=":13" /> Major centers of this artistic development included the main capitals of the empires and Muslim states in the region's history, such as ], ], ], ], ], ] and ].<ref name=":02" /> | |||
| Even after Muslim rule ] in Spain and Portugal, the traditions of Moorish architecture continued in North Africa as well as in the ] in Spain, which made use of Moorish techniques and designs and adapted them to ] patrons.<ref>López Guzmán, Rafael. Arquitectura mudéjar. Cátedra. {{ISBN|84-376-1801-0}}.</ref><ref name=":4" /> Much later, particularly in the 19th century, the Moorish style was frequently ] or emulated in the ] which emerged in Europe, North African colonies and ] as part of the ] ] and also, notably, as a recurring choice for new ] ] architecture.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Giese|first1=Francine|last2=Varela Braga|first2=Ariane|last3=Lahoz Kopiske|first3=Helena|last4=Kaufmann|first4=Katrin|last5=Castro Royo|first5=Laura|last6=Keller|first6=Sarah|date=2016|title=Resplendence of al-Andalus: Exchange and Transfer Processes in Mudéjar and Neo-Moorish Architecture|journal=Asiatische Studien – Études Asiatiques|volume=70|issue=4|pages=1307–1353|doi=10.1515/asia-2016-0499|s2cid=99943973|url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/134280/1/%5B%5D_Resplendence_of_al-Andalus_.pdf}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=2017-04-27|title=Why Moorish? Synagogues and the Moorish Revival|url=https://www.eldridgestreet.org/art-architecture/moorish-revival-synagogues/|access-date=2019-11-17|website=Museum at Eldridge Street|language=en-US}}</ref> Similarly, ] was a revivalist style evident in late 19th and early 20th-century Spain and in some ] in northern Morocco.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lapunzina|first=Alejandro|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yDmR2i32cygC&dq=Neo-Mud%C3%A9jar&pg=PR56|title=Architecture of Spain|date=2005|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-31963-1|pages=lvi|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Calderwood|first=Eric|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vbpTDwAAQBAJ&dq=Neo-Mud%C3%A9jar&pg=PT146|title=Colonial al-Andalus: Spain and the Making of Modern Moroccan Culture|date=2018-04-09|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-98579-7|language=en}}</ref> | |||
| == History == | |||
| === Early Islamic period (8th–10th centuries) === | |||
| ] in Spain, founded in 785|left]] | |||
| In the 7th century the region of North Africa became steadily integrated into the emerging ] during the ]. The territory of ] (roughly present-day ]), and its newly-founded capital city of ] (also transliterated as "Qayrawan") became an early center of Islamic culture for the region.<ref name=":152" /> According to tradition, the ] was founded here by ] in 670, although the current structure dates from later.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last1=Binous|first1=Jamila|title=Ifriqiya: Thirteen Centuries of Art and Architecture in Tunisia|last2=Baklouti|first2=Naceur|last3=Ben Tanfous|first3=Aziza|last4=Bouteraa|first4=Kadri|last5=Rammah|first5=Mourad|last6=Zouari|first6=Ali|publisher=Museum With No Frontiers, MWNF|year=2002|isbn=9783902782199|edition=2nd}}</ref><ref name=":8" />{{Rp|page=28}} | |||
| ] | |||
| In 711 most of the ], part of the ] at the time, was ] by a Muslim (largely ]) army led by ] and became known as ]. The city of ] became its capital. In 756 ] established the independent ] here and in 785 he also founded the ], one of the most important architectural monuments of the western Islamic world. The mosque was notable for its vast ] hall composed of rows of columns connected by double tiers of arches (including ]es on the lower tier) composed of alternating red brick and light-colored stone. The mosque was subsequently expanded by ] in 836, who preserved the original design while extending its dimensions. The mosque was again embellished with new features by his successors ], ], and ]. One of the western gates of the mosque, known as ''Bab al-Wuzara''' (today known as ''Puerta de San Esteban''), dates from this period and is often noted as an important prototype of later Moorish architectural forms and motifs.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":8" /> | |||
| The ] of Morocco, the westernmost territory of the Muslim world, only became more definitive with the advent of the ] at the end of the 8th century.<ref name=":152">{{Cite book|last=Abun-Nasr|first=Jamil|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jdlKbZ46YYkC|title=A history of the Maghrib in the Islamic period|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1987|isbn=0521337674|location=Cambridge}}</ref> The Idrisids founded the city of ], which became their capital and the major political and cultural center of early Islamic Morocco.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Rivet|first=Daniel|title=Histoire du Maroc: de Moulay Idrîs à Mohammed VI|publisher=Fayard|year=2012|isbn=9782213638478|location=Paris}}</ref><ref name=":03">{{Cite book|last=Le Tourneau|first=Roger|title=Fès avant le protectorat: étude économique et sociale d'une ville de l'occident musulman|publisher=Société Marocaine de Librairie et d'Édition|year=1949|location=Casablanca}}</ref> In this early period Morocco also absorbed waves of immigrants from Tunisia and al-Andalus who brought in cultural and artistic influences from their home countries.<ref name=":152" /><ref name=":63" /> The earliest well-known Islamic-era monuments in Morocco, such as the ] and ] mosques in Fes, were built in the hypostyle form and made use of the horseshoe arch as well.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":03" /> These reflected early influences from other major monuments like the Great Mosque of Kairouan and the Great Mosque of Cordoba.<ref name=":23" /> | |||
| ] in ], founded in 640 and rebuilt by the ] in the 9th century|left]] | |||
| In the 9th century the province of Ifriqiya, while still nominally under the control of the ] in ], was '']'' ruled by the ]. The Aghlabids were major builders and erected many of Tunisia's oldest Islamic-era monuments, including military structures like the ] and the ], religious buildings like the ] and the ], and practical infrastructure works like the Aghlabid Reservoirs of Kairouan.<ref name=":8" />{{Rp|page=21-41}} Much of their architecture, even their mosques, had a heavy and almost fortress-like appearance, but they nonetheless left an influential artistic legacy.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|pages=9-61}}<ref name=":8" />{{Rp|page=21-41}}<ref name=":2" /> | |||
| ] | |||
| One of the most important Aghlabid monuments is the Great Mosque of Kairouan, which was completely rebuilt by the emir ] (r. 817–838) in 836, although various additions and repairs were effected later which complicate the chronology of its construction.<ref name=":8" />{{Rp|page=28-32}} The mosque features an enormous rectangular courtyard, a large hypostyle prayer hall, and a thick three-story ] (tower from which the ] was issued). The '']'' (niche symbolizing the ]) of the prayer hall is among the oldest examples of its kind, richly decorated with marble panels carved in high-] vegetal motifs and with ceramic ] with ] and ].<ref name=":8" />{{Rp|page=30}}<ref name=":2410">{{Cite book|last=|first=|title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2009|isbn=9780195309911|editor-last=M. Bloom|editor-first=Jonathan|location=|pages=|chapter=Mihrab|editor-last2=S. Blair|editor-first2=Sheila}}</ref> Next to the mihrab is the oldest surviving '']'' (pulpit) in the world, made of richly-carved ] panels. Both the carved panels of the minbar and the ceramic tiles of the mihrab are believed to be imports from Abbasid ].<ref name=":8" />{{Rp|page=30-32}} An elegant ] in front of the mihrab with an elaborately-decorated drum is one of architectural highlights of this period. Its light construction contrasts with the bulky structure of the surrounding mosque and the dome's drum is elaborately decorated with a frieze of ], ] carved in the shape of shells, and various motifs carved in ].<ref name=":8" />{{Rp|page=30-32}} The mosque's minaret is the oldest surviving one in North Africa and the western Islamic world.<ref name=":2422">{{Cite book |last= |first= |title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=9780195309911 |editor-last=M. Bloom |editor-first=Jonathan |location= |pages= |chapter=Minaret |editor-last2=S. Blair |editor-first2=Sheila}}</ref><ref name=":163">{{Cite book |last=Petersen |first=Andrew |title=Dictionary of Islamic architecture |publisher=Routledge |year=1996 |isbn=9781134613663 |location= |pages=187-190 |chapter=}}</ref> Its form was modeled on older ] in North Africa, quite possibly the lighthouse at ] (Sullecthum) in particular.<ref name=":8" />{{Rp|page=32}}<ref name=":0522">{{Cite book |last=Hillenbrand |first=Robert |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition |last2=Burton-Page |first2=J. |last3=Freeman-Greenville |first3=G.S.P. |publisher=Brill |year=1960-2007 |isbn=9789004161214 |editor-last=Bearman |editor-first=P. |location= |pages= |chapter=Manār, Manāra |editor-last2=Bianquis |editor-first2=Th. |editor-last3=Bosworth |editor-first3=C.E. |editor-last4=van Donzel |editor-first4=E. |editor-last5=Heinrichs |editor-first5=W.P.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Guidetti |first=Mattia |url=https://books.google.ca/books?id=6YgpDwAAQBAJ&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&lpg=PP1&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=A Companion to Islamic Art and Architecture |publisher=Wiley Blackwell |year=2017 |isbn=9781119068662 |editor-last=Flood |editor-first=Finbarr Barry |volume=1 |pages=130-150 |chapter=Sacred Spaces in Early Islam |editor-last2=Necipoğlu |editor-first2=Gülru}}</ref>{{Rp|page=138}} | |||
| The ] in ], which was founded earlier around 698, similarly owes its overall current form to the Aghlabid emir ] (r. 856–863).<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":8" />{{Rp|page=38}} The ] (also known as the "Mosque of the Three Doors"), dated to 866, possesses what is considered by some to be the oldest decorated external façade in ], featuring carved ] inscriptions and ].<ref name=":2" /> | |||
| === The Caliphate of Cordoba and the Fatimids (10th century) === | |||
| ]-decorated '']'' (center) and the ] arches of the '']'' (left and right) in the Great Mosque of Cordoba, in the extension added by ] after 962]] | |||
| ] at ] (10th century)]] | |||
| In the 10th century ] declared a new ] in al-Andalus and inaugurated the height of Andalusi power in the region. He marked this political evolution with the creation of a vast and lavish palace-city called ] (also spelled and pronounced today as "Medina Azahara"), located just outside Cordoba, whose construction started in 936 and continued for decades.<ref name=":1" /> He also expanded the courtyard ('']'') of Cordoba's Great Mosque and built its first true minaret. The minaret, with a square floor plan, set another precedent that was followed in the architecture of other mosques in the region. Abd ar-Rahman III's cultured son and successor, ], further expanded the mosque's prayer hall, starting in 962. He endowed it with some of its most significant architectural flourishes and innovations, which included interlacing ]es, decorative ribbed domes, and a richly-ornamented mihrab (niche symbolizing the ]) with ]-influenced gold ].<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":1" /> A much smaller but historically notable work from the late caliphate period is the ] (later known as the Church of San Cristo de la Luz) in ], which features a variety of ribbed domes resting on horseshoe arches and an exterior façade with ] carved in brick. Other monuments from the Caliphate period in al-Andalus include several of Toledo's old city gates (e.g. ]), the former mosque (and later monastery) of ], the ], the ], the ] of Cordoba, and, possibly, the ].<ref name=":1" /> | |||
| In the 10th century much of northern Morocco also came directly within the sphere of influence of the Ummayyad Caliphate of Cordoba, with competition from the ] further east.<ref name=":152" /> Early contributions to ] from this period include expansions to the Qarawiyyin and Andalusiyyin mosques in Fes and the addition of their square-shafted minarets, carried out under the sponsorship of Abd ar-Rahman III and following the example of the minaret he built for the Great Mosque of Cordoba.<ref name=":03" /><ref name=":02" /> | |||
| ] (10th century) ]] | |||
| In Ifriqiya, the Fatimids also built extensively, most notably with the creation of a new fortified capital on the coast, ]. Construction began in 916 and the new city was officially inaugurated on February 20, 921, although some construction continued.<ref name=":8" />{{Rp|47}} In addition to its heavy fortified walls, the city included the Fatimid palaces, an artificial harbor, and a congregational mosque (the ]). Much of this has not survived to the present day. Fragments of mosaic pavements from the palaces have been discovered from modern excavations.<ref name=":8" />{{Rp|48}} The mosque is one of the most well-preserved Fatimid monuments in the ], although it too has been extensively damaged over time and was in large part reconstructed by ] in the 1960s.<ref name=":8" />{{Rp|49}} It consists of a hypostyle prayer hall with a roughly square courtyard. The mosque's original main entrance, a monumental portal projecting from the wall, was relatively unusual at the time and may have been inspired by ancient Roman ]. Another unusual feature was the absence of a minaret, which may have reflected an early Fatimid rejection of such structures as unnecessary innovations.<ref name=":8" />{{Rp|49-51}} | |||
| === ''Taifas'' and regional Berber dynasties (11th century) === | |||
| ] in ], Spain (], 11th century)|left]]The collapse of the Cordoban caliphate in the early 11th century gave rise to the first ] period, during which al-Andalus was politically fragmented into a number of smaller kingdoms. The disintegration of central authority resulted in the ruin and pillage of Madinat al-Zahra.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kennedy|first=Hugh|title=Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus|publisher=Routledge|year=1996|isbn=9781317870418}}</ref> Despite this political decline, the culture of the Taifa emirates was vibrant and productive, with the architectural forms of the Caliphate period continuing to evolve. The ] of ] is one of the most significant examples of this period, containing intricate carved ] decoration and highly ornate arches which elaborated on the model of the intersecting arches of al-Hakam II's extension in the Mosque of Cordoba. In other cities, a number of important palaces or fortresses were begun or expanded by local dynasties such as the ]. The ] and the ] were also the site of earlier fortresses or palaces by the ] (in ]) and the ] (in Granada), respectively. The ] of Granada, another historic ], also dates from this period.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":02" /> | |||
| ] (11th century)]] | |||
| In North Africa, new Berber dynasties such as the ] ruled on behalf of the Fatimids, who had moved their base of power to Cairo in the late 10th century. The Zirid palace at ] (near the present town of ] in ]) was built in 934 by ] while in the service of the Fatimid caliph ]. It is one of the oldest palaces in the Maghreb to have been discovered and excavated.<ref name=":324">{{Cite book|last=Arnold|first=Felix|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bXjXDQAAQBAJ&dq=Islamic+Palace+Architecture+in+the+Western+Mediterranean&pg=PP1|title=Islamic Palace Architecture in the Western Mediterranean: A History|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2017|isbn=9780190624552|location=|pages=}}</ref>{{Rp|page=53}} It was built in stone and has a carefully-designed symmetrical plan which included a large central courtyard and two smaller courtyards in each of the side wings of the palace. Some scholars believe this design imitated the now-lost Fatimid palaces of Mahdia.<ref name=":8" />{{Rp|page=67}} As independent rulers, however, the Zirids of Ifriqiya built relatively few grand structures. They reportedly built a new palace at ], a former Fatimid capital near Kairouan, but it has not been found by archeologists.<ref name=":324" />{{Rp|123}} In Kairouan itself the ] was restored by ]. The wooden '']'' within the mosque today is believed to date from this time.<ref name=":8" />{{Rp|87}} It is the oldest ''maqsura'' in the Islamic world to be preserved '']'' and was commissioned by al-Mu῾izz ibn Badis in the first half of the 11th century (though later restored). It is notable for its woodwork, which includes an elaborately carved ] inscription dedicated to al-Mu'izz.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Qantara - Maqsûra d'al-Mu'izz|url=https://www.qantara-med.org/public/show_document.php?do_id=403|access-date=2020-09-17|website=www.qantara-med.org}}</ref><ref name=":248">{{Cite book|title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2009|isbn=9780195309911|editor-last=M. Bloom|editor-first=Jonathan|chapter=Maqsura|editor-last2=S. Blair|editor-first2=Sheila}}</ref> The ''Qubbat al-Bahw'', an elegant dome at the entrance of the prayer hall of the Zaytuna Mosque in Tunis, dates from 991 and can be attributed to ].<ref name=":8" />{{Rp|pages=86-87}} The ], an offshoot of the Zirids, ruled in the central Maghreb (present-day Algeria). They built an entirely new fortified capital known as ], founded in 1007. Although abandoned and destroyed in the 12th century, the city has been excavated by modern archeologists and the site is one of the best-preserved medieval Islamic capitals in the world, with several palaces and a grand mosque.<ref name=":324" />{{Rp|125}} | |||
| === The Berber Empires: Almoravids and Almohads (11th–13th centuries) === | |||
| {{further|Almoravid dynasty#Architecture|Almohad Caliphate#Architecture}}] in ] (early 12th century)]] | |||
| The late 11th century saw the significant ] into Muslim al-Andalus, particularly with the fall of Toledo to ] of ] in 1085, and the rise of major Berber empires originating in Morocco. The latter included first the ] (11th–12th centuries) and then the ] (12th–13th centuries), both of whom created empires that stretched across large parts of western and northern Africa and took over the remaining Muslim territories of al-Andalus in Europe.<ref name=":23" /> This period is considered one of the most formative stages of Moorish architecture in al-Andalus and especially in the Maghreb, establishing many of the forms and motifs that were refined in subsequent centuries.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite book|last=Salmon|first=Xavier|title=Maroc Almoravide et Almohade: Architecture et décors au temps des conquérants, 1055–1269|publisher=LienArt|year=2018|location=Paris}}</ref><ref name=":23" /><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Basset|first1=Henri|title=Sanctuaires et forteresses almohades|last2=Terrasse|first2=Henri|publisher=Larose|year=1932|location=Paris}}</ref> The two empires were responsible for establishing a new imperial capital at ] in Morocco and the Almohads also began construction of a monumental capital in ]. The Almoravids adopted the architectural developments of al-Andalus, such as the complex interlacing arches of the Great Mosque in Cordoba and of the Aljaferia palace in Zaragoza, while also introducing new ornamental techniques from the east such as '']'' ("stalactite" or "honeycomb" carvings).<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":162">{{Cite journal|last=Tabbaa|first=Yasser|date=2008|title=Andalusian roots and Abbasid homage in the Qubbat al-Barudiyyin in Marrakesh|journal=Muqarnas|volume=25|pages=133–146|doi=10.1163/22118993_02501006}}</ref> Stucco-carved decoration, which would become much more elaborate in subsequent periods, began to appear more and more as part of these compositions.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|155}}] of the ] in ] (12th century)]]Some of the oldest and most significant surviving examples of Almoravid religious architecture, although with later modifications, are the ] (1096–1097), the ] (1136), and the ] (1145), all located in Algeria today.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":8" /> The highly ornate, semi-transparent plaster dome in front of the mihrab of the Great Mosque of Tlemcen, dating from the reign of ] (r. 1106–1143), is one of the highlights of this period. The design of the dome traces its origins to the earlier ribbed domes of Al-Andalus and, in turn, it probably influenced the design of similar ornamental domes in later mosques in Fez and ].<ref name=":06">{{Cite journal|last=Almagro|first=Antonio|date=2015|title=The Great Mosque of Tlemcen and the Dome of its Maqsura|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281197636|journal=Al-Qantara|volume=36|issue=1|pages=199–257|doi=10.3989/alqantara.2015.007|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":8" />{{Rp|pages=|page=116}} In Morocco, the only notable remnants of Almoravid religious architecture are the '']'', a small but highly ornate ablutions pavilion in Marrakesh, and the Almoravid expansion of the Qarawiyyin Mosque in Fez. These two monuments also contain the earliest clear examples of ''muqarnas'' decoration in the region, with the first complete ''muqarnas'' ] appearing in the central nave of the Qarawiyyin Mosque.<ref name=":8" />{{Rp|pages=114-120}}<ref name=":27">{{Cite journal|last=Tabbaa|first=Yasser|date=2008|title=Andalusian roots and Abbasid homage in the Qubbat al-Barudiyyin in Marrakesh|journal=Muqarnas|volume=25|pages=133–146|doi=10.1163/22118993-90000128}}</ref> The Almoravid palace of Ali Ibn Yusuf in Marrakesh, excavated in the 20th century, contains the earliest known example of a ] garden (an interior garden symmetrically divided into four parts) in Morocco.<ref name=":83" />{{Rp|71}}<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|404}} | |||
| The Almohad ] and ] mosques are often considered the prototypes of medieval mosque architecture in the region.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":02" /> The so-called "T-plan" or "T-type", in which the central "nave" of a hypostyle mosque (i.e. the nave in front of the mihrab) is wider than the other naves and more elaborately decorated, became an established feature of these mosques.<ref name=":8" />{{Rp|pages=128, 147}} The monumental minarets of the Kutubiyya Mosque, the ] of the Great Mosque of Seville (now part of the ]), and the ] of Rabat, as well as the ornamental gateways of ] in Marrakesh and ] and ] in Rabat, were all models that established the overall decorative schemes that became recurrent in these architectural elements from then on. The minaret of the ] of Marrakesh was particularly influential and set a style that was repeated, with minor elaborations, in the following period under the ] and other dynasties.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last=Deverdun|first=Gaston|title=Marrakech: Des origines à 1912|publisher=Éditions Techniques Nord-Africaines|year=1959|location=Rabat}}</ref><ref name=":12" /><ref name=":02" /> | |||
| The Almohad caliphs constructed their own palace complexes in several cities. They founded the ] in the late 12th century as their main residence, imitating earlier examples of self-contained palace-cities such as Madinat al-Zahra in the 10th century.<ref name=":22" /> The Almohads also made ] the regional capital of their territories in Ifriqiya (present-day Tunisia), establishing the city's own ] (citadel).<ref name=":24">{{Cite book|title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2009|isbn=9780195309911|editor-last=M. Bloom|editor-first=Jonathan|chapter=Tunis|editor-last2=S. Blair|editor-first2=Sheila}}</ref><ref name=":2" /> The caliphs also constructed multiple country estates and gardens right outside some of these cities, continuing a tradition that existed under the Almoravids.<ref name=":324" />{{Rp|page=|pages=196-212}} These estates were typically centered around a large artificial water ] that sustained ] of fruit trees and other plants, while small palaces or pleasure pavilions were built along the water's edge. In Marrakesh, the present-day ] and ] gardens both developed from such Almohad creations. In Seville, the remains of the Almohad ], founded in 1171, were excavated in the 1970s.<ref name=":324" />{{Rp|page=|pages=196-212}} Sunken gardens were also part of Almohad palace courtyards. In some cases the gardens were divided symmetrically into four parts, much like a riad garden. Examples of these have been found in some courtyards of the Alcázar of Seville, where the former Almohad palaces once stood.<ref name=":324" />{{Rp|page=|pages=199-210}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wilbaux|first=Quentin|title=La médina de Marrakech: Formation des espaces urbains d'une ancienne capitale du Maroc|publisher=L'Harmattan|year=2001|isbn=2747523888|location=Paris|pages=}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=70-71}} | |||
| ===Arab-Norman architecture in Sicily (11th-12th centuries)=== | |||
| ]: the central nave is covered by a large ] vault (above), while the rest of the church is covered in ]]]{{Further|Norman–Arab–Byzantine culture}} | |||
| Sicily was progressively brought under Muslim control in the 9th when the Aghlabids conquered it from the Byzantines. The island was subsequently settled by Arabs and Berbers from North Africa. In the following century the island passed into the control of the Fatimids, who left the island under the governorship of the ]. By the mid-11th century the island was fragmented into smaller Muslim states and by the end of that century the ] had conquered it under the leadership of ] and ].<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|last=Davis-Secord|first=Sarah|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RYUlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT3|title=Where Three Worlds Met: Sicily from the Dār al-Islām to Latin Christendom|publisher=Cornell University Press|year=2017|isbn=9781501712586}}</ref><ref name=":15">{{Cite book|last=Bloom|first=Jonathan M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IRHbDwAAQBAJ&q=Architecture+of+the+Islamic+West%3A+North+Africa+and+the+Iberian+Peninsula%2C+700-1800&pg=PP1|title=Architecture of the Islamic West: North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, 700-1800|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2020|isbn=9780300218701|location=|pages=100–107}}</ref> | |||
| Virtually no examples of architecture from the period of the ] have survived today.<ref name=":15" /> However, the following period of Norman domination, especially under ] in the 12th century, was notable for its unique ].<ref>{{cite book|author1=Jeremy Johns|title=Arabic Administration in Norman Sicily: The Royal Diwan|date=7 Oct 2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781139440196|page=}}</ref><ref name=":6" /> Multiple examples of this "Arab-Norman" architecture – which was also heavily influenced by ] – have survived today and are even classified together as a ] (since 2015).<ref>{{Cite web|last=Centre|first=UNESCO World Heritage|title=Arab-Norman Palermo and the Cathedral Churches of Cefalú and Monreale|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1487/|access-date=2021-04-08|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en}}</ref> While the Arab-Islamic elements of this architecture are closely linked to ], they also come from Moorish architecture and are stylistically similar to the preceding Almoravid period.<ref name=":15" /> | |||
| The ] (Palace of the Normans) in ] contains the ], one of the most important masterpieces of this style, built under Roger II in the 1130s and 1140s.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Qantara - Palatine Chapel of Palermo|url=https://www.qantara-med.org/public/show_document.php?do_id=774&lang=en|access-date=2021-04-08|website=www.qantara-med.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Racioppi|first=Pier Paolo|title=Painted wooden ceiling of the Palatine Chapel|url=http://islamicart.museumwnf.org/database_item.php?id=monument;isl;it;mon01;10;en|url-status=live|access-date=2021-04-08|website=Discover Islamic Art, Museum With No Frontiers}}</ref> It combines harmoniously a variety of styles: the ] and door decor, the Arabic arches and scripts adorning the roof, the Byzantine dome and mosaics. The central nave of the chapel is covered by a large rectangular vault ceiling made of painted wood and carved in ''muqarnas'': the largest rectangular ''muqarnas'' vault of its kind.<ref name=":15" /> | |||
| === Marinids, Nasrids, and Zayyanids (13th-15th centuries) === | |||
| ]-era ] in ], Morocco (1350–1355)]] | |||
| The eventual collapse of the Almohad Empire in the 13th century was precipitated by its defeat at the ] (1212) in al-Andalus and by the advance of the Berber Marinid dynasty in the western Maghreb, the ] in the central Maghreb, and the ] in Ifriqiya.<ref name=":152" /> What remained of the Muslim-controlled territories in al-Andalus was consolidated by the ] into the ], which lasted another 250 years until its ] by the ] in 1492, at the end of the '']''. Both the Nasrids in al-Andalus to the north and the Marinids in Morocco to the south were important in further refining the artistic legacy established by their predecessors.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":8" /> When ] was conquered in 1492 by ] and the last Muslim realm of al-Andalus came to an end, many of the remaining ] (and ]) fled to Morocco and other parts of North Africa, further increasing the Andalusian influence in these regions in subsequent generations.<ref name=":13" /> | |||
| The Marinids, who chose ] as their capital, built monuments with increasingly extensive and intricate decoration on every surface, particularly in wood and stucco.<ref name=":02" /> They were also the first to deploy extensive use of '']'' (mosaic ]work in complex ]) in North Africa.<ref name=":122" /> Notably, they were also the first to build ]s in this region, a type of institution which originated in ] and had spread west.<ref name=":02" /> The madrasas of Fes, such as the ], ], and ] madrasas, as well as the ] of ] and the other ] in ], are considered among the greatest architectural works of this period.<ref name=":12232">Kubisch, Natascha (2011). "Maghreb – Architecture" in Hattstein, Markus and Delius, Peter (eds.) ''Islam: Art and Architecture''. h.f.ullmann.</ref><ref name=":13" /><ref name=":02" /> The Marinids also imitated previous dynasties by founding their own fortified palace-city to the west of Fes, known afterwards as ] ("New Fez"), which remained a frequent center of power in Morocco even during later dynasties such as the ].<ref name=":03" /><ref name=":3" /> The ] is one of the major Marinid mosques that is still well-preserved today, though numerous other mosques were built throughout Fes and in other cities during this period (e.g. the ] in Fes, the ] in Marrakesh, the ] in ], the ], etc).<ref name=":02" /> | |||
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| The architectural style under the Nasrid dynasty in Granada was very closely related to that of the Marinids and the two kingdoms likely influenced each other's artistic styles.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":8" /> The architecture of Nasrid Granada likewise embraced extensive surface decoration and made use of elaborate ''muqarnas'' sculpting in many buildings. The Nasrids' most famous architectural legacy is the ], a hilltop palace district protected by heavy fortifications and containing some of the most famous and best-preserved palaces of western Islamic architecture. Initially a fortress built by the Zirids in the 11th century (corresponding to the current ''Alcazaba''), it was expanded into a self-contained and well-fortified palace district complete with habitations for servants and workers. The oldest remaining palace there today, built under ] (ruled 1302–1309), is the ] which, although only partly preserved, demonstrates the typical layout which would be repeated in other palaces nearby: a courtyard centered on a large reflective pool with ]es at either end and a ''mirador'' (]) tower at one end which looked down on the city from the edge of the palace walls.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Partal|url=https://www.alhambra-patronato.es/en/edificios-lugares/the-partal|access-date=2020-11-28|website=Patronato de la Alhambra y Generalife|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":1" /> The most famous palaces, the ] and the ], were added afterwards. The Comares Palace, which includes a lavish ] (]) and the Hall of the Ambasadors (a throne room), was begun under ] (ruled 1314–1325) but mostly constructed under ] (1333–1354) and ] (ruled 1354–1359 and 1362–1391).<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":8" />{{Rp|152}} The Palace of the Lions was built under Muhammad V and possibly finished around 1380.<ref name=":8" />{{Rp|152}}<ref name=":4" />{{Rp|142}} It features a courtyard with a central marble fountain decorated with twelve lion sculptures. The galleries and chambers around the courtyard are notable for their extremely fine stucco decoration and some exceptional ''muqarnas'' vault ceilings.<ref name=":8" />{{Rp||page=160-163}} Four other nearby palaces in the Alhambra were demolished at various points after the end of the ''Reconquista'' (1492).<ref name=":4" /> The summer palace and gardens known as the ] were also created nearby – at the end of the 13th century<ref name=":8" />{{Rp|164}} or in the early 14th century<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|204}} – in a tradition reminiscent of the Almohad-era Agdal Gardens of Marrakesh and the ] of Fes.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Bressolette|first1=Henri|last2=Delaroziere|first2=Jean|date=1983|title=Fès-Jdid de sa fondation en 1276 au milieu du XXe siècle|journal=Hespéris-Tamuda|pages=245–318}}</ref> The Nasrids also built other structures throughout the city – such as the ] and the ] – and left their mark on other structures and fortifications throughout their territory, though not many significant structures have survived intact to the present-day.<ref name=":1" /> | |||
| ] ] (14th century), Spain|left]]Meanwhile, in the former territories of al-Andalus under the control of the Spanish kingdoms of ], ] and ], Andalusi art and architecture continued to be employed for many years as a prestigious style under new Christian patrons, becoming what is known as ] (named after the ]s or Muslims under Christian rule). This type of architecture, created by Muslim craftsmen or by other craftsmen following the same tradition, continued many of the same forms and motifs with minor variations. Numerous examples are found in the early churches of Toledo (e.g. the ], 13th century), as well as other cities in ] such as Zaragoza and ].<ref name=":02" /><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Borrás Gualís|first1=Gonzalo M.|title=Mudéjar Art: Islamic Aesthetics in Christian Art (Islamic Art in the Mediterranean)|last2=Lavado Paradinas|first2=Pedro|last3=Pleguezuelo Hernández|first3=Alfonso|last4=Pérez Higuera|first4=María Teresa|last5=Mogollón Cano-Cortés|first5=María Pilar|last6=Morales|first6=Alfredo J.|last7=López Guzman|first7=Rafael|last8=Sorroche Cuerva|first8=Miguel Ángel|last9=Stuyck Fernández Arche|first9=Sandra|publisher=Museum Ohne Grenzen (Museum With No Frontiers)|year=2018|isbn=9783902782144}}</ref> Among the most famous and celebrated examples is the Alcazar of Seville, which was the former palace of the Abbadids and the Almohads in the city but was rebuilt in by Christian rulers, including ] who added lavish sections in Moorish style starting in 1364 with the help of craftsmen from Granada and Toledo.<ref name=":8" /> Other smaller but notable examples in Cordoba include the ]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Mudejar Chapel of San Bartolomé – Córdoba|url=https://www.artencordoba.com/en/mudejar-chapel-san-bartolome-cordoba/|access-date=2020-11-21|website=Arte en Córdoba|date=10 July 2020|language=en-US}}</ref> and the Royal Chapel (''Capilla Real'') in the Great Mosque (which was converted to a cathedral in 1236).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Royal Chapel {{!}} Web Oficial – Mezquita-Catedral de Córdoba|url=http://mezquita-catedraldecordoba.es/en/descubre-el-monumento/el-edificio/capilla-real/|access-date=2020-11-21|website=Royal Chapel {{!}} Web Oficial – Mezquita-Catedral de Córdoba|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":02" /> Some surviving 13th and 14th-century ] ]s were also built (or rebuilt) in Mudéjar Moorish style while under Christian rule, such as the ] in Toledo (rebuilt in its current form in 1250),<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|title=Qantara – Synagogue of Santa Maria la Blanca|url=https://www.qantara-med.org/public/show_document.php?do_id=1349&lang=en|access-date=2020-11-21|website=www.qantara-med.org}}</ref> ] (1315),<ref name=":10">{{Cite web|title=Qantara – Synagogue de Cordoue|url=https://www.qantara-med.org/public/show_document.php?do_id=177|access-date=2020-11-21|website=www.qantara-med.org}}</ref> and the ] (1355–1357).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Visit Sefardí Museum, El Tránsito Synagogue {{!}} TCLM|url=http://en.www.turismocastillalamancha.es/patrimonio/museo-sefardi-sinagoga-del-transito-2264/descripcion/|access-date=2020-11-22|website=en.www.turismocastillalamancha.es|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title="El Transito" Synagogue in Toledo, Spain|url=https://www.bh.org.il/el-transito-synagogue-in-toledo-spain/|access-date=2020-11-22|website=Beit Hatfutsot|language=en-US}}</ref> | |||
| ], which was added by the ] sultan ] in 1236<ref name=":05">{{Cite journal|last=Almagro|first=Antonio|date=2015|title=The Great Mosque of Tlemcen and the Dome of its Maqsura|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281197636|journal=Al-Qantara|volume=36|issue=1|pages=199–257|doi=10.3989/alqantara.2015.007|doi-access=free}}</ref>]] | |||
| Further east, in Algeria, the Berber ] or Abd al-Wadid dynasty controlled ] and built monuments in their main capital at ]. ] (r. 1236–1283), the founder of the dynasty, added ] to the earlier Mosque of Agadir and the Great Mosque of Tlemcen while his successor, ] (r. 1283–1304), founded the ] in 1296.<ref name=":74">{{Cite book|last=Bloom|first=Jonathan M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IRHbDwAAQBAJ&dq=Architecture+of+the+Islamic+West%3A+North+Africa+and+the+Iberian+Peninsula%2C+700-1800&pg=PP1|title=Architecture of the Islamic West: North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, 700-1800|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2020|isbn=9780300218701|location=|pages=}}</ref>{{Rp|page=|pages=179-184}} The Zayyanids built other religious foundations in the area, but many have not survived to the present day or have preserved little of their original appearance.<ref name=":74" />{{Rp|page=187}} The Marinids also intermittently occupied Tlemcen in the 14th century and left their mark on the area. During his siege of the city at the beginning of the century, the Marinid leader ] built a fortified settlement nearby named ], which includes the monumental ] (begun in 1303, only partly preserved today).<ref name=":023">{{Cite book|last=Marçais|first=Georges|title=L'architecture musulmane d'Occident|publisher=Arts et métiers graphiques|year=1954|location=Paris}}</ref><ref name=":74" />{{Rp|page=|pages=184-186}} Further east, ] founded the ] in 1338–39.<ref name=":74" />{{Rp|page=195}} | |||
| === The Hafsids of Tunisia (13th–16th centuries) === | |||
| ] of ], built at the beginning of the ] period in the early 1230s]] | |||
| In Ifriqiya (Tunisia), the Hafsids, a branch of the Almohad ruling class, declared their independence from the Almohads in 1229 and developed their own state which came to control much of the surrounding region. They were also significant builders, particularly under the reigns of successful leaders like ] (ruled 1229–1249) and ] (ruled 1394–1434), though not many of their monuments have survived intact to the present-day.<ref name=":8" />{{Rp|208}} While Kairouan remained an important religious center, ] was the capital and progressively replaced it as the main city of the region and the main center of architectural patronage. Unlike the architecture further west, Hafsid architecture was built primarily in stone (rather than ] or ]) and appears to have featured much less decoration.<ref name=":8" />{{Rp|208}} In reviewing the history of architecture in the region, scholar ] remarks that Hafsid architecture seems to have "largely charted a course independent of the developments elsewhere in the Maghrib ".<ref name=":8" />{{Rp|213}} | |||
| The ] of Tunis was one of the first works of this period, built by Abu Zakariya (the first independent Hafsid ruler) at the beginning of his reign. Its floor plan had noticeable differences from previous Almohad-period mosques but the minaret, completed in 1233, bears very strong resemblance the minaret of the earlier Almohad ] in Marrakesh.<ref name=":8" /> Other foundations from the Hafsid period in Tunis include the ] (13th century) and the ] (1375). The ] (today a national museum) was also begun by the Hafsids in the 15th century,<ref name=":24" /> and is mentioned in historical records for the first time during the reign of Abu Faris.<ref name=":8" />{{Rp|208}} The Hafsids also made significant renovations to the much older Great Mosque of Kairouan – renovating its ceiling, reinforcing its walls, and building or rebuilding two of its entrance gates in 1293 – as well as to the al-Zaytuna Mosque in Tunis.<ref name=":8" />{{Rp|209}} | |||
| The Hafsids also introduced the first madrasas to the region, beginning with the ] built in Tunis in 1238<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":8" />{{Rp|209}} (or in 1249 according to some sources<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|296}}<ref name=":244">{{Cite book|title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2009|isbn=9780195309911|editor-last=M. Bloom|editor-first=Jonathan|chapter=Hafsid|editor-last2=S. Blair|editor-first2=Sheila}}</ref>). This was followed by many others (almost all of them in Tunis) such as the Madrasa al-Hawa founded in the 1250s, the Madrasa al-Ma'ridiya (1282), and the ] (1341).<ref name=":8" /> Many of these early madrasas, however, have been poorly preserved or have been considerably modified in the centuries since their foundation.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":54">{{Cite book|title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2009|editor-last=Bloom|editor-first=Jonathan M.|chapter=Madrasa|editor-last2=Blair|editor-first2=Sheila S.}}</ref> The Madrasa al-Muntasiriya, completed in 1437, is among the best preserved madrasas of the Hafsid period.<ref name=":8" />{{Rp|211}} | |||
| The Hafsids were eventually supplanted by the ] who took over most of the Maghreb in the 16th century, with the exception of Morocco, which remained an independent kingdom.<ref name=":152" /> This resulted in an even greater divergence between the architecture of Morocco to the west, which continued to follow essentially the same Andalusi-Maghrebi traditions of art as before, and the architecture of Algeria and Tunisia to the east, which increasingly blended influences from ] into local designs.<ref name=":8" /> | |||
| === The Sharifian dynasties in Morocco: Saadians and Alaouites (16th century and after) === | |||
| ] in the ] (late 16th and early 17th centuries) in Marrakesh, Morocco|left]] | |||
| In Morocco, after the Marinids came the ] in the 16th century, which marked a political shift from Berber-led empires to ]ates led by ] ]ian dynasties. Artistically and architecturally, however, there was broad continuity and the Saadians are seen by modern scholars as continuing to refine the existing Moorish-Moroccan style, with some considering the ] in Marrakesh as one of the apogees of this style.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book|last=Salmon|first=Xavier|title=Marrakech: Splendeurs saadiennes: 1550–1650|publisher=LienArt|year=2016|isbn=9782359061826|location=Paris}}</ref> Starting with the Saadians, and continuing with the ] (their successors and the reigning monarchy of Morocco today), Moroccan art and architecture is portrayed by modern scholars as having remained essentially "conservative"; meaning that it continued to reproduce the existing style with high fidelity but did not introduce major new innovations.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":22" /><ref name=":32" /><ref name=":122" /> | |||
| The Saadians, especially under the sultans ] and ], were extensive builders and benefitted from great economic resources at the height of their power in the late 16th century. In addition to the Saadian Tombs, they also built several major mosques in Marrakesh including the ] and the ], which are notable for being part of larger multi-purpose charitable complexes including several other structures like public fountains, hammams, madrasas, and libraries. This marked a shift from the previous patterns of architectural patronage and may have been influenced by the tradition of building such complexes in ] in ] and the '']''s of Ottoman architecture.<ref name=":22" /><ref name=":32" /> The Saadians also rebuilt the royal palace complex in the Kasbah of Marrakesh for themselves, where Ahmad al-Mansur constructed the famous ] (built between 1578 and 1593) which was known for its superlative decoration and costly building materials including Italian ].<ref name=":22" /><ref name=":32" /> | |||
| ], the monumental gateway of Sultan ]'s enormous ] in ], Morocco (late 17th and early 18th century)]] | |||
| The Alaouites, starting with ] in the mid-17th century, succeeded the Saadians as rulers of Morocco and continue to be the reigning monarchy of the country to this day. As a result, many of the mosques and palaces standing in Morocco today have been built or restored by the Alaouites at some point or another in recent centuries.<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":22" /><ref name=":03" /> Ornate architectural elements from Saadian buildings, most infamously from the lavish El Badi Palace, were also stripped and reused in buildings elsewhere during the reign of ] (1672–1727).<ref name=":32" /> Moulay Isma'il is also notable for having built a ] in ], where the remains of his monumental structures can still be seen today. In 1765 Sultan ] (one of Moulay Isma'il's sons) started the construction of a new port city called ] (formerly Mogador), located along the ] coast as close as possible to his capital at Marrakesh, to which he tried to move and restrict European trade.<ref name=":152" />{{Rp|241}}<ref name=":8" />{{Rp|264}} He hired European architects to design the city, resulting in a relatively unique historic city built by Moroccans but with ]an architecture, particularly in the style of its fortifications. Similar maritime fortifications or ]s, usually called a ''sqala'', were built at the same time in other port cities like Anfa (present-day ]), Rabat, ], and ].<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|409}} Late sultans were also significant builders. Up until the late 19th century and early 20th century, both the sultans and their ministers continued to build beautiful palaces, many of which are now used as museums or tourist attractions, such as the ] in Marrakesh, the ] in Meknes, and the ] in Fes.<ref name=":122" /><ref name=":7">{{Cite book|title=The Rough Guide to Morocco|publisher=Rough Guides|year=2019|edition=12th}}</ref> | |||
| === Ottoman rule in Algeria and Tunisia (16th century and after) === | |||
| Over the course of the 16th century the central and eastern Maghreb – Algeria, Tunisia, and ] – came under Ottoman control. Major port cities such as Algiers, Tunis, and ] also became centers of pirate activity, which brought in wealth to local elites but also attracted intrusions by European powers, who occupied and fortified some coastal positions. In the late 17th century and early 18th century, Ottoman control became largely nominal: the ] (Algeria) was ''de facto'' ruled by the local ] until the ], Tunisia was ruled by the ] (after 1602) and the ] (after 1705), and Libya was ruled by the ] until the return of direct Ottoman control in 1835.<ref name=":8" />{{Rp|pages=215-236}}<ref name=":152" />{{Rp|pages=144-205}} Whereas architecture in Morocco remained largely traditional during the same period, architecture in Algeria and Tunisia was blended with ], especially in the coastal cities where Ottoman influence was strongest. Some European influences were also introduced, particularly through the importation of materials from Italy such as marble.<ref name=":8" />{{Rp|page=215}} | |||
| ==== Tunisia ==== | |||
| {{Further|Architecture of Tunisia#Ottoman period}} | |||
| ] in Tunis (c. 1614–1639), with mausoleum and minaret visible]] | |||
| In Tunis, the ], built or begun around 1614–15 by ] (r. 1610–1637), is one of the earliest and most important examples that imported Ottoman elements into local architecture. Its congregational mosque is accompanied by a madrasa, a primary school, fountains, latrines, and even a café, many of which provided revenues for the upkeep of the complex. This arrangement is similar to Ottoman ''külliye'' complexes. It was also the first example of a "funerary mosque" in Tunis, as the complex includes the founder's mausoleum, dated to 1639. While the hypostyle form of the mosque and the pyramidal roof of the mausoleum reflect traditional architecture in the region, the minaret's octagonal shaft reflects the influence of the "pencil"-shaped Ottoman minarets. In this period, octagonal minarets often distinguished mosques following the ] '']'' (which was associated with the Ottomans), while mosques which continued to follow the ] ''maddhab'' (predominant in the Maghreb) continued to employ traditional square-shaft minarets.<ref name=":8" />{{Rp|pages=219–221}} | |||
| The ], built by ] (r. 1631–1664) between 1631 and 1654, reprises many of these same elements as the Yusuf Dey Mosque. Both mosques make use of marble columns and capitals that were imported from Italy and possibly even carved by Italian craftsmen in Tunis.<ref name=":84">{{Cite book |last=Bloom |first=Jonathan M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IRHbDwAAQBAJ&q=Islamic+Palace+Architecture+in+the+Western+Mediterranean&pg=PP1 |title=Architecture of the Islamic West: North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, 700–1800 |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2020 |isbn=9780300218701 |location= |pages=}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=221–224}} Hammuda Pasha was also responsible for starting in 1629 a major restoration and expansion of the Zawiya of Abu al-Balawi or "Mosque of the Barber" in Kairouan. While the Zawiya has been further modified since, one of its characteristic 17th-century features is the decoration of underglaze-painted "Qallalin" ] on many of its walls. These tiles, generally produced in the Qallalin district of Tunis, are painted with motifs of vases, plants, and arches and use predominant blue, green, and ochre-like yellow colours which distinguish them from contemporary ].<ref name=":8" />{{Rp|pages=223–224}} The artistic height of these tiles was in the 17th and 18th centuries.<ref name=":2" /> | |||
| It wasn't until the end of the 17th century that the first and only Ottoman-style domed mosque in Tunisia was built: the ], begun by ] and completed by his successor, Ramadan ibn Murad, between 1696 and 1699. The mosque's prayer hall is covered by a dome system typical of ] and first employed by ] for the ] (c. 1548) in ]: a large central dome flanked by four ], with four smaller domes at the corners and ] in the transitional zones between the semi-domes. The interior is decorated with marble paneling and Ottoman ].<ref name=":8" />{{Rp|pages=226–227}} | |||
| ==== Algeria ==== | |||
| {{Further|Architecture of Algeria#Ottoman rule}} | |||
| {{Multiple image | |||
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| | footer = The ] in Algiers (1660): exterior view (left) and interior view of the main dome (right) | |||
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| }} | |||
| During this period Algiers developed into a major town and witnessed regular architectural patronage, and as such most of the major monuments from this period are concentrated there. By contrast, the city of Tlemcen, the former major capital of the region, went into relative decline and saw far less architectural activity.<ref name=":73">{{Cite book |last=Bloom |first=Jonathan M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IRHbDwAAQBAJ&dq=Architecture+of+the+Islamic+West%3A+North+Africa+and+the+Iberian+Peninsula%2C+700-1800&pg=PP1 |title=Architecture of the Islamic West: North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, 700-1800 |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2020 |isbn=9780300218701 |location= |pages=}}</ref>{{Rp|page=|pages=234-236}} Mosque architecture in Algiers during this period demonstrates the convergence of multiple influences as well as peculiarities that may be attributed to the innovations of local architects.<ref name=":75">{{Cite book |last=Bloom |first=Jonathan M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IRHbDwAAQBAJ&dq=Architecture+of+the+Islamic+West%3A+North+Africa+and+the+Iberian+Peninsula%2C+700-1800&pg=PP1 |title=Architecture of the Islamic West: North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, 700-1800 |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2020 |isbn=9780300218701 |location= |pages=}}</ref>{{Rp|page=|pages=238-240}} Domes of Ottoman influence were introduced into the design of mosques, but minarets generally continued to be built with square shafts instead of round or octagonal ones, thus retaining local tradition, unlike contemporary architecture in Ottoman Tunisia and other Ottoman provinces, where the "pencil"-shaped minaret was a symbol of Ottoman sovereignty.<ref name=":75" />{{Rp|page=238}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kuban |first=Doğan |title=Ottoman Architecture |publisher=Antique Collectors' Club |year=2010 |isbn=9781851496044 |location= |pages=585 |translator-last=Mill |translator-first=Adair}}</ref><ref name=":032">{{Cite book |last=Williams |first=Caroline |title=Islamic Monuments in Cairo: The Practical Guide |publisher=The American University in Cairo Press |year=2018 |isbn= |edition=7th |location=Cairo |pages=34}}</ref> | |||
| The oldest surviving mosque from the Ottoman period in Algeria is the ] in Algiers, commissioned by an ], a convert of ] origin, in 1622.<ref name=":76">{{Cite book |last=Bloom |first=Jonathan M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IRHbDwAAQBAJ&dq=Architecture+of+the+Islamic+West%3A+North+Africa+and+the+Iberian+Peninsula%2C+700-1800&pg=PP1 |title=Architecture of the Islamic West: North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, 700-1800 |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2020 |isbn=9780300218701 |location= |pages=}}</ref>{{Rp|page=238|pages=}} The mosque is built on top of a raised platform and was once associated with various annexes including a hospice, a hammam, and a mill. A minaret and public fountain stand on its northeast corner. The interior prayer hall is centered around a square space covered by a large octagonal dome supported on four large pillars and ]. This space is surrounded on all four sides with galleries or aisles covered by rows of smaller domes. On the west side of the central space this gallery is two ] deep (i.e. composed of two aisles instead of one), while on the other sides, including on the side of the '']'', the galleries are just one bay deep.<ref name=":76" />{{Rp|page=238|pages=}} Several other mosques in Algiers built from the 17th to early 19th centuries had a similar floor plan.<ref name=":76" />{{Rp|page=|pages=237-238}}<ref name=":022">{{Cite book |last=Marçais |first=Georges |title=L'architecture musulmane d'Occident |publisher=Arts et métiers graphiques |year=1954 |location=Paris}}</ref>{{Rp|page=|pages=426-432}} This particular design was unprecedented in the Maghreb. The use of a large central dome was a clear connection with Ottoman architecture. However, the rest of the layout is quite different from the mosques of metropolitan Ottoman architecture in cities like Istanbul. Some scholars, such as ], suggested that the architects or patrons could have been influenced by Ottoman-era mosques built in the ] provinces of the empire, where many of the rulers of Algiers had originated.<ref name=":77">{{Cite book |last=Bloom |first=Jonathan M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IRHbDwAAQBAJ&dq=Architecture+of+the+Islamic+West%3A+North+Africa+and+the+Iberian+Peninsula%2C+700-1800&pg=PP1 |title=Architecture of the Islamic West: North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, 700-1800 |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2020 |isbn=9780300218701 |location= |pages=}}</ref>{{Rp|page=238|pages=}}<ref name=":024">{{Cite book |last=Marçais |first=Georges |title=L'architecture musulmane d'Occident |publisher=Arts et métiers graphiques |year=1954 |location=Paris}}</ref>{{Rp|page=432|pages=}} | |||
| The most notable monument from this period in Algiers is the ] in Algiers, built in 1660–1661.<ref name=":78">{{Cite book |last=Bloom |first=Jonathan M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IRHbDwAAQBAJ&dq=Architecture+of+the+Islamic+West%3A+North+Africa+and+the+Iberian+Peninsula%2C+700-1800&pg=PP1 |title=Architecture of the Islamic West: North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, 700-1800 |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2020 |isbn=9780300218701 |location= |pages=}}</ref>{{Rp|page=239|pages=}}<ref name=":025">{{Cite book |last=Marçais |first=Georges |title=L'architecture musulmane d'Occident |publisher=Arts et métiers graphiques |year=1954 |location=Paris}}</ref>{{Rp|page=433|pages=}} The mosque has a large central dome supported by four pillars, but instead of being surrounded by smaller domes it is flanked on four sides by wide ] spaces, with small domed or vaulted bays occupying the corners between these barrel vaults. The barrel-vaulted space on the north side of the dome (the entrance side) is elongated, giving the main vaulted spaces of the mosque a cross-like configuration resembling a ].<ref name=":78" />{{Rp|page=|pages=239-241}} The mosque's minaret has a traditional form with a square shaft surmounted by a small ] structure. Its simple decoration includes tilework; the ] visible today were added at a later period. The ''mihrab'' has a more traditional western Islamic form, with a horseshoe-arch shape and stucco decoration, although the decoration around it is crowned with Ottoman-style half-medallion and quarter-medallion shapes.<ref name=":78" />{{Rp|page=|pages=239-241}}<ref name=":025" />{{Rp|page=433-434|pages=}} The mosque's overall design and its details thus attest to an apparent mix of Ottoman, Maghrebi, and European influences. As the architect is unknown, Jonathan Bloom suggests that it could very well have been a local architect who simply took the general idea of Ottoman mosque architecture and developed his own interpretation of it.<ref name=":78" />{{Rp|page=|pages=240-241}} | |||
| ==Architectural features== | |||
| {{See also|Islamic architecture}} | |||
| Characteristic elements of Moorish architecture include ]es, ] arches, central courtyards, riad gardens, intricately carved wood and stucco as decoration, ''muqarnas'' sculpting, and decorative tile work known as ''zellij'' in Arabic or '']'' in Spanish and Portuguese.<ref name=":02" /> The architectural tradition is exemplified by ]s, madrasas, palaces, fortifications, hammams (bathhouses), ''funduq''s (]s), and other historic building types common to the ].<ref name=":02" /> Notable examples include the Great Mosque in ] (784–987, in four phases); the ruined palace-city of ] (936–1010); the church (former mosque) ] in Toledo; the Aljafería in Zaragoza; the Alhambra (mainly 1338–1390<ref name="curl">Curl p.502</ref>) and Generalife (1302–9 and 1313–24) in ]; the Giralda in Seville (1184);<ref name="Pev">Pevsner, Niklaus. ''The Penguin Dictionary of Architecture''</ref> the Kutubiyya Mosque, ], ], and al-Qarawiyyin Mosque in Morocco; the Great Mosque of Algiers and the Great Mosque of Tlemcen in ]; and the ] in ], ].<ref name=":02" /> The term is also used to include the ] of the Emirate of Sicily and sometimes parts of ].<ref>''The Industrial Geography of Italy'', Russell King, Taylor & Francis, 1985, page 81</ref> There is also archaeological evidence of an eighth-century mosque in ], France, at the limits of Muslim expansion in the region in the 8th century.<ref>''Islam Outside the Arab World'', David Westerlund, Ingvar Svanberg, Palgrave Macmillan, 1999, page 342</ref> | |||
| As scholar ] remarks in his introduction to this topic, traditional Islamic-era architecture in the Maghreb and Al-Andalus was in some respects more "conservative" than other regional styles of ], in the sense that these buildings were less structurally ambitious than, for example, the increasingly audacious domed or vaulted structures that developed in ] and ].<ref name=":8" />{{Rp|10}} With the exception of minarets, Moorish monuments were rarely very tall and Moorish architecture persisted in using the hypostyle hall – one of the earliest types of structures in Islamic architecture<ref name=":247">{{Cite book|last=|first=|title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2009|isbn=9780195309911|editor-last=M. Bloom|editor-first=Jonathan|location=|pages=|chapter=Architecture|editor-last2=S. Blair|editor-first2=Sheila}}</ref><ref name=":246">{{Cite book|last=|first=|title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2009|isbn=9780195309911|editor-last=M. Bloom|editor-first=Jonathan|location=|pages=|chapter=Mosque|editor-last2=S. Blair|editor-first2=Sheila}}</ref> – as the main type of interior space throughout its history.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":02" /> Moreover, Moorish architecture also continued an early Islamic tradition of avoiding ostentatious exterior decoration or exterior monumentality. With the important exception of gateways and minarets, the exteriors of buildings were often very plain, while the interiors were the focus of architectural innovation and could be lavishly decorated. By contrast, architectural styles in the eastern parts of the Islamic world developed significantly different and innovative spatial arrangements in their construction of domed halls or vaulted ] and featured increasingly imposing and elaborate exteriors that dominated their surroundings.<ref name=":8" />{{Rp|10}} | |||
| === Arches === | |||
| ==== Horseshoe arch ==== | |||
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| | caption1 = Typical round ]es of the ] period at ] (10th century) | |||
| | image2 = Tin Mal Moschee 02.jpg | |||
| | caption2 = Pointed horseshoe arches in the ] | |||
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| Perhaps the most characteristic arch type of western Islamic architecture generally is the so-called "Moorish" or ]. This is an arch where the curves of the arch continue downward past the horizontal middle axis of the circle and begin to curve towards each other, rather than just forming a half circle.<ref name=":122" />{{Rp|15}} This arch profile became nearly ubiquitous in the region from the very beginning of the Islamic period.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|45}} The origin of this arch appear to date back to the preceding Byzantine period across the Mediterranean, as versions of it appear in Byzantine-era buildings in ], ], and ]. They also appear frequently in Visigothic churches in the Iberian peninsula (5th–7th centuries). Perhaps due to this Visigothic influence, horseshoe arches were particularly predominant afterwards in al-Andalus under the Umayyads of Cordoba, although the "Moorish" arch was of a slightly different and more sophisticated form than the Visigothic arch.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|163–164}}<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|43}} Arches were not only used for supporting the weight of the structure above them. ]es and arched niches were also used as decorative elements. The mihrab of a mosque was almost invariably in the shape of horseshoe arch.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|164}}<ref name=":122" /> | |||
| Starting in the Almoravid period, the first pointed or "broken" horseshoe arches began to appear in the region and became more widespread during the Almohad period. This arch is likely of North African origin, since pointed arches were already present in earlier ] further east.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|234}} | |||
| ==== Polylobed arch ==== | |||
| ], have their earliest precedents in ] in Ifriqiya and Egypt and had also appeared in Andalusi ''Taifa'' architecture such as the Aljaferia palace and the ], which elaborated on the existing examples of al-Hakam II's extension to the Great Mosque of Cordoba. In the Almoravid and Almohad periods, this type of arch was further refined for decorative functions while horseshoe arches continued to be standard elsewhere.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|232–234}} Some early examples appear in the Great Mosque of Tlemcen (in Algeria) and the Mosque of ].<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|232}}<gallery heights="150" widths="150"> | |||
| File:Alcazaba of Málaga, July 2017-17.jpg|Interlacing polylobed arches at the ] in Spain (11th century) | |||
| File:Almoravid Koubba IMG 3233.jpg|] at the ] in ], Morocco (early 12th century) | |||
| File:Tin Mal Moschee 03.jpg|A ] in the ] in Morocco (mid-12th century) | |||
| File:Arquitectura árabe en jardines Reales Alcázares Sevilla.jpg|Polylobed arches in the ]-style ''Patio de las Doncellas'' at the ] in Spain (14th century) | |||
| </gallery> | |||
| ==== "Lambrequin" arch ==== | |||
| The so-called ],<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":122" /> with a more intricate profile of lobes and points, was also introduced in the Almoravid period, with an early appearance in the funerary section of the Qarawiyyin Mosque (in Fes) dating from the early 12th century.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|232}} It then became common in subsequent Almohad, Marinid, and Nasrid architecture, in many cases used to highlight the arches near the mihrab area of a mosque.<ref name=":02" /> This type of arch is also sometimes referred to as a "muqarnas" arch due to its similarities with a ''muqarnas'' profile and because of its speculated derivation from the use of muqarnas itself.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|232}} Moreover, this type of arch was indeed commonly used with ''muqarnas'' sculpting along the ] (inner surfaces) of the arch.<ref name=":02" /><ref name="Maslow 19372">{{Cite book|last=Maslow|first=Boris|title=Les mosquées de Fès et du nord du Maroc|publisher=Éditions d'art et d'histoire|year=1937|location=Paris}}</ref><ref name=":122" /><gallery heights="150"> | |||
| File:Tinmal mosque arches DSCF8505.jpg|Lambrequin arches in the ] (mid-12th century) | |||
| File:Al-Attarine Madrasa DSCF3633 (R Prazeres).jpg|A lambrequin or "muqarnas" arch with '']'' decoration in the ], ] (1323-1325) | |||
| File:Patio de los Leones 07 (4410430661).jpg|A lambrequin/muqarnas arch (top) in the gallery of the ] in the ], ] (14th century) | |||
| File:Riad Zitoun Jdid, Marrakesh, Morocco - panoramio (6).jpg|Lambrequin arches in the ] in ], Morocco (late 19th century) | |||
| </gallery> | |||
| ===Domes=== | |||
| Although domes and vaulting were not extensively used in western Islamic architecture, domes were still employed as decorative features to highlight certain areas, such as the space in front of the ''mihrab'' in a mosque. In the extension of the Great Mosque of Córdoba by al-Hakam II in the late 10th century, three domes were built over the maqsura (the privileged space in front of the mihrab) and another one in the central nave or aisle of the prayer hall at the beginning of the new extension. These domes were constructed as ]. Rather than meeting in the centre of the dome, the "ribs" intersect one another off-center, forming a square or an octagon in the centre.<ref name=":17">{{cite book |last1=Giese-Vögeli|first1=Francine|title=Das islamische Rippengewölbe : Ursprung, Form, Verbreitung|date=2007|publisher=Gebr. Mann|isbn=978-3-7861-2550-1|location=Berlin|trans-title=Islamic rib vaults: Origins, form, spread}}</ref> | |||
| The ribbed domes of the Mosque of Córdoba served as models for later mosque buildings in Al-Andalus and the Maghreb. At around 1000 AD, the Bab al-Mardum Mosque in Toledo was constructed with a similar, eight-ribbed dome, surrounded by eight other ribbed domes of varying design.<ref name=":8" />{{Rp|79}} Similar domes are also seen in the mosque building of the Aljafería of Zaragoza. The architectural form of the ribbed dome was further developed in the Maghreb: the central dome of the Great Mosque of Tlemcen, a masterpiece of the Almoravids founded in 1082 and redecorated in 1136, has twelve slender ribs, the shell between the ribs is filled with filigree stucco work.<ref name=":17" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Almagro|first=Antonio|date=2015|title=The Great Mosque of Tlemcen and the Dome of its Maqsura|journal=Al-Qantara|volume=36|issue=1|pages=199–257|doi=10.3989/alqantara.2015.007|doi-access=free}}</ref><gallery> | |||
| File:Bóveda de la Capilla de Villaviciosa (Mezquita-Catedral de Córdoba).jpg|The ribbed dome at the beginning of al-Hakam II's extension of the Great Mosque of Cordoba (circa 965) | |||
| File:Cordoba Mosque 01.jpg|The ribbed dome in front of the ''mihrab'' of the Great Mosque of Cordoba, covered in mosaics (circa 965) | |||
| File:Bab al Mardum. Cristo de la Luz. MPLC 02.jpg|Smaller ribbed domes in the Bab al-Mardum Mosque in Toledo (circa 1000) | |||
| </gallery> | |||
| === Decorative motifs === | |||
| ==== Floral and vegetal motifs ==== | |||
| ]s, or ] and ] motifs, derive from a long tradition of similar motifs in Syrian, ], and ] architectural ornamentation.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":122" /> Early arabesque motifs in Umayyad Cordoba, such as those seen at the Great Mosque or Madinat al-Zahra, continued to make use of ] leaves and ] motifs from this Hellenistic tradition. Almoravid and Almohad architecture made more use of a general striated leaf motif, often curling and splitting into unequal parts along an axis of symmetry.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":122" /> ]s and, to a lesser extent, ] and ] images were also featured.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":122" /> In the late 16th century, Saadian architecture sometimes made use of a ]-type (or ]-shaped) motif which may have been of ] influence.<ref name=":32" />{{Rp|128}}<gallery widths="150" heights="150"> | |||
| File:Decoración de Medina Azahara (Córdoba, España).jpg|] from the ] period at ] in Spain, carved in panels of ] (10th century) | |||
| File:Chellah gate detail DSCF6947.jpg|] motifs and a ] image carved into stone in the ] of the ] gate at ], ] (14th century) | |||
| File:Al-attarine madrasa decoration detail DSCF3687.jpg|Arabesques carved in stucco over an archway in the ] in ] (14th century) | |||
| File:Granada Alhambra 13.jpg|Arabesques in stucco in the ] at the Alhambra (14th century) | |||
| File:Ben youssef madrasa mihrab decoration detail DSCF9478.jpg|] and ] motifs along with ] inscriptions around the ]'s ''],'' in ] (16th century) | |||
| </gallery> | |||
| ==== ''Sebka'' motif ==== | |||
| Various types of interlacing lozenge-like motifs are heavily featured on the surface of minarets starting in the Almohad period (12th–13th centuries) and are later found in other decoration such as carved stucco along walls in Marinid and Nasrid architecture, eventually becoming a standard feature in the western Islamic ornamental repertoire in combination with arabesques.<ref name=":122" /><ref name=":02" /> This motif, typically called '']'' (meaning "net"),<ref name=":4" />{{Rp|80}}<ref name=":242">{{Cite book|title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2009|isbn=9780195309911|editor-last=M. Bloom|editor-first=Jonathan|chapter=Granada|editor-last2=S. Blair|editor-first2=Sheila}}</ref> is believed by some scholars to have originated with the large interlacing arches in the 10th-century extension of the Great Mosque of Cordoba by Caliph al-Hakam II.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|257–258}} It was then miniaturized and widened into a repeating net-like pattern that can cover surfaces. This motif, in turn, had many detailed variations. One common version, called ''darj wa ktaf'' ("step and shoulder") by Moroccan craftsmen, makes use of alternating straight and curved lines which cross each other on their symmetrical axes, forming a motif that looks roughly like a ] or ] shape.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|232}}<ref name=":122" />{{Rp|32}} Another version, also commonly found on minarets in alternation with the ''darj wa ktaf'', consists of interlacing multifoil/polylobed arches which form a repeating partial ] shape.<ref name=":122" />{{Rp|32, 34}} | |||
| <gallery heights="175"> | |||
| File:La tour Hassan - Photo de Abdellatif AMAJGAG (cropped for sebka pattern).jpg|A ''sebka'' or ''darj wa ktaf'' motif on one of the facades of the ] in ], Morocco (late 12th century) | |||
| File:Kasbah mosque sebka pattern DSCF0259.jpg|Variation of the ''sebka'' motif with a trefoil-like shape on the ] of the ] in ], Morocco (late 12th century) | |||
| File:Arabescos en la Alhambra.JPG|''Sebka'' pattern filled with other motifs in carved ] decoration at the ] in ], Spain (14th century) | |||
| File:Bab Mansour2.JPG|''Darj wa ktaf'' motif on ] in ], Morocco (early 18th century) | |||
| </gallery> | |||
| ==== Geometric patterns ==== | |||
| ], most typically making use of intersecting straight lines which are rotated to form a radiating star-like pattern, were common in Islamic architecture generally and across Moorish architecture. These are found in carved stucco and wood decoration, and most notably in ''zellij'' mosaic tilework which became commonplace in Moorish architecture from the Marinid and Nasrid period onward. Other ] motifs are also found, often in combination with arabesques.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":122" /> In addition to ''zellij'' tiles, geometric motifs were also predominant in the decoration and composition of wooden ceilings. One of the most famous examples of such ceilings, considered the masterpiece of its kind, is the ceiling of the ''Salón de Embajadores'' in the Comares Palace at the Alhambra in Granada, Spain. The ceiling, composed of 8,017 individual wooden pieces joined together into a pyramid-like dome, consists of a recurring 16-pointed star motif which is believed to have symbolized the ] of ] described in the ] (specifically the '']'', which is also inscribed at the ceiling's base).<ref name=":8" />{{Rp|159}} Like other stucco and wood decoration, it would have originally been painted in different colours order to enhance its motifs.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Irwin|first=Robert|title=The Alhambra|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2004|isbn=9780674063600}}</ref>{{Rp|44}}<gallery widths="175" heights="150"> | |||
| File:Alicatados de la Sala del Mexuar, la Alhambra.jpg|Eight-pointed and sixteen-pointed star motifs in '']'' (''azelujos'') tilework at the ] in the ] in ], Spain (14th century)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Mexuar - Oratory|url=https://www.alhambra-patronato.es/en/edificios-lugares/mexuar-oratorio|access-date=2020-11-22|website=Patronato de la Alhambra y Generalife|language=en-US}}</ref> | |||
| File:Alhambra wall 10 (6859744634).jpg|Geometric patterns in stucco decoration at the ] in the Alhambra (14th century) | |||
| File:Al-Attarine Madrasa (8753630063).jpg|] in '']'' tilework at the ] in ] (14th century) | |||
| File:Saadian Tombs Ornaments, Marrakesh-8566767208.jpg|Twelve-pointed star motifs in '']'' tilework at the ] in ], Morocco (16th century) | |||
| File:Doorknob (4782213188).jpg|Geometric motifs on the ] plating of the doors of the Al-Attarine Madrasa (14th century) | |||
| File:Techo del Salón de Embajadores (la Alhambra), Granada.jpg|The enormous wooden ceiling of the ''Salón de Embajadores'' (the ] throne room) at the Alhambra in Granada, Spain (14th century) | |||
| File:Ben Youssef Madrasa IMG 5097 (18308359762) (cropped).jpg|Another example of geometric patterns in a (smaller and simpler) wooden ceiling in the ] in Marrakesh (16th century) | |||
| File:Mosaic Bahia Palace Marrakech Morocco 113006 (49702041486).jpg|Painted geometric motifs on a wooden ceiling in the ] in Marrakesh (late 19th century) | |||
| </gallery> | |||
| ==== Arabic calligraphy ==== | |||
| {{See also|Islamic calligraphy|Maghrebi script|}}Many Islamic monuments feature inscriptions of one kind or another which serve to either decorate or inform, or both. ], as in other parts of the Muslim world, was also an art form. Many buildings had foundation inscriptions which record the date of their construction and the patron who sponsored it. Inscriptions could also feature Qur'anic verses, exhortations of God, and other religiously significant passages. Early inscriptions were generally written in the ], a style where letters were written with straight lines and had fewer flourishes.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":122" />{{Rp|38}} At a slightly later period, mainly in the 11th century, Kufic letters were enhanced with ornamentation, particularly to fill the empty spaces that were usually present above the letters. This resulted in the addition of floral forms or arabesque backgrounds to calligraphic compositions.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|251}} | |||
| In the 12th century the cursive '']'' script began to appear, though it only became commonplace in monuments from the Marinid and Nasrid period (13th–15th century) onward.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|250, 351–352}}<ref name=":122" />{{Rp|38}} Kufic was still employed, especially for more formal or solemn inscriptions such as religious content.<ref name=":122" />{{Rp|38}}<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|250, 351–352}} However, from the 13th century onward Kufic became increasingly stylized and almost illegible.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Blair |first=Sheila S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=laQxEAAAQBAJ&dq=naskh+script+nasrid&pg=PA143 |title=Islamic Inscriptions |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-4744-6448-2 |pages=91 |language=en}}</ref> In the decoration of the Alhambra, one can find examples of "Knotted" Kufic, a particularly elaborate style where the letters tie together in intricate knots.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bush |first=Olga |date=2009 |title=The Writing on the Wall: Reading the Decoration of the Alhambra |journal=Muqarnas |volume=26 |pages=119–148|doi=10.1163/22118993-90000146 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Jazayeri |first1=S. M. V. Mousavi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LCj5DQAAQBAJ&dq=knotted+kufic&pg=PA9 |title=A Handbook of Early Arabic Kufic Script: Reading, Writing, Calligraphy, Typography, Monograms |last2=Michelli |first2=Perette E. |last3=Abulhab |first3=Saad D. |publisher=Blautopf Publishing |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-9981727-4-3 |pages=9 |language=en}}</ref> This style is also found in other parts of the Islamic world and may have had its origins in Iran.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McClary |first=Richard P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9i1WDwAAQBAJ&dq=knotted+kufic&pg=PA48 |title=Rum Seljuq Architecture, 1170-1220: The Patronage of Sultans |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-4744-1748-8 |pages=48 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ghelichkhani |first=Hamid Reza |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uhhREAAAQBAJ&dq=knotted+kufic&pg=PA265 |title=A Handbook of Persian Calligraphy and Related Arts |publisher=Brill |year=2021 |isbn=978-90-04-43289-5 |pages=265 |language=en}}</ref> The extensions of the letters could turn into strips or lines that continued in order to form more motifs or form the edges of a cartouche encompassing the rest of the inscription.<ref name=":44">{{Cite book |last=López |first=Jesús Bermúdez |title=The Alhambra and the Generalife: Official Guide |publisher=TF Editores |year=2011 |isbn=9788492441129 |location= |pages= |chapter=}}</ref>{{Rp|page=269}} As a result, Kufic script could be used in a more strictly decorative form, as the starting point for an interlacing or knotted motif that could be woven into a larger arabesque background.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|351–352}}<gallery widths="175"> | |||
| File:Mosquée des Trois Portes 2.jpg|] inscriptions carved into the façade of the ] in ], ], dating from 866 | |||
| File:Great Mosque of Cordoba, mihrab area, 10th century (29) (29800019186).jpg|Kufic Arabic inscriptions in gold ]s above the '']'' of the Great Mosque of Cordoba (10th century) | |||
| File:Bab agnaou kufic 2 DSCF0299.jpg|Late 12th-century Kufic inscription carved into stone on the Almohad gate of ] in Marrakesh | |||
| File:Arabic Calligraphy (4783714452).jpg|Kufic script with floral and interlacing flourishes, painted on ], in the ], ], Morocco (early 14th century) | |||
| File:Fes DSC03586 Morocco (15256607226).jpg|] Arabic script carved into stucco in the ] in Fes (early 14th century) | |||
| File:Medersa Sehrij, Andalusian quarter (589017885).jpg|Calligraphic inscription carved into wood in the ] in Fes, surrounded by other ] decoration (early 14th century) | |||
| File:Granada-Alhambra12.jpg|Calligraphy in the ''Salón de Embajadores'' in the Alhambra, Granada (14th century): above is the ] motto ("There is no conqueror but God") in cursive script, repeated more than once, while below is a larger inscription in "Knotted" Kufic | |||
| </gallery> | |||
| === ''Muqarnas'' === | |||
| ''Muqarnas'' (also called ''mocárabe'' in Spain), sometimes referred to as "honeycomb" or "stalactite" carvings, consists of a three-dimensional geometric prismatic motif which is among the most characteristic features of Islamic architecture. This technique originated further east in ] before spreading across the Muslim world.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|237}} It was first introduced into al-Andalus and the western Maghreb by the Almoravids, who made early use of it in early 12th century in the ''Qubba Ba'adiyyin'' in Marrakesh and in the Qarawiyyin Mosque in Fes.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":162"/><ref name=":02" />{{Rp|237}} While the earliest forms of muqarnas in Islamic architecture were used as ]es or ]s at the corners of domes,<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|237}} they were quickly adapted to other architectural uses. In the western Islamic world they were particularly dynamic and were used, among other examples, to enhance entire vaulted ceilings, fill in certain vertical transitions between different architectural elements, and even to highlight the presence of windows on otherwise flat surfaces.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":13" /><ref name=":122" /><gallery heights="150" widths="150"> | |||
| File:المسجد الأعظم تينمل 15.jpg|Small ''muqarnas'' cupola inside the '']'' of the ] (mid-12th century) | |||
| File:Bou Inania Medersa4.JPG|'']'' above a window in the ] of ] (14th century) | |||
| File:Aa a so nice ceiling in alhambra in granada 2016 (2).jpg|Elaborate ''muqarnas'' dome in the ''Sala de las dos Hermanas'' in the ] of ], Spain (14th century) | |||
| File:Sala de los Reyes - 007.JPG|Closer view of the details at the apex of a ''muqarnas'' dome in the ''Sala de los Reyes'' in the Alhambra | |||
| File:Alhambra honeycomb ceiling 06 (7005732603).jpg|Extreme close-up of carved and painted details in constituent niches of a ''muqarnas'' dome in the ''Sala de los Reyes'' in the Alhambra | |||
| File:Bou inania DSCF2999.jpg|Rectangular ''muqarnas'' vault carved in cedar wood at the ] in Fes, Morocco (mid-14th century) | |||
| File:Muqarnas carved from wood in Tangiers.jpg|''Muqarnas'' carved in wood in the ] of ] (17th century or later) | |||
| </gallery> | |||
| === ''Zellij'' (tilework) === | |||
| {{Main|Zellij}} | |||
| ]'' tilework (partly decayed) in the ]-era ] of ] in ], arranged in mosaics to form ]]] | |||
| Tilework, particularly in the form of mosaic tilework called ''zellij'' (also called ''azulejos'' in Spain and Portugal), is a standard decorative element along lower walls and for the paving of floors across the region. It consists of hand-cut pieces of ] in different colours fitted together to form elaborate geometric motifs, often based on radiating star patterns.<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":02" /> Zellij made its appearance in the region during the 10th century and became widespread by the 14th century during the Marinid and Nasrid period.<ref name=":13" /> It may have been inspired or derived from ] and then adapted by Muslim craftsmen for faience tiles.<ref name=":13" /> | |||
| In the traditional Moroccan craft of ''zellij''-making, the tiles are first fabricated in ] squares, typically 10 cm per side, then cut by hand into a variety of pre-established shapes (usually memorized ]) necessary to form the overall pattern.<ref name=":122" /> This pre-established repertoire of shapes combined to generate a variety of complex patterns is also known as the ''hasba'' method.<ref name=":11">Aboufadil, Y., Thalal, A., & Raghni, M. (2013). "Symmetry groups of Moroccan geometric woodwork patterns". ''Journal of Applied Crystallography'', 46, 1–8.</ref> Although the exact patterns vary from case to case, the underlying principles have been constant for centuries and Moroccan craftsmen are still adept at making them today.<ref name=":122" /><ref name=":11" /> | |||
| === Riads and gardens === | |||
| ] garden in the 19th-century ] of Marrakesh]] | |||
| A ''riad'' (sometimes spelled ''riyad''; {{lang-ar|رياض}}) is an interior garden found in many Moorish palaces and mansions. It is typically rectangular and divided into four parts along its central axes, with a fountain at its middle.<ref name=":83">{{Cite book|last=Wilbaux|first=Quentin|title=La médina de Marrakech: Formation des espaces urbains d'une ancienne capitale du Maroc|publisher=L'Harmattan|year=2001|isbn=2747523888|location=Paris}}</ref> Riad gardens probably originated in ] (where it is also known as '']'') and became a prominent feature in Moorish palaces in Spain (such Madinat al-Zahra, the Aljaferia, and the Alhambra).<ref name=":83"/> In Morocco, they became especially widespread in the palaces and mansions of Marrakesh, where the combination of available space and warm climate made them particularly appealing.<ref name=":83"/> The term is nowadays applied in a broader way to traditional Moroccan houses that have been converted into hotels and tourist guesthouses.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Accommodation in Morocco {{!}} Where to stay in Morocco|url=https://www.roughguides.com/destinations/africa/morocco/accommodation/|access-date=2020-05-31|website=Rough Guides|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Planet|first=Lonely|title=Sleeping in Morocco|url=https://www.lonelyplanet.com/morocco/a/nar/9fd5c53e-0fe7-40bf-bc49-3efdd8ba2203/355491|access-date=2020-05-31|website=Lonely Planet|language=en}}</ref> | |||
| Many royal palaces were also accompanied by vast ]s, sometimes built outside the main defensive walls or within their own defensive enclosure. This tradition is evident in the gardens of the Madinat al-Zahra built by the Caliphs of Cordoba (10th century), in the Agdal Gardens south of the Kasbah of Marrakesh created by the Almohads (12th century), the ] created by the Marinids north of their palace-city of Fes el-Jdid (13th century), and the Generalife created by the Nasrids east of the Alhambra (13th century).<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":22" /><ref name=":3" /> | |||
| == Building types == | |||
| === Mosques === | |||
| ] in ]]] | |||
| ]'' (left) and '']'' (right) in the ]]] | |||
| ] (late 11th century; photograph from 1890s)]] | |||
| ]'' of the ] in Fes]] | |||
| Mosques are the main place of worship in ]. ] are ] to ] five times a day and participate in prayers together as a community, facing towards the '']'' (direction of prayer). Every neighbourhood normally had one or many mosques in order to accommodate the spiritual needs of its residents. Historically, there was a distinction between regular mosques and "Friday mosques" or "great mosques", which were larger and had a more important status by virtue of being the venue where the '']'' (sermon) was delivered on Fridays.<ref name=":03" /> ] were considered more important and were accompanied by preaching, and also had political and social importance as occasions where news and royal decrees were announced, as well as when the current ruler's name was mentioned. In the early Islamic era there was typically only one Friday mosque per city, but over time Friday mosques multiplied until it was common practice to have one in every neighbourhood or district of the city.<ref name=":042">{{Cite journal|last=Terrasse|first=Henri|date=1964|title=La mosquée almohade de Bou Jeloud à Fès|journal=Al-Andalus|volume=29|issue=2|pages=355–363}}</ref><ref name="Maslow 19372"/> Mosques could also frequently be accompanied by other facilities which served the community.<ref name="Maslow 19372" /><ref name=":22" /> | |||
| Mosque architecture in Al-Andalus and the Maghreb was heavily influenced from the beginning by major well-known mosques in early cultural centers like the Great Mosque of Kairouan and the Great Mosque of Cordoba.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":23" /> Accordingly, most mosques in the region have roughly rectangular floor plans and follow the hypostyle format: they consist of a large prayer hall upheld and divided by rows of horseshoe arches running either parallel or perpendicular to the ''qibla'' wall (the wall towards which prayers faced). The ''qibla'' (direction of prayer) was always symbolized by a decorative niche or alcove in the ''qibla'' wall, known as a ''mihrab''.<ref name=":122" /> Next to the mihrab there was usually a symbolic pulpit known as a ''minbar'', usually in the form of a staircase leading to a small kiosk or platform, where the imam would stand to deliver the ''khutba''. The mosque also normally included, close to entrance, a '']'' (courtyard) which often had fountains or water basins to assist with ablutions. In early periods this courtyard was relatively minor in proportion to the rest of the mosque, but in later periods it became a progressively larger until it was equal in size to the prayer hall and sometimes larger.<ref name=":32" /><ref name="Maslow 19372" /> Medieval hypostyle mosques also frequently followed the "T-type" model established in the ] period. In this model the aisle or "nave" between the arches running towards the mihrab (and perpendicular to the ''qibla'' wall) was wider than the others, as was also the aisle directly in front of and along the ''qibla'' wall (running parallel to the ''qibla'' wall); thus forming a "T"-shaped space in the floor plan of the mosque which was often accentuated by greater decoration (e.g. more elaborate arch shapes around it or decorative cupola ceilings at each end of the "T").<ref name="Maslow 19372" /><ref name=":32" /><ref name=":22" /> | |||
| Lastly, mosque buildings were distinguished by their minarets: towers from which the ] issues the call to prayer to the surrounding city. (This was historically done by the muezzin climbing to the top and projecting his voice over the rooftops, but nowadays the call is issued over modern megaphones installed on the tower.) Minarets traditionally have a square shaft and are arranged in two tiers: the main shaft, which makes up most of its height, and a much smaller secondary tower above this which is in turn topped by a ] of copper or brass spheres.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":8" /> Some minarets in North Africa have octagonal shafts, though this is more characteristic of certain regions or periods.<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":2" /> Inside the main shaft a staircase, and in other cases a ramp, ascends to the top of the minaret.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":8" /> | |||
| The whole structure of a mosque was also orientated or aligned with the direction of prayer, such that mosques were sometimes orientated in a different direction from the rest of the buildings or streets around it.<ref name=":83"/> This geographic alignment, however, varied greatly from period to period. Nowadays it is standard practice across the Muslim world that the direction of prayer is the direction of the shortest distance between oneself and the Kaaba in Mecca. In Morocco, this corresponds to a generally eastern orientation (varying slightly depending on your exact position).<ref name=":33">{{Cite journal|last=Bonine|first=Michael E.|date=1990|title=The Sacred Direction and City Structure: A Preliminary Analysis of the Islamic Cities of Morocco|journal=Muqarnas|volume=7|pages=50–72|doi=10.2307/1523121|jstor=1523121}}</ref> However, in early Islamic periods there were other interpretations of what the ''qibla'' should be. In the western Islamic world (the Maghreb and al-Andalus), in particular, early mosques often had a southern orientation, as can be seen in major early mosques like the Great Mosque of Cordoba and the ] in ]. This was based on a reported '']'' of the ] which stated that "what is between the east and west is a ''qibla''", as well as on a popular view that mosques should not be aligned towards the ] but rather that they should follow the cardinal orientation of the Kaaba itself (which is a rectangular structure with its own geometric axes), which is in turn aligned according to certain astronomical references (e.g. its minor axis is aligned with the sunrise of the ]).<ref name=":52">{{Cite journal|last=King|first=David A.|date=1995|title=The Orientation of Medieval Islamic Religious Architecture and Cities|journal=Journal for the History of Astronomy|volume=26|issue=3|pages=253–274|doi=10.1177/002182869502600305|s2cid=117528323}}</ref><ref name=":33" /><ref name=":83" /> | |||
| === Synagogues === | |||
| ] in ], ]]] | |||
| Synagogues had a very different layout from mosques but in North Africa and Al-Andalus they often shared similar decorative trends as the traditional Islamic architecture around them, such as ] and carved stucco,<ref name="Métalsi 2003">{{Cite book|last=Métalsi|first=Mohamed|title=Fès: La ville essentielle|publisher=ACR Édition Internationale|year=2003|isbn=978-2867701528|location=Paris}}</ref><ref name=":72">{{Cite journal|last1=Gilson Miller|first1=Susan|last2=Petruccioli|first2=Attilio|last3=Bertagnin|first3=Mauro|date=2001|title=Inscribing Minority Space in the Islamic City: The Jewish Quarter of Fez (1438-1912)|journal=Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians|volume=60|issue=3|pages=310–327|doi=10.2307/991758|jstor=991758}}</ref> though later synagogues in North Africa were built in other styles too. Notable examples of historic synagogues in Spain include the ] in Toledo (rebuilt in its current form in 1250),<ref name=":9" /> the ] (1315),<ref name=":10" /> and the ] in Toledo (1355–1357). In Morocco they include the ] in Fes, the ] in Marrakesh, and the ] in Casablanca, though numerous other examples exist.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Frank|first=Michael|date=2015-05-30|title=In Morocco, Exploring Remnants of Jewish History|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/31/travel/in-morocco-exploring-remnants-of-jewish-history.html|access-date=2020-09-26|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-04-18|title=Morocco is a trove of Jewish history if you know where to go|url=https://apnews.com/article/749d2471171b4c1985bd33b8d43c1609|access-date=2020-09-26|website=AP NEWS}}</ref> One of the most famous historic synagogues in Tunisia is the 19th-century ]. | |||
| === Madrasas === | |||
| ] in ], Morocco (16th century)]] | |||
| The ] was an institution which originated in northeastern ] by the early 11th century and was progressively adopted further west.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":122" /> These establishments provided ] and served to train ], particularly in ] and jurisprudence ('']''). The madrasa in the ] world was generally antithetical to more "]" religious doctrines, including the doctrine espoused by the Almohad dynasty. As such, in the westernmost parts of the Islamic world it only came to flourish in the late 13th century, after the Almohads, starting especially under the Marinid and Hafsid dynasty.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":8" /> To dynasties like the Marinids, madrasas also played a part in bolstering the political legitimacy of their rule. They used this patronage to encourage the loyalty of the country's influential but independent religious elites and also to portray themselves to the general population as protectors and promoters of orthodox Sunni Islam.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":1322">{{Cite book|last1=Lintz|first1=Yannick|title=Maroc médiéval: Un empire de l'Afrique à l'Espagne|last2=Déléry|first2=Claire|last3=Tuil Leonetti|first3=Bulle|publisher=Louvre éditions|year=2014|isbn=9782350314907|location=Paris}}</ref> Finally, madrasas also played an important role in training the scholars and elites who operated the state bureaucracy.<ref name=":1322" /> Madrasas also played a supporting role to major learning institutions of the region like the ] in Fes; in part because, unlike the mosque, they provided accommodations for students who came from outside the city.<ref name=":122" />{{Rp|137}}<ref name=":63"/>{{Rp|110}} Many of these students were poor, seeking sufficient education to gain a higher position in their home towns, and the madrasas provided them with basic necessities such as lodging and bread.<ref name=":03" />{{Rp|463}} However, the madrasas were also teaching institutions in their own right and offered their own courses, with some ] making their reputation by teaching at certain madrasas.<ref name=":63" />{{Rp|141}} | |||
| Madrasas were generally centered around a main courtyard with a central fountain, off which other rooms could be accessed. Student living quarters were typically distributed on an upper floor around the courtyard. Many madrasas also included a prayer hall with a mihrab, though only the Bou Inania Madrasa of Fes officially functioned as a full mosque and featured its own minaret.<ref name=":12232"/><ref name=":02" /><ref name=":8" /> | |||
| === Mausoleums and zawiyas === | |||
| ], southern Morocco, dedicated to ] (died 1674)]] | |||
| Most ] are traditionally simple and unadorned, but in North Africa the graves of important figures were often covered in a domed structure (or a cupola of often pyramidal shape) called a '']'' (also spelled ''koubba''). This was especially characteristic for the tombs of "saints" such as ] and ]s: individuals who came to be venerated for their strong piety, reputed miracles, or other mystical attributes. Many of these existed within the wider category of Islamic mysticism known as ]. Some of these tombs became the focus of entire religious complexes built around them, known as a '']'' (also spelled ''zaouia''; {{Lang-ar|زاوية}}).<ref name=":22" /><ref name=":02" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Skali|first=Faouzi|title=Saints et sanctuaires de Fés|publisher=Marsam Editions|year=2007}}</ref> They typically included a mosque, school, and other charitable facilities.<ref name=":02" /> Such religious establishments were major centers of Sufism across the region and grew in power and influence over the centuries, often associated with specific ] or schools of thought.<ref name=":22" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":152" /> | |||
| === Funduqs (merchant inns) === | |||
| A ''funduq'' (also spelled ''foundouk'' or ''fondouk''; {{lang-ar|فندق}}) was a ] or commercial building which served as both an inn for merchants and a warehouse for their goods and merchandise.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":122" /><ref name=":83" /> In North Africa some funduqs also housed the workshops of local artisans.<ref name=":03" /> As a result of this function, they also became centers for other commercial activities such as ]s and markets.<ref name=":03" /> They typically consisted of a large central courtyard surrounded by a ], around which storage rooms and sleeping quarters were arranged, frequently over multiple floors. Some were relatively simple and plain, while others, like the ] in Fes, were quite richly decorated.<ref name=":13" /> While many structures of this kind can be found in historic North African cities, the only one in Al-Andalus to have been preserved is the Nasrid-era ] in Granada.<ref name=":42">{{Cite journal|last1=Reinoso-Gordo|first1=Juan Francisco|last2=Rodríguez-Moreno|first2=Concepción|last3=Gómez-Blanco|first3=Antonio Jesús|last4=León-Robles|first4=Carlos|date=2018|title=Cultural Heritage Conservation and Sustainability Based on Surveying and Modeling: The Case of the 14th Century Building Corral del Carbón (Granada, Spain)|journal=Sustainability|volume=10|issue=5|page=1370|doi=10.3390/su10051370|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":8" /> | |||
| === Hammams (bathhouses) === | |||
| ]'' hammam in ], Spain (11th century)]] | |||
| ] ({{lang-ar|حمّام}}) are ] which were ubiquitous in Muslim cities. Essentially derived from the ] model, hammams normally consisted of four main chambers: a changing room, from which one then moved on to a cold room, a warm room, and a hot room.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|215–216, 315–316}}<ref name="Sibley">{{cite journal|last=Sibley|first=Magda|title=The Historic Hammams of Damascus and Fez: Lessons of Sustainability and Future Developments|journal=The 23rd Conference on Passive and Low Energy Architecture}}</ref> Heat and steam were generated by a ] system which heated the floors. The furnace re-used natural organic materials (such as wood shavings, olive pits, or other organic waste byproducts) by burning them for fuel.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Raftani|first1=Kamal|last2=Radoine|first2=Hassan|date=2008|title=The Architecture of the Hammams of Fez, Morocco|journal=Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research|volume=2|issue=3|pages=56–68}}</ref> The smoke generated by this furnace helped with heating the floors while excess smoke was evacuated through chimneys. Of the different rooms, only the changing room was heavily decorated with '']'', ], or carved wood.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|316}} The cold, warm, and hot rooms were usually ] or domed chambers without windows, designed to keep steam from escaping, but partially lit thanks to small holes in the ceiling which could be covered by ceramic or coloured glass.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|316}} Many historic hammams have been preserved in cities like Marrakesh and Fez in Morocco, partly thanks to their continued use by locals up to the present day.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sibley|first1=Magda|last2=Sibley|first2=Martin|date=2015|title=Hybrid Transitions: Combining Biomass and Solar Energy for Water Heating in Public Bathhouses|journal=Energy Procedia|volume=83|pages=525–532|doi=10.1016/j.egypro.2015.12.172|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Sibley" /><ref name=":25">{{Cite journal|last1=Raftani|first1=Kamal|last2=Radoine|first2=Hassan|date=2008|title=The Architecture of the Hammams of Fez, Morocco|url=https://archnet.org/publications/5172|journal=Archnet-IJAR|volume=2|issue=3|pages=56–68}}</ref> In Al-Andalus, by contrast, they fell out of use after the expulsion of Muslims from the Iberian Peninsula and are only preserved as archeological sites or historic monuments.<ref name=":55">{{Cite book|last=Fournier|first=Caroline|title=Les Bains d'al-Andalus: VIIIe-XVe siècle|publisher=Presses universitaires de Rennes|year=2016|location=Rennes}}</ref> | |||
| === Palaces === | |||
| ], outside Cordoba, Spain (10th century)]] | |||
| The main palaces of rulers were usually located inside a separate fortified district or citadel of the capital city. These citadels included a complex of different structures including administrative offices, official venues for ceremonies and receptions, functional amenities (such as warehouses, kitchens, and hammams), and the private residences of the ruler and his family. Although palace architecture varied from one period and region to the next, certain traits recurred such as the predominance of courtyards and internal gardens around which elements of the palace were typically centered.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":322" /> | |||
| ] in the ], Granada (14th century)]] | |||
| In some cases, rulers were installed in the existing fortified citadel of the city, such as the many ] and ] in Spain, or the ] of North Africa. The original ], used by the Umayyad emirs and their predecessors, was an early example of this. When Cordoba first became the capital of Al-Andalus in the 8th century the early Muslim governors simply moved into the former Visigothic palace, which was eventually redeveloped and modified by the Umayyad rulers after them. The Alcázar of Seville was also occupied and rebuilt in different periods by different rulers. In Marrakesh, Morocco, the Almohad Caliphs in the late 12th century built a large new palace district, the ], on the south side of the city, which was subsequently occupied and rebuilt by the later Saadian and Alaouite dynasties. In Al-Andalus many palace enclosures were highly fortified ''alcazaba''s located on hilltops overlooking the rest of the city, such as the ] and the ], which were occupied by the various governors and local rulers. The most famous of all these, however, is the Alhambra of Granada, which was built up by the Nasrid dynasty during the 13th to 15th centuries.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":322">{{Cite book|last=Arnold|first=Felix|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bXjXDQAAQBAJ&q=Islamic+Palace+Architecture+in+the+Western+Mediterranean&pg=PP1|title=Islamic Palace Architecture in the Western Mediterranean: A History|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2017|isbn=9780190624552|location=|pages=}}</ref><ref name=":8" /> | |||
| Rulers with enough resources sometimes founded entirely separate and autonomous royal cities outside their capital cities, such as Madinat al-Zahra, built by Abd ar-Rahman III outside Cordoba, or Fes el-Jdid built by the Marinids outside ]. Some rulers even built entirely new capital cities centered on their palaces, such as the Qal'at Bani Hammad, founded in 1007 by the Hammadids in present-day Algeria, and Mahdia, begun in 916 by the Fatimid Caliphs in present-day Tunisia.<ref name=":322" /> In many periods and regions rulers also built outlying private estates with gardens in the countryside. As early as the 8th century, for example, Abd ar-Rahman I possessed such estates in the countryside outside Cordoba. The later Nasrid-built Generalife, located on the mountainside a short distance outside the Alhambra, is also an example of outlying residence and garden made for the private use of the rulers. Moroccan sultans also built pleasure pavilions or residences within the vast gardens and orchards that they maintained outside their cities, notably the Menara Gardens and Agdal Gardens on the outskirts of Marrakesh.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":322" /> | |||
| === Fortifications === | |||
| ==== In Al-Andalus ==== | |||
| ], ] (largely built during the '']'' period of the 11th century<ref>{{Cite web|last=Franco|first=Ángela|title=Citadel|url=http://islamicart.museumwnf.org/database_item.php?id=monument;ISL;es;Mon01;8;en|access-date=2020-12-25|website=Discover Islamic Art – Museum With No Frontiers}}</ref>)|left]] | |||
| The remains of castles and fortifications from various periods of Al-Andalus have survived across Spain and Portugal, often situated on hilltops and elevated positions that command the surrounding countryside. A large number of Arabic terms were used to denote the different types and functions of these structures, many of which were borrowed into ] and are found in numerous ]. Some of the most important Spanish terms today include ''Alcazaba'' (from {{lang-ar|القَـصَـبَـة|al-qaṣabah}}), meaning a fortified enclosure or ] where the governor or ruler was typically installed, and ''Alcázar'' (from {{lang-ar|القصر|al-qaṣr}}), which was typically a palace protected by fortifications.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book|last=Zozaya|first=Juan|title=Al-Andalus: The Art of Islamic Spain|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|year=1992|isbn=0870996371|editor-last=Dodds|editor-first=Jerrilynn D.|location=New York|chapter=The Fortifications of Al-Andalus}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> Fortifications were built either in stone or in ]. Stone was used more commonly in the Umayyad period while rammed earth became more common in subsequent periods and was also more common in the south.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":43" />], ] (10th century)]] | |||
| In the Umayyad period (8th–10th centuries) an extensive network of fortifications stretched in a wide line roughly from Lisbon in the west then up through the ] of mountains in Spain, around the region of Madrid, and finally up to the areas of Navarre and Huesca, north of Zaragoza, in the east.<ref name=":43" />{{Rp|63}} In addition to these border defenses, castles and fortified garrisons existed in the interior regions of the realm as well.<ref name=":1" /> Such fortifications were built from the very beginning of Muslim occupation in the 8th century, but a larger number of remaining examples date from the Caliphal period of the 10th century. Some notable examples from this period include the ], the Castle of Tarifa, the Alcazaba of ], the Alcazaba of ], the Burgalimar Castle at ], and the ].<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":43" /><ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Gil-Crespo|first=Ignacio-Javier|date=2016|title=Islamic fortifications in Spain built with rammed earth|journal=Construction History|volume=31|issue=2|pages=1–22}}</ref> The castle of El Vacar near Cordoba is an early example of a rammed-earth fortification in Al-Andalus, likely dating from the Emirate period (756–912), while the castle at Baños de la Encina, dating from later in the 10th century, is a more imposing example of rammed earth construction.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Collins|first=Roger|title=Spain: An Oxford Archaeological Guide|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1998|isbn=9780192853004}}</ref><ref name=":43" /> Many of these early fortifications had relatively simple architecture with no barbicans and only a single line of walls. The gates were typically straight entrances with an inner and outer doorway (often in the form of horseshoe arches) on the same axis.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|100, 116}} The castles typically had quadrangular layouts with walls reinforced by rectangular towers.<ref name=":43" />{{Rp|67}} In order to guarantee a protected access to water even in times of siege, some castles had a tower built on a riverbank which was connected to the main castle via a wall, known in Spanish as a ''coracha''. One of the oldest examples of this can be found at ] (9th century), while a much later example is the tower of the Puente del Cadi below the Alhambra in Granada.<ref name=":43" />{{Rp|71}} The Alcazaba of Mérida also features an ''aljibe'' (]) inside the castle which draws water directly from the nearby river.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Alcazaba de Mérida|url=https://archnet.org/sites/3740|access-date=2020-12-25|website=Archnet}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Sánchez Llorente|first=Margarita|title=Merida Citadel|url=http://islamicart.museumwnf.org/database_item.php?id=monument;ISL;es;Mon01;5;en&pageT=N|access-date=2020-12-25|website=Discover Islamic Art, Museum With No Frontiers}}</ref> Moats were also used as defensive measures up until the Almohad period.<ref name=":43" />{{Rp|71–72}} ], in the ], Spain (9th–10th century)]] | |||
| In addition to the more sizeable castles, there was a proliferation of smaller castles and forts which held local garrisons, especially from the 10th century onward.<ref name=":43" />{{Rp|65}} The authorities also built multitudes of small, usually round, watch towers which could rapidly send messages to each other via fire or smoke signals. Using this system of signals, a coded message from ] in northern Spain, for example, could arrive in Cordoba after as little as five hours. The ], near Madrid, is one surviving example, along with others in the region. This system continued to be used even up until the time of ] in the 16th century.<ref name=":43" />{{Rp|66}} | |||
| Following the collapse of the Caliphate in the 11th century, the resulting political insecurity encouraged further fortification of cities. The Zirid walls of Granada along the northern edge of the ] today (formerly the Old Alcazaba of the city) date from this time, as do the walls of ], the walls of Jativa, and the walls of ] and its Alcazaba.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|115}} The Alcazaba of Málaga also dates from this period but was later redeveloped under the Nasrids. Traces of an 11th-century fortress also exist on the site of Granada's current Alcazaba in the Alhambra.<ref name=":1" /> Military architecture also became steadily more complex. Fortified gates began to regularly include ]s – meaning that their passage made one or more right-angle turns in order to slow down any attackers.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|116}} Precedents for this type of gate existed as far back as the mid-9th century, with a notable example from this time being the Bab al-Qantara (or '']'' today) in Toledo.<ref name=":16">{{Cite book|last=Petersen|first=Andrew|title=Dictionary of Islamic architecture|publisher=Routledge|year=1996|isbn=9781134613663|location=|pages=|chapter=}}</ref>{{Rp|284}}<ref name=":43" />{{Rp|71}}], Spain (12th–13th centuries)]] | |||
| ] in ], Spain: an Almohad defensive tower built in 1220–1221<ref>{{Cite web|title=Qantara – Torre del Oro (tower of gold)|url=https://www.qantara-med.org/public/show_document.php?do_id=1329&lang=en|access-date=2020-12-25|website=www.qantara-med.org}}</ref>]]Later on, the Almohads (12th and early 13th centuries) were particularly active in the restoration and construction of fortresses and city walls across the regions under their control in order to counter the growing threat of the Christian ''Reconquista''. The fortress of ] is a clear example dating from this time, as well as the ] in present-day Portugal.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|166}}<ref name=":14" /> The ] and ] also date from this time, both of them either built, restored, or expanded by the Almoravids and Almohads.<ref name=":14" /><ref>{{Cite web|date=2017|title=Walled Cities & Open Societies: Managing Historic Walls in Urban World Heritage Properties|url=http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/FIELD/Venice/pdf/special_events/Sevilla_v2.pdf|website=UNESCO}}</ref><ref name=":243">{{Cite book|title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2009|isbn=9780195309911|editor-last=M. Bloom|editor-first=Jonathan|chapter=Seville|editor-last2=S. Blair|editor-first2=Sheila}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Qantara - Murailles de Silves|url=https://www.qantara-med.org/public/show_document.php?do_id=1241|access-date=2020-12-25|website=www.qantara-med.org}}</ref> Military technology again became more sophisticated, with barbicans appearing in front of city walls and ] appearing as a recurring innovation.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|166}} Both Cordoba and Seville were reinforced by the Almohads with a set of double walls in rammed earth, consisting of a main wall with regular ] towers and a smaller outer wall, both topped by a walkway ('']'') with ]s.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|225}} Fortification towers also became taller and more massive, sometimes with round or polygonal bases but more commonly still rectangular. Some of the more famous tower fortifications from this period include the ] in Cordoba, which guarded the outer end of the old ], and the ] in Seville, a ]al tower which fortified a corner of the city walls and which, along with another tower across the river, protected the city's harbour.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|166}} | |||
| In the 13th–15th centuries, during the final period of Muslim rule in Al-Andalus, fortresses and towns were again refortified by either the Nasrids or (in fewer cases) the Marinids. In addition to the fortifications of Granada and its Alhambra, the Nasrids built or rebuilt the ] Castle of ] and the castle of ], and many smaller strategic hilltop forts like that of ].<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|212}} A fortified arsenal (''dar as-sina'a'') was also built in Malaga, which served as a Nasrid naval base.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|323}} This late period saw the construction of massive towers and keeps which likely reflected a growing influence of Christian military architecture. The Calahorra Tower (now known as the ''Torre de Homenaje'') of the ] in ] is one particular example of this, built by the Marinids in the 14th century.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|212}}<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|322}} | |||
| ==== In the Maghreb ==== | |||
| ] in ], built in the 9th century]] | |||
| Some of the oldest surviving Islamic-era monuments in the Maghreb are military structures in Ifriqiya and present-day Tunisia. The best-known examples are the Ribat of Sousse and the Ribat of Monastir, both dating generally from the Aghlabid period in the 9th century. A '']'' was a type of residential fortress which was built to guard the early frontiers of Muslim territory in North Africa, including the coastline. They were built at intervals along the coastline so that they could signal each other from afar. Especially in later periods, ribats also served as a kind of spiritual retreat, and the examples in Sousse and Monastir both contained prayer rooms that acted as mosques. Also dating from the same period are the city walls of ] and ], both made in stone and bearing similarities to earlier Byzantine-Roman walls in Africa.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|29–36}}<ref name=":8" />{{Rp|25–27}} | |||
| ] gate of ], Tunisia, known as Skifa al-Kahla]] | |||
| After the Aghlabids came the Fatimids, who took over Ifriqiya in the early 10th century. Most notably, the Fatimids built a heavily-fortified new capital at Mahdia, located on a narrow peninsula extending from the coastline into the sea. The narrow land approach to the peninsula was protected by an extremely thick stone wall reinforced with square bastions and a round polygonal tower at either end where the wall met the sea. The only gate was the Skifa al-Kahla ({{Lang-ar|السقيفة الكحلة|lit=the dark vestibule|translit=al-saqifa al-kaḥla}}), defended by two flanking bastions and featuring a vaulted interior passage 44 meters long. (Although it's not clear today how much of the structure dates from the original Fatimid construction.) The peninsula's shoreline was also defended by a stone wall with towers at regular intervals, interrupted only by the entrance to a man-made harbor and arsenal.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|89–91}}<ref name=":8" />{{Rp|47}} | |||
| The Hammadids, who started out as governors as governors of the ] (who were in turn governors for the Fatimids), also built a new fortified capital in Algeria known as Qal'a Beni Hammad in the 11th century, located on a strategic elevated site. Along with the earlier Zirid fortifications of ] and 'Achir, its walls were made mainly of rough stone or ], demonstrating a slow shift in construction methods away from earlier Byzantine-Roman methods and towards more characteristically North African and Berber architecture.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|92}}] gate in the Almohad-era ] of ], ] (early 13th century)]]] inside the ] gate of ], Morocco (12th century and after)]] | |||
| Starting with the Almoravid and Almohad domination of the 11th–13th centuries, most medieval fortifications in the western Maghreb, especially Morocco, shared many characteristics with those of Al-Andalus.<ref name=":83"/><ref name=":02" /> Many Almoravid fortifications in Morocco were built in response to the threat of the Almohads. The archaeological site of ], southeast of Marrakesh, and Amargu, northeast of Fes, provide evidence about some of these. Built out of rubble stone or rammed earth, they illustrate similarities with earlier Hammadid fortifications as well as an apparent need to build quickly during times of crisis.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|219–220}}<ref name=":23" />{{Rp|299–300}} City walls in Morocco were in turn generally built out of rammed earth and consisted of a wall topped by a walkway for soldiers, reinforced at regular intervals by square towers. These walls were characteristically crowned by ]s shaped like square blocks topped by pyramidal caps. Major examples of such fortifications can be seen in the ], the ], and the walls of Rabat, all of which date essentially to the Almoravids or Almohads.<ref name=":83"/><ref name=":13" /><ref name=":3" /> In western Algeria, the walls of Tlemcen (formerly Tagrart) were likewise partly built by the Almoravids with a mix of rubble stone at the base and rammed earth above.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|220}} As elsewhere, the gates were often the weakest points of a defensive wall and so were usually more heavily fortified than the surrounding wall. In Morocco, gates were typically designed with a bent entrance.<ref name="Métalsi 2003" /><ref name=":26">{{Cite journal|last1=Allain|first1=Charles|last2=Deverdun|first2=Gaston|date=1957|title=Les portes anciennes de Marrakech|url=http://www.hesperis-tamuda.com/fr/index.php/archives/archives-1959-1950/132-hesperis-tamuda-1957|journal=Hespéris|volume=44|pages=85–126|access-date=2020-12-25|archive-date=2021-02-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210228031528/http://www.hesperis-tamuda.com/fr/index.php/archives/archives-1959-1950/132-hesperis-tamuda-1957|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=":83"/> They ranged from very plain in appearance to highly monumental and ornamental. Some of the most monumental gates still standing today were built in stone during the late 12th-century by the Almohad Caliph ], including ] in Marrakesh and the ] and ] (or Bab el-Kbir) gates in Rabat.<ref name=":23" /><ref name=":12" /> | |||
| After the Almohads, the Marinids followed in a similar tradition, again building mostly in rammed earth. Their most significant fortification system was the 13th-century double walls of ], their capital, but they also built a part of the walls of ] (including ] gate), the walls of ] (which include a particularly ornate gate), the walls of ] (near Tlemcen), and a part of the walls of Tlemcen.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|318–321}} Further east, the Hafsids carried out important works on the walls of Tunis, their capital, once again making extensive use of rammed earth. ], the southwestern gate of the medina, dates from this period in 1276 and generally continues the Almohad format, including a bent entrance.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|323}} In later centuries, Moroccan rulers continued to build traditional walls and fortifications while at the same time borrowing elements from European military architecture in the new ] age, most likely through their encounters with the Portuguese and other European powers at this time. The Saadian bastions of Fes, such as ], are one early example of these architectural innovations.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":32" /> As the defensive function of city walls and gates became less relevant in the modern era, city gates eventually became more ornamental and symbolic structures. A prominent example of this is the iconic ] built by the ] in Fes in 1913.<ref name="Métalsi 2003" /> | |||
| ] in ] (19th–20th century), a late example of ] architecture in the oasis regions of Morocco]] | |||
| In Morocco, the term "Kasbah" ({{lang-ar|القَـصَـبَـة|}}; equivalent of Spanish ''Alcazaba'') generally refers to a fortified enclosure, ranging from small garrison forts to vast walled districts that functioned as the ] and center of government in a city (such as the ] or the Kasbah of ]).<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":02" /><ref name=":23" /> Sultan ] (ruled 1672–1727), for example, built numerous kasbahs across the country which acted as garrison forts to maintain order and control, while also building a vast fortified ] which acted as his imperial citadel containing his palaces.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":04">{{Cite book|last=Barrucand|first=Marianne|title=Urbanisme princier en Islam: Meknès et les villes royales islamiques post-médiévales|publisher=Geuthner|year=1985|location=Paris}}</ref> "Kasbah", or ''tighremt'' in ], can also refer to various fortresses or fortified mansions in the ] and the desert ] regions of Morocco, such as the ], ], ], or the ] in ].<ref name=":432">{{Cite book|last=Naji|first=Salima|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=00k3iCkYYEQC&dq=Art+et+Architectures+berb%C3%A8res+du+Maroc&pg=PP1|title=Art et Architectures berbères du Maroc|publisher=Editions la Croisée des Chemins|year=2009|isbn=9782352700579|location=|pages=}}</ref> In these regions, often traditionally ] (Berber) areas, Kasbahs are again typically made of rammed earth and mud-brick (or sometimes stone) and are often marked by square corner towers, often decorated with geometric motifs along their upper walls and topped with sawtooth-shaped merlons.<ref name=":432" /><ref name=":245">{{Cite book|title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2009|isbn=9780195309911|editor-last=M. Bloom|editor-first=Jonathan|chapter=Berber|editor-last2=S. Blair|editor-first2=Sheila}}</ref> | |||
| ==Examples by country== | |||
| The following is a list of important or well-known monuments and sites of historic Moorish architecture. Many are located in Europe in the Iberian Peninsula (in the former territories of Al-Andalus), with an especially strong concentration in southern Spain (modern-day ]). There is also a high concentration of historic Moorish architecture in Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia. The types of monuments that have been preserved vary greatly between regions and between periods. For example, the historic palaces of North Africa have rarely been preserved whereas Spain retains multiple major examples of Islamic palace architecture that have are among the best-studied in the world. By contrast, few major mosques from later periods have been preserved in Spain, whereas many historic mosques are still standing and still being used in North Africa.<ref name=":8" />{{Rp|pages=12-13}}<ref name=":324" />{{Rp|pages=xvii-xviii}} | |||
| ===Spain=== | |||
| ] (right), ]]] | |||
| ] palaces and fortifications in ], dating from the ] period (13th–15th centuries), with later Christian ] additions]] | |||
| ====Major monuments==== | |||
| '''Caliphate of Córdoba (929–1031):''' | |||
| *] (founded in 784; significantly expanded in 10th century) | |||
| *] (no longer extant) | |||
| *] (936–1010) in ] | |||
| * ] in ] (completed 999/1000) | |||
| '''Period of Taifas, Almoravids, and Almohads (11th–13th century):''' | |||
| * ] in Toledo (ca. 1060) | |||
| * ] palace (second half of the 11th century) of the ] dynasty (1039–1110) in ] | |||
| *The ] (1184–98) in ], formerly the ] of the ] ] (1172–1176) | |||
| *], an Almohad defensive tower in Seville (c. 1220) | |||
| '''Nasrid Emirate of Granada (1232–1492):''' | |||
| * The ] (most significant structures dating from 1338–1390) | |||
| *The ] (1302–24 in two phases), a country palace initially linked to the Alhambra by a covered walkway across the ravine that divides them | |||
| * ] (hospital) of Granada (1365–7) | |||
| * ] of the ] of ] (1349), located in what is now the ] | |||
| * ] , a ] of Granada (14th century) | |||
| * Qaysariyya (bazaar) of ] (15th century; but destroyed by fire in 19th century and rebuilt in different style)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Qaysariyya of Granada|url=https://archnet.org/sites/2880|access-date=2020-11-22|website=Archnet}}</ref> | |||
| *], mostly rebuilt under Christian rule but in Moorish style, with the help of craftsmen from Granada<ref name=":8" /> | |||
| ==== Other monuments ==== | |||
| * ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| *] | |||
| **Arab baths of Alhama de Granada<ref>{{Cite web|date=2013-10-02|title=Arab baths of Alhama de Granada|url=https://www.turgranada.es/en/fichas/balneario-18752/|access-date=2020-11-25|website=Portal de Turismo de la Provincia de Granada|language=en-US}}</ref> | |||
| * ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| **Church of San Juan (former site of the city's Great Mosque, with an Almohad-era '']'' still preserved)<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ewert|first=Christian|date=1971|title=El mihrab de la mezquita mayor de Almería|journal=Al-Andalus|volume=36|issue=2|pages=460}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Iglesia de San Juan {{!}} Almería, Spain Attractions|url=https://www.lonelyplanet.com/spain/andalucia/almeria/attractions/iglesia-de-san-juan/a/poi-sig/1206657/1004351|access-date=2020-11-25|website=Lonely Planet|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1" />{{Rp|92–93}}]-era (13th–15th century) ] in the town of ], attached to the ] Church of Nuestra Señora de la Encarnación]] | |||
| * ] | |||
| **] minaret at the ]-style Church of Nuestra Señora de la Encarnación<ref>{{Cite web|title=Qantara – Original minaret of the mosque of Árchez|url=https://www.qantara-med.org/public/show_document.php?do_id=156&lang=en|access-date=2020-11-25|website=www.qantara-med.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2011-08-05|title=Archez|url=https://www.andalucia.com/province/malaga/archez/home|access-date=2020-11-25|website=Andalucia.com|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1" />{{Rp|112, 212}} | |||
| *] (archaeological site and former 9th-century fortress)<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|48}} | |||
| *] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| **] (Umayyad-era castle built in 967)<ref name=":14" /><ref>{{Cite web|title=The Oldest Preserved Castle in Spain|url=https://fascinatingspain.com/place-to-visit/what-to-see-in-andalusia/what-to-see-in-jaen/oldest-preserved-castle-spain-burgalimar/|access-date=2022-01-20|website=Fascinating Spain|language=es}}</ref> | |||
| * ] | |||
| **] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| **] | |||
| **] | |||
| **"Minaret of San Juan" (930), once belonging to a mosque, now attached to the Church of San Juan de los Caballeros<ref>{{Cite web|title=Minaret of San Juan|url=https://archnet.org/sites/2857|access-date=2020-11-25|website=Archnet}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=MINARET OF SAN JUAN|url=https://www.tuttocordoba.com/en/minaret-of-san-juan|access-date=2020-11-25|website=tutto CÓRDOBA|language=en}}</ref> | |||
| * ] | |||
| ** ] (10th-century castle, with later modifications)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Qantara - Gormaz castle|url=https://www.qantara-med.org/public/show_document.php?do_id=1253&lang=en|access-date=2022-01-20|website=www.qantara-med.org}}</ref> | |||
| * ] | |||
| **] | |||
| ***] (Arab Baths) | |||
| ***] | |||
| ***City walls and gates (remains from Zirid and Nasrid periods)<ref>{{Cite web|date=2013-10-01|title=Walls of Albaicín|url=https://www.turgranada.es/en/fichas/walls-of-the-albaicin-16771/|access-date=2020-11-25|website=Portal de Turismo de la Provincia de Granada|language=en-US}}</ref> | |||
| ***] minaret at the Church of San José (ca. 1055)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Minaret at Iglesia de San José|url=https://archnet.org/sites/5016|access-date=2020-11-25|website=Archnet}}</ref><ref name=":02" /> | |||
| ***Almohad minaret at the Church of San Juan de los Reyes<ref>{{Cite web|title=Minaret at Iglesia de San Juan de los Reyes|url=https://archnet.org/sites/3739|access-date=2020-11-25|website=Archnet}}</ref><ref name=":1" />{{Rp|112, 212}} | |||
| ***Casa de Zafra<ref>{{Cite web|title=Casa de Zafra. Centro de Interpretacion del Albaicin|url=http://www.albaicin-granada.com/seccion.php?listEntrada=513|access-date=2020-11-25|website=www.albaicin-granada.com|archive-date=2019-05-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190513161547/http://www.albaicin-granada.com/seccion.php?listEntrada=513|url-status=dead}}</ref> | |||
| **]<ref>{{Cite web|date=2015-05-11|title=Cuarto Real de Santo Domingo|url=https://www.turgranada.es/en/fichas/cuarto-real-de-santo-domingo-2/|access-date=2020-11-25|website=Portal de Turismo de la Provincia de Granada|language=en-US}}</ref> | |||
| **] | |||
| * ] | |||
| **Ermita de Nuestro Padre Jesús (former Almohad mosque with remains of mihrab and surface decoration)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Qantara – Église paroissiale de Fiñana|url=https://www.qantara-med.org/public/show_document.php?do_id=165|access-date=2020-11-26|website=www.qantara-med.org}}</ref><ref name=":1" />{{Rp|215}} | |||
| *] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ]] in the ] (11th century)]] | |||
| * ] | |||
| ** ]]s in a palace at the ], dating from the ] period in the 11th century<ref name=":1" />]] | |||
| * ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| *] | |||
| **City walls and gates<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4" /> | |||
| *] | |||
| **]<ref>{{Cite web|date=2011-08-05|title=Baños de los Arabes (Arab baths)|url=https://www.andalucia.com/ronda/arabbaths.htm|access-date=2020-11-25|website=Andalucia.com|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":55"/><ref name=":1" />{{Rp|212}} | |||
| **Remains of ''mihrab'' of former main mosque at the Cathedral of Ronda<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|212}} | |||
| *] | |||
| **] | |||
| **] (former Almohad palace and garden) | |||
| **Church of San Salvador (preserving traces of the former Mosque of Ibn Abbas on this site, the first city's first great mosque)<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Rough Guide to Andalucia|publisher=Rough Guides|year=2012|edition=7th}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Iglesia Colegial del Salvador/Mosque of Ibn Abbas, Seville|url=https://www.islamiclandmarks.com/spain/iglesia-colegial-del-salvador-mosque-of-ibn-abbas|website=IslamicLandmarks.com|date=23 November 2012}}</ref> | |||
| *] | |||
| **] | |||
| *] | |||
| **] | |||
| **] | |||
| **] (Mudéjar architecture) | |||
| **] (Mudéjar architecture) | |||
| **] (Mudéjar architecture) | |||
| * ] | |||
| ** ]<ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-04-12|title=Alcazaba de Trujillo » Castillos del Olvido|url=https://castillosdelolvido.com/alcazaba-de-trujillo/|access-date=2020-11-25|website=Castillos del Olvido|language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Castillo de Trujillo {{!}} Trujillo, Spain Attractions|url=https://www.lonelyplanet.com/spain/extremadura/trujillo/attractions/castillo-de-trujillo/a/poi-sig/1209184/360768|access-date=2020-11-25|website=Lonely Planet|language=en}}</ref> | |||
| ===Portugal=== | |||
| ]]]], Portugal]] | |||
| * ] (]) | |||
| ** ] | |||
| *** ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| *** ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| *** ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| *** ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ***] | |||
| ***] | |||
| ] in ] (founded in 9th century but expanded and modified multiple times)]] | |||
| ===Morocco=== | |||
| * ] (also spelled "Fes") | |||
| ** ] ("Old Fes", founded at beginning of 9th century) | |||
| *** ] | |||
| *** ] | |||
| *** ] | |||
| *** ] | |||
| *** ] | |||
| *** ] | |||
| *** ] | |||
| *** ] | |||
| *** ] | |||
| *** ] | |||
| *** ] | |||
| *** ] | |||
| *** ] | |||
| *** ] (20th-century gate in local ]) | |||
| ** ] ("New Fes", founded in 13th century) | |||
| *** ] (the Royal Palace; interior not accessible to general visitors) | |||
| *** ] | |||
| *** ] | |||
| *** ] | |||
| *** ] (no longer extant)], the Almohad gate of the ] of ] (end of 12th century)]] | |||
| * ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| *] (at the village of ])] ] in ] (1341)]] | |||
| * ] & ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| **] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| **] | |||
| **] | |||
| * ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ] (encompassing many structures in various states of preservation) | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| *] | |||
| **] | |||
| * ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| * ] (city developed and expanded by refugees from al-Andalus after the fall of Granada in 1492)<ref name=":13" /> | |||
| *] | |||
| **] | |||
| === Algeria === | |||
| ] (founded in 1097, minaret added in 1322)]] | |||
| * ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ] (mix of ], European, and Moorish influences)<ref name=":8" /> | |||
| * ] (and nearby) | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ] (destroyed by the French in 1873) | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ] (mix of Ottoman and Moorish styles) | |||
| *] (ruins in the countryside near ]) | |||
| ] in ], believed to have been founded in 698 but rebuilt by the ] in 856–864 (the minaret was added later and then rebuilt in the 19th century)<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Cite web|title=Zaytuna Mosque {{!}} Mosque plan|url=https://archnet.org/sites/3765/media_contents/75302|access-date=2020-11-22|website=Archnet}}</ref>]] | |||
| === Tunisia === | |||
| ] in ] (866)]] | |||
| * ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** Zawiya of Sidi Qasim al-Jalizi (or Sidi Qacem al-Zelliji) | |||
| ** ] | |||
| **] | |||
| **] | |||
| **] | |||
| **] (local blend of Ottoman and Moorish/Tunisian styles)<ref name=":8" /> | |||
| * ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ] (Mosque of the Three Doors) | |||
| ** ] | |||
| **] (Mosque of the Barber) | |||
| * ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| *] | |||
| **] | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| ==Notes== | |||
| {{notelist}} | |||
| ==References== | |||
| <!--This article uses the Cite.php citation mechanism. If you would like more information on how to add references to this article, please see http://meta.wikimedia.org/Cite/Cite.php --> | |||
| {{reflist}} | |||
| == Further reading == | |||
| {{commons category|Architecture of Al-Andalus}} | |||
| * Arnold, Felix (2017). ''''. Oxford University Press. ] ]. – Comprehensive review of palace architecture in Al-Andalus and the Maghreb; slightly more technical than an introductory text. | |||
| * Marçais, Georges (1954). ''L'architecture musulmane d'Occident''. Paris: Arts et métiers graphiques. – In French; older, but one of the major comprehensive works on Islamic architecture in the region. | |||
| * Bloom, Jonathan M. (2020). ''''. Yale University Press. – A more recent English-language introduction to Islamic architecture in the region. | |||
| * Barrucand, Marianne; Bednorz, Achim (1992). ''''. Taschen. {{ISBN|3822896322}}. – Overview focusing on architecture in al-Andalus. | |||
| * Dodds, Jerrilynn D., ed. (1992). ''''. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. {{ISBN|0870996371}}. – Edited volume and exhibition catalogue focusing on architecture of al-Andalus and some related topics. | |||
| * Salmon, Xavier (2018). ''Maroc Almoravide et Almohade: Architecture et décors au temps des conquérants, 1055–1269''. Paris: LienArt. – In French; well-illustrated volume focusing on Almoravid and Almohad architecture. The same author has published other books on Saadian and Marinid architecture. | |||
| {{Islamic architecture}} | |||
| {{Islamic art}} | |||
Latest revision as of 19:57, 16 June 2024
Handel has generally been accorded high esteem by fellow composers, both in his own time and since. Johann Sebastian Bach attempted, unsuccessfully, to meet Handel while he was visiting Halle. (Handel was born in the same year as Bach and Domenico Scarlatti.) Mozart is reputed to have said of him, "Handel understands affect better than any of us. When he chooses, he strikes like a thunder bolt." To Beethoven he was "the master of us all... the greatest composer that ever lived. I would uncover my head and kneel before his tomb." Beethoven emphasised above all the simplicity and popular appeal of Handel's music when he said, "Go to him to learn how to achieve great effects, by such simple means."
- "BBC Press Release". Bbc.co.uk. 13 January 2009. Archived from the original on 27 November 2013. Retrieved 13 April 2012.
- Dent 2004, p. 23 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFDent2004 (help)
- ^ Young, Percy Marshall (1 April 1975) . Handel (Master Musician series). J. M. Dent & Sons. p. 177. ISBN 0-460-03161-9.