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{{Short description|none}} <!-- "none" is a legitimate description when the title is already adequate; see ] -->
]'', by Joseph Wright, 1771]] ]'', by Joseph Wright, 1771]]


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|quote=Scientists have long rejected the principles of astrology, but millions of people continue to believe in or practice it. |quote=Scientists have long rejected the principles of astrology, but millions of people continue to believe in or practice it.
|access-date=2007-08-28 |access-date=2007-08-28
|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5kwqvOMFZ?url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761552380/Astrology.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028014536/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761552380/Astrology.html
|archive-date=2009-11-01 |archive-date=2009-10-28
|url-status=dead |url-status=dead
}}</ref><ref>Astrology: Fraud or Superstition? by Chaz Bufe {{cite web | title= Astrology Fraud or Superstition | url=http://www.seesharppress.com/astro.html | publisher= See Sharp Press}}</ref> }}</ref><ref>Astrology: Fraud or Superstition? by Chaz Bufe {{cite web | title= Astrology Fraud or Superstition | url=http://www.seesharppress.com/astro.html | publisher= See Sharp Press}}</ref>


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] chart from 1883. During the first half of the 19th century, phrenology was a popular study and considered scientific. By the second half of the century, the theory was largely abandoned.]] ] chart from 1883. During the first half of the 19th century, phrenology was a popular study and considered scientific. By the second half of the century, the theory was largely abandoned.]]


Among the most notable developments in the history of pseudoscience in the 19th century are the rise of ] (traced in America to 1848), ] (first formulated in 1796), and ] (developed around 1800). Another popular pseudoscientific belief that arose during the 19th century was the idea that there were ]. A relatively mild Christian fundamentalist backlash against the scientific ] foreshadowed subsequent events in the 20th century. Among the most notable developments in the history of pseudoscience in the 19th century are the rise of ] (traced in America to 1848), ] (first formulated in 1796), and ] (developed around 1800). Another popular pseudoscientific belief that arose during the 19th century was the idea that there were ]. A relatively mild Christian fundamentalist backlash against the scientific ] foreshadowed subsequent events in the 20th century.


The study of bumps and fissures in people's skulls to determine their character, ''']''', was originally considered a science. It influenced psychiatry and early studies into neuroscience.<ref name="Simpson 2005">Simpson, D. (2005) Phrenology and the neurosciences: contributions of F. J. Gall and J. G. Spurzheim ANZ Journal of Surgery. Oxford. Vol.75.6; p.475</ref> As science advanced, phrenology was increasingly viewed as a pseudoscience. Halfway through the 19th century, the scientific community had prevailingly abandoned it,<ref name="van Wyhe, J."></ref> although it was not comprehensively tested until much later.<ref>Parker Jones, O., Alfaro-Almagro, F., & Jbabdi, S. (2018). ''An empirical, 21st century evaluation of phrenology''. Cortex. Volume 106. pp. 26–35. doi: doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2018.04.011</ref> The study of bumps and fissures in people's skulls to determine their character, ''']''', was originally considered a science. It influenced psychiatry and early studies into neuroscience.<ref name="Simpson 2005">Simpson, D. (2005) "Phrenology and the neurosciences: contributions of F. J. Gall and J. G. Spurzheim" ''ANZ Journal of Surgery''. Oxford. Vol. 75.6; p. 475</ref> As science advanced, phrenology was increasingly viewed as a pseudoscience. Halfway through the 19th century, the scientific community had prevailingly abandoned it,<ref name="van Wyhe, J."></ref> although it was not comprehensively tested until much later.<ref>Parker Jones, O., Alfaro-Almagro, F., & Jbabdi, S. (2018). "An empirical, 21st century evaluation of phrenology". ''Cortex''. Volume 106. pp. 26–35. {{doi|10.1016/j.cortex.2018.04.011}}</ref>


Halfway through the century, ''']''' was invented by the Hungarian physician ].<ref></ref> The theory would remain popular throughout the 20th century as well.<ref>, by Stephen Barrett, M.D.</ref> Halfway through the century, ''']''' was invented by the Hungarian physician ].<ref></ref> The theory would remain popular throughout the 20th century as well.<ref>, by Stephen Barrett, M.D.</ref>
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The principles of ''']''' were first formulated in 1796, by German physician ]. At the time, mainstream medicine was a primitive affair and still made use of techniques such as ]. Homeopathic medicine by contrast consisted of extremely diluted substances, which meant that patients basically received water. Compared to the damage often caused by conventional medicine, this was an improvement.<ref name="pmid8885813"> The principles of ''']''' were first formulated in 1796, by German physician ]. At the time, mainstream medicine was a primitive affair and still made use of techniques such as ]. Homeopathic medicine by contrast consisted of extremely diluted substances, which meant that patients basically received water. Compared to the damage often caused by conventional medicine, this was an improvement.<ref name="pmid8885813">
{{cite journal |author=], Kaptchuk TJ |title=Homeopathy revisited |journal=Arch. Intern. Med. |volume=156 |issue=19 |pages=2162–4 |year=1996 |pmid=8885813 |doi=10.1001/archinte.156.19.2162}}</ref> During the 1830s homeopathic institutions and schools spread across the US and Europe.<ref name=Julian>{{cite web |url=http://www.wholehealthnow.com/homeopathy_pro/homeopathy_1825_1849.html |title=Homeopathy Timeline |access-date=2007-07-23 |last=Winston |first=Julian |year=2006 |work=The Faces of Homoeopathy |publisher=Whole Health Now {{cite journal |author=], Kaptchuk TJ |title=Homeopathy revisited |journal=Arch. Intern. Med. |volume=156 |issue=19 |pages=2162–64 |year=1996 |pmid=8885813 |doi=10.1001/archinte.156.19.2162}}</ref> During the 1830s homeopathic institutions and schools spread across the US and Europe.<ref name=Julian>{{cite web |url=http://www.wholehealthnow.com/homeopathy_pro/homeopathy_1825_1849.html |title=Homeopathy Timeline |access-date=2007-07-23 |last=Winston |first=Julian |year=2006 |work=The Faces of Homoeopathy |publisher=Whole Health Now |archive-date=2018-12-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215122834/http://www.wholehealthnow.com/homeopathy_pro/homeopathy_1825_1849.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Despite these early successes, homeopathy was not without its critics.<ref>Example of a contemporary criticism of homeopathy: {{cite book |author=John Forbes |title=Homeopathy, allopathy and young physic |url=https://archive.org/details/101144255.nlm.nih.gov |location=London |year=1846}}</ref> Its popularity was on the decline before the end of the 19th century, though it has been revived in the 20th century.
}}</ref> Despite these early successes, homeopathy was not without its critics.<ref>Example of a contemporary criticism of homeopathy:{{cite book |author=John Forbes |title=Homeopathy, allopathy and young physic |url=https://archive.org/details/101144255.nlm.nih.gov |location=London |year=1846}}</ref> Its popularity was on the decline before the end of the 19th century, though it has been revived in the 20th century.


The supposed ''']s''' were first reported in 1877, by the Italian astronomer ]. The belief in them peaked in the late 19th century, but was widely discredited in the beginning of the 20th century. The supposed ''']''' were first reported in 1877, by the Italian astronomer ]. The belief in them peaked in the late 19th century, but was widely discredited in the beginning of the 20th century.


The publication of '']'' by politician and author ] in 1882, renewed interest in the ancient idea of ''']'''. This highly advanced society supposedly existed several millennia before the rise of civilizations like ]. It was first mentioned by ], as a literary device in two of his dialogues. Other stories of lost continents, such as ] and ] also arose during the late 19th century. The publication of '']'' by politician and author ] in 1882, renewed interest in the ancient idea of ''']'''. This highly advanced society supposedly existed several millennia before the rise of civilizations like ]. It was first mentioned by ], as a literary device in two of his dialogues. Other stories of lost continents, such as ] and ] also arose during the late 19th century.
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In 1881 the ] ] (]: ''Society against Quackery'') was formed to oppose pseudoscientific trends in medicine. It is still active. In 1881 the ] ] (]: ''Society against Quackery'') was formed to oppose pseudoscientific trends in medicine. It is still active.


==20th century==
==20thugenics (Greek for good genes) is a science of increasing breeding (reproduction) of the considered to be superior groups and suppressing the growth of the selected to be inferior groups in order to improve the quality of human population by getting desirable genetic characteristics.
Among the most notable developments to pseudoscience in the 20th century are the rise of ], the demise of ], and the first formulation of ].


''']''', the idea that an undetectable life force connects various parts of the body to the feet and sometimes the hands and ears, was introduced in the US in 1913 as 'zone therapy'.<ref>, by Stephen Barrett, M.D.</ref><ref></ref>
The superior population in society was often the rich, the educated, the healthy and often a particular race like White people. The inferior on the other side was the disabled, mentally disturbed, sick, immigrants, criminals and often a particular race like Black people. Sexual relationship between the superior and the inferior was often prevented as it would mix and spoil the good bloodline that was desired.


''']''' arose during the 20th century as a result of various other historical developments. When the ] overcame the ] in the first half of the 20th century, American ] began opposing the teaching of the ] in public schools. They introduced numerous laws to this effect, one of which was notoriously upheld by the ].
This theory of eugenics was influenced by the increased confidence in science as the most reliable and efficient way of understanding the world which was popular in the 19th century. It was developed by the English writer Francis Galton. He believed that in the interest of “survival of the fittest” the poor and the weak should be left to remain so, as it only meant they were in the early stage of evolution, while the “superior” should be encouraged for the benefit of a good and healthy population.
In the second half of the century the ] caused a renewed interest in science and worry that the USA was falling behind on the Soviet Union. Stricter science standards were adopted and led to the re-introduction of the ] in the curriculum. The laws against teaching evolution were now ruled unconstitutional, because they violated the ]. Attempting to evade this ruling, the Christian fundamentalists produced a supposedly secular alternative to evolution, Creationism. Perhaps the most influential publication of this new pseudoscience was '']'' by ] ] and ].


The dawn of the space age also inspired various versions of ''']'''. While differences between the specific theories exists, they share the idea that intelligent extraterrestrials visited Earth in the distant past and made contact with then living humans. Popular authors, such as ] and ], began publishing in the 1960s. Among the most notable publications in the genre is '']'', which appeared in 1968.


Late in the 20th century several prominent ] foundations were formed to counter the growth of pseudosciences. In the US, the most notable of these are, in chronological order, the ] (1991), ] (1992), the ] (1996), and the ] (1996). The ], which has similar goals, had already been founded in 1976. It became part of the Center for Inquiry as part of the foundation of the latter in 1991. In the Netherlands ] was founded in 1987.
Francis Galton Image source

Positive Eugenics

Eugenics played a positive role in promoting health and on family planning. Countries who believed in eugenics such as the United States of America, Britain, Sweden, India and China encouraged good health of the superior groups. They encouraged these superior groups to exercise and eat healthy. These governments did this by building public swimming pools and sport grounds for the superior groups, hoping to develop populations with good genes; they also encouraged women who were considered healthy to have children for the same purpose of getting good genes.

Negative Genes

On the other side the said to be inferior groups were sterilised, sometimes by force. For instance in USA, between 1907 and 1943, sterilization laws were passed in 30 states. This was done to prevent growth of the inferior kind. To prevent them from growing in population, the inferior population was also made to take contraceptive pills (birth control pills).

Race today

Today eugenics are discouraged, and not only considered to be wrong but also to be violating human rights. In the 1990s it was discovered that all people have a “mutual ancestor” which originated in Africa because the earliest human remains (about 200 000 years old) were found in Africa.

Scientists had also discovered that there were no fixed or consistent differences in race in terms of characteristics like physical features. In other words scientists had discovered that not all Black people have round lips, not all white people have sharper noses, and not all Asians have small eyes, as it was believed by Eugenicist in the 19th century.

Many people argue that the word 'race' should no longer be used for the following reasons:

Most scientists today would say that there is no such thing as race.
The misinterpretation of the term 'race' to classify people has gone hand in hand with contempt (violation) for human rights.
Race in USA

A billboard in the 1950s in USA. Image source

In the 19th century Pseudo-Scientific theories about race were also used in USA. The government treated Native Americans and African Americans as inferiors, while it treated whites as superiors.

By this time (19th Century) thousands of Native Americans had been killed by starvation (excessive hunger) and the diseases that they caught from Europeans and which they were unable to treat. The white settlers had defeated Native Americans in war battles for land and had had taken their land.

On the other side, in the 1950s African Americans were discriminated against by the segregation laws that were laid in different states in USA. There were segregation laws in public facilities such as transports, schools, parks and restaurants.

African Americans’ facilities were often poor in service and in quality compared to the whites’ facilities. For instance African Americans’ schools were often over populated and lacked resources, while whites’ schools had fewer pupils in a classroom and had good infrastructure.

The inferior groups being the Native Americans and the African Americans were left to suffer with little help, if any, from the government. This was part of the “survival of the fittest” idea and was in line with the USA’s capitalist system, where certain inpiduals in society had more power in business, or politics.

Race in Namibia

A map showing the Kalahari Desert in which Herero were driven to by German colonialists. Image source

Namibia became a German colony in 1884, and was called South West Africa. The Germans had arrived in Namibia as part of European immigration to different colonies, which was popular at that time and was associated with superiority.

When they arrived in South West Africa the country was occupied by the Nama (Khoi people) and Herero farmers. The Germans then began to remove the Herero and Namas from south West Africa to the Kalahari Desert. The Hererofought back in what became known as the Herero Revolt.

Race in South Africa

Poor Afrikaners in South Africa during the 1920s. Image source

South Africa had laws that relied on eugenics as truthful facts about race. In South Africa mating and sexual intercourse between the said to be inferior groups and the superior groups was prevented because it would lead to an inferior population. These laws existed even before Apartheid in South Africa. They included the Immorality Act of 1927 which prevented sexual relationships between White and Black South Africans.

In the 1930s the South African Government controlled breeding of the inferior groups, which included poor whites (largely Afrikaners) due to the Great Depression. In the 1930s the South African government created a programme called the "Race Welfare Society" to control births among poor white females and encourage them to have smaller families that they could manage to take care of in terms of finances.

Although in the 1930s the South African Government had these laws and programmes that were fuelled by the theories of Eugenics, unlike USA it never practiced sterilisation. This was because of two reasons (i) the validity and fairness of eugenics policies was beginning to be doubted in Britain, and (ii) in the 1930s was the rise of Afrikaners to power therefore large families were encourage to make the Afrikaners nation stronger.

Case study: Australia and the indigenous Australians

A map showing Australia. Image source

The Aborigines were the indigenous people of Australia, who had lived there long before Europeans arrived. They were hunt-gatherers so they used to move around Australia in search of food and better climate.

By the 1780s the British already had plans about Australia (i) they wanted Australia to be its penal colony, where British convicts would be sent (ii) they wanted to claim Australia as its territory first before competing colonialists like France did.

The British began to put their plans into action; they cut down trees, built houses and started planting in Australia. The settlers together with their convicts first arrived at New South Wales (NSW), then to the Island of Van Diemen's Land (today known as Tasmania) and Perth (which was called the Swan River).

When gold was first discovered in Melbourne’s capital Victoria, miners from Britain, China and Ireland filled the region in search of gold. By the 1900s the British empires in Australia were already well established. In 1901 the British empires in Australia formed their own government, the Australian Federation.

The British settlers in Australia did not recognise the rights of the Aborigines by denying them their land and their food (as the British had cut all trees where Aborigines used to find food). This made the Aborigines to rely on the settlers. The Aborigines worked for the British settlers as farm labours or domestic workers. They were paid very low wages, as a result of large numbers of Aborigines became poor and were easy victims of diseases like smallpox brought by European settlers.

Thousands of Aborigines died from starvation, and diseases such as smallpox. This has left Historians debating whether these deaths of Aborigines could be blamed on Europeans as acts of genocide or whether these deaths as a result of the Aborigine’s failure to adapt to change.

Debates on racial suicide and racial decay

Ill-treatment of the Aborigines upon the arrival of European settlers in Australia Image source

As established before that European' cruelty on Aborigines was justified by Pseudo-Scientific theories like Social Darwinism which were largely believed in the 19th century. These theories regarded the Aborigines as inferiors who were at the early stages of evolution, and who could not compete with Europeans as Europeans were at the advanced stages of development.

Some of the laws which were fuelled by Social Darwinism that were passed by the Europeans upon the Aborigines meant that the Aborigines were prohibited from voting, owning dogs and carrying guns. Intermarriage between the Aborigines and white people required special permission from the government. Aborigines were moved to reserves by force

Among Europeans there were debates on what should be done by the then believed to be valid "Social Darwinism" with regard to aborigines.

a handful of Europeans wanted the Aborigines to integrate into European Society

Some believe that the Aborigines should be kept in places of safety, outside the European society

some felt that the Aborigines should be kept segregated from the settlers’ society because they were inferior

Nazi Germany and the Holocaust

Adolf Hitler Image source

In 1933, Adolf Hitler, leader of the Nazi was put into power as the Chancellor of Germany by other politicians who had hoped that his party (Nazi Party) would bring economic change in Germany's economic crisis.

The Nazis were Fascists, they believed in law, obedience and order above everything else. They implemented (applied) their fascists ideas in Germany, where they (i) believed in absolutism ( total control), (ii) saw war as natural and necessary to human kind to bring order (ii) they did not believe in Democracy.

In a matter of a year in power, the Nazis had turned Germany into a totalirian, where the Government (the Nazi Party) had absolute control over Germany. Under Hitler’s Government, this is what happened:

Hitler had total control over legislature (law).
Those who criticised him were sent to concentration camps (detention camps) often to be trained to perform brutal acts under the Nazis.
Political opposition parties were banned.
The education system in Germany emphasised Nazi ideologies, text-books were re-written in order to be in line with Nazi movement.
German youth was required to join the Hitler Youth (HJ), which supported the Nazi Movement.
Hitler ended up controlling the German army as well. At first, the officials of the German army did not want him on board because of his violent nature. Hitler then ordered a murder of army leaders who had rejected him. After the army officials were murdered he was allowed in the army as the Commander-in-Chief. He then required the officials of the army to swear an oath of loyalty to him.
After Germany was defeated in the Second World War, it had lost many of its soldiers and weapons. To strengthen the army, Hitler ordered that it was compulsory for all young men to join the army. This made Germany one of the most powerful nations in Europe in terms of Military.
Eugenics in Germany

The Nazis believed in eugenics, where according to them the blue-eyed, blonde and tall Europeans whom they called the Aryan race were at the advanced stage of development that other people, and thus should be on top of the hierarchy in society. The Nazis believed that the extermination (killing of a whole group) of the inferior people was a progress of human kind. The Nazis were also inspired by the eugenics works in USA such as sterilisation programmes for inferior population.

Image showing ideal pictures of the Aryan race. Image source

Negative Eugenics in Germany

Like the USA, the Nazis forced the inferior population to be sterilised. They removed the mentally-ill people and people with disabilities from society to separate institutions. In these institutions the mentally-ill and people with disabilities were often used for cruel scientific experiments, they were also murdered by Euthanasia (put to death in a painless was normally due to incurable diseases).

Promotion of the Master Race blood

Women who were considered to be members of the Master race were encouraged to give more births to promote the master race blood. They were discouraged from working, and encouraged to stay at home and raise children.

Which groups were not “Master Race” or “Aryan Race”

Groups which were not regarded as “master races” were killed in millions by the Nazis. If not killed, the inferior groups were often sent to work as farm labours or domestic workers, some were killed in masses, other sterilised and some sent to concentration camps. These people included:

Unemployed people
People with disabilities
Mentally-ill people
Criminals
Black people
Homosexuals
Political opponents
Immigrants
Jews were the main victims, the Nazis aimed to kill all of the Jews in a policy of genocide. The Nazi killed six millions of the nine millions Jews in Germany. In what was called “the Holocaust”
Who supported the Nazis

Supporters of the Nazi were mostly the “master Race” whose economic crisis was improved by the Nazi. They did not care about the cruelty of the Nazis as long as they were not harmed.

Who did nothing about the Nazi

Some Germans were simply scared of the Nazis. This was because the Nazis were cruel to those who opposed them, so many Germans chose to keep quiet and pretend nothing was happening, for their own safety.

Those who resisted against the Nazi policies

The White Rose Movement

This was a group of students at Munch University who were executed for criticising Hitler. They were led by their philosophy lecturer. They were caught while they were distributing anti-Nazi pamphlets. Although the movement lasted for less than a year (from June 1942 until February 1943), they managed to make six pamphlets on different Anti-Nazi topics.

Rescuers

Some Germans from the “master race” risked their lives and helped Jews hide in their houses or help them escape.

While religious movements like the Quackery Movement which was an anti-violence religious group who smuggled 2500 Jewish children out of Germany into England, also came to the rescue of the Jews.

The Final Solution

Starving men in the Nazi concentration camps. Image source

The campaign against Jews was introduced bits by bits with the last more severe than the previous.

At first the Nazis encouraged boycotts against Jewish-owned-shops and terrorised these shops
In June 1933 Jews were fired and prohibited from working in civil services.
In 1935 the Nazi government passed Nuremburg laws which banned Jews from sports fields or universities or Museums.
In November 1938 a Jew man assassinated a German diplomat in Paris, this made the Nazis upset and destroyed Jewish-owned-shops and Jews’ homes in Germany. This was called Kristallnacht (German for “Night of broken glass”) because thousand s of pieces of broken glasses laid on the streets as a result of the attacks of the Jewish shops. Jews, in large numbers, were then forced into concentration camps and were sent into hard labour.
In 1939, after the Second World War, almost the whole of Eastern Europe (where Jews were in large numbers) was under the control of Nazis, who forced the Jews into overpopulated ghettos.
The Nuremberg Trials

In May 1945 Nazi Germany surrendered to the Allied armies (which consisted of Britain, the USA and the USSR) (see grade 12, topic 1). Hitler committed suicide. Other Nazi leaders also committed suicide.

The allies punished the remaining Nazi leaders. They first put them in an international court at Nuremberg for trial, where they were convicted of crimes associated with human rights violation. Thousands of Nazis and their helpers (like the doctors that performed the cruel euthanasia on the mentally-disturbed), were found guilty, their sentences varied from death sentences and prison sentences.

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==21st century== ==21st century==
At the beginning of the 21st century, a variety of pseudo scientific theories remain popular and new ones continue to crop up. At the beginning of the 21st century, a variety of pseudoscientific theories remain popular and new ones continue to crop up.


The Flat Earth is the idea that is believed to have existed for thousands of years but studies show this is a relative new one starting up in the 1990s when the internet was starting up allowing such ideas to spread much quicker. '''The Flat Earth''' is the idea that the Earth is flat. It is believed to have existed for thousands of years, but studies show this is a relatively new theory that begun in the 1990s when the internet starting up allowed such ideas to spread much quicker.


'''Creationism''', in the form of ''']''', suffered a major legal defeat in the ] trial. Judge ] ruled that Intelligent Design is inseparable from Creationism, and its teaching in public schools violates the ]. The trial sparked much interest, and was the subject of several documentaries including the award-winning ] production '']'' (2007). '''Creationism''', in the form of ''']''', suffered a major legal defeat in the ] trial. Judge ] ruled that Intelligent Design is inseparable from Creationism, and its teaching in public schools violates the ]. The trial sparked much interest, and was the subject of several documentaries including the award-winning ] production '']'' (2007).
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The pseudoscientific idea that ''']''' originated in the 1990s, but became prominent in the media during the first decade of the 21st century. Despite a broad ] against the idea that there is a link between ] and ],<ref>{{cite web| author=European Medicines Agency| author-link=European Medicines Agency| date=2004-03-24| url=http://www.emea.europa.eu/pdfs/human/press/pus/119404en.pdf| title=EMEA Public Statement on Thiomersal in Vaccines for Human Use| access-date=2007-07-22| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070610154109/http://www.emea.europa.eu/pdfs/human/press/pus/119404en.pdf| archive-date=2007-06-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journal=Can Commun Dis Rep|year=2007|volume=33|issue=ACS-6|pages=1–13|title=Thimerosal: updated statement. An Advisory Committee Statement|author=National Advisory Committee on Immunization|pmid=17663033|url=http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/publicat/ccdr-rmtc/07vol33/acs-06/index_e.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | author=American Medical Association| author-link=American Medical Association| date=2004-05-18 | url =http://www.ama-assn.org/ama1/pub/upload/mm/36/press_iom_mmr.doc | title =AMA Welcomes New IOM Report Rejecting Link Between Vaccines and Autism | access-date =2007-07-23}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| author=American Academy of Pediatrics| author-link=American Academy of Pediatrics| date=2004-05-18| url=http://www.cispimmunize.org/fam/autism/thimerosal.htm| title=What Parents Should Know About Thimerosal| access-date=2007-07-23| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070708045514/http://www.cispimmunize.org/fam/autism/thimerosal.htm| archive-date=2007-07-08}}</ref><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141007082937/http://www.csicop.org/si/2007-06/novella.html |date=2014-10-07 }} by ], M.D., for the ]</ref> several celebrities have joined the debate. Most notable of these is ], whose son has autism. The pseudoscientific idea that ''']''' originated in the 1990s, but became prominent in the media during the first decade of the 21st century. Despite a broad ] against the idea that there is a link between ] and ],<ref>{{cite web| author=European Medicines Agency| author-link=European Medicines Agency| date=2004-03-24| url=http://www.emea.europa.eu/pdfs/human/press/pus/119404en.pdf| title=EMEA Public Statement on Thiomersal in Vaccines for Human Use| access-date=2007-07-22| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070610154109/http://www.emea.europa.eu/pdfs/human/press/pus/119404en.pdf| archive-date=2007-06-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journal=Can Commun Dis Rep|year=2007|volume=33|issue=ACS-6|pages=1–13|title=Thimerosal: updated statement. An Advisory Committee Statement|author=National Advisory Committee on Immunization|pmid=17663033|url=http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/publicat/ccdr-rmtc/07vol33/acs-06/index_e.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | author=American Medical Association| author-link=American Medical Association| date=2004-05-18 | url =http://www.ama-assn.org/ama1/pub/upload/mm/36/press_iom_mmr.doc | title =AMA Welcomes New IOM Report Rejecting Link Between Vaccines and Autism | access-date =2007-07-23}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| author=American Academy of Pediatrics| author-link=American Academy of Pediatrics| date=2004-05-18| url=http://www.cispimmunize.org/fam/autism/thimerosal.htm| title=What Parents Should Know About Thimerosal| access-date=2007-07-23| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070708045514/http://www.cispimmunize.org/fam/autism/thimerosal.htm| archive-date=2007-07-08}}</ref><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141007082937/http://www.csicop.org/si/2007-06/novella.html |date=2014-10-07 }} by ], M.D., for the ]</ref> several celebrities have joined the debate. Most notable of these is ], whose son has autism.
In February 2009, surgeon ], who published the original research supposedly indicating a link between vaccines and autism, was reported to have fixed the data by ].<ref>{{cite news | title=MMR doctor Andrew Wakefield fixed data on autism | publisher=The Sunday Times | date=2009-02-08 | url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/health/article5683671.ece | access-date=2009-02-08 | location=London In February 2009, surgeon ], who published the original research supposedly indicating a link between vaccines and autism, was reported to have fixed the data by ].<ref>{{cite news | title=MMR doctor Andrew Wakefield fixed data on autism | publisher=The Sunday Times | date=2009-02-08 | url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/health/article5683671.ece | access-date=2009-02-08 | location=London
| first=Brian | last=Deer | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100525134829/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/health/article5683671.ece | archive-date=2010-05-25}}</ref> A hearing by the ] had already begun in March 2007, examining charges of professional misconduct. | first=Brian | last=Deer | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100525134829/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/health/article5683671.ece | archive-date=2010-05-25}}</ref> A hearing by the ] began in March 2007, examining charges of professional misconduct. On 24 May 2010, he was struck off the United Kingdom medical register, effectively banning him from practicing medicine in Britain.


The most notable development in the '''ancient astronauts''' genre was the opening of Erich von Däniken's ] in 2003. While the park had a good first year, the number of visitors was much lower than the expected 500,000 a year. This caused financial difficulties, which led to the closure of the park in 2006.<ref> by swissinfo.ch</ref> The most notable development in the '''ancient astronauts''' genre was the opening of Erich von Däniken's ] in 2003. While the park had a good first year, the number of visitors was much lower than the expected 500,000 a year. This caused financial difficulties, which led to the closure of the park in 2006.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081212113605/http://www.swissinfo.org/eng/top_news/detail/Closure_of_Mystery_Park_is_no_enigma.html?siteSect=106&sid=7266028&cKey=1163955688000 |date=2008-12-12 }} by swissinfo.ch</ref>


==See also== ==See also==

Latest revision as of 03:38, 16 August 2024

The Alchemist in Search of the Philosopher's Stone, by Joseph Wright, 1771

The history of pseudoscience is the study of pseudoscientific theories over time. A pseudoscience is a set of ideas that presents itself as science, while it does not meet the criteria to properly be called such.

Distinguishing between proper science and pseudoscience is sometimes difficult. One popular proposal for demarcation between the two is the falsification criterion, most notably contributed to by the philosopher Karl Popper. In the history of pseudoscience it can be especially hard to separate the two, because some sciences developed from pseudosciences. An example of this is the science chemistry, which traces its origins from the protoscience of alchemy.

The vast diversity in pseudosciences further complicates the history of pseudoscience. Some pseudosciences originated in the pre-scientific era, such as astrology and acupuncture. Others developed as part of an ideology, such as Lysenkoism, or as a response to perceived threats to an ideology. An example of this is creationism, which was developed as a response to the scientific theory of evolution.

Despite failing to meet proper scientific standards, many pseudosciences survive. This is usually due to a persistent core of devotees who refuse to accept scientific criticism of their beliefs, or due to popular misconceptions. Sheer popularity is also a factor, as is attested by astrology which remains popular despite being rejected by a large majority of scientists.

19th century

A phrenology chart from 1883. During the first half of the 19th century, phrenology was a popular study and considered scientific. By the second half of the century, the theory was largely abandoned.

Among the most notable developments in the history of pseudoscience in the 19th century are the rise of Spiritualism (traced in America to 1848), homeopathy (first formulated in 1796), and phrenology (developed around 1800). Another popular pseudoscientific belief that arose during the 19th century was the idea that there were canals visible on Mars. A relatively mild Christian fundamentalist backlash against the scientific theory of evolution foreshadowed subsequent events in the 20th century.

The study of bumps and fissures in people's skulls to determine their character, phrenology, was originally considered a science. It influenced psychiatry and early studies into neuroscience. As science advanced, phrenology was increasingly viewed as a pseudoscience. Halfway through the 19th century, the scientific community had prevailingly abandoned it, although it was not comprehensively tested until much later.

Halfway through the century, iridology was invented by the Hungarian physician Ignaz von Peczely. The theory would remain popular throughout the 20th century as well.

The astrological signs of the zodiac.

Spiritualism (sometimes referred to as "Modern Spiritualism" or "Spiritism") or "Modern American Spiritualism" grew phenomenally during the period. The American version of this movement has been traced to the Fox sisters who in 1848 began claiming the ability to communicate with the dead. The religious movement would remain popular until the 1920s, when renowned magician Harry Houdini began exposing famous mediums and other performers as frauds (see also Harry Houdini#Debunking spiritualists). While the religious beliefs of Spiritualism are not presented as science, and thus are not properly considered pseudoscientific, the movement did spawn numerous pseudoscientific phenomena such as ectoplasm and spirit photography.

The principles of homeopathy were first formulated in 1796, by German physician Samuel Hahnemann. At the time, mainstream medicine was a primitive affair and still made use of techniques such as bloodletting. Homeopathic medicine by contrast consisted of extremely diluted substances, which meant that patients basically received water. Compared to the damage often caused by conventional medicine, this was an improvement. During the 1830s homeopathic institutions and schools spread across the US and Europe. Despite these early successes, homeopathy was not without its critics. Its popularity was on the decline before the end of the 19th century, though it has been revived in the 20th century.

The supposed Martian canals were first reported in 1877, by the Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli. The belief in them peaked in the late 19th century, but was widely discredited in the beginning of the 20th century.

The publication of Atlantis: The Antediluvian World by politician and author Ignatius L. Donnelly in 1882, renewed interest in the ancient idea of Atlantis. This highly advanced society supposedly existed several millennia before the rise of civilizations like Ancient Egypt. It was first mentioned by Plato, as a literary device in two of his dialogues. Other stories of lost continents, such as Mu and Lemuria also arose during the late 19th century.

In 1881 the Dutch Vereniging tegen de Kwakzalverij (English: Society against Quackery) was formed to oppose pseudoscientific trends in medicine. It is still active.

20th century

Among the most notable developments to pseudoscience in the 20th century are the rise of Creationism, the demise of Spiritualism, and the first formulation of ancient astronaut theories.

Reflexology, the idea that an undetectable life force connects various parts of the body to the feet and sometimes the hands and ears, was introduced in the US in 1913 as 'zone therapy'.

Creationism arose during the 20th century as a result of various other historical developments. When the modern evolutionary synthesis overcame the eclipse of Darwinism in the first half of the 20th century, American fundamentalist Christians began opposing the teaching of the theory of evolution in public schools. They introduced numerous laws to this effect, one of which was notoriously upheld by the Scopes Trial. In the second half of the century the Space Race caused a renewed interest in science and worry that the USA was falling behind on the Soviet Union. Stricter science standards were adopted and led to the re-introduction of the theory of evolution in the curriculum. The laws against teaching evolution were now ruled unconstitutional, because they violated the separation of church and state. Attempting to evade this ruling, the Christian fundamentalists produced a supposedly secular alternative to evolution, Creationism. Perhaps the most influential publication of this new pseudoscience was The Genesis Flood by young earth creationists John C. Whitcomb and Henry M. Morris.

The dawn of the space age also inspired various versions of ancient astronaut theories. While differences between the specific theories exists, they share the idea that intelligent extraterrestrials visited Earth in the distant past and made contact with then living humans. Popular authors, such as Erich von Däniken and Zecharia Sitchin, began publishing in the 1960s. Among the most notable publications in the genre is Chariots of the Gods?, which appeared in 1968.

Late in the 20th century several prominent skeptical foundations were formed to counter the growth of pseudosciences. In the US, the most notable of these are, in chronological order, the Center for Inquiry (1991), The Skeptics Society (1992), the James Randi Educational Foundation (1996), and the New England Skeptical Society (1996). The Committee for Skeptical Inquiry, which has similar goals, had already been founded in 1976. It became part of the Center for Inquiry as part of the foundation of the latter in 1991. In the Netherlands Stichting Skepsis was founded in 1987.

21st century

At the beginning of the 21st century, a variety of pseudoscientific theories remain popular and new ones continue to crop up.

The Flat Earth is the idea that the Earth is flat. It is believed to have existed for thousands of years, but studies show this is a relatively new theory that begun in the 1990s when the internet starting up allowed such ideas to spread much quicker.

Creationism, in the form of Intelligent Design, suffered a major legal defeat in the Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District trial. Judge John E. Jones III ruled that Intelligent Design is inseparable from Creationism, and its teaching in public schools violates the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment. The trial sparked much interest, and was the subject of several documentaries including the award-winning NOVA production Judgment Day: Intelligent Design on Trial (2007).

The pseudoscientific idea that vaccines cause autism originated in the 1990s, but became prominent in the media during the first decade of the 21st century. Despite a broad scientific consensus against the idea that there is a link between vaccination and autism, several celebrities have joined the debate. Most notable of these is Jenny McCarthy, whose son has autism. In February 2009, surgeon Andrew Wakefield, who published the original research supposedly indicating a link between vaccines and autism, was reported to have fixed the data by The Sunday Times. A hearing by the General Medical Council began in March 2007, examining charges of professional misconduct. On 24 May 2010, he was struck off the United Kingdom medical register, effectively banning him from practicing medicine in Britain.

The most notable development in the ancient astronauts genre was the opening of Erich von Däniken's Mystery Park in 2003. While the park had a good first year, the number of visitors was much lower than the expected 500,000 a year. This caused financial difficulties, which led to the closure of the park in 2006.

See also

Histories of specific pseudosciences

References

  1. "Pseudoscientific - pretending to be scientific, falsely represented as being scientific", from the Oxford American Dictionary, published by the Oxford English Dictionary
  2. The Skeptic's Dictionary entry on 'Pseudoscience'
  3. Humphrey Taylor. "The Religious and Other Beliefs of Americans 2003". Archived from the original on 2007-01-11. Retrieved 2007-01-05.
  4. "Science and Technology: Public Attitudes and Understanding". National Science Foundation. Archived from the original on 2015-08-18. Retrieved 2007-01-05.
  5. "Astrology". Encarta. Microsoft. 2008. Archived from the original on 2009-10-28. Retrieved 2007-08-28. Scientists have long rejected the principles of astrology, but millions of people continue to believe in or practice it.
  6. Astrology: Fraud or Superstition? by Chaz Bufe "Astrology Fraud or Superstition". See Sharp Press.
  7. Simpson, D. (2005) "Phrenology and the neurosciences: contributions of F. J. Gall and J. G. Spurzheim" ANZ Journal of Surgery. Oxford. Vol. 75.6; p. 475
  8. Phrenology: An Overview, by dr. John van Wyhe
  9. Parker Jones, O., Alfaro-Almagro, F., & Jbabdi, S. (2018). "An empirical, 21st century evaluation of phrenology". Cortex. Volume 106. pp. 26–35. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2018.04.011
  10. The Skeptic's Dictionary entry on 'Iridology'
  11. Iridology Is Nonsense, by Stephen Barrett, M.D.
  12. Podmore, Frank (1903). "Modern Spiritualism. A History and a Criticism". The American Journal of Psychology. 14 (1). University of Illinois Press: 116–117. doi:10.2307/1412224. hdl:2027/iau.31858027158827. JSTOR 1412224.
  13. Britten, Emma Hardinge (1870). Modern American Spiritualism.
  14. The Skeptic's Dictionary entry on 'Spiritualism'
  15. Ernst E, Kaptchuk TJ (1996). "Homeopathy revisited". Arch. Intern. Med. 156 (19): 2162–64. doi:10.1001/archinte.156.19.2162. PMID 8885813.
  16. Winston, Julian (2006). "Homeopathy Timeline". The Faces of Homoeopathy. Whole Health Now. Archived from the original on 2018-12-15. Retrieved 2007-07-23.
  17. Example of a contemporary criticism of homeopathy: John Forbes (1846). Homeopathy, allopathy and young physic. London.
  18. Reflexology: A Close Look, by Stephen Barrett, M.D.
  19. The Skeptic's Dictionary entry on 'Reflexology'
  20. European Medicines Agency (2004-03-24). "EMEA Public Statement on Thiomersal in Vaccines for Human Use" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-06-10. Retrieved 2007-07-22.
  21. National Advisory Committee on Immunization (2007). "Thimerosal: updated statement. An Advisory Committee Statement". Can Commun Dis Rep. 33 (ACS-6): 1–13. PMID 17663033.
  22. American Medical Association (2004-05-18). "AMA Welcomes New IOM Report Rejecting Link Between Vaccines and Autism". Retrieved 2007-07-23.
  23. American Academy of Pediatrics (2004-05-18). "What Parents Should Know About Thimerosal". Archived from the original on 2007-07-08. Retrieved 2007-07-23.
  24. Vaccines & Autism: Myths and Misconceptions Archived 2014-10-07 at the Wayback Machine by Steven Novella, M.D., for the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry
  25. Deer, Brian (2009-02-08). "MMR doctor Andrew Wakefield fixed data on autism". London: The Sunday Times. Archived from the original on 2010-05-25. Retrieved 2009-02-08.
  26. Closure of Mystery Park in Interlaken is no mystery Archived 2008-12-12 at the Wayback Machine by swissinfo.ch
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