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| {{short description|18th-century French politician}} | |||
| {{Use dmy dates|date= |
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2020}} | ||
| {{Infobox scientist | {{Infobox scientist | ||
| |name = Pierre Gaspard Chaumette | |name = Pierre Gaspard Anaxagore Chaumette | ||
| |image =Pierre-Gaspard Chaumette.jpg | |image = Pierre-Gaspard Chaumette.jpg | ||
| |image_size =150px | |image_size = 150px | ||
| |caption = Pierre Gaspard Chaumette | |caption = Pierre Gaspard Anaxagore Chaumette | ||
| |birth_date =24 May 1763 | |birth_date = 24 May 1763 | ||
| |birth_place = ] | |birth_place = ] | ||
| |death_date = {{d-da|13 April 1794|24 May 1763}} | |death_date = {{d-da|13 April 1794|24 May 1763}} | ||
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| |doctoral_students = | |doctoral_students = | ||
| |known_for = | |known_for = | ||
| |author_abbrev_bot =|author_abbrev_zoo = | |author_abbrev_bot = | ||
| |author_abbrev_zoo = | |||
| |influences = | |influences = | ||
| |influenced = | |influenced = | ||
| |prizes = | |prizes = | ||
| |religion = |footnotes = |signature |
|religion = |footnotes = |signature = | ||
| }} | |||
| }}'''Pierre Gaspard Chaumette''' (24 May 1763 – 13 April 1794) was a French politician of the [[French Revolution|Revolutionary | |||
| '''Pierre Gaspard Anaxagore Chaumette''' ({{IPA|fr|pjɛʁ ɡaspaʁ anaksaɡɔʁ ʃomɛt}}; 24 May 1763 – 13 April 1794) was a French politician of the ] who served as the president of the ] and played a leading role in the establishment of the ]. He a leader of the radical ] of the revolution, an ardent critic of Christianity who was one of the leaders of the ]. His radical positions resulted in his alienation from ], and he was arrested and executed. | |||
| period]]. | |||
| ==Biography== | ==Biography== | ||
| ===Early activities=== | ===Early activities=== | ||
| Chaumette was born in ] France, 24 May 1763 |
Chaumette was born in ], France, on 24 May 1763 into a family of shoemakers who wanted him to enter the Church. However, he did not have a ] and instead sought his fortune as a ]. After only reaching the rank of ], he returned to Nevers to study his main interests, ] and science.<ref>Chronicle of the French Revolution, Longman, 1989 p. 31</ref> He also studied surgery and made a long voyage in the company of an English doctor, serving as his secretary. He then became surgeon at the ] in ].<ref>Chronicle of the French Revolution, Longman, 1989 p. 31</ref> Chaumette studied ] at the ] in 1790, but gave up his career in medicine at the start of the Revolution. Chaumette began his political career as member of the ] editing the progressive ''Revolutions de Paris'' journal from 1790.<ref>Jervis, p. 230,</ref> His oratory skills proved him a valuable spokesperson of the ], and more importantly, the ] movement in the ]. In August 1792, Chaumette became the Chief Procurator of the ]; as member of the Paris Commune during the ], he was delegated to visit the prisons, with full power to arrest suspects. On 31 October 1792, he was elected President of the Commune and was re-elected in the Municipal on 2 December of that same year. | ||
| ===Presidency of the Commune=== | ===Presidency of the Commune=== | ||
| His conduct, oratorical talent, and the fact that his private life was considered beyond reproach, all made him influential, and he was elected president of the ], defending the municipality at the bar of the ] on 31 October 1792. Re-elected in the municipal elections of 2 December 1792, he was soon given the functions of '']'' of the Commune, and contributed with success to the enrollments of volunteers in the army by his appeals to the population of ]. Chaumette held strong anti-monarchy views. He led a deputation from the Commune and argued before the National Convention that failing to punish Louis XVI for his crimes was causing high prices and the fall of the ].<ref>Citizens, Simon Schama, Penguin 1989 p.652</ref> Further, Chaumette held a strong opinion about the fate of ] after his fall. He was greatly outspoken in his demand for the king's blood. |
His conduct, oratorical talent, and the fact that his private life was considered beyond reproach, all made him influential, and he was elected president of the ], defending the municipality at the bar of the ] on 31 October 1792. Re-elected in the municipal elections of 2 December 1792, he was soon given the functions of '']'' of the Commune, and contributed with success to the enrollments of volunteers in the army by his appeals to the population of ]. Chaumette held strong anti-monarchy views. He led a deputation from the Commune and argued before the National Convention that failing to punish Louis XVI for his crimes was causing high prices and the fall of the ].<ref>Citizens, Simon Schama, Penguin 1989 p. 652</ref> Further, Chaumette held a strong opinion about the fate of ] after his fall. He was greatly outspoken in his demand for the king's blood. Chaumette's thesis was that as long as Louis XVI went unpunished prices would remain high, and shortages and the profiteering that created them, which he assumed to be the work of the royalists, would go unchecked.<ref>Jordan, p. 69</ref> | ||
| Chaumette was also a leading and vocal opponent of the ]s. |
Chaumette was also a leading and vocal opponent of the ]s. He was one of the instigators of the attacks of 31 May and of 2 June 1793 on the ]s. Chaumette and ] acted as prosecutors on behalf of the Tribunal which tried the Girondists in October 1793.<ref>Chronicle of the French Revolution, Longman 1989 p. 379</ref> | ||
| Chaumette made a leading contribution to establishing the ]. |
Chaumette made a leading contribution to establishing the ]. In early September 1793 there was fear and unrest in Paris over prices, food shortages, war and fears of a royalist betrayal. On 4 September Hebert appealed to the sections to join the Commune in petitioning the National Convention with radical demands.<ref>Citizens, Simon Schama, Penguin 1989 p. 758</ref> The next day, led by Chaumette and the mayor of Paris, ], crowds of citizens filled the Convention.<ref>Chronicle of the French Revolution, Longman 1989 p. 365</ref> Chaumette stood up on a table to declare that 'we now have open war between the rich and the poor' and urged the immediate mobilisation of the revolutionary army to go into the countryside, seize food supplies from hoarders and exact punishments on them.<ref>Citizens, Simon Schama, Penguin 1989 p. 758</ref> Robespierre was presiding over the Convention's sessions that day, and Chaumette's demands, together with the shock of the recent betrayal of Toulon to the British, prompted the Convention to decree that 'Terror will be the order of the day'.<ref>Citizens, Simon Schama, Penguin 1989 p. 758</ref> | ||
| ===Role in the dechristianization of France=== | ===Role in the dechristianization of France=== | ||
| Chaumette is considered one of the ultra-radical '']'' of the French Revolution. He demanded the formation of a ] which was to "force avarice and greed to yield up the riches of the |
Chaumette is considered one of the ultra-radical '']'' of the French Revolution. He demanded the formation of a ] which was to "force avarice and greed to yield up the riches of the earth" in order to redistribute wealth, and feed troops and the urban populations.<ref>Lytle, p. 19</ref> However, he is much more known today for his role in the ]. Chaumette was an ardent critic of Christianity, which he considered "ridiculous ideas"<ref>Chaumette, p. 6</ref> that "have been very helpful to despotism."<ref>Chaumette, p. 101</ref> His views were heavily influenced by ] and ] writers ], ] and ]. Chaumette saw religion as a relic of superstitious eras that did not reflect the intellectual achievements of the ]. Indeed, for Chaumette, "church and counterrevolution were one and the same."<ref>Jordan, p. 70</ref> Thus, he proceeded to pressure several priests and bishops into abjuring their positions. Chaumette organized a Festival of Reason on 10 November 1793, which boasted a ], portrayed by an actress, on an elevated platform in the ].<ref>Jervis, pp. 238–39</ref> He was such a passionate opponent of Christianity that in December 1792, he even publicly changed his name from Pierre-Gaspard Chaumette to ] Chaumette,<ref>Chronicle of the French Revolution, Longman 1989 p. 311</ref> explaining: "I was formerly called Pierre-Gaspard Chaumette because my ] believed in the saints. Since the revolution I have taken the name of a saint who was hanged for his republican principles."<ref>Jones, p. 471</ref> It has been suggested that his criticism was also influenced by the Church's stance on homosexual relations.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Guérin|first1=Daniel|title=Homosexualité et révolution|date=1983|publisher=Le vent du ch'min|location=Paris|language=French}}</ref> | ||
| ===Downfall=== | ===Downfall=== | ||
| Chaumette's ultra-radical ideas on the economy, society and religion set him at odds with ] and the powerful circle around him |
Chaumette's ultra-radical ideas on the economy, society and religion set him at odds with ] and the powerful circle around him. Soon, official opinion began to turn against Chaumette and the like-minded ]. In September 1793, Robespierre made a speech denouncing dechristianisation as aristocratic and immoral.<ref>The Terror, David Andress, Little, Brown 2005 p. 253</ref> ], himself under suspicion, produced a report for the ], alleging Chaumette's involvement in an anti-government plot, revealed by ], although Chabot had never named Chaumette himself.<ref>The Terror, David Andress, Little, Brown 2005 p. 254</ref> | ||
| In the early spring of 1794, Chaumette increasingly became target of allegations that he was a counterrevolutionary. Hébert and his associates planned an armed uprising to overthrow Robespierre, but Chaumette, along with ], refused to take part.<ref>Chronicle of the French Revolution, Longman 1989 p.409</ref> When the ] were arrested on 4 March, Chaumette |
In the early spring of 1794, Chaumette increasingly became target of allegations that he was a counterrevolutionary. Hébert and his associates planned an armed uprising to overthrow Robespierre, but Chaumette, along with fellow sans-culotte leader ], refused to take part.<ref>Chronicle of the French Revolution, Longman 1989 p. 409</ref> When the ] were arrested on 4 March, Chaumette was originally spared, but on 13 March he too was arrested.<ref>Chronicle of the French Revolution, Longman 1989 p. 410</ref> The other Hébertists were executed with their leader Jacques Hébert on 24 March 1794, but Chaumette was held in prison until found guilty of taking part in the prison plot at ]. He was sentenced to death on the morning of 13 April and guillotined that same afternoon. Also executed was his unlikely group of co-conspirators including ], wife of the recently executed ], ], wife of the recently executed Hébert, ], former Bishop of Paris, ] and an assortment of other prisoners of various types.<ref>Chronicle of the French Revolution, Longman 1989, pp. 416–17</ref> | ||
| ==Radical |
==Radical philosophy== | ||
| Pierre-Gaspard Chaumette's legacy mainly consists of his ultra-radical philosophies that were regarded as excessive even by his |
Pierre-Gaspard Chaumette's legacy mainly consists of his ultra-radical philosophies that were regarded as excessive even by his colleagues.<ref>Jordan, p. 70</ref> Especially his convictions on the uselessness of religion were frowned upon by deist ] and most other "moderate" ] and they ultimately led to his execution. | ||
| colleagues.<ref>Jordan, p.70</ref> Especially his convictions on the uselessness of religion were frowned upon by deist ] | |||
| and most other "moderate" Montagnards and they ultimately led to his execution. | |||
| ===Reviewing Saint-Martin=== | ===Reviewing Saint-Martin=== | ||
| In 1790 Chaumette reviewed the work of ], a French Catholic philosopher wishing for a theocratic society in which the most devout people would commission and guide the rest of the population. |
In 1790 Chaumette reviewed the work of ], a French Catholic philosopher wishing for a theocratic society in which the most devout people would commission and guide the rest of the population. The review provides a substantiated outline of Chaumette's philosophies. He criticizes Saint-Martin's ideal due to its similarity to France's ] before the Revolution in which the rule of the monarch was legitimized by the ]. The review soon develops into a much broader affront towards religion, though. Chaumette calls all Christians "enemies of reason",<ref>Chaumette, p. 17</ref> and calls their ideas "ridiculous."<ref>Chaumette, p. 6</ref> He wonders "over whom to get more embarrassed; him who believes he can deceive humans in the eighteenth century with such farces or him who has the weakness to let himself be deceived."<ref>Chaumette, p. 12</ref> He moves on to criticize the very notion of free will as construct that authorizes Christianity to proscribe certain "unmoral" actions. | ||
| His criticism is reminiscent of ] who would denounce Christianity on many of the same grounds eighty years later. |
His criticism is reminiscent of ] who would denounce Christianity on many of the same grounds eighty years later. Just like Nietzsche, Chaumette emphasizes a greater reliance on our instincts and a greater embracing of the apparent world, instead of Christianity's concern with the afterlife. In his philosophy, he is rather critical of human beings stating that "everyone knows that humans are nothing more than what education makes of them; if one wants them just, one must furnish them with notions of fairness, not ideas from seventh heaven because the sources of all of human's grief are ignorance and superstition.".<ref>Chaumette, p. 85</ref> | ||
| ==References== | ==References== | ||
| {{Reflist |
{{Reflist}} | ||
| ===Bibliography=== | ===Bibliography=== | ||
| Line 69: | Line 69: | ||
| * Jones, Colin. The Great Nation. Chicago: Columbian University Press 2002 | * Jones, Colin. The Great Nation. Chicago: Columbian University Press 2002 | ||
| * Jordan, David P. The King’s Trial: The French Revolution vs. Louis XVI. California: University of California Press, 2004. | * Jordan, David P. The King’s Trial: The French Revolution vs. Louis XVI. California: University of California Press, 2004. | ||
| * Lytle, Scott H.. "The Second Sex." The Journal of Modern History Vol. 27, no. 1 (1955): |
* Lytle, Scott H.. "The Second Sex." The Journal of Modern History Vol. 27, no. 1 (1955): 14–26. | ||
| * Scott, Joan Wallach. "French Feminists and the Rights of 'Man': Olympe de Gouges's Declarations." History Workshop No. 28 (Autumn 1989): |
* Scott, Joan Wallach. "French Feminists and the Rights of 'Man': Olympe de Gouges's Declarations." History Workshop No. 28 (Autumn 1989): 1–21. | ||
| {{Authority control}} | {{Authority control}} | ||
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Revision as of 20:29, 9 September 2024
18th-century French politician
| Pierre Gaspard Anaxagore Chaumette | |
|---|---|
 Pierre Gaspard Anaxagore Chaumette | |
| Born | 24 May 1763 Nevers |
| Died | 13 April 1794 (1794-04-14) (aged 30) Paris |
| Nationality | French |
| Alma mater | University of Paris |
| Scientific career | |
| Fields | Botany Politics |
Pierre Gaspard Anaxagore Chaumette (French pronunciation: [pjɛʁ ɡaspaʁ anaksaɡɔʁ ʃomɛt]; 24 May 1763 – 13 April 1794) was a French politician of the Revolutionary period who served as the president of the Paris Commune and played a leading role in the establishment of the Reign of Terror. He a leader of the radical Hébertistes of the revolution, an ardent critic of Christianity who was one of the leaders of the dechristianization of France. His radical positions resulted in his alienation from Maximilien Robespierre, and he was arrested and executed.
Biography
Early activities
Chaumette was born in Nevers, France, on 24 May 1763 into a family of shoemakers who wanted him to enter the Church. However, he did not have a vocation and instead sought his fortune as a cabin boy. After only reaching the rank of helmsman, he returned to Nevers to study his main interests, botany and science. He also studied surgery and made a long voyage in the company of an English doctor, serving as his secretary. He then became surgeon at the Frères de la charité in Moulins. Chaumette studied medicine at the University of Paris in 1790, but gave up his career in medicine at the start of the Revolution. Chaumette began his political career as member of the Jacobin Club editing the progressive Revolutions de Paris journal from 1790. His oratory skills proved him a valuable spokesperson of the Cordelier Club, and more importantly, the sans-culotte movement in the Paris sections. In August 1792, Chaumette became the Chief Procurator of the Commune of Paris; as member of the Paris Commune during the insurrection of 10 August 1792, he was delegated to visit the prisons, with full power to arrest suspects. On 31 October 1792, he was elected President of the Commune and was re-elected in the Municipal on 2 December of that same year.
Presidency of the Commune
His conduct, oratorical talent, and the fact that his private life was considered beyond reproach, all made him influential, and he was elected president of the Commune, defending the municipality at the bar of the National Convention on 31 October 1792. Re-elected in the municipal elections of 2 December 1792, he was soon given the functions of procureur of the Commune, and contributed with success to the enrollments of volunteers in the army by his appeals to the population of Paris. Chaumette held strong anti-monarchy views. He led a deputation from the Commune and argued before the National Convention that failing to punish Louis XVI for his crimes was causing high prices and the fall of the assignat. Further, Chaumette held a strong opinion about the fate of Louis XVI after his fall. He was greatly outspoken in his demand for the king's blood. Chaumette's thesis was that as long as Louis XVI went unpunished prices would remain high, and shortages and the profiteering that created them, which he assumed to be the work of the royalists, would go unchecked.
Chaumette was also a leading and vocal opponent of the Girondists. He was one of the instigators of the attacks of 31 May and of 2 June 1793 on the Girondists. Chaumette and Jacques Hébert acted as prosecutors on behalf of the Tribunal which tried the Girondists in October 1793.
Chaumette made a leading contribution to establishing the Reign of Terror. In early September 1793 there was fear and unrest in Paris over prices, food shortages, war and fears of a royalist betrayal. On 4 September Hebert appealed to the sections to join the Commune in petitioning the National Convention with radical demands. The next day, led by Chaumette and the mayor of Paris, Pache, crowds of citizens filled the Convention. Chaumette stood up on a table to declare that 'we now have open war between the rich and the poor' and urged the immediate mobilisation of the revolutionary army to go into the countryside, seize food supplies from hoarders and exact punishments on them. Robespierre was presiding over the Convention's sessions that day, and Chaumette's demands, together with the shock of the recent betrayal of Toulon to the British, prompted the Convention to decree that 'Terror will be the order of the day'.
Role in the dechristianization of France
Chaumette is considered one of the ultra-radical enragés of the French Revolution. He demanded the formation of a Revolutionary Army which was to "force avarice and greed to yield up the riches of the earth" in order to redistribute wealth, and feed troops and the urban populations. However, he is much more known today for his role in the dechristianization movement. Chaumette was an ardent critic of Christianity, which he considered "ridiculous ideas" that "have been very helpful to despotism." His views were heavily influenced by atheist and materialist writers Paul d'Holbach, Denis Diderot and Jean Meslier. Chaumette saw religion as a relic of superstitious eras that did not reflect the intellectual achievements of the Age of Enlightenment. Indeed, for Chaumette, "church and counterrevolution were one and the same." Thus, he proceeded to pressure several priests and bishops into abjuring their positions. Chaumette organized a Festival of Reason on 10 November 1793, which boasted a Goddess of Reason, portrayed by an actress, on an elevated platform in the Notre Dame Cathedral. He was such a passionate opponent of Christianity that in December 1792, he even publicly changed his name from Pierre-Gaspard Chaumette to Anaxagoras Chaumette, explaining: "I was formerly called Pierre-Gaspard Chaumette because my god-father believed in the saints. Since the revolution I have taken the name of a saint who was hanged for his republican principles." It has been suggested that his criticism was also influenced by the Church's stance on homosexual relations.
Downfall
Chaumette's ultra-radical ideas on the economy, society and religion set him at odds with Maximilien Robespierre and the powerful circle around him. Soon, official opinion began to turn against Chaumette and the like-minded Hébertists. In September 1793, Robespierre made a speech denouncing dechristianisation as aristocratic and immoral. Fabre d'Églantine, himself under suspicion, produced a report for the Committee of Public Safety, alleging Chaumette's involvement in an anti-government plot, revealed by Chabot, although Chabot had never named Chaumette himself.
In the early spring of 1794, Chaumette increasingly became target of allegations that he was a counterrevolutionary. Hébert and his associates planned an armed uprising to overthrow Robespierre, but Chaumette, along with fellow sans-culotte leader François Hanriot, refused to take part. When the Hébertists were arrested on 4 March, Chaumette was originally spared, but on 13 March he too was arrested. The other Hébertists were executed with their leader Jacques Hébert on 24 March 1794, but Chaumette was held in prison until found guilty of taking part in the prison plot at Luxembourg Palace. He was sentenced to death on the morning of 13 April and guillotined that same afternoon. Also executed was his unlikely group of co-conspirators including Lucile Desmoulins, wife of the recently executed Camille Desmoulins, Françoise Hebert, wife of the recently executed Hébert, Gobel, former Bishop of Paris, Arthur Dillon and an assortment of other prisoners of various types.
Radical philosophy
Pierre-Gaspard Chaumette's legacy mainly consists of his ultra-radical philosophies that were regarded as excessive even by his colleagues. Especially his convictions on the uselessness of religion were frowned upon by deist Robespierre and most other "moderate" Montagnards and they ultimately led to his execution.
Reviewing Saint-Martin
In 1790 Chaumette reviewed the work of Louis Claude de Saint-Martin, a French Catholic philosopher wishing for a theocratic society in which the most devout people would commission and guide the rest of the population. The review provides a substantiated outline of Chaumette's philosophies. He criticizes Saint-Martin's ideal due to its similarity to France's feudal order before the Revolution in which the rule of the monarch was legitimized by the Divine right of kings. The review soon develops into a much broader affront towards religion, though. Chaumette calls all Christians "enemies of reason", and calls their ideas "ridiculous." He wonders "over whom to get more embarrassed; him who believes he can deceive humans in the eighteenth century with such farces or him who has the weakness to let himself be deceived." He moves on to criticize the very notion of free will as construct that authorizes Christianity to proscribe certain "unmoral" actions.
His criticism is reminiscent of Friedrich Nietzsche who would denounce Christianity on many of the same grounds eighty years later. Just like Nietzsche, Chaumette emphasizes a greater reliance on our instincts and a greater embracing of the apparent world, instead of Christianity's concern with the afterlife. In his philosophy, he is rather critical of human beings stating that "everyone knows that humans are nothing more than what education makes of them; if one wants them just, one must furnish them with notions of fairness, not ideas from seventh heaven because the sources of all of human's grief are ignorance and superstition.".
References
- Chronicle of the French Revolution, Longman, 1989 p. 31
- Chronicle of the French Revolution, Longman, 1989 p. 31
- Jervis, p. 230,
- Citizens, Simon Schama, Penguin 1989 p. 652
- Jordan, p. 69
- Chronicle of the French Revolution, Longman 1989 p. 379
- Citizens, Simon Schama, Penguin 1989 p. 758
- Chronicle of the French Revolution, Longman 1989 p. 365
- Citizens, Simon Schama, Penguin 1989 p. 758
- Citizens, Simon Schama, Penguin 1989 p. 758
- Lytle, p. 19
- Chaumette, p. 6
- Chaumette, p. 101
- Jordan, p. 70
- Jervis, pp. 238–39
- Chronicle of the French Revolution, Longman 1989 p. 311
- Jones, p. 471
- Guérin, Daniel (1983). Homosexualité et révolution (in French). Paris: Le vent du ch'min.
- The Terror, David Andress, Little, Brown 2005 p. 253
- The Terror, David Andress, Little, Brown 2005 p. 254
- Chronicle of the French Revolution, Longman 1989 p. 409
- Chronicle of the French Revolution, Longman 1989 p. 410
- Chronicle of the French Revolution, Longman 1989, pp. 416–17
- Jordan, p. 70
- Chaumette, p. 17
- Chaumette, p. 6
- Chaumette, p. 12
- Chaumette, p. 85
Bibliography
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Chaumette, Pierre Gaspard". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 17.- Andress, David. The Terror. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2005.
- Chaumette, Pierre-Gaspard. Schlüssel des Buchs: Irthümer und Wahrheit. Hildesheim, Germany: Georg Olms Verlag, 2004.
- Guérin, Daniel. Homosexualité et Révolution, Le vent du ch'min, 1983.
- Jaher, Frederic Cople. The Jews and the Nation: Revolution Emancipation, State Formation, and the Liberal Paradigm in America and France. New York: Princeton University Press, 2002.
- Jervis, William Henley. The Gallican Church and the Revolution. France: K. Paul, Trench, & Co, 1882.
- Jones, Colin. The Great Nation. Chicago: Columbian University Press 2002
- Jordan, David P. The King’s Trial: The French Revolution vs. Louis XVI. California: University of California Press, 2004.
- Lytle, Scott H.. "The Second Sex." The Journal of Modern History Vol. 27, no. 1 (1955): 14–26.
- Scott, Joan Wallach. "French Feminists and the Rights of 'Man': Olympe de Gouges's Declarations." History Workshop No. 28 (Autumn 1989): 1–21.
- 1763 births
- 1794 deaths
- People from Nevers
- French atheism activists
- French critics of Christianity
- 18th-century French botanists
- 18th-century French lawyers
- 18th-century French politicians
- French people executed by guillotine during the French Revolution
- French male non-fiction writers
- People of the Reign of Terror
- 18th-century French memoirists
- Hébertists
- University of Paris alumni