Misplaced Pages

Phenothiazine: Difference between revisions

Article snapshot taken from Wikipedia with creative commons attribution-sharealike license. Give it a read and then ask your questions in the chat. We can research this topic together.
Browse history interactively← Previous editContent deleted Content addedVisualWikitext
Revision as of 12:26, 8 August 2019 editNemo bis (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users39,329 edits Alter: template type. Add: pages, issue, volume, journal. Removed URL that duplicated unique identifier. Removed parameters. Formatted dashes. | You can use this tool yourself. Report bugs here.← Previous edit Latest revision as of 13:00, 22 September 2024 edit undoCitation bot (talk | contribs)Bots5,408,907 edits Removed parameters. | Use this bot. Report bugs. | Suggested by Abductive | Category:Misplaced Pages articles needing clarification from September 2024 | #UCB_Category 450/962 
(44 intermediate revisions by 25 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
{{short description|Heterocyclic compound containing a ring of four carbon, one nitrogen and one sulfur atom}}
{{chembox {{chembox
| Verifiedfields = changed |Verifiedfields = changed
| Watchedfields = changed |Watchedfields = changed
| verifiedrevid = 409955363 |verifiedrevid = 409955363
| Name = Phenothiazine |Name = Phenothiazine
| ImageFile1 = Phenothiazine.svg |ImageFile1 = Phenothiazine.svg
| ImageFile2 = Phenothiazine-McDowell-3D-vdW.png |ImageFile2 = Phenothiazine-McDowell-3D-vdW.png
| ImageFile3 = Phenothiazine-non-planar-McDowell-3D-balls.png |ImageFile3 = Phenothiazine-non-planar-McDowell-3D-balls.png
| PIN = 10''H''-Phenothiazine<ref name=iupac2013>{{cite book | title = Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry : IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013 (Blue Book) | publisher = ] | date = 2014 | location = Cambridge | page = 216 | doi = 10.1039/9781849733069-FP001 | isbn = 978-0-85404-182-4| chapter = Front Matter }}</ref> |PIN = 10''H''-Phenothiazine<ref name=iupac2013>{{cite book | title = Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry: IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013 (Blue Book) | publisher = ] | date = 2014 | location = Cambridge | page = 216 | doi = 10.1039/9781849733069-FP001 | isbn = 978-0-85404-182-4| chapter = Front Matter }}</ref>
| OtherNames = Thiodiphenylamine<br />Dibenzothiazine<br />Dibenzoparathiazine<br />10''H''-dibenzo--1,4-thiazine<br />PTZ |OtherNames = Thiodiphenylamine<br />Dibenzothiazine<br />Dibenzoparathiazine<br />10''H''-dibenzo--1,4-thiazine<br />PTZ
| Section1 = {{Chembox Identifiers |Section1 = {{Chembox Identifiers
| ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|changed|EBI}} |ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
| ChEBI = 37931 |ChEBI = 37931
| SMILES = c1ccc2c(c1)Nc3ccccc3S2 |SMILES = c1ccc2c(c1)Nc3ccccc3S2
| UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}} |UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}}
| UNII = GS9EX7QNU6 |UNII = GS9EX7QNU6
| KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}} |KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}}
| KEGG = D02601 |KEGG = D02601
|PubChem = 7108
| InChI = 1/C12H9NS/c1-3-7-11-9(5-1)13-10-6-2-4-8-12(10)14-11/h1-8,13H
|RTECS = SN5075000
| InChIKey = WJFKNYWRSNBZNX-UHFFFAOYAI
|EC_number = 202-196-5
| ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
| ChEMBL = 828 |Beilstein = 143237
|InChI = 1/C12H9NS/c1-3-7-11-9(5-1)13-10-6-2-4-8-12(10)14-11/h1-8,13H
| StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
|InChIKey = WJFKNYWRSNBZNX-UHFFFAOYAI
| StdInChI = 1S/C12H9NS/c1-3-7-11-9(5-1)13-10-6-2-4-8-12(10)14-11/h1-8,13H
| StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} |ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
|ChEMBL = 828
| StdInChIKey = WJFKNYWRSNBZNX-UHFFFAOYSA-N
|StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| CASNo = 92-84-2
|StdInChI = 1S/C12H9NS/c1-3-7-11-9(5-1)13-10-6-2-4-8-12(10)14-11/h1-8,13H
| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}}
| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}} |StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
|StdInChIKey = WJFKNYWRSNBZNX-UHFFFAOYSA-N
| ChemSpiderID = 21106365
|CASNo = 92-84-2
}}
|CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}}

| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}}
| Section2 = {{Chembox Properties
|ChemSpiderID = 21106365
| Formula = C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>9</sub>NS
| MolarMass = 199.27 g/mol
| Appearance = greenish-yellow rhombic leaflets or diamond-shaped plates
| Density =
| Solubility = 0.00051 g/L (20 °C)<ref></ref>
| Solvent = other solvents
| SolubleOther = ], ], ], ], hot ], ] (slightly), ] (slightly)
| MeltingPtC = 185
| BoilingPtC = 371
| pKa = approx 23 in DMSO
| pKb =
| MagSus = −114.8·10<sup>−6</sup> cm<sup>3</sup>/mol
}}

| Section3 = {{Chembox Hazards
| PEL = none<ref name=PGCH>{{PGCH|0494}}</ref>
| IDLH = N.D.<ref name=PGCH/>
| REL = TWA 5 mg/m<sup>3</sup>
}} }}
|Section2 = {{Chembox Properties

|Formula = C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>9</sub>NS
| Section6 = {{Chembox Pharmacology
|MolarMass = 199.27 g/mol
| ATCvet = yes
|Appearance = greenish-yellow rhombic leaflets or diamond-shaped plates
| ATCCode_prefix = P52
|Solubility = 0.00051 g/L (20 °C)<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/product/sial/88580| title = Sigma-Aldrich catalog of Phenothiazine| access-date = 2022-02-28}}</ref>
| ATCCode_suffix = AX03
|Solvent = other solvents
|SolubleOther = ], ], ], ], hot ], ] (slightly), ] (slightly)
|MeltingPtC = 185
|BoilingPtC = 371
|pKa = approx 23 in DMSO
|MagSus = −114.8·10<sup>−6</sup> cm<sup>3</sup>/mol
}}
|Section3 = {{Chembox Hazards
|PEL = none<ref name=PGCH>{{PGCH|0494}}</ref>
|IDLH = N.D.<ref name=PGCH/>
|REL = TWA 5 mg/m<sup>3</sup>
|GHSPictograms = {{GHS07}}{{GHS08}}
|GHSSignalWord = Warning
|HPhrases = {{H-phrases|302|317|373|412}}
|PPhrases = {{P-phrases|260|261|264|270|272|273|280|301+312|302+352|314|321|330|333+313|363|501}}
}}
|Section6 = {{Chembox Pharmacology
|ATCvet = yes
|ATCCode_prefix = P52
|ATCCode_suffix = AX03
}}}} }}}}


'''Phenothiazine''', abbreviated '''PTZ''', is an ] that has the formula S(C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>NH and is related to the ]-class of ]s. Derivatives of phenothiazine are highly bioactive and have widespread use and rich history. The derivatives ] and ] revolutionized the field of ] and ] treatment., respectively. An earlier derivative, ], was one of the first ], and derivatives are under investigation as possible anti-infective drugs. Phenothiazine is a prototypical pharmaceutical ] in ]. '''Phenothiazine''', abbreviated '''PTZ''', is an ] that has the formula S(C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>NH and is related to the ]-class of ]s. Derivatives of phenothiazine are highly bioactive and have widespread use and rich history.
The derivatives ] and ] revolutionized the fields of ] and ] treatment, respectively. An earlier derivative, ], was one of the first ], and derivatives of phenothiazine are currently under investigation as possible anti-infective drugs. Phenothiazine is a prototypical pharmaceutical ] in ].


==Uses== ==Uses==
Phenothiazine itself is only of theoretical interest, but its derivatives revolutionized psychiatry, other fields of medicine, and pest management. Other derivatives have been studied for possible use in advanced batteries and fuel cells.<ref name=DDD>{{cite journal|authors=M. J. Ohlow, B. Moosmann|title= Phenothiazine: the seven lives of pharmacology's first lead structure|journal=Drug Discov. Today|year=2011|volume=16|issue= 3–4|pages=119–31|pmid=21237283|doi=10.1016/j.drudis.2011.01.001}}</ref> Phenothiazine itself is only of theoretical interest, but derivatives of it revolutionized psychiatry, other fields of medicine, and pest management. Other derivatives have been studied for possible use in advanced batteries and fuel cells.<ref name=DDD>{{cite journal|author=M. J. Ohlow |author2=B. Moosmann |title= Phenothiazine: the seven lives of pharmacology's first lead structure|journal=Drug Discov. Today|year=2011|volume=16|issue= 3–4|pages=119–31|pmid=21237283|doi=10.1016/j.drudis.2011.01.001}}</ref>


=== Phenothiazine-derived drugs === === Phenothiazine-derived drugs ===
In 1876, ], a derivative of phenothiazine, was synthesized by ] at ]. The structure was deduced in 1885 by Heinrich August Bernthsen. Bernthsen synthesized phenothiazine in 1883.<ref name=DDD/> In the mid 1880s, ] began to use methylene blue in his ] experiments that led to pioneering discoveries about different cell types. He was awarded a Nobel Prize based in part on that work. He became particularly interested in ] such as '']'' – the genus that includes the ] pathogen – and found that it could be stained with methylene blue. He thought methylene blue could possibly be used in the treatment of malaria, tested it clinically, and by the 1890s methylene blue was being used for that purpose.<ref name=DDD/> In 1876, ], a derivative of phenothiazine, was synthesized by ] at ]. The structure was deduced in 1885 by Heinrich August Bernthsen. Bernthsen synthesized phenothiazine in 1883.<ref name=DDD/> In the mid 1880s, ] began to use methylene blue in his cell staining experiments that led to pioneering discoveries about different cell types. He was awarded a Nobel Prize based in part on that work. He became particularly interested in its use to stain bacteria and parasites such as '']'' – the genus that includes the ] pathogen – and found that it could be stained with methylene blue. He thought methylene blue could possibly be used in the treatment of malaria, tested it clinically, and by the 1890s methylene blue was being used for that purpose.<ref name=DDD/>


For the next several decades, research on derivatives lapsed until phenothiazine itself came to market as an insecticide and deworming drug. In the 1940s, chemists working with Paul Charpentier at Rhone-Poulenc Laboratories in Paris (a precursor company to ]), began making derivatives. This work led to ] which had no activity against infective organisms, but did have good ] activity, with a strong sedative effect. It went to market as a drug for allergies and for ]. As of 2012 it was still on the market.<ref name=DDD/> At the end of the 1940s the same lab produced ] which had an even stronger sedative and soothing effect, and ] and ] attempted to use it on their psychiatric patients, publishing their results in the early 1950s. The strong effects they found opened the door of the modern field of psychiatry and led to a proliferation of work on phenothiazine derivatives.<ref name=DDD/> The systematic research conducted by chemists to explore phenothiazine derivatives and their activity was a pioneering example of ]; phenothiazine is often discussed as a prototypical example of a pharmaceutical ].<ref name=DDD/><ref name=Jaszczyszyn/> For the next several decades, research on derivatives lapsed until phenothiazine itself came to market as an insecticide and deworming drug. In the 1940s, chemists working with Paul Charpentier at Rhone-Poulenc Laboratories in Paris (a precursor company to ]), began making derivatives. This work led to ] which had no activity against infective organisms, but did have good ] activity, with a strong sedative effect. It went to market as a drug for allergies and for ]. As of 2012 it was still on the market.<ref name=DDD/> At the end of the 1940s the same lab produced ] which had an even stronger sedative and soothing effect, and ] and ] attempted to use it on their psychiatric patients, publishing their results in the early 1950s. The strong effects they found opened the door of the modern field of psychiatry and led to a proliferation of work on phenothiazine derivatives.<ref name=DDD/> The systematic research conducted by chemists to explore phenothiazine derivatives and their activity was a pioneering example of ]; phenothiazine is often discussed as a prototypical example of a pharmaceutical ].<ref name=DDD/><ref name=Jaszczyszyn/>


A number of phenothiazines other than methylene blue have been shown to have antimicrobial effects. In particular, ] has been shown to make ] (XDR-TB) drug-susceptible again<ref name = XDR>{{cite journal|title=Why thioridazine in combination with antibiotics cures extensively drug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis infections|journal=International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents|date=May 2012|volume=39|issue=5|pages=376–380|doi=10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2012.01.012|pmid=22445204|author1=Amaral, L |author2=Viveiros, M }}</ref><ref name=Thioridazineres>{{cite journal|title=Thioridazine: resurrection as an antimicrobial agent?|journal=British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology|volume=64|issue=5|pages=566–574|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2125.2007.03021.x|pmid=17764469|pmc=2203271|date=November 2007|author=Thanacoody, HKR}}</ref> and make ] (MRSA) susceptible to beta-lactam antibiotics.<ref name=Thioridazineres/><ref>{{cite journal|title=Thioridazine Induces Major Changes in Global Gene Expression and Cell Wall Composition in Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus USA300|journal=PLOS ONE|date=May 2013|volume=8|issue=5|pages=e64518|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0064518|pmid=23691239|author1=Thorsing, M |author2=Klitgaard, JK |author3=Atilano, ML |author4=Skov, MN |author5=Kolmos, HJ |author6=Filipe, SR |author7=Kallipolitis, BH |pmc=3656896|bibcode=2013PLoSO...864518T|doi-access=free}}</ref> The major reason why thioridazine has not been utilized as an antimicrobial agent is due to adverse effects on the central nervous system and cardiovascular system (particularly QT interval prolongation).<ref name=Thioridazineres/>
The term "phenothiazines" describes the largest of the five main classes of ]. These drugs have antipsychotic and, often, ] properties, although they may also cause severe ] such as ] (including ] and ]), ], and the rare but potentially fatal ], as well as substantial weight gain.<ref name=DDD/> Use of phenothiazines has been associated with ], but no causal relationship has been established.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Antiphospholipid Syndrome - Doctor's Information {{!}} Patient|url = http://patient.info/doctor/antiphospholipid-syndrome-pro|website = Patient|accessdate = 2015-07-25}}</ref>


The term "phenothiazines" describes the largest of the five main classes of ]. These drugs have antipsychotic and, often, ] properties, although they may also cause severe ] such as ] (including ] and ]), ], and the rare but potentially fatal ], as well as substantial weight gain.<ref name=DDD/> Use of phenothiazines has been associated with ], but no causal relationship has been established.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Antiphospholipid Syndrome - Doctor's Information {{!}} Patient|url = http://patient.info/doctor/antiphospholipid-syndrome-pro|website = Patient|access-date = 2015-07-25}}</ref>
Phenothiazine antipsychotics are classified into three groups that differ with respect to the substituent on nitrogen: the ]s (bearing ] groups), the "piperidines" (bearing ]-derived groups), and the piperazine (bearing ]-derived substituents).<ref name=Jaszczyszyn>Jaszczyszyn A, et al. . Pharmacol Rep. 2012;64(1):16-23. Review. {{PMID|22580516}}</ref>


Phenothiazine antipsychotics are classified into three groups that differ with respect to the substituent on nitrogen: the ]s (bearing ] groups), the "piperidines" (bearing ]-derived groups), and the piperazine (bearing ]-derived substituents).<ref name=Jaszczyszyn>{{cite journal | last1 = Jaszczyszyn | first1 = A | display-authors = etal | year = 2012 | title = Chemical structure of phenothiazines and their biological activity | url = http://www.if-pan.krakow.pl/pjp/pdf/2012/1_16.pdf | journal = Pharmacol. Rep. | volume = 64 | issue = 1| pages = 16–23 | pmid = 22580516 | doi = 10.1016/s1734-1140(12)70726-0 }}</ref>
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" width="60%"
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Group
!Anticholinergic
!Example
!Sedation
!]s
|- |-
| rowspan="4" |]s
|'''Group'''
| rowspan="4" |moderate
|''']'''
|'''Example'''
|'''Sedative'''
|''']s'''
|-
| rowspan=5 | ]s
|-
| rowspan=4 | moderate
|] (marketed as Thorazine, Aminazine, Chlor-PZ, Klorazine, Promachlor, Promapar, Sonazine, Chlorprom, Chlor-Promanyl, Largactil) |] (marketed as Thorazine, Aminazine, Chlor-PZ, Klorazine, Promachlor, Promapar, Sonazine, Chlorprom, Chlor-Promanyl, Largactil)
|strong |strong
Line 99: Line 105:
|low |low
|- |-
| rowspan=2 | ] | rowspan="2" |]
| rowspan=2 | strong | rowspan="2" |strong
|] (trade name Serentil) |] (trade name Serentil)
|strong |strong
Line 109: Line 115:
|weak |weak
|- |-
| rowspan=5 | ] | rowspan="4" |]
| rowspan=5 | weak | rowspan="4" |weak
|] (trade names Prolixin, Permitil, Modecate, Moditen) |] (trade names Prolixin, Permitil, Modecate, Moditen)
|weak/moderate |weak/moderate
Line 129: Line 135:


=== Nondrug applications === === Nondrug applications ===
The synthetic dye ], containing the structure, was described in 1876. Many water-soluble phenothiazine derivatives, such as ], ], ], and others, can be ] into ] used as ]s for NADH oxidation in enzymatic biosensors and biofuel cells.<ref>{{cite journal | url = | doi=10.1016/0003-2670(94)85016-X | volume=285 | issue=1–2 | title=Electrocatalytic oxidation of reduced nicotinamide coenzymes at Methylene Green-modified electrodes and fabrication of amperometric alcohol biosensors | journal=Analytica Chimica Acta | pages=125–133| date=1994-01-20 | last1=Chi | first1=Qijin | last2=Dong | first2=Shaojun }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1002/(SICI)1521-4109(199906)11:8<553::AID-ELAN553>3.0.CO;2-6 | volume=11 | issue=8 | title=Electropolymerized Azines: Part II. In a Search of the Best Electrocatalyst of NADH Oxidation | journal=Electroanalysis | pages=553–557| year=1999 | last1=Karyakin | first1=Arkady A. | last2=Karyakina | first2=Elena E. | last3=Schuhmann | first3=Wolfgang | last4=Schmidt | first4=Hanns-Ludwig }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | url = | doi=10.1016/j.bios.2008.07.043 | pmid=18774285 | volume=24 | issue=4 | title=Citric acid cycle biomimic on a carbon electrode | journal=Biosensors and Bioelectronics | pages=939–944| date=December 2008 | last1=Sokic-Lazic | first1=Daria | last2=Minteer | first2=Shelley D. }}</ref> The synthetic dye ], containing the structure, was described in 1876. Many water-soluble phenothiazine derivatives, such as ], ], ], and others, can be ] into ] used as ]s for NADH oxidation in enzymatic biosensors and biofuel cells.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1016/0003-2670(94)85016-X | volume=285 | issue=1–2 | title=Electrocatalytic oxidation of reduced nicotinamide coenzymes at Methylene Green-modified electrodes and fabrication of amperometric alcohol biosensors | journal=Analytica Chimica Acta | pages=125–133| date=1994-01-20 | last1=Chi | first1=Qijin | last2=Dong | first2=Shaojun | bibcode=1994AcAC..285..125C }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1002/(SICI)1521-4109(199906)11:8<553::AID-ELAN553>3.0.CO;2-6 | volume=11 | issue=8 | title=Electropolymerized Azines: Part II. In a Search of the Best Electrocatalyst of NADH Oxidation | journal=Electroanalysis | pages=553–557| year=1999 | last1=Karyakin | first1=Arkady A. | last2=Karyakina | first2=Elena E. | last3=Schuhmann | first3=Wolfgang | last4=Schmidt | first4=Hanns-Ludwig }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1016/j.bios.2008.07.043 | pmid=18774285 | volume=24 | issue=4 | title=Citric acid cycle biomimic on a carbon electrode | journal=Biosensors and Bioelectronics | pages=939–944| date=December 2008 | last1=Sokic-Lazic | first1=Daria | last2=Minteer | first2=Shelley D. }}</ref>


Phenothiazine is used as an anaerobic inhibitor for ] polymerization, often used as an in-process inhibitor during the purification of acrylic acid.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Inhibition of acrylic acid polymerization by phenothiazine and p‐methoxyphenol. II. Catalytic inhibition by phenothiazine|journal = Journal of Polymer Science Part A: Polymer Chemistry|volume = 30|issue = 4|pages = 569–576|last=Levy|first=Leon B.|date=1992-03-30|language=en|doi=10.1002/pola.1992.080300407}}</ref> Phenothiazine is used as an anaerobic inhibitor for ] polymerization, often used as an in-process inhibitor during the purification of acrylic acid.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Inhibition of acrylic acid polymerization by phenothiazine and p-methoxyphenol. II. Catalytic inhibition by phenothiazine|journal = Journal of Polymer Science Part A: Polymer Chemistry|volume = 30|issue = 4|pages = 569–576|last=Levy|first=Leon B.|date=1992-03-30|language=en|doi=10.1002/pola.1992.080300407|bibcode = 1992JPoSA..30..569L}}</ref>


== Trade names == == Trade names ==
Like many commercially significant compounds, phenothiazine has numerous trade names, including AFI-Tiazin, Agrazine, Antiverm, Biverm, Dibenzothiazine, Orimon, Lethelmin, Souframine, Nemazene, Vermitin, Padophene, Fenoverm, Fentiazine, Contaverm, Fenothiazine, Phenovarm, Ieeno, ENT 38, Helmetina, Helmetine, Penthazine, XL-50, Wurm-thional, Phenegic, Phenovis, Phenoxur, and Reconox.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.osha.gov/dts/chemicalsampling/data/CH_261200.html |title=U.S. Department of Labor Occupational Safety & Health Administration Chemical Sampling Information Phenothiazine |access-date=2007-07-06 |archive-date=2007-08-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070808104312/http://www.osha.gov/dts/chemicalsampling/data/CH_261200.html }}</ref>

Like many commercially significant compounds, phenothiazine has numerous trade names, including AFI-Tiazin, Agrazine, Antiverm, Biverm, Dibenzothiazine, Orimon, Lethelmin, Souframine, Nemazene, Vermitin, Padophene, Fenoverm, Fentiazine, Contaverm, Fenothiazine, Phenovarm, Ieeno, ENT 38, Helmetina, Helmetine, Penthazine, XL-50, Wurm-thional, Phenegic, Phenovis, Phenoxur, and Reconox.<ref></ref>


==Former uses== ==Former uses==
Phenothiazine was formerly used as an insecticide and as a drug to treat infections with ] (]) in ] and people, but its use for those purposes has been superseded by other chemicals. Phenothiazine was formerly used as an insecticide and as a drug to treat infections with ] (]) in ] and people, but its use for those purposes has been superseded by other chemicals.


Phenothiazine was introduced by ] as an ] in 1935.<ref name=insecticide> Clemson University Pesticide Information Program.</ref> About 3,500,000 pounds were sold in the US in 1944.<ref>Robert Lee Metcalf. The Mode of Action of Organic Insecticides, Issues 1-5. National Academies, 1948, </ref> However, because it was degraded by sunlight and air, it was difficult to determine how much to use in the field, and its use waned in the 1940s with the arrival of new pesticides like ] that were more durable.<ref>G. Matolcsy, M. Nádasy, V. Andriska. Studies in Environmental Science: Pesticide Chemistry. Elsevier, 1989 {{ISBN|9780080874913}}</ref>{{rp|161–162}} As of July 2015 it is not registered for pesticide use in the US, Europe,<ref name=ECHA>ECHA Page accessed July 26, 2015. Note - Registered uses are only in manufacturing.</ref> or Australia.<ref name=APVMA>Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicine Authority Page accessed July 26, 2015</ref> Phenothiazine was introduced by ] as an ] in 1935.<ref> Clemson University Pesticide Information Program.</ref> About 3,500,000 pounds were sold in the US in 1944.<ref>Robert Lee Metcalf. The Mode of Action of Organic Insecticides, Issues 1-5. National Academies, 1948, </ref> However, because it was degraded by sunlight and air, it was difficult to determine how much to use in the field, and its use waned in the 1940s with the arrival of new pesticides like ] that were more durable.<ref>G. Matolcsy, M. Nádasy, V. Andriska. Studies in Environmental Science: Pesticide Chemistry. Elsevier, 1989 {{ISBN|9780080874913}}</ref>{{rp|161–162}} As of July 2015 it is not registered for pesticide use in the US, Europe,<ref name=ECHA>ECHA {{Dead link|date=May 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} Page accessed July 26, 2015. Note - Registered uses are only in manufacturing.</ref> or Australia.<ref name=APVMA>Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicine Authority Page accessed July 26, 2015</ref>


It was introduced as anthelminthic in ] in 1940 and is considered, with ], to be the first modern anthelminthic.<ref name=Nielsen>Nielsen MK, et al. Anthelmintic resistance in equine parasites--current evidence and knowledge gaps. Vet Parasitol. 2014 Jul 30;204(1-2):55-63. Review. {{PMID|24433852}}</ref> The first instances of resistance were noted in 1961.<ref name=Nielsen/> Uses for this purpose in the US are still described<ref>The Texas A&M University System; Texas AgriLife Extension Service </ref> but it has "virtually disappeared from the market."<ref>Heinz Mehlhorn, Philip M. Armstrong. Encyclopedic Reference of Parasitology: Diseases, Treatment, Therapy, Volume 2. Springer Science & Business Media, 2001 {{ISBN|9783540668299}}</ref>{{rp|369}} It was introduced as anthelminthic in livestock in 1940 and is considered, with ], to be the first modern anthelminthic.<ref name=Nielsen>{{cite journal | last1 = Nielsen | first1 = MK | display-authors = etal | date = Jul 2014 | title = Anthelmintic resistance in equine parasites--current evidence and knowledge gaps | journal = Vet Parasitol | volume = 204 | issue = 1–2| pages = 55–63 | pmid = 24433852 | doi = 10.1016/j.vetpar.2013.11.030}}</ref> The first instances of resistance were noted in 1961.<ref name=Nielsen/> Among anthelmintics, Blizzard et al. 1990 found only ] to have similar activity to phenothiazine. It is possible that they share the same ].<ref name="Monaghan-Tkacz-1990">{{cite journal | last1=Monaghan | first1=Richard L. | last2=Tkacz | first2=Jan S. | title=Bioactive Microbial Products: Focus upon Mechanism of Action | journal=] | publisher=] | volume=44 | issue=1 | year=1990 | issn=0066-4227 | doi=10.1146/annurev.mi.44.100190.001415 | pages=271–331| pmid=2252385 }}</ref> Uses for this purpose in the US are still described<ref>The Texas A&M University System; Texas AgriLife Extension Service {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140811054151/http://animalscience.tamu.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2012/04/dairy-integrated-pest-mgmt.pdf |date=2014-08-11 }}</ref> but it has "virtually disappeared from the market."<ref>Heinz Mehlhorn, Philip M. Armstrong. Encyclopedic Reference of Parasitology: Diseases, Treatment, Therapy, Volume 2. Springer Science & Business Media, 2001 {{ISBN|9783540668299}}</ref>{{rp|369}}


In the 1940s it also was introduced as antihelminthic for humans; since it was often given to children, the drug was often sold in chocolate, leading to the popular name, "worm chocolate." Phenothiazine was superseded by other drugs in the 1950s.<ref name=DDD/> In the 1940s it also was introduced as antihelminthic for humans; since it was often given to children, the drug was often sold in chocolate, leading to the popular name, "worm chocolate." Phenothiazine was superseded by other drugs in the 1950s.<ref name=DDD/>


== Structure, synthesis and reactions== == Structure and synthesis==
The central C<sub>4</sub>SN ring is folded in phenothiazines.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The crystal and molecular structure of phenothiazine The central C<sub>4</sub>SN ring is folded in phenothiazines.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The crystal and molecular structure of phenothiazine
|author=J. J. H. McDowell |doi=10.1107/S0567740876002215|journal=Acta Crystallographica Section B |volume=32|year=1976|page=5}} |author=J. J. H. McDowell |doi=10.1107/S0567740876002215|journal=Acta Crystallographica Section B |volume=32|year=1976|issue=1 |page=5|bibcode=1976AcCrB..32....5M }}
</ref> </ref>


The compound was originally prepared by Bernthsen in 1883 via the reaction of ] with sulfur, but more recent syntheses rely on the cyclization of 2-substituted diphenyl sulfides. Few pharmaceutically significant phenothiazines are prepared from phenothiazine,<ref>Gérard Taurand, "Phenothiazine and Derivatives" in ''Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry'', Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2005.{{DOI|10.1002/14356007.a19_387}}</ref> although some of them are.<ref>T. Kahl, K.-W. Schröder, F. R. Lawrence, W. J. Marshall, Hartmut Höke, Rudolf Jäckh, "Aniline" in ''Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry'', 2005, Wiley-VCH: Weinheim.</ref> The compound was originally prepared by Bernthsen in 1883 via the reaction of ] with sulfur, but more recent syntheses rely on the cyclization of 2-substituted diphenyl sulfides. Few pharmaceutically significant phenothiazines are prepared from phenothiazine,<ref>Gérard Taurand, "Phenothiazine and Derivatives" in ''Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry'', Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2005.{{doi|10.1002/14356007.a19_387}}</ref> although some of them are.<ref>T. Kahl, K.-W. Schröder, F. R. Lawrence, W. J. Marshall, Hartmut Höke, Rudolf Jäckh, "Aniline" in ''Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry'', 2005, Wiley-VCH: Weinheim.</ref>


Phenothiazines are electron donors, forming charge-transfer salts with many acceptors. Phenothiazines are electron donors, forming charge-transfer salts with many acceptors.
Line 159: Line 164:


== External links == == External links ==
* * {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090114071135/http://msds.chem.ox.ac.uk/PH/phenothiazine.html |date=2009-01-14 }}
* Hendricks, Christensen, J.B., and Kristiansen, Jette E. Sonderborg, Denmark. "" ''Chemotherapie Journal.'' 13.5. (2004): 203–205. ''Wissenschaftliche Verlagsgesesellschaft mbH.'' 21 August 2005. (PDF). * Hendricks, Christensen, J.B., and Kristiansen, Jette E. Sonderborg, Denmark. "" ''Chemotherapie Journal.'' 13.5. (2004): 203–205. ''Wissenschaftliche Verlagsgesesellschaft mbH.'' 21 August 2005. (PDF).
* National Center for Biotechnology Information. * National Center for Biotechnology Information.
* *
Line 170: Line 175:
{{Histaminergics}} {{Histaminergics}}
{{Serotonergics}} {{Serotonergics}}
{{Authority control}}


] ]

Latest revision as of 13:00, 22 September 2024

Heterocyclic compound containing a ring of four carbon, one nitrogen and one sulfur atom
Phenothiazine
Names
Preferred IUPAC name 10H-Phenothiazine
Other names Thiodiphenylamine
Dibenzothiazine
Dibenzoparathiazine
10H-dibenzo--1,4-thiazine
PTZ
Identifiers
CAS Number
3D model (JSmol)
Beilstein Reference 143237
ChEBI
ChEMBL
ChemSpider
ECHA InfoCard 100.001.997 Edit this at Wikidata
EC Number
  • 202-196-5
KEGG
PubChem CID
RTECS number
  • SN5075000
UNII
CompTox Dashboard (EPA)
InChI
  • InChI=1S/C12H9NS/c1-3-7-11-9(5-1)13-10-6-2-4-8-12(10)14-11/h1-8,13HKey: WJFKNYWRSNBZNX-UHFFFAOYSA-N
  • InChI=1/C12H9NS/c1-3-7-11-9(5-1)13-10-6-2-4-8-12(10)14-11/h1-8,13HKey: WJFKNYWRSNBZNX-UHFFFAOYAI
SMILES
  • c1ccc2c(c1)Nc3ccccc3S2
Properties
Chemical formula C12H9NS
Molar mass 199.27 g/mol
Appearance greenish-yellow rhombic leaflets or diamond-shaped plates
Melting point 185 °C (365 °F; 458 K)
Boiling point 371 °C (700 °F; 644 K)
Solubility in water 0.00051 g/L (20 °C)
Solubility in other solvents benzene, ether, petroleum ether, chloroform, hot acetic acid, ethanol (slightly), mineral oil (slightly)
Acidity (pKa) approx 23 in DMSO
Magnetic susceptibility (χ) −114.8·10 cm/mol
Hazards
GHS labelling:
Pictograms GHS07: Exclamation markGHS08: Health hazard
Signal word Warning
Hazard statements H302, H317, H373, H412
Precautionary statements P260, P261, P264, P270, P272, P273, P280, P301+P312, P302+P352, P314, P321, P330, P333+P313, P363, P501
NIOSH (US health exposure limits):
PEL (Permissible) none
REL (Recommended) TWA 5 mg/m
IDLH (Immediate danger) N.D.
Pharmacology
ATCvet code QP52AX03 (WHO)
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C , 100 kPa). ☒N verify (what is  ?) Infobox references
Chemical compound

Phenothiazine, abbreviated PTZ, is an organic compound that has the formula S(C6H4)2NH and is related to the thiazine-class of heterocyclic compounds. Derivatives of phenothiazine are highly bioactive and have widespread use and rich history.

The derivatives chlorpromazine and promethazine revolutionized the fields of psychiatry and allergy treatment, respectively. An earlier derivative, methylene blue, was one of the first antimalarial drugs, and derivatives of phenothiazine are currently under investigation as possible anti-infective drugs. Phenothiazine is a prototypical pharmaceutical lead structure in medicinal chemistry.

Uses

Phenothiazine itself is only of theoretical interest, but derivatives of it revolutionized psychiatry, other fields of medicine, and pest management. Other derivatives have been studied for possible use in advanced batteries and fuel cells.

Phenothiazine-derived drugs

In 1876, methylene blue, a derivative of phenothiazine, was synthesized by Heinrich Caro at BASF. The structure was deduced in 1885 by Heinrich August Bernthsen. Bernthsen synthesized phenothiazine in 1883. In the mid 1880s, Paul Ehrlich began to use methylene blue in his cell staining experiments that led to pioneering discoveries about different cell types. He was awarded a Nobel Prize based in part on that work. He became particularly interested in its use to stain bacteria and parasites such as Plasmodiidae – the genus that includes the malaria pathogen – and found that it could be stained with methylene blue. He thought methylene blue could possibly be used in the treatment of malaria, tested it clinically, and by the 1890s methylene blue was being used for that purpose.

For the next several decades, research on derivatives lapsed until phenothiazine itself came to market as an insecticide and deworming drug. In the 1940s, chemists working with Paul Charpentier at Rhone-Poulenc Laboratories in Paris (a precursor company to Sanofi), began making derivatives. This work led to promethazine which had no activity against infective organisms, but did have good antihistamine activity, with a strong sedative effect. It went to market as a drug for allergies and for anesthesia. As of 2012 it was still on the market. At the end of the 1940s the same lab produced chlorpromazine which had an even stronger sedative and soothing effect, and Jean Delay and Pierre Deniker attempted to use it on their psychiatric patients, publishing their results in the early 1950s. The strong effects they found opened the door of the modern field of psychiatry and led to a proliferation of work on phenothiazine derivatives. The systematic research conducted by chemists to explore phenothiazine derivatives and their activity was a pioneering example of medicinal chemistry; phenothiazine is often discussed as a prototypical example of a pharmaceutical lead structure.

A number of phenothiazines other than methylene blue have been shown to have antimicrobial effects. In particular, thioridazine has been shown to make extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR-TB) drug-susceptible again and make methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) susceptible to beta-lactam antibiotics. The major reason why thioridazine has not been utilized as an antimicrobial agent is due to adverse effects on the central nervous system and cardiovascular system (particularly QT interval prolongation).

The term "phenothiazines" describes the largest of the five main classes of antipsychotic drugs. These drugs have antipsychotic and, often, antiemetic properties, although they may also cause severe side effects such as extrapyramidal symptoms (including akathisia and tardive dyskinesia), hyperprolactinaemia, and the rare but potentially fatal neuroleptic malignant syndrome, as well as substantial weight gain. Use of phenothiazines has been associated with antiphospholipid syndrome, but no causal relationship has been established.

Phenothiazine antipsychotics are classified into three groups that differ with respect to the substituent on nitrogen: the aliphatic compounds (bearing acyclic groups), the "piperidines" (bearing piperidine-derived groups), and the piperazine (bearing piperazine-derived substituents).

Group Anticholinergic Example Sedation Extrapyramidal side effects
Aliphatic compounds moderate Chlorpromazine (marketed as Thorazine, Aminazine, Chlor-PZ, Klorazine, Promachlor, Promapar, Sonazine, Chlorprom, Chlor-Promanyl, Largactil) strong moderate
Promazine (trade name Sparine, Propazine) moderate moderate
Triflupromazine (trade names Clinazine, Novaflurazine, Pentazine, Terfluzine, Triflurin, Vesprin) strong moderate/strong
Levomepromazine in Germany, Russia, most American countries (e.g., Brazil) and methotrimeprazine in USA (trade names Nozinan, Levoprome, Tisercin) extremely strong low
Piperidines strong Mesoridazine (trade name Serentil) strong weak
Thioridazine (trade names Mellaril, Novoridazine, Thioril, Sonapax) strong weak
Piperazines weak Fluphenazine (trade names Prolixin, Permitil, Modecate, Moditen) weak/moderate strong
Perphenazine (sold as Trilafon, Etrafon, Triavil, Phenazine, Etaperazin) weak/moderate strong
Prochlorperazine (trade names Compazine, Stemetil)
Trifluoperazine (trade name Stelazine, Triphtazine) moderate strong

Nondrug applications

The synthetic dye methylene blue, containing the structure, was described in 1876. Many water-soluble phenothiazine derivatives, such as methylene blue, methylene green, thionine, and others, can be electropolymerized into conductive polymers used as electrocatalysts for NADH oxidation in enzymatic biosensors and biofuel cells.

Phenothiazine is used as an anaerobic inhibitor for acrylic acid polymerization, often used as an in-process inhibitor during the purification of acrylic acid.

Trade names

Like many commercially significant compounds, phenothiazine has numerous trade names, including AFI-Tiazin, Agrazine, Antiverm, Biverm, Dibenzothiazine, Orimon, Lethelmin, Souframine, Nemazene, Vermitin, Padophene, Fenoverm, Fentiazine, Contaverm, Fenothiazine, Phenovarm, Ieeno, ENT 38, Helmetina, Helmetine, Penthazine, XL-50, Wurm-thional, Phenegic, Phenovis, Phenoxur, and Reconox.

Former uses

Phenothiazine was formerly used as an insecticide and as a drug to treat infections with parasitic worms (anthelminthic) in livestock and people, but its use for those purposes has been superseded by other chemicals.

Phenothiazine was introduced by DuPont as an insecticide in 1935. About 3,500,000 pounds were sold in the US in 1944. However, because it was degraded by sunlight and air, it was difficult to determine how much to use in the field, and its use waned in the 1940s with the arrival of new pesticides like DDT that were more durable. As of July 2015 it is not registered for pesticide use in the US, Europe, or Australia.

It was introduced as anthelminthic in livestock in 1940 and is considered, with thiabendazole, to be the first modern anthelminthic. The first instances of resistance were noted in 1961. Among anthelmintics, Blizzard et al. 1990 found only paraherquamide to have similar activity to phenothiazine. It is possible that they share the same mode of action. Uses for this purpose in the US are still described but it has "virtually disappeared from the market."

In the 1940s it also was introduced as antihelminthic for humans; since it was often given to children, the drug was often sold in chocolate, leading to the popular name, "worm chocolate." Phenothiazine was superseded by other drugs in the 1950s.

Structure and synthesis

The central C4SN ring is folded in phenothiazines.

The compound was originally prepared by Bernthsen in 1883 via the reaction of diphenylamine with sulfur, but more recent syntheses rely on the cyclization of 2-substituted diphenyl sulfides. Few pharmaceutically significant phenothiazines are prepared from phenothiazine, although some of them are.

Phenothiazines are electron donors, forming charge-transfer salts with many acceptors.

References

  1. "Front Matter". Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry: IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013 (Blue Book). Cambridge: The Royal Society of Chemistry. 2014. p. 216. doi:10.1039/9781849733069-FP001. ISBN 978-0-85404-182-4.
  2. "Sigma-Aldrich catalog of Phenothiazine". Retrieved 2022-02-28.
  3. ^ NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. "#0494". National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).
  4. ^ M. J. Ohlow; B. Moosmann (2011). "Phenothiazine: the seven lives of pharmacology's first lead structure". Drug Discov. Today. 16 (3–4): 119–31. doi:10.1016/j.drudis.2011.01.001. PMID 21237283.
  5. ^ Jaszczyszyn, A; et al. (2012). "Chemical structure of phenothiazines and their biological activity" (PDF). Pharmacol. Rep. 64 (1): 16–23. doi:10.1016/s1734-1140(12)70726-0. PMID 22580516.
  6. Amaral, L; Viveiros, M (May 2012). "Why thioridazine in combination with antibiotics cures extensively drug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis infections". International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents. 39 (5): 376–380. doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2012.01.012. PMID 22445204.
  7. ^ Thanacoody, HKR (November 2007). "Thioridazine: resurrection as an antimicrobial agent?". British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 64 (5): 566–574. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2125.2007.03021.x. PMC 2203271. PMID 17764469.
  8. Thorsing, M; Klitgaard, JK; Atilano, ML; Skov, MN; Kolmos, HJ; Filipe, SR; Kallipolitis, BH (May 2013). "Thioridazine Induces Major Changes in Global Gene Expression and Cell Wall Composition in Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus USA300". PLOS ONE. 8 (5): e64518. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...864518T. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0064518. PMC 3656896. PMID 23691239.
  9. "Antiphospholipid Syndrome - Doctor's Information | Patient". Patient. Retrieved 2015-07-25.
  10. Chi, Qijin; Dong, Shaojun (1994-01-20). "Electrocatalytic oxidation of reduced nicotinamide coenzymes at Methylene Green-modified electrodes and fabrication of amperometric alcohol biosensors". Analytica Chimica Acta. 285 (1–2): 125–133. Bibcode:1994AcAC..285..125C. doi:10.1016/0003-2670(94)85016-X.
  11. Karyakin, Arkady A.; Karyakina, Elena E.; Schuhmann, Wolfgang; Schmidt, Hanns-Ludwig (1999). "Electropolymerized Azines: Part II. In a Search of the Best Electrocatalyst of NADH Oxidation". Electroanalysis. 11 (8): 553–557. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1521-4109(199906)11:8<553::AID-ELAN553>3.0.CO;2-6.
  12. Sokic-Lazic, Daria; Minteer, Shelley D. (December 2008). "Citric acid cycle biomimic on a carbon electrode". Biosensors and Bioelectronics. 24 (4): 939–944. doi:10.1016/j.bios.2008.07.043. PMID 18774285.
  13. Levy, Leon B. (1992-03-30). "Inhibition of acrylic acid polymerization by phenothiazine and p-methoxyphenol. II. Catalytic inhibition by phenothiazine". Journal of Polymer Science Part A: Polymer Chemistry. 30 (4): 569–576. Bibcode:1992JPoSA..30..569L. doi:10.1002/pola.1992.080300407.
  14. "U.S. Department of Labor Occupational Safety & Health Administration Chemical Sampling Information Phenothiazine". Archived from the original on 2007-08-08. Retrieved 2007-07-06.
  15. History of Insecticides and Control Equipment Clemson University Pesticide Information Program.
  16. Robert Lee Metcalf. The Mode of Action of Organic Insecticides, Issues 1-5. National Academies, 1948, page 44
  17. G. Matolcsy, M. Nádasy, V. Andriska. Studies in Environmental Science: Pesticide Chemistry. Elsevier, 1989 ISBN 9780080874913
  18. ECHA phenothiazine at the European Chemicals Authority Page accessed July 26, 2015. Note - Registered uses are only in manufacturing.
  19. Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicine Authority Phenothiazine Chemical Review Page accessed July 26, 2015
  20. ^ Nielsen, MK; et al. (Jul 2014). "Anthelmintic resistance in equine parasites--current evidence and knowledge gaps". Vet Parasitol. 204 (1–2): 55–63. doi:10.1016/j.vetpar.2013.11.030. PMID 24433852.
  21. Monaghan, Richard L.; Tkacz, Jan S. (1990). "Bioactive Microbial Products: Focus upon Mechanism of Action". Annual Review of Microbiology. 44 (1). Annual Reviews: 271–331. doi:10.1146/annurev.mi.44.100190.001415. ISSN 0066-4227. PMID 2252385.
  22. The Texas A&M University System; Texas AgriLife Extension Service Integrated pest management of flies in Texas dairies Archived 2014-08-11 at the Wayback Machine
  23. Heinz Mehlhorn, Philip M. Armstrong. Encyclopedic Reference of Parasitology: Diseases, Treatment, Therapy, Volume 2. Springer Science & Business Media, 2001 ISBN 9783540668299
  24. J. J. H. McDowell (1976). "The crystal and molecular structure of phenothiazine". Acta Crystallographica Section B. 32 (1): 5. Bibcode:1976AcCrB..32....5M. doi:10.1107/S0567740876002215.
  25. Gérard Taurand, "Phenothiazine and Derivatives" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2005.doi:10.1002/14356007.a19_387
  26. T. Kahl, K.-W. Schröder, F. R. Lawrence, W. J. Marshall, Hartmut Höke, Rudolf Jäckh, "Aniline" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2005, Wiley-VCH: Weinheim.

External links

Antipsychotics (N05A)
Typical
Disputed
Atypical
Others
Adrenergic receptor modulators
α1
Agonists
Antagonists
α2
Agonists
Antagonists
β
Agonists
Antagonists
Acetylcholine receptor modulators
Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor modulators
mAChRsTooltip Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors
Agonists
Antagonists
Precursors
(and prodrugs)
See also
Receptor/signaling modulators
Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor modulators
Acetylcholine metabolism/transport modulators
Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor modulators
nAChRsTooltip Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors
Agonists
(and PAMsTooltip positive allosteric modulators)
Antagonists
(and NAMsTooltip negative allosteric modulators)
Precursors
(and prodrugs)
See also
Receptor/signaling modulators
Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor modulators
Acetylcholine metabolism/transport modulators
Dopamine receptor modulators
D1-like
Agonists
PAMs
Antagonists
D2-like
Agonists
Antagonists
Histamine receptor modulators
H1
Agonists
Antagonists
H2
Agonists
Antagonists
H3
Agonists
Antagonists
H4
Agonists
Antagonists
See also
Receptor/signaling modulators
Monoamine metabolism modulators
Monoamine reuptake inhibitors
Serotonin receptor modulators
5-HT1
5-HT1A
5-HT1B
5-HT1D
5-HT1E
5-HT1F
5-HT2
5-HT2A
5-HT2B
5-HT2C
5-HT3–7
5-HT3
5-HT4
5-HT5A
5-HT6
5-HT7
Category: