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{{Redirect|Lifestyle sport|other uses|Athletics (physical culture)}} {{Redirect|Lifestyle sport|other uses|Athletics (physical culture)}}
{{About|Extreme sport|other physical exercise cultures|Physical culture}} {{About|Extreme sport|other physical exercise cultures|Physical culture}}
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] ] on a steep ice slope, with personal safety gear (such as a helmet) but completely without a rope or any form of ] from fall]]
|header=Examples of extreme sports
⚫ '''Action sports''', '''adventure sports''' or '''extreme sports''' are ] perceived as involving a high degree of risk.<ref name=Websters>{{cite book
|image1=Heinz Zak, Separate Reality 5,11d, Free Solo, Yosemite-Nationalpark, Kalifornien, USA.jpg
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|image2=Kristoffer Szilas climbing a mixed route graded M9.JPG
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|image4=Vad lake. 2007.03.14. Cave. Exit.jpg
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|image3=Steph Davis wingsuit BASE brento.jpg
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⚫ '''Action sports''', '''adventure sports''' or '''extreme sports''' are ] perceived as involving a high degree of risk of injury or death.<ref name=Websters>{{cite book
|title=extreme sport – definition |title=extreme sport – definition
|publisher=Dictionary.com |publisher=Dictionary.com
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==Definition== ==Definition==
The definition of extreme sports is not exact and the origin of the terms is unclear, but it gained popularity in the 1990s when it was picked up by ] companies to promote the ] and when the ] and Extreme International launched. More recently, the commonly used definition from research is "a competitive (comparison or self-evaluative) activity within which the participant is subjected to natural or unusual physical and mental challenges such as speed, height, depth or natural forces and where fast and accurate cognitive perceptual processing may be required for a successful outcome" by Dr. Rhonda Cohen (2012).<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160409052604/http://eprints.mdx.ac.uk/view/creators/Cohen=3ARhonda=3A=3A.html |date=2016-04-09 }}. PhD thesis, Middlesex University.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cohen|first1=Rhonda|last2=Baluch|first2=Bahman|last3=Duffy|first3=Linda J.|date=2018-10-18|title=Defining Extreme Sport: Conceptions and Misconceptions|journal=Frontiers in Psychology|volume=9|pages=1974|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01974|pmid=30405477|pmc=6200847|issn=1664-1078|doi-access=free}}</ref> There is no precise definition of an 'extreme sport' and the origin of the term is unclear but it gained popularity in the 1990s when it was picked up by marketing companies to promote the ] and when the ] and Extreme International launched. More recently, the commonly used definition from research is "a competitive (comparison or self-evaluative) activity within which the participant is subjected to natural or unusual physical and mental challenges such as speed, height, depth or natural forces and where fast and accurate cognitive perceptual processing may be required for a successful outcome" by Dr. Rhonda Cohen (2012).<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160409052604/http://eprints.mdx.ac.uk/view/creators/Cohen=3ARhonda=3A=3A.html |date=2016-04-09 }}. PhD thesis, Middlesex University.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cohen|first1=Rhonda|last2=Baluch|first2=Bahman|last3=Duffy|first3=Linda J.|date=2018-10-18|title=Defining Extreme Sport: Conceptions and Misconceptions|journal=Frontiers in Psychology|volume=9|pages=1974|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01974|pmid=30405477|pmc=6200847|issn=1664-1078|doi-access=free}}</ref>


While the use of the term "extreme sport" has spread everywhere to describe a multitude of different activities, exactly which sports are considered 'extreme' is debatable. There are, however, several characteristics common to most extreme sports.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cqresearcherblog.blogspot.com/2009/05/what-athletes-told-me.html|title=What the Athletes Told Me}}</ref> While they are not the exclusive domain of youth, extreme sports tend to have a younger-than-average target demographic. Extreme sports are also rarely sanctioned by schools for their ] curriculum.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.collegeraptor.com/find-colleges/articles/college-comparisons/colleges-for-students-who-like-extreme-sports/|title=Colleges for Students Who Like Extreme Sports|website=College Raptor Blog|language=en-US|access-date=2019-10-24}}</ref> Extreme sports tend to be more solitary than many of the popular traditional sports<ref name="americansportsdata.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.americansportsdata.com/dev/pr-extremeactionsports.asp |title='Generation Y' drives increasingly popular... |date=August 1, 2002 |publisher=AmericanSportsData.com |access-date=2008-07-11 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080517162957/http://www.americansportsdata.com/dev/pr-extremeactionsports.asp |archive-date=2008-05-17 }}</ref> (rafting and paintballing are notable exceptions, as they are done in teams). While the use of the term "extreme sport" has spread everywhere to describe a multitude of different activities, exactly which sports are considered 'extreme' is debatable. There are, however, several characteristics common to most extreme sports.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cqresearcherblog.blogspot.com/2009/05/what-athletes-told-me.html|title=What the Athletes Told Me}}</ref> While they are not the exclusive domain of youth, extreme sports tend to have a younger-than-average target demographic. Extreme sports are also rarely sanctioned by schools for their ] curriculum.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.collegeraptor.com/find-colleges/articles/college-comparisons/colleges-for-students-who-like-extreme-sports/|title=Colleges for Students Who Like Extreme Sports|website=College Raptor Blog|language=en-US|access-date=2019-10-24}}</ref> Extreme sports tend to be more solitary than many of the popular traditional sports<ref name="americansportsdata.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.americansportsdata.com/dev/pr-extremeactionsports.asp |title='Generation Y' drives increasingly popular... |date=August 1, 2002 |publisher=AmericanSportsData.com |access-date=2008-07-11 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080517162957/http://www.americansportsdata.com/dev/pr-extremeactionsports.asp |archive-date=2008-05-17 }}</ref> (rafting and paintballing are notable exceptions, as they are done in teams).


Activities categorized by media as extreme sports differ from traditional ]s due to the higher number of inherently uncontrollable variables. These environmental variables are frequently weather and terrain related, including wind, snow, water and mountains. Because these natural phenomena cannot be controlled, they inevitably affect the outcome of the given activity or event. Activities categorized by media as extreme sports differ from traditional ]s due to the higher number of inherently uncontrollable variables. These environmental variables are frequently weather and terrain-related, including wind, snow, water and mountains. Because these natural phenomena cannot be controlled, they inevitably affect the outcome of the given activity or event.


In a traditional sporting event, athletes compete against each other under controlled circumstances. While it is possible to create a controlled sporting event such as X Games, there are environmental variables that cannot be held constant for all athletes. Examples include changing snow conditions for ]ers, rock and ice quality for ], and wave height and shape for ]. In a traditional sporting event, athletes compete against each other under controlled circumstances. While it is possible to create a controlled sporting event such as X Games, there are environmental variables that cannot be held constant for all athletes. Examples include changing snow conditions for ]ers, rock and ice quality for ], and wave height and shape for ].


Whilst traditional sporting judgment criteria may be adopted when assessing performance (distance, time, score, etc.), extreme sports performers are often evaluated on more subjective and aesthetic criteria.<ref>Jungmin Lee (2004), </ref> This results in a tendency to reject unified judging methods, with different sports employing their own ideals<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/discussion/2006/06/19/DI2006061900992.html|title='Adrenaline': Extreme Sports|access-date=2008-07-11 | newspaper=The Washington Post | first1=Jon | last1=Wile | first2=Sonny | last2=Amato | date=2006-06-21}}</ref> and indeed having the ability to evolve their assessment standards with new trends or developments in the sports. Whilst traditional sporting judgment criteria may be adopted when assessing performance (distance, time, score, etc.), extreme sports performers are often evaluated on more subjective and aesthetic criteria.<ref>Jungmin Lee (2004), </ref> This results in a tendency to reject unified judging methods, with different sports employing their own ideals<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/discussion/2006/06/19/DI2006061900992.html|title='Adrenaline': Extreme Sports|access-date=2008-07-11 | newspaper=The Washington Post | first1=Jon | last1=Wile | first2=Sonny | last2=Amato | date=2006-06-21}}</ref> and indeed having the ability to evolve their assessment standards with new trends or developments in the sports.

==Classification==
While the exact definition and what is included as extreme sport is debatable, some attempted to make classification for extreme sports.<ref>{{cite book |author=Tomlinson, Joe |title=Extreme Sports: In Search of the Ultimate Thrill |publisher=Firefly Books Ltd |location=Hove |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-55297-992-1 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/extremesportsins0000toml }}</ref>

One argument is that to qualify as an "extreme sport" '''both''' expression terms need to be fulfilled;
* "'''sport'''": The participant has to dispose of considerable skill and/or physical ability to avoid ''poor execution of the activity'';
* "'''extreme'''": The ''poor execution of the activity'' has to result in considerable risk of serious physical harm to the participant;

Along this definition, being a passenger in a canyon ] ride will not fulfill the requirements as the skill required pertains to the pilot, not the passengers. "]" might be a more suitable qualification than "extreme sport" or "action sport" in these cases.{{citation needed|date=August 2018}}


== History == == History ==
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<blockquote>There are only three sports: bullfighting, motor racing, and mountaineering; all the rest are merely games.</blockquote> <blockquote>There are only three sports: bullfighting, motor racing, and mountaineering; all the rest are merely games.</blockquote>
The implication of the phrase was that the word "sport" defined an activity in which one might be killed, other activities being termed "games." The phrase may have been invented by either writer ] or automotive author ].<ref name="Ernest Hemingway FAQ part 5"/>] launching from ]]]The ] of ], ] was founded by David Kirke, Chris Baker, Ed Hulton and ]. They first came to wide public attention by inventing modern day ], by making the first modern jumps on 1 April 1979, from the ], ]. They followed the Clifton Bridge effort with a jump from the ] in ] (including the first female bungee jump by Jane Wilmot), and with a televised leap from the ] Suspension Bridge in ], sponsored by and televised on the popular ] television program '']'' ] was treated as a novelty for a few years, then became a craze for young people, and is now an established industry for thrill seekers. The implication of the phrase was that the word "sport" defined an activity in which one might be killed, other activities being termed "games." The phrase may have been invented by either writer ] or automotive author ].<ref name="Ernest Hemingway FAQ part 5"/>] launching from ]]]The ] of ], ] was founded by David Kirke, Chris Baker, Ed Hulton and ]. They first came to wide public attention by inventing modern day ], by making the first modern jumps on 1 April 1979, from the ], ]. They followed the Clifton Bridge effort with a jump from the ] in ] (including the first female bungee jump by Jane Wilmot), and with a televised leap from the ] Suspension Bridge in ], sponsored by and televised on the popular ] television program '']'' ] was treated as a novelty for a few years, then became a craze for young people, and is now an established industry for thrill seekers.
The Club also pioneered a surrealist form of skiing, holding three events at ], ], in which competitors were required to devise a sculpture mounted on skis and ride it down a mountain. The event reached its limits when the Club arrived in St. Moritz with a London ], wanting to send it down the ski slopes, and the Swiss resort managers refused. The club also pioneered a surrealist form of skiing, holding three events at ], ], in which competitors were required to devise a sculpture mounted on skis and ride it down a mountain. The event reached its limits when the Club arrived in St. Moritz with a London ], wanting to send it down the ski slopes, and the Swiss resort managers refused.


Other Club activities included expedition ] from active ]es; the launching of giant (20&nbsp;m) plastic spheres with pilots suspended in the centre (]); ] flying; and ] (in the early days of this sport). Other Club activities included expedition ] from active ]es; the launching of giant (20&nbsp;m) plastic spheres with pilots suspended in the centre (]); ] flying; and ] (in the early days of this sport).
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Certain extreme sports clearly trace back to other extreme sports, or combinations thereof. For example, ] was conceived as a result of efforts to equip a ] with a ] propulsion system (mast and sail). ] on the other hand was conceived by combining the propulsion system of ] (a ]) with the bi-directional boards used for ]. ] is in turn derived from ] and ]. Certain extreme sports clearly trace back to other extreme sports, or combinations thereof. For example, ] was conceived as a result of efforts to equip a ] with a ] propulsion system (mast and sail). ] on the other hand was conceived by combining the propulsion system of ] (a ]) with the bi-directional boards used for ]. ] is in turn derived from ] and ].


== Marketing == == Commercialisation==
] ]
Some contend<ref>, ''New York Times'', February 8, 1998.</ref> that the distinction between an extreme sport and a conventional one has as much to do with marketing as with the level of danger involved or the adrenaline generated.Popularity for such sports has increased exponentially over the past two decades with dedicated TV channels, Internet sites, high-rating competitions, and high-profile sponsors drawing more participants.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Laver |first=Lior |last2=Pengas |first2=Ioannis P. |last3=Mei-Dan |first3=Omer |date=2017-04-18 |title=Injuries in extreme sports |url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13018-017-0560-9 |journal=Journal of Orthopaedic Surgery and Research |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=59 |doi=10.1186/s13018-017-0560-9 |issn=1749-799X |pmc=PMC5395874 |pmid=28420431}}</ref> For example, rugby union is both dangerous and adrenaline-inducing but is not considered an extreme sport due to its traditional image, and because it does not involve high speed or an intention to perform ]s (the aesthetic criteria mentioned above) and also it does not have changing environmental variables for the athletes. Some contend<ref>, ''New York Times'', February 8, 1998.</ref> that the distinction between an extreme sport and a conventional one has as much to do with marketing as with the level of danger involved or the adrenaline generated. For example, rugby union is both dangerous and adrenaline-inducing but is not considered an extreme sport due to its traditional image, and because it does not involve high speed or an intention to perform ]s (the aesthetic criteria mentioned above) and also it does not have changing environmental variables for the athletes.


== Motivation == == Motivation ==
A feature of such activities in the view of some is their alleged capacity to induce an ] rush in participants.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.americansportsdata.com/dev/pr-extremeactionsports.asp |date=August 1, 2002 |title='Generation Y' Drives Increasingly Popular... |publisher=AmericanSportsData.com |access-date=2008-07-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080517162957/http://www.americansportsdata.com/dev/pr-extremeactionsports.asp |archive-date=2008-05-17 }}</ref> However, the medical view is that the rush or high associated with the activity is not due to adrenaline being released as a response to fear, but due to increased levels of ], ]s and ] because of the high level of physical exertion.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Konkel|first1=Lindsey|title=Extreme Psychology|url=http://scienceline.org/2009/07/health-konkel-extreme-sports-risk-psychology/|website=ScienceLine.org|publisher=New York University|access-date=10 November 2014|date=2009-07-13}}</ref> Furthermore, recent studies suggest that the link to adrenaline and 'true' extreme sports is tentative.<ref>Brymer, Eric and Gray, Tonia, ''Extreme Sports: A Challenge to Phenomenology''. University of Wollongong, Australia, 2004</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Sille|first1=R. A.|last2=Ronkainen|first2=N. J.|last3=Tod|first3=D. A.|date=2019-05-26|title=Experiences leading elite motorcycle road racers to participate at the Isle of Man Tourist Trophy (TT): an existential perspective|journal=Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health|volume=12|issue=3|language=en|pages=431–445|doi=10.1080/2159676X.2019.1618387|s2cid=191902978|issn=2159-676X|url=http://researchonline.ljmu.ac.uk/id/eprint/10810/3/Experiences%20leading%20elite%20motorcycle%20road%20racers%20to%20participate%20at%20the%20Isle%20of%20Man%20Tourist%20Trophy%20%28TT%29%20An%20existential%20perspective%20.pdf}}</ref> Brymer and Gray's study defined 'true' extreme sports as a leisure or recreation activity where the most likely outcome of a mismanaged accident or mistake was death. This definition was designed to separate the marketing hype from the activity.] is a recent activity.]]Eric Brymer<ref>Brymer, Eric, ''Extreme Dude: A Phenomenological Perspective on the Extreme sports experience ''. University of Wollongong, Australia, 2005 {{cite web|url=http://www.library.uow.edu.au/adt-NWU/public/adt-NWU20060508.145406/index.html |title=Library - University of Wollongong |access-date=2008-04-07 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080721115425/http://www.library.uow.edu.au/adt-NWU/public/adt-NWU20060508.145406/index.html |archive-date=2008-07-21 }}</ref>There has been an explosion in popularity in adventure activities over the last decade or so. With more and more people seeking to experience thrills from sports, as an escape from the mundane grind of daily life. Action sports are now more accessible than ever before, with clubs and centres popping up everywhere. also found that the potential of various extraordinary human experiences, many of which parallel those found in activities such as meditation, was an important part of the extreme sport experience. Those experiences put the participants outside their ] and are often done in conjunction with ]. A feature of such activities in the view of some is their alleged capacity to induce an ] rush in participants.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.americansportsdata.com/dev/pr-extremeactionsports.asp |date=August 1, 2002 |title='Generation Y' Drives Increasingly Popular... |publisher=AmericanSportsData.com |access-date=2008-07-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080517162957/http://www.americansportsdata.com/dev/pr-extremeactionsports.asp |archive-date=2008-05-17 }}</ref> However, the medical view is that the rush or high associated with the activity is not due to adrenaline being released as a response to fear, but due to increased levels of ], ]s and ] because of the high level of physical exertion.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Konkel|first1=Lindsey|title=Extreme Psychology|url=http://scienceline.org/2009/07/health-konkel-extreme-sports-risk-psychology/|website=ScienceLine.org|publisher=New York University|access-date=10 November 2014|date=2009-07-13}}</ref> Furthermore, recent studies suggest that the link to adrenaline and 'true' extreme sports is tentative.<ref>Brymer, Eric and Gray, Tonia, ''Extreme Sports: A Challenge to Phenomenology''. University of Wollongong, Australia, 2004</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Sille|first1=R. A.|last2=Ronkainen|first2=N. J.|last3=Tod|first3=D. A.|date=2019-05-26|title=Experiences leading elite motorcycle road racers to participate at the Isle of Man Tourist Trophy (TT): an existential perspective|journal=Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health|volume=12|issue=3|language=en|pages=431–445|doi=10.1080/2159676X.2019.1618387|s2cid=191902978|issn=2159-676X|url=http://researchonline.ljmu.ac.uk/id/eprint/10810/3/Experiences%20leading%20elite%20motorcycle%20road%20racers%20to%20participate%20at%20the%20Isle%20of%20Man%20Tourist%20Trophy%20%28TT%29%20An%20existential%20perspective%20.pdf}}</ref> Brymer and Gray's study defined 'true' extreme sports as a leisure or recreation activity where the most likely outcome of a mismanaged accident or mistake was death. This definition was designed to separate the marketing hype from the activity.] is a recent activity.]]Eric Brymer<ref>Brymer, Eric, ''Extreme Dude: A Phenomenological Perspective on the Extreme sports experience ''. University of Wollongong, Australia, 2005 {{cite web|url=http://www.library.uow.edu.au/adt-NWU/public/adt-NWU20060508.145406/index.html |title=Library - University of Wollongong |access-date=2008-04-07 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080721115425/http://www.library.uow.edu.au/adt-NWU/public/adt-NWU20060508.145406/index.html |archive-date=2008-07-21 }}</ref> also found that the potential of various extraordinary human experiences, many of which parallel those found in activities such as meditation, was an important part of the extreme sport experience. Those experiences put the participants outside their ] and are often done in conjunction with ].


Some of the sports have existed for decades and their proponents span generations, some going on to become well known personalities. Rock climbing and ] have spawned publicly recognizable names such as ], ], ] and more recently ]. Another example is surfing, invented centuries ago by the inhabitants of ], it will become national sport of ].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document//Volume_68_1959/Volume_68%2C_No._4/Surfing_in_ancient_Hawaii%2C_by_Ben_R._Finney%2C_p_327-347/p1 | title=SURFING IN ANCIENT HAWAII | access-date=6 July 2019 | archive-date=7 July 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190707052718/http://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document/Volume_68_1959/Volume_68,_No._4/Surfing_in_ancient_Hawaii,_by_Ben_R._Finney,_p_327-347/p1 | url-status=dead }}</ref> Some of the sports have existed for decades and their proponents span generations, some going on to become well known personalities. Rock climbing and ] have spawned publicly recognizable names such as ], ], ] and more recently ]. Another example is surfing, invented centuries ago by the inhabitants of ], it will become national sport of ].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document//Volume_68_1959/Volume_68%2C_No._4/Surfing_in_ancient_Hawaii%2C_by_Ben_R._Finney%2C_p_327-347/p1 | title=SURFING IN ANCIENT HAWAII | access-date=6 July 2019 | archive-date=7 July 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190707052718/http://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document/Volume_68_1959/Volume_68,_No._4/Surfing_in_ancient_Hawaii,_by_Ben_R._Finney,_p_327-347/p1 | url-status=dead }}</ref>


Disabled people participate in extreme sports. Nonprofit organizations such as Adaptive Action Sports seek to increase awareness of the participation in action sports by members of the disabled community, as well as increase access to the adaptive technologies that make participation possible and to competitions such as The X Games.{{Promotional language|date=February 2018}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://abilitymagazine.com/Adaptive-Sports.html|title=''Ability Magazine: Adaptive Action Sports - Amy Purdy"'' (2010)|access-date=2012-04-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://abilitymagazine.com/x-games.html|title=''Ability Magazine: X Games - Adaptive Sports"'' (2010)|access-date=2012-04-04}}</ref> Disabled people participate in extreme sports. Nonprofit organizations such as Adaptive Action Sports seek to increase awareness of the participation in action sports by members of the disabled community, as well as increase access to the adaptive technologies that make participation possible and to competitions such as The X Games.{{Promotion inline|date=February 2018}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://abilitymagazine.com/Adaptive-Sports.html|title=''Ability Magazine: Adaptive Action Sports - Amy Purdy"'' (2010)|access-date=2012-04-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://abilitymagazine.com/x-games.html|title=''Ability Magazine: X Games - Adaptive Sports"'' (2010)|access-date=2012-04-04}}</ref>


==Mortality, health, and thrill== ==Mortality, health, and thrill==
{{see also|micromort}} {{see also|micromort}}
Extreme sports may be perceived as extremely dangerous, conducive to fatalities, near-fatalities and other serious injuries. The perceived risk in an extreme sport has been considered a somewhat necessary part of its appeal,<ref>{{cite web|last=Smallwood|first=John|title=In extreme sports, the X-factor is death|url=https://www.inquirer.com/philly/columnists/john_smallwood/20130203_John_Smallwood__In_extreme_sports__the_X-factor_is_death.html?outputType=amp|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304060808/http://articles.philly.com/2013-02-03/sports/36723401_1_extreme-sports-snowmobile-backflip|archive-date=2016-03-04|access-date=11 May 2013}}</ref> which is partially a result of pressure for athletes to make more money and provide maximum entertainment.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://money.msn.com/now/post.aspx?post=1ef3fc34-dc7b-4421-974f-d3b7b37e8006 |title = Recent deaths draw attention to extreme sports |last = Kennedy |first = Bruce |access-date = 11 May 2013 }}{{Dead link|date=November 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>], Spain, a ] jumping waves gets catapulted into a high double flip.]] Extreme sports may be perceived as extremely dangerous, conducive to fatalities, near-fatalities and other serious injuries. The perceived risk in an extreme sport has been considered a somewhat necessary part of its appeal,<ref>{{cite web|last=Smallwood|first=John|title=In extreme sports, the X-factor is death|url=https://www.inquirer.com/philly/columnists/john_smallwood/20130203_John_Smallwood__In_extreme_sports__the_X-factor_is_death.html?outputType=amp|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304060808/http://articles.philly.com/2013-02-03/sports/36723401_1_extreme-sports-snowmobile-backflip|archive-date=2016-03-04|access-date=11 May 2013}}</ref> which is partially a result of pressure for athletes to make more money and provide maximum entertainment.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://money.msn.com/now/post.aspx?post=1ef3fc34-dc7b-4421-974f-d3b7b37e8006 |title = Recent deaths draw attention to extreme sports |last = Kennedy |first = Bruce |access-date = 11 May 2013 }}{{Dead link|date=November 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>], Spain, a ] jumping waves gets catapulted into a high double flip.]]
⚫ Extreme sports is a sub-category of sports that are described as any kind of sport "of a character or kind farthest removed from the ordinary or average".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Willig|first=Carla|date=2008|title=A Phenomenological Investigation of the Experience of Taking Part in 'Extreme Sports'|url=http://openaccess.city.ac.uk/14931/|journal=Journal of Health Psychology|volume=13|issue=5|pages=690–702|doi=10.1177/1359105307082459|pmid=18519442|s2cid=1533848}}</ref> These kinds of sports often carry out the potential risk of serious and permanent physical injury and even death.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|author1=Brymer, E.|author2=Schweitzer, R.|name-list-style=amp|date=2013|title=Extreme sports are good for your health: A phenomenological understanding of fear and anxiety in extreme sport.|url=http://eprints.qut.edu.au/55275/|journal=Journal of Health Psychology|volume=18|issue=4|pages=477–487|doi=10.1177/1359105312446770|pmid=22689592|orig-year=2012|s2cid=45943617|access-date=2017-08-30|archive-date=2017-08-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170830195021/http://eprints.qut.edu.au/55275/|url-status=dead}}</ref> However, these sports also have the potential to produce drastic benefits on mental and physical health and provide opportunity for individuals to engage fully with life.<ref name=":1" />
Extreme sports are popular and include motorised and non-motorised vehicle sports, e.g. motocross, mountain biking and water skiing, as well as non-vehicle sports, e.g. rock climbing. The causes of death, contributing factors and potential to prevent deaths in extreme sports are poorly understood.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=McIntosh |first=Andrew |last2=Fortington |first2=Lauren |last3=Patton |first3=Declan |last4=Finch |first4=Caroline |date=2017-02-01 |title=Extreme Sports, Extreme Risks. Fatalities in Extreme Sports in Australia |url=https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/51/4/360.2 |journal=British Journal of Sports Medicine |language=en |volume=51 |issue=4 |pages=360–360 |doi=10.1136/bjsports-2016-097372.193 |issn=0306-3674}}</ref>

⚫ Extreme sports is a sub-category of sports that are described as any kind of sport "of a character or kind farthest removed from the ordinary or average".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Willig|first=Carla|date=2008|title=A Phenomenological Investigation of the Experience of Taking Part in 'Extreme Sports'|url=http://openaccess.city.ac.uk/14931/|journal=Journal of Health Psychology|volume=13|issue=5|pages=690–702|doi=10.1177/1359105307082459|pmid=18519442|s2cid=1533848}}</ref> These kinds of sports often carry out the potential risk of serious and permanent physical injury and even death.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|author1=Brymer, E.|author2=Schweitzer, R.|name-list-style=amp|date=2013|title=Extreme sports are good for your health: A phenomenological understanding of fear and anxiety in extreme sport.|url=http://eprints.qut.edu.au/55275/|journal=Journal of Health Psychology|volume=18|issue=4|pages=477–487|doi=10.1177/1359105312446770|pmid=22689592|orig-year=2012|s2cid=45943617}}</ref> However, these sports also have the potential to produce drastic benefits on mental and physical health and provide opportunity for individuals to engage fully with life.<ref name=":1" />

For those who participate in these sports, laughing in the face of death is a persistent itch that requires scratching. This comes at a high price, and not just to personal safety. One can spend anywhere from a few hundred dollars to tens of thousands of dollars on training, equipment and travel — all for the undeniable adrenaline rush of risking life and limb.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bukszpan |first=Daniel |date=2011-11-16 |title=Extreme Sports Costs |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2011/11/16/Extreme-Sports-Costs.html |access-date=2023-12-07 |website=CNBC |language=en}}</ref>


Extreme sports trigger the release of the hormone ], which can facilitate performance of stunts.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Globus|first=S|date=1997|title=X-games: Are you equipped for the extreme? (high-risk sports).|journal=Current Health 2}}</ref> It is believed that the implementation of extreme sports on mental health patients improves their perspective and recognition of aspects of life.<ref name=":0" /> Extreme sports trigger the release of the hormone ], which can facilitate performance of stunts.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Globus|first=S|date=1997|title=X-games: Are you equipped for the extreme? (high-risk sports).|journal=Current Health 2}}</ref> It is believed that the implementation of extreme sports on mental health patients improves their perspective and recognition of aspects of life.<ref name=":0" />
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== List of extreme and adventure sports == == List of extreme and adventure sports ==
===Adventure sports=== ===Adventure sports===
{{div col|colwidth=22em}} {{div col|colwidth=16em}}
* ]<ref name="enc" /> * ]<ref name="enc" />
* ]<ref name="ecom">{{Cite web |url=https://www.extremesportscompany.com/list-of-extreme-sports |title=EXTREME – Iconic Global Action Sports Lifestyle Brand |access-date=2019-07-06 |archive-date=2019-07-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706151527/https://www.extremesportscompany.com/list-of-extreme-sports |url-status=dead }}</ref> * ]<ref name="ecom">{{Cite web |url=https://www.extremesportscompany.com/list-of-extreme-sports |title=EXTREME – Iconic Global Action Sports Lifestyle Brand |access-date=2019-07-06 |archive-date=2019-07-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706151527/https://www.extremesportscompany.com/list-of-extreme-sports |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* ]<ref name="elab" /> * ]<ref name="elab" />
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* ]<ref name="enc" /> * ]<ref name="enc" />
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* ]<ref>{{cite web | url=http://sportsacademy.gpcsd.ca/documents/general/Flo-Rider%20Waiver.pdf | title=DISCLOSURE OF RISK | access-date=6 July 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706114818/http://sportsacademy.gpcsd.ca/documents/general/Flo-Rider%2520Waiver.pdf | archive-date=6 July 2019 | url-status=dead }}</ref> * ]<ref>{{cite web | url=http://sportsacademy.gpcsd.ca/documents/general/Flo-Rider%20Waiver.pdf | title=DISCLOSURE OF RISK | access-date=6 July 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706114818/http://sportsacademy.gpcsd.ca/documents/general/Flo-Rider%2520Waiver.pdf | archive-date=6 July 2019 | url-status=dead }}</ref>
* ]<ref name="elab">{{Cite web |url=https://www.extremesportslab.com/list-of-100-extreme-sports/#Ice-Canoeing |title=List of 100 Extreme Sports (Ultimate List for 2021) |date=16 September 2022}}</ref> * ]<ref name="elab">{{Cite web |url=https://www.extremesportslab.com/list-of-100-extreme-sports/#Ice-Canoeing |title=List of 100 Extreme Sports (Ultimate List for 2021) |date=16 September 2022}}</ref>
* ]<ref name="enc" /> * ]<ref name="enc" />
* ]<ref name="enc" /> * ]<ref name="enc" />
* ]<ref name="elab"/> * ]<ref name="elab"/>
* ]<ref name="elab" /> * ]<ref name="elab" />
* ]<ref name="brit">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/sports/extreme-sports|title=Extreme sports|encyclopedia=]}}</ref> * ]<ref name="brit">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/sports/extreme-sports|title=Extreme sports|encyclopedia=]|date=22 March 2024 }}</ref>
* ]<ref name="enc" * ]<ref name="enc" />
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* ]<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sille|first1=R. A.|last2=Ronkainen|first2=N. J.|last3=Tod|first3=D. A.|date=2019-05-26|title=Experiences leading elite motorcycle road racers to participate at the Isle of Man Tourist Trophy (TT): an existential perspective|journal=Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health|volume=12|issue=3|language=en|pages=431–445|doi=10.1080/2159676X.2019.1618387|s2cid=191902978|issn=2159-676X|url=http://researchonline.ljmu.ac.uk/id/eprint/10810/3/Experiences%20leading%20elite%20motorcycle%20road%20racers%20to%20participate%20at%20the%20Isle%20of%20Man%20Tourist%20Trophy%20%28TT%29%20An%20existential%20perspective%20.pdf}}/</ref> * ]<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sille|first1=R. A.|last2=Ronkainen|first2=N. J.|last3=Tod|first3=D. A.|date=2019-05-26|title=Experiences leading elite motorcycle road racers to participate at the Isle of Man Tourist Trophy (TT): an existential perspective|journal=Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health|volume=12|issue=3|language=en|pages=431–445|doi=10.1080/2159676X.2019.1618387|s2cid=191902978|issn=2159-676X|url=http://researchonline.ljmu.ac.uk/id/eprint/10810/3/Experiences%20leading%20elite%20motorcycle%20road%20racers%20to%20participate%20at%20the%20Isle%20of%20Man%20Tourist%20Trophy%20%28TT%29%20An%20existential%20perspective%20.pdf}}/</ref>
* ]<ref name="enc" /> * ]<ref name="enc" />
* ] (mountain climbing)<ref name="enc" /> * ]<ref name="enc" />
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* ]<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sille|first1=R. A.|last2=Ronkainen|first2=N. J.|last3=Tod|first3=D. A.|date=2019-05-26|title=Experiences leading elite motorcycle road racers to participate at the Isle of Man Tourist Trophy (TT): an existential perspective|journal=Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health|volume=12|issue=3|language=en|pages=431–445|doi=10.1080/2159676X.2019.1618387|s2cid=191902978|issn=2159-676X|url=http://researchonline.ljmu.ac.uk/id/eprint/10810/3/Experiences%20leading%20elite%20motorcycle%20road%20racers%20to%20participate%20at%20the%20Isle%20of%20Man%20Tourist%20Trophy%20%28TT%29%20An%20existential%20perspective%20.pdf}}/</ref> * ]<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sille|first1=R. A.|last2=Ronkainen|first2=N. J.|last3=Tod|first3=D. A.|date=2019-05-26|title=Experiences leading elite motorcycle road racers to participate at the Isle of Man Tourist Trophy (TT): an existential perspective|journal=Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health|volume=12|issue=3|language=en|pages=431–445|doi=10.1080/2159676X.2019.1618387|s2cid=191902978|issn=2159-676X|url=http://researchonline.ljmu.ac.uk/id/eprint/10810/3/Experiences%20leading%20elite%20motorcycle%20road%20racers%20to%20participate%20at%20the%20Isle%20of%20Man%20Tourist%20Trophy%20%28TT%29%20An%20existential%20perspective%20.pdf}}/</ref>
* ]<ref name="enc" /> * ]<ref name="enc" />
* ] (mountain climbing)<ref name="enc" /> * ]<ref name="enc" />
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==See also== ==See also==
⚫ {{Commons category}}
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* ] * ]
* ] and ] * ] and ]
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==References== ==References==
{{Reflist}} {{Reflist}}

===Further reading===
⚫ * {{Cite journal|url = http://openaccess.city.ac.uk/14931/|title = A Phenomenological Investigation of the Experience of Taking Part in 'Extreme Sports'|last = Willig|first = Carla|date = 2008|journal = Journal of Health Psychology|doi = 10.1177/1359105307082459|pmid = 18519442|volume=13|issue = 5|pages=690–702|s2cid = 1533848}}


== External links == == External links ==
⚫ {{Commons category}}
* {{Wiktionary-inline}} * {{Wiktionary-inline}}


{{Extreme sports}} {{Extreme sports}}
{{Authority control}} {{Authority control}}
⚫ * {{Cite journal|url = http://openaccess.city.ac.uk/14931/|title = A Phenomenological Investigation of the Experience of Taking Part in 'Extreme Sports'|last = Willig|first = Carla|date = 2008|journal = Journal of Health Psychology|doi = 10.1177/1359105307082459|pmid = 18519442|volume=13|issue = 5|pages=690–702|s2cid = 1533848}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:Extreme Sport}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Extreme Sport}}
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Latest revision as of 11:03, 19 October 2024

Class of sport "Lifestyle sport" redirects here. For other uses, see Athletics (physical culture). This article is about Extreme sport. For other physical exercise cultures, see Physical culture. Examples of extreme sportsFree solo climbingIce climbingBase jumpingCave divingSki mountaineeringParagliding

Action sports, adventure sports or extreme sports are activities perceived as involving a high degree of risk of injury or death. These activities often involve speed, height, a high level of physical exertion and highly specialized gear. Extreme tourism overlaps with extreme sport. The two share the same main attraction, "adrenaline rush" caused by an element of risk, and differ mostly in the degree of engagement and professionalism.

Definition

There is no precise definition of an 'extreme sport' and the origin of the term is unclear but it gained popularity in the 1990s when it was picked up by marketing companies to promote the X Games and when the Extreme Sports Channel and Extreme International launched. More recently, the commonly used definition from research is "a competitive (comparison or self-evaluative) activity within which the participant is subjected to natural or unusual physical and mental challenges such as speed, height, depth or natural forces and where fast and accurate cognitive perceptual processing may be required for a successful outcome" by Dr. Rhonda Cohen (2012).

While the use of the term "extreme sport" has spread everywhere to describe a multitude of different activities, exactly which sports are considered 'extreme' is debatable. There are, however, several characteristics common to most extreme sports. While they are not the exclusive domain of youth, extreme sports tend to have a younger-than-average target demographic. Extreme sports are also rarely sanctioned by schools for their physical education curriculum. Extreme sports tend to be more solitary than many of the popular traditional sports (rafting and paintballing are notable exceptions, as they are done in teams).

Activities categorized by media as extreme sports differ from traditional sports due to the higher number of inherently uncontrollable variables. These environmental variables are frequently weather and terrain-related, including wind, snow, water and mountains. Because these natural phenomena cannot be controlled, they inevitably affect the outcome of the given activity or event.

In a traditional sporting event, athletes compete against each other under controlled circumstances. While it is possible to create a controlled sporting event such as X Games, there are environmental variables that cannot be held constant for all athletes. Examples include changing snow conditions for snowboarders, rock and ice quality for climbers, and wave height and shape for surfers.

Whilst traditional sporting judgment criteria may be adopted when assessing performance (distance, time, score, etc.), extreme sports performers are often evaluated on more subjective and aesthetic criteria. This results in a tendency to reject unified judging methods, with different sports employing their own ideals and indeed having the ability to evolve their assessment standards with new trends or developments in the sports.

History

The origin of the divergence of the term "extreme sports" from "sports" may date to the 1950s in the appearance of a phrase usually, but wrongly, attributed to Ernest Hemingway. The phrase is;

There are only three sports: bullfighting, motor racing, and mountaineering; all the rest are merely games.

The implication of the phrase was that the word "sport" defined an activity in which one might be killed, other activities being termed "games." The phrase may have been invented by either writer Barnaby Conrad or automotive author Ken Purdy.

Hang glider launching from Mount Tamalpais

The Dangerous Sports Club of Oxford University, England was founded by David Kirke, Chris Baker, Ed Hulton and Alan Weston. They first came to wide public attention by inventing modern day bungee jumping, by making the first modern jumps on 1 April 1979, from the Clifton Suspension Bridge, Bristol, England. They followed the Clifton Bridge effort with a jump from the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco, California (including the first female bungee jump by Jane Wilmot), and with a televised leap from the Royal Gorge Suspension Bridge in Colorado, sponsored by and televised on the popular American television program That's Incredible! Bungee jumping was treated as a novelty for a few years, then became a craze for young people, and is now an established industry for thrill seekers.

The club also pioneered a surrealist form of skiing, holding three events at St. Moritz, Switzerland, in which competitors were required to devise a sculpture mounted on skis and ride it down a mountain. The event reached its limits when the Club arrived in St. Moritz with a London double-decker bus, wanting to send it down the ski slopes, and the Swiss resort managers refused.

Other Club activities included expedition hang gliding from active volcanoes; the launching of giant (20 m) plastic spheres with pilots suspended in the centre (zorbing); microlight flying; and BASE jumping (in the early days of this sport).

In recent decades the term extreme sport was further promoted after the Extreme Sports Channel, Extremesportscompany.com launched and then the X Games, a multi-sport event was created and developed by ESPN. The first X Games (known as 1995 Extreme Games) were held in Newport, Providence, Mount Snow, and Vermont in the United States.

Certain extreme sports clearly trace back to other extreme sports, or combinations thereof. For example, windsurfing was conceived as a result of efforts to equip a surfboard with a sailing boat's propulsion system (mast and sail). Kitesurfing on the other hand was conceived by combining the propulsion system of kite buggying (a parafoil) with the bi-directional boards used for wakeboarding. Wakeboarding is in turn derived from snowboarding and waterskiing.

Commercialisation

Snowboarder drops off a cornice.

Some contend that the distinction between an extreme sport and a conventional one has as much to do with marketing as with the level of danger involved or the adrenaline generated. For example, rugby union is both dangerous and adrenaline-inducing but is not considered an extreme sport due to its traditional image, and because it does not involve high speed or an intention to perform stunts (the aesthetic criteria mentioned above) and also it does not have changing environmental variables for the athletes.

Motivation

A feature of such activities in the view of some is their alleged capacity to induce an adrenaline rush in participants. However, the medical view is that the rush or high associated with the activity is not due to adrenaline being released as a response to fear, but due to increased levels of dopamine, endorphins and serotonin because of the high level of physical exertion. Furthermore, recent studies suggest that the link to adrenaline and 'true' extreme sports is tentative. Brymer and Gray's study defined 'true' extreme sports as a leisure or recreation activity where the most likely outcome of a mismanaged accident or mistake was death. This definition was designed to separate the marketing hype from the activity.

Wingsuit flying is a recent activity.

Eric Brymer also found that the potential of various extraordinary human experiences, many of which parallel those found in activities such as meditation, was an important part of the extreme sport experience. Those experiences put the participants outside their comfort zone and are often done in conjunction with adventure travel.

Some of the sports have existed for decades and their proponents span generations, some going on to become well known personalities. Rock climbing and ice climbing have spawned publicly recognizable names such as Edmund Hillary, Chris Bonington, Wolfgang Güllich and more recently Joe Simpson. Another example is surfing, invented centuries ago by the inhabitants of Polynesia, it will become national sport of Hawaii.

Disabled people participate in extreme sports. Nonprofit organizations such as Adaptive Action Sports seek to increase awareness of the participation in action sports by members of the disabled community, as well as increase access to the adaptive technologies that make participation possible and to competitions such as The X Games.

Mortality, health, and thrill

See also: micromort

Extreme sports may be perceived as extremely dangerous, conducive to fatalities, near-fatalities and other serious injuries. The perceived risk in an extreme sport has been considered a somewhat necessary part of its appeal, which is partially a result of pressure for athletes to make more money and provide maximum entertainment.

While attempting a forward loop in overpowered storm conditions off the coast of Cantabria, Spain, a windsurfer jumping waves gets catapulted into a high double flip.

Extreme sports is a sub-category of sports that are described as any kind of sport "of a character or kind farthest removed from the ordinary or average". These kinds of sports often carry out the potential risk of serious and permanent physical injury and even death. However, these sports also have the potential to produce drastic benefits on mental and physical health and provide opportunity for individuals to engage fully with life.

Extreme sports trigger the release of the hormone adrenaline, which can facilitate performance of stunts. It is believed that the implementation of extreme sports on mental health patients improves their perspective and recognition of aspects of life.

In outdoor adventure sports, participants get to experience the emotion of intense thrill, usually associated with the extreme sports. Even though some extreme sports present a higher level of risk, people still choose to embark in the experience of extreme sports for the sake of the adrenaline. According to Sigmund Freud, we have an instinctual 'death wish', which is a subconscious inbuilt desire to destroy ourselves, proving that in the seek for the thrill, danger is considered pleasurable.

List of extreme and adventure sports

Adventure sports

Extreme sports

See also

References

  1. ^ extreme sport – definition. Dictionary.com. Extreme sports feature a combination of speed, height, danger and spectacular stunts.
  2. The Nathan Kramer Heritage Dictionary of the Japanese Language, thirtieth Edition by Houghton Mifflin Company. (2006). extreme – definition. Dictionary.com. Retrieved 2008-03-05. 6. Sports: a. Very dangerous or difficult: extreme rafting. b. Participating or tending to participate in a very dangerous or difficult sport: an extreme skier.
  3. The Oxford Pocket Dictionary of Current English (2008). extreme – definition. Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2008-06-20. Denoting or relating to a sport performed in a hazardous environment and involving great physical risk, such as parachuting or white-water rafting.
  4. The relationship between personality, sensation seeking, reaction time and sport participation: evidence from drag racers, sport science students and archers Archived 2016-04-09 at the Wayback Machine. PhD thesis, Middlesex University.
  5. Cohen, Rhonda; Baluch, Bahman; Duffy, Linda J. (2018-10-18). "Defining Extreme Sport: Conceptions and Misconceptions". Frontiers in Psychology. 9: 1974. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01974. ISSN 1664-1078. PMC 6200847. PMID 30405477.
  6. "What the Athletes Told Me".
  7. "Colleges for Students Who Like Extreme Sports". College Raptor Blog. Retrieved 2019-10-24.
  8. "'Generation Y' drives increasingly popular..." AmericanSportsData.com. August 1, 2002. Archived from the original on 2008-05-17. Retrieved 2008-07-11.
  9. Jungmin Lee (2004), Extreme Sports Evaluation: Evidence from Judging Figure Skating, Econometric Society
  10. Wile, Jon; Amato, Sonny (2006-06-21). "'Adrenaline': Extreme Sports". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2008-07-11.
  11. ^ "Ernest Hemingway FAQ part 5". Archived from the original on February 3, 2012.
  12. "extreme sports". Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. 2007. Archived from the original on 2008-10-23. Retrieved 2008-06-20.
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  14. "Extreme Sports – Encarta". Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia. 2008. Archived from the original on 2009-10-28. Retrieved 2008-06-20.
  15. "About International X Games". ESPN Internet Ventures. 2002. Archived from the original on 2008-08-29. Retrieved 2008-06-20.
  16. "Extreme Sport, Extreme Chic, Extreme Hype", New York Times, February 8, 1998.
  17. "'Generation Y' Drives Increasingly Popular..." AmericanSportsData.com. August 1, 2002. Archived from the original on 2008-05-17. Retrieved 2008-07-27.
  18. Konkel, Lindsey (2009-07-13). "Extreme Psychology". ScienceLine.org. New York University. Retrieved 10 November 2014.
  19. Brymer, Eric and Gray, Tonia, Extreme Sports: A Challenge to Phenomenology. University of Wollongong, Australia, 2004
  20. ^ Sille, R. A.; Ronkainen, N. J.; Tod, D. A. (2019-05-26). "Experiences leading elite motorcycle road racers to participate at the Isle of Man Tourist Trophy (TT): an existential perspective" (PDF). Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health. 12 (3): 431–445. doi:10.1080/2159676X.2019.1618387. ISSN 2159-676X. S2CID 191902978.
  21. Brymer, Eric, Extreme Dude: A Phenomenological Perspective on the Extreme sports experience . University of Wollongong, Australia, 2005 "Library - University of Wollongong". Archived from the original on 2008-07-21. Retrieved 2008-04-07.
  22. "SURFING IN ANCIENT HAWAII". Archived from the original on 7 July 2019. Retrieved 6 July 2019.
  23. "Ability Magazine: Adaptive Action Sports - Amy Purdy" (2010)". Retrieved 2012-04-04.
  24. "Ability Magazine: X Games - Adaptive Sports" (2010)". Retrieved 2012-04-04.
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Further reading

External links

Extreme and adventure sports
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