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{{Short description|European art from about 1590 to 1750}}
]
{{more citations needed|date=February 2019}}
]'' (1599–1600), by ]. ], ], ]. The beam of light, which enters the picture from the direction of a real window, expresses in the blink of an eye the conversion of St Matthew, the hinge on which his destiny will turn, with no flying angels, parting clouds or other artifacts.]]
], '']'' or ''The Militia Company of Captain Frans Banning Cocq'', 1642, oil on canvas, {{convert|363|x|437|cm|in|abbr=on}}, ], ]. The painting is a classic example of Baroque art.]]
], ''] and ]'' (c. 1605–1607)]]


'''Baroque art''' is the ] and ] associated with the ] ], a movement often identified with ] and the ]; the existence of important Baroque art and architecture in non-absolutist and Protestant states, however, undercuts this linking. '''Baroque painting''' is the ] associated with the ] ]. The movement is often identified with ], the ] and Catholic Revival,<ref name=ebo>, from '']'', latest edition, full-article.</ref><ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211173809/http://www.bartleby.com/65/co/CounterR.html |date=2008-12-11 }}, from '']'', Sixth Edition. 2001–05.</ref> but the existence of important Baroque art and ] in non-absolutist and ] states throughout Western Europe underscores its widespread popularity.<ref>Helen Gardner, Fred S. Kleiner, and Christin J. Mamiya, "Gardner's Art Through the Ages" (Belmont, California: ], 2005)</ref>


Baroque painting encompasses a great range of styles, as most important and major painting during the period beginning around 1600 and continuing throughout the 17th century, and into the early 18th century is identified today as ] painting. In its most typical manifestations, Baroque art is characterized by great drama, rich, deep colour, and intense light and dark shadows, but the ] of French Baroque painters like ] and Dutch ] such as ] are also covered by the term, at least in English.<ref>For example, in French calling Poussin Baroque would be generally rejected</ref> As opposed to ], which usually showed the moment before an event took place, Baroque artists chose the most dramatic point, the moment when the action was occurring: ], working in the ], shows his ] composed and still before he battles ]; ]'s Baroque ] is caught in the act of hurling the stone at the giant. Baroque art was meant to evoke emotion and passion instead of the calm rationality that had been prized during the Renaissance.
== Painting ==


Among the greatest painters of the ] period are ], ],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.getty.edu/vow/ULANFullDisplay?find=Caravaggio&role=&nation=&prev_page=1&subjectid=500115312 |title=Getty profile, including variant spellings of the artist's name |publisher=Getty.edu |date=2002-12-11 |access-date=2012-02-13}}</ref> ],<ref name="Gombrich, p. 420">Gombrich, p. 420.</ref> ],<ref>Belkin (1998): 11–18.</ref> ],<ref>His ''Lives of the Painters'' was published in Rome, 1672. Poussin's other contemporary biographer was ].</ref> and ].<ref>W. Liedtke (2007) Dutch Paintings in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, p. 867.</ref> Caravaggio is an heir of the ] painting of the ]. His ] approach to the human figure, painted directly from life and dramatically spotlit against a dark background, shocked his contemporaries and opened a new chapter in the history of painting. Baroque painting often dramatizes scenes using ] light effects; this can be seen in works by Rembrandt, Vermeer, ] and ].
The ] (1545-63), in which the ] answered many questions of internal reform raised by both ] and by those who had remained inside the Catholic Church, addressed the representational arts by demanding that paintings and sculptures in church contexts should speak to the illiterate rather than to the well-informed. This turn toward a populist conception of the function of ecclesiastical art is seen by many ] as driving the innovations of ] and the ] brothers, all of whom were working (and competing for commissions) in Rome around 1600.
The Flemish painter ] developed a graceful but imposing portrait style that was very influential, especially in England.


The prosperity of 17th century Holland led to an enormous production of art by large numbers of painters who were mostly highly specialized and painted only ], ], ]s, ]s or ]s. Technical standards were very high, and ] established a new repertoire of subjects that was very influential until the arrival of ].
Some of the great Baroque artists were:
*]
*]
*]


== Sculpture == == History ==
] by ], 1669, ], ]]]
The ] (1545–1563), in which the ] answered many questions of internal reform raised by both ] and by those who had remained inside the Catholic Church, ] in a short and somewhat oblique passage in its decrees. This was subsequently interpreted and expounded by a number of clerical authors like ], who demanded that ]s and ]s in church contexts should depict their subjects clearly and powerfully, and with decorum, without the stylistic airs of ].
This return toward a ] conception of the function of ecclesiastical art is seen by many ] as driving the innovations of ] and the ] brothers, all of whom were working (and competing for commissions) in Rome around 1600, although unlike the Carracci, Caravaggio persistently was criticised for lack of decorum in his work.
However, although ], ], ], and ] were still considered the most noble subjects, ], ], and genre scenes were also becoming more common in Catholic countries, and were the main genres in Protestant ones.


===The term===
The most important sculptor of the Baroque period was undoubtedly ] (1598-1680), who approached ] in his omnicompetence. Bernini sculpted, worked as an architect, painted, wrote plays, and staged spectacles. In the late 20th century Bernini was most valued for his sculpture, both for his virtuosity in carving marble and his ability to create figures that combine the physical and the spiritual. He was also a fine portraitist in high demand among the powerful for bust-length likenesses.
The term "Baroque" was initially used with a derogatory meaning, to underline the excesses of its emphasis. Others derive it from the mnemonic term "Baroco" denoting, in logical ''Scholastica'', a supposedly laboured form of ].<ref>{{Cite journal| last=Panofsky | first=Erwin | title=What is Baroque? | journal=Three Essays on Style| publisher=The MIT Press | year=1995 | pages=19}}</ref>
In particular, the term was used to describe its eccentric redundancy and noisy abundance of details, which sharply contrasted the clear and sober rationality of the Renaissance. It was first rehabilitated by the ] ], ] (1864–1945) in his ''Renaissance und Barock'' (1888); Wölfflin identified the Baroque as "movement imported into mass", an art antithetic to ] art. He did not make the distinctions between ] and Baroque that modern writers do, and he ignored the later phase, the academic Baroque that lasted into the 18th century. Writers in French and English did not begin to treat Baroque as a respectable study until Wölfflin's influence had made German scholarship pre-eminent.


==National variations==
==The complete work of art==
Led by ], Mediterranean countries, slowly followed by most of the ] in Germany and ], generally adopted a full-blooded Baroque approach.


A rather different art developed out of northern realist traditions in 17th century ], which had very little religious art, and little ], instead playing a crucial part in developing secular genres such as ], ]s of everyday scenes, and ]. While the Baroque nature of Rembrandt's art is clear, the label is less used for ] and many other Dutch artists. Most Dutch art lacks the idealization and love of splendour typical of much Baroque work, including the neighbouring ] which shared a part in Dutch trends, while also continuing to produce the traditional categories in a more clearly Baroque style.
A good example Bernini's work that helps us understand the Baroque is his ''St. Theresa in Ecstasy'' (1645-52), created for the Cornaro Chapel of the church of Santa Maria della Vittoria, ]. Bernini designed the entire chapel, a subsidiary space along the side of the church, for the Cornaro family.


In France a dignified and graceful classicism gave a distinctive flavour to Baroque painting, where the later 17th century is also regarded as a golden age for painting. Two of the most important artists, ] and ], remained based in Rome, where their work, almost all in ]s, was much appreciated by Italian as well as French patrons.
He had, in essence, a brick box shaped something like a proscenium stage space with which to work. He created a main statue as the focal point of the chapel, surrounded the monochromatic marble statue (a soft white) with a polychromatic marble architectural framing concealing a window to light the statue from above, and placed shallow relief sculpture figure-groups of the Cornaro family in opera boxes along the two side walls of the chapel. The setting places the viewer as a spectator in front of the statue with the Cornaro family leaning out of their box seats and craning forward to see the mystical ecstasy of the saint. The statue of St. Theresa of Avila is highly idealized in detail and in an imaginary setting. St. ], one of the most popular saints of the Counter Reformation, wrote narratives of her mystical experiences aimed at the nuns of her ]; these writings had become popular reading among lay people interested in pursuing spirituality. She once described the love of God as piercing her heart like a burning arrow. Bernini literalizes this image by placing St. Theresa on a cloud in a reclining pose; what can only be described as a Cupid figure holds a golden arrow (the arrow is made of metal) and smiles down at her. The angelic figure is not preparing to plunge the arrow into her heart&mdash; rather, he has withdrawn it. St. Theresa's face reflects not the anticipation of ecstasy, but her current fulfillment, which can only be described as orgasmic.


==Baroque painters==
The blending of religious and erotic was intensely offensive to both neoclassical restraint and, later on, to Victorian prudishness; it is part of the genius of the Baroque. Bernini, who shows every sign in his writings of being a convinced and conventionally devout Catholic, is not attempting to satirize the experience of a virgin who lived a life of ], but rather reflects a complex truth about religious experience&mdash; that it is an experience that takes places in the body. Theresa described her bodily reaction to spiritual enlightenment in a language of ecstasy used by many mystics, and Bernini did her the favor of taking her seriously.
{{multiple image|perrow=1|total_width=240|caption_align=center
| align = right
| image_style = border:none;
| title =
| image1 = Il castello di Bentheim (Jacob Van Ruisdael).jpg|caption1=], ''Bentheim Castle ''(1653).
| image2 = Janbrueghelark.jpg|caption2=], ''The Entry of the Animals Into Noah's Ark'', 1613.
}}
{{multiple image|perrow=1|total_width=190|caption_align=center
| align = right
| image_style = border:none;
| title =
| image1 = Galileo Galilei by Peter Paul Rubens.jpg|caption1=], ''Galileo Galilei'', c. 1630
| image2 = La Tour.jpg|caption2=], '']'', 1642, ]
| image3 = Francisco de Zurbarán 018.jpg|caption3=], ''The Birth of the Virgin'', c. 1625–1630
| image4 = Bartolomé Esteban Murillo - Saint Peter in Tears - Google Art Project.jpg|caption4=], ''Saint Peter in Tears,'' 1650–1655
| image5 = Yepes-virgen desamparados.jpg|caption5=], ''Virgen de los desamparados'' (1644), a '']'' in '']'' Baroque style
}}


===British===
The Cornaro family promotes itself discreetly in this chapel; they are represented visually, but are placed on the sides of the chapel. They have a privileged position in respect to the viewer, as they are positioned closer to the saint; the viewer, however, has a better view from the front. They attach their name to the chapel, but St. Theresa is the focus. It is a private chapel in the sense that no one could say mass on the altar beneath the statue (in the 17th century and probably through the 19th) without permission from the family, but the only thing that divides the viewer from the image is the altar rail. The spectacle functions both as a demonstration of mysticism and as a piece of family pride.
*] (1611–1646)
*] (1587–1644)
*] (1646–1723)
*] (1618–1680)
*] (1590–1648)
*] (1617–1694)


===Dutch===
]
{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
*] (1606–1669)
*] (1585–1634)
*] (1617–1681)
*] (1605–1638)
*] (1588-1629)
*] (1620–1691)
*] (1613–1675)
*] (1596–1656)
*] (1580–1666)
*] (1638–1709)
*] (1592–1656)
*] (1629–1684)
*] (1619–1693)
*] (1599–1642)
*] (1609–1660)
*] (1629–1667)
*] (1610–1685)
*] (1628–1682)
*] (1602–1670)
*] (1597–1665)
*] (1632–1675)
*] (1626–1679)

}}

===Czech (Bohemian)===
*] (1607–1677)
*] (1610–1674)
*] (1668–1735)
*] (1686–1743)

===Flemish===
{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
*] (1577–1640)
*] (1599–1641)
*] (1593–1678)
*] (1568–1625)
*] (1581–1642)
*] (1594–1657)
*] (1591–1651)
*] (1579–1657)
*] (1610–1691)
*] (1599–1652)
*] (1584–1651)
}}

===French===
{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
*] (1591–1632)
*] (1602–1674)
*] (1606–1656)
*] (1593–1652)
*] (1619–1690)
*] brothers :
**] (c. 1599–1648)
**] (c. 1593–1648)
**] (1607–1677)
*] (1617–1655)
*] (1600–1682)
*] (1612–1695)
*] (1659–1743)
*] (1594–1665)
*] (1590–1649)
*] (1684–1721)
*] (1703–1770)
*] (1732–1806)
}}

===German===
*] (1686–1739)
*] (1605-1678)
*] (1578–1610)
*] (1590–1627)
*] (1597–1657)

===Hungarian===
*] (1673–1757)

===Italian===
{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
*] (1535–1612)
*] (1554–1640)
*] (1554–1627)
*] (1555–1630)
*] (1556–1629)
*] (1556–1640)
*] (1557–1629)
*] (1559–1613)
*] (1559–1626)
*] (1560–1610)
*] (1571–1610)
*] (1591–1666)
*] (1560–1609)
*] (1575–1642)
*] (1654-1714)
*] (1563–1639)
*] (1592– c. 1656)
*] (1581–1641)
*] (1557–1602)
*] (1555–1619)
*] (1581-1644)
*] (1596–1669)
*] (1600-1670)
*] (1601-1638)
*] (1603–1672)
*] (1605–1682)
*] (1613–1699)
*] (1615–1673)
*] (1634-1705)
*] (1638-1665)
*] (1642–1709)
}}

===Polish===
{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
*] (1655–1713)
*] (1660–1711)
*] (1689–1775)
*] (1591–1650)
*] (1635)

}}

===Portuguese===
{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
*] (1630–1684)
}}

===Spanish===
{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
*] (1635–1675)
*] (1601–1667)
*] (1614–1685)
*] (1642–1693)
*] (1596–1631)
*] (1569–1649)
*] (1612–1667)
*] (1617–1682)
*] (1611–1678)
*] (1717 – 1789)
*] (1564–1644)
*] (1565–1628)
*], ''Lo Spagnoletto'' (1591–1652)
*] (1622–1690)
*] (1599–1660)
*] (1595 or 1600 – 1674)
*] (1598–1664)
}}

==Gallery==
{{main|Baroque|Quadratura|Flemish Baroque painting}}
<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px" perrow="4">
File:Baco, por Caravaggio.jpg|], '']'', c. 1595, Oil on canvas, 95 x 85&nbsp;cm., Galleria degli ], ]
File:Judit decapitando a Holofernes, por Artemisia Gentileschi.jpg|], '']'', 1614–20, oil on canvas, 199 x 162&nbsp;cm Galleria degli ], ]
Image:Frans Hals 008.jpg|] ''Gypsy Girl'', 1628–30, oil on wood, 58 x 52&nbsp;cm., ], Paris
Image:Rubens - Judgement of Paris.jpg|], '']'', c. 1636, ], London
File:L'Enlèvement des Sabines – Nicolas Poussin – Musée du Louvre, INV 7290 – Q3110586.jpg|], '']'', 1637–38, ], Paris
Image:José de Ribera 054.jpg|], ''Martyrdom of ]'', 1639, ], ]<ref>Often described as Saint Bartholemew, martyred in similar fashion, but now recognized as St Philip. See ''Museo del Prado, Catálogo de las pinturas'', 1996, p. 315, Ministerio de Educación y Cultura, Madrid, No ISBN.</ref>
Image:Self-portrait by Salvator Rosa.jpg|], ''], Of Silence and Speech, Silence is better'', 1640, ]
Image:Velazquez-The Surrender of Breda.jpg|], '']'', 1635, oil on canvas, ], Madrid
Image:Claude Lorrain 008.jpg|], '']'', 1648, 149 × 194&nbsp;cm., ], London
File:Las Meninas, by Diego Velázquez, from Prado in Google Earth.jpg|], '']'', 1656–57, oil on canvas, 318 x 276&nbsp;cm, ], ]
File:Rembrandt - De Staalmeesters- het college van staalmeesters (waardijns) van het Amsterdamse lakenbereidersgilde - Google Art Project.jpg|], '']'', 1662, oil on canvas, {{convert|191.5|x|279|cm|in|abbr=on}}, ], ]
File:Jan Vermeer - The Art of Painting - Google Art Project.jpg|], ''The Allegory of Painting or ]'', 1666–67, 130 x 110&nbsp;cm., ], ]
</gallery>

==See also==
*]
*]
*]
*]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Reading==
* {{cite book
| last = Belkin
| first = Kristin Lohse
| title = Rubens
| publisher = ]
| year = 1998
| isbn = 0-7148-3412-2 }}
* {{cite book
| last = Belting
| first = Hans
| title = Likeness and Presence: A History of the Image before the Era of Art
| publisher = ]
| year = 1994
| isbn = 0-226-04215-4
| others = Edmund Jephcott }}
* Mark Getlein, ''Living With Art, 8th edition''.
*], ''The Story of Art'', Phaidon, 1995. {{ISBN|0-7148-3355-X}}
*], Baroque Reason: The Aesthetics of Modernity, Sage, 1994
*], 1966. ''The Age of Baroque'
*], 1964. ''Renaissance and Baroque'' (Reprinted 1984; originally published in German, 1888) The classic study. {{ISBN|0-8014-9046-4}}

{{Western art movements}}
{{Authority control}}

]
]
]

Latest revision as of 23:14, 20 October 2024

European art from about 1590 to 1750
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
Find sources: "Baroque painting" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (February 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
The Calling of Saint Matthew (1599–1600), by Caravaggio. Contarelli Chapel, San Luigi dei Francesi, Rome. The beam of light, which enters the picture from the direction of a real window, expresses in the blink of an eye the conversion of St Matthew, the hinge on which his destiny will turn, with no flying angels, parting clouds or other artifacts.
Rembrandt van Rijn, The Night Watch or The Militia Company of Captain Frans Banning Cocq, 1642, oil on canvas, 363 cm × 437 cm (143 in × 172 in), Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam. The painting is a classic example of Baroque art.
David and Goliath
Orazio Gentileschi, David and Goliath (c. 1605–1607)

Baroque painting is the painting associated with the Baroque cultural movement. The movement is often identified with Absolutism, the Counter Reformation and Catholic Revival, but the existence of important Baroque art and architecture in non-absolutist and Protestant states throughout Western Europe underscores its widespread popularity.

Baroque painting encompasses a great range of styles, as most important and major painting during the period beginning around 1600 and continuing throughout the 17th century, and into the early 18th century is identified today as Baroque painting. In its most typical manifestations, Baroque art is characterized by great drama, rich, deep colour, and intense light and dark shadows, but the classicism of French Baroque painters like Poussin and Dutch genre painters such as Vermeer are also covered by the term, at least in English. As opposed to Renaissance art, which usually showed the moment before an event took place, Baroque artists chose the most dramatic point, the moment when the action was occurring: Michelangelo, working in the High Renaissance, shows his David composed and still before he battles Goliath; Bernini's Baroque David is caught in the act of hurling the stone at the giant. Baroque art was meant to evoke emotion and passion instead of the calm rationality that had been prized during the Renaissance.

Among the greatest painters of the Baroque period are Velázquez, Caravaggio, Rembrandt, Rubens, Poussin, and Vermeer. Caravaggio is an heir of the humanist painting of the High Renaissance. His realistic approach to the human figure, painted directly from life and dramatically spotlit against a dark background, shocked his contemporaries and opened a new chapter in the history of painting. Baroque painting often dramatizes scenes using chiaroscuro light effects; this can be seen in works by Rembrandt, Vermeer, Le Nain and La Tour. The Flemish painter Anthony van Dyck developed a graceful but imposing portrait style that was very influential, especially in England.

The prosperity of 17th century Holland led to an enormous production of art by large numbers of painters who were mostly highly specialized and painted only genre scenes, landscapes, still lifes, portraits or history paintings. Technical standards were very high, and Dutch Golden Age painting established a new repertoire of subjects that was very influential until the arrival of Modernism.

History

Nativity by Josefa de Óbidos, 1669, National Museum of Ancient Art, Lisbon

The Council of Trent (1545–1563), in which the Roman Catholic Church answered many questions of internal reform raised by both Protestants and by those who had remained inside the Catholic Church, addressed the representational arts in a short and somewhat oblique passage in its decrees. This was subsequently interpreted and expounded by a number of clerical authors like Molanus, who demanded that paintings and sculptures in church contexts should depict their subjects clearly and powerfully, and with decorum, without the stylistic airs of Mannerism. This return toward a populist conception of the function of ecclesiastical art is seen by many art historians as driving the innovations of Caravaggio and the Carracci brothers, all of whom were working (and competing for commissions) in Rome around 1600, although unlike the Carracci, Caravaggio persistently was criticised for lack of decorum in his work. However, although religious painting, history painting, allegories, and portraits were still considered the most noble subjects, landscape, still life, and genre scenes were also becoming more common in Catholic countries, and were the main genres in Protestant ones.

The term

The term "Baroque" was initially used with a derogatory meaning, to underline the excesses of its emphasis. Others derive it from the mnemonic term "Baroco" denoting, in logical Scholastica, a supposedly laboured form of syllogism. In particular, the term was used to describe its eccentric redundancy and noisy abundance of details, which sharply contrasted the clear and sober rationality of the Renaissance. It was first rehabilitated by the Swiss-born art historian, Heinrich Wölfflin (1864–1945) in his Renaissance und Barock (1888); Wölfflin identified the Baroque as "movement imported into mass", an art antithetic to Renaissance art. He did not make the distinctions between Mannerism and Baroque that modern writers do, and he ignored the later phase, the academic Baroque that lasted into the 18th century. Writers in French and English did not begin to treat Baroque as a respectable study until Wölfflin's influence had made German scholarship pre-eminent.

National variations

Led by Italian Baroque painting, Mediterranean countries, slowly followed by most of the Holy Roman Empire in Germany and Central Europe, generally adopted a full-blooded Baroque approach.

A rather different art developed out of northern realist traditions in 17th century Dutch Golden Age painting, which had very little religious art, and little history painting, instead playing a crucial part in developing secular genres such as still life, genre paintings of everyday scenes, and landscape painting. While the Baroque nature of Rembrandt's art is clear, the label is less used for Vermeer and many other Dutch artists. Most Dutch art lacks the idealization and love of splendour typical of much Baroque work, including the neighbouring Flemish Baroque painting which shared a part in Dutch trends, while also continuing to produce the traditional categories in a more clearly Baroque style.

In France a dignified and graceful classicism gave a distinctive flavour to Baroque painting, where the later 17th century is also regarded as a golden age for painting. Two of the most important artists, Nicolas Poussin and Claude Lorrain, remained based in Rome, where their work, almost all in easel paintings, was much appreciated by Italian as well as French patrons.

Baroque painters

Jacob Isaakszoon van Ruisdael, Bentheim Castle (1653).Jan Brueghel the Elder, The Entry of the Animals Into Noah's Ark, 1613. Peter Paul Rubens, Galileo Galilei, c. 1630Georges de La Tour, Joseph the Carpenter, 1642, LouvreFrancisco de Zurbarán, The Birth of the Virgin, c. 1625–1630Bartolomé Esteban Murillo, Saint Peter in Tears, 1650–1655Tomás Yepes, Virgen de los desamparados (1644), a trompe-l'œil in horror vacui Baroque style

British

Dutch

Czech (Bohemian)

Flemish

French

German

Hungarian

Italian

Polish

Portuguese

Spanish

Gallery

Main articles: Baroque, Quadratura, and Flemish Baroque painting

See also

References

  1. Counter Reformation, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online, latest edition, full-article.
  2. Counter Reformation Archived 2008-12-11 at the Wayback Machine, from The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001–05.
  3. Helen Gardner, Fred S. Kleiner, and Christin J. Mamiya, "Gardner's Art Through the Ages" (Belmont, California: Thomson/Wadsworth, 2005)
  4. For example, in French calling Poussin Baroque would be generally rejected
  5. "Getty profile, including variant spellings of the artist's name". Getty.edu. 2002-12-11. Retrieved 2012-02-13.
  6. Gombrich, p. 420.
  7. Belkin (1998): 11–18.
  8. His Lives of the Painters was published in Rome, 1672. Poussin's other contemporary biographer was André Félibien.
  9. W. Liedtke (2007) Dutch Paintings in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, p. 867.
  10. Panofsky, Erwin (1995). "What is Baroque?". Three Essays on Style. The MIT Press: 19.
  11. Often described as Saint Bartholemew, martyred in similar fashion, but now recognized as St Philip. See Museo del Prado, Catálogo de las pinturas, 1996, p. 315, Ministerio de Educación y Cultura, Madrid, No ISBN.

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