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| {{Short description|Series of political movements in PRC}} | {{Short description|Series of political movements in PRC}} | ||
| {{expand Chinese}} | |||
| {{Infobox civil conflict | {{Infobox civil conflict | ||
| | title = Democracy |
| title = Democracy movements of China | ||
| | partof = ] and ] | | partof = ] and ] | ||
| | image = | | image = | ||
| | caption = Image from the ] | | caption = Image from the ] | ||
| | date = {{Start date|df=yes| |
| date = {{Start date|df=yes|1978|11}} – present ({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=11|day1=9|year1=1978}}) | ||
| | place = ] | | place = {{flagdeco|China}} ] | ||
| | coordinates = | | coordinates = | ||
| | causes = * Discontent with the one-party rule of the ] | | causes = Various, including: | ||
| * Discontent with the ] of the ] in China | |||
| * Discontent with bureaucratism (] movement) | |||
| * Discontent with poor management of student welfare (university movements from 1986–1989) | |||
| * Discontent with foreign policy (university movements from 1986–1989) | |||
| | status = Ongoing | | status = Ongoing | ||
| | methods = | | methods = | ||
| Line 19: | Line 24: | ||
| {{Chinese democracy movement}} | {{Chinese democracy movement}} | ||
| {{Contemporary Chinese political thought}} | {{Contemporary Chinese political thought}} | ||
| '''Democracy movements of China''' are a series of |
'''Democracy movements of China''' are a series of organized ]s, inside and outside of ], addressing a variety of grievances, including objections to socialist ] and objections to the continuation of the ] of the ] (CCP) itself. The ] movement of November 1978 to spring 1981 is typically regarded as the beginning of contemporary Chinese democracy movement. In addition to the Democracy Wall movement, the events of the ] are among the notable examples of Chinese democracy movements. | ||
| After Mao died, one such movement was launched during the ] in November 1978 and it was relaunched during the ].<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://pekinger-fruehling.univie.ac.at/index.php?id=188844&L=2 | title=Die chinesische Demokratiebewegung 1978 bis 1981 -– Erinnerungen der damaligen Akteure » the Democracy Movement 1978-1981}}</ref> | |||
| ==History== | ==History== | ||
| ⚫ | {{Further|New Enlightenment (China)|Beijing Spring|Democracy Wall}} | ||
| ===Mao era=== | |||
| Democracy movements of the PRC can be traced back to ]'s challenge to ] at the Supreme Conference of the Government Administration Council in 1953.<ref name=":1" /> In that year, the CCP forcibly changed the ownership of rural land from ] to ], which caused disgust among peasants.<ref name=":2" /> | |||
| === |
=== Origin === | ||
| The beginning of China's democracy movements is usually regarded as the Democracy Wall movement of November 1978 to spring 1981.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Paltemaa |first=Lauri |date=24 October 2007 |title=The Democracy Wall Movement, Marxist Revisionism, and the Variations on Socialist Democracy |journal=] |language=en |volume=16 |issue=53 |pages=601–625 |doi=10.1080/10670560701562325 |s2cid=143933209 |issn=1067-0564}}</ref> The Democracy Wall movement framed the key issue as the elimination of bureaucratism and the bureaucratic class.<ref name=":1" /> Former ] from both rebel and conservative factions were the core of the movement.<ref name=":1" /> Democracy Wall participants agreed that "democracy" was the means to resolve the conflict between the bureaucratic class and the people, the nature of the proposed democratic institutions was a major source of disagreement.<ref name=":1" /> A majority of participants in the movement favored viewed the movement as part of a struggle between correct and incorrect notions of ].<ref name=":1" /> Many participants advocated ] views that drew on the ] for inspiration.<ref name=":1" /> The Democracy Wall movement also included non-Marxists and anti-Marxists, although these participants were a minority.<ref name=":1" /> Demands for "democracy" were frequent but without an agreed-upon meaning.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Wu |first=Yiching |url=https://archive.org/details/yiching-wu-the-cultural-revolution-at-the-margins |title=The Cultural Revolution at the Margins: Chinese Socialism in Crisis |date=2014 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-674-41985-8 |location=Cambridge, Mass. |pages=213–215 |oclc=881183403}}</ref> Participants in the movement variously associated the concept of democracy with socialism, communism, liberal democracy, capitalism, and Christianity.<ref name=":5" /> They drew on a diverse range of intellectual resources "ranging from classical Marxist and socialist traditions to Enlightenment philosophers, experiments in Yugoslavia, and Western liberal democracy."<ref name=":5" /> | |||
| ⚫ | {{Further|Beijing Spring|Democracy Wall}} | ||
| ⚫ | |||
| ⚫ | Significant documents of the Democracy Wall Movement include ] manifesto by ], who was sentenced to fifteen years in ] for authoring the document. In it, Wei argued that political liberalization and the empowerment of the laboring masses was essential for modernization, that the CCP was controlled by reactionaries and that the people must struggle to overthrow the reactionaries via a long and possibly bloody fight.{{cn|date=August 2021}} | ||
| Throughout the 1980s, these ideas increased in popularity among college-educated Chinese. In response to growing ], economic dislocation and the sense that reforms in the ] and ] were leaving China behind, the ] erupted in 1989. These protests were violently suppressed by government troops on June 4, 1989. In response, a number of pro-] organizations were formed by overseas Chinese ], and there was considerable sympathy for the movement among Westerners, who formed the ] (CSN).{{cn|date=August 2021}} | |||
| === Development === | |||
| ==Current situation== | |||
| Throughout the 1980s, these ideas increased in popularity among college-educated Chinese, through the "]" led by intellectuals.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last=Li |first=Huaiyin |title=Reinventing Modern China: Imagination and Authenticity in Chinese Historical Writing |date=October 2012 |publisher=] |isbn=9780824836085 |chapter=6 Challenging the Revolutionary Orthodoxy: “New Enlightenment” Historiography in the 1980s |doi=10.21313/hawaii/9780824836085.003.0006}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Chen |first=Yan |date=2007 |title=意识形态的兴衰与知识分子的起落—— "反右"运动与八十年代"新启蒙"的背景分析 |trans-title=The rise and fall of ideology and intellectuals—background analysis of the Anti-Rightist Campaign and the New Enlightenment in the 1980s |url=https://www.modernchinastudies.org/us/issues/past-issues/97-mcs-2007-issue-3/1017-2012-01-05-15-35-22.html |journal=] |volume=3}}</ref> In response to growing ], economic dislocation and the sense that reforms in the ] and ] were leaving China behind, the ] erupted in 1989, the second massive student movement after the ].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Shi |first=Tianjian |date=1990 |title=The Democratic Movement in China in 1989: Dynamics and Failure |journal=] |volume=30 |issue=12 |pages=1186–1205 |doi=10.2307/2644993 |issn=0004-4687 |jstor=2644993}}</ref> In 1989, these protests were violently suppressed by government troops on June 4, 1989. In response, a number of pro-] organizations were formed by overseas Chinese ], and there was considerable sympathy for the movement among Westerners, who formed the China Support Network (CSN).{{cn|date=August 2021}} | |||
| {{See also|Protest and dissent in China}}{{Expand section|date=November 2022}} | |||
| ==Government's response== | ==Government's response== | ||
| {{Unreferenced section|date=January 2024}} | |||
| ], the government's first reaction to the democracy movement was an effort to focus on the personal behavior of individual dissidents and argue that they were tools of foreign powers. In the mid-1990s, the government began using more effective arguments which were influenced by ] and Western authors such as ]. The main argument was that China's main priority was ], and economic growth required political stability. The democracy movement was flawed because it promoted ]ism and ] which put the gains that China had made into jeopardy. In contrast to Wei's argument that democracy was essential to ], the government argued that economic growth must come before political liberalization, comparable to what happened in the ].{{cn|date= |
], the government's first reaction to the democracy movement was an effort to focus on the personal behavior of individual dissidents and argue that they were tools of foreign powers. In the mid-1990s, the government began using more effective arguments which were influenced by ] and Western authors such as ]. The main argument was that China's main priority was ], and economic growth required political stability. The democracy movement was flawed because it promoted ]ism and ] which put the gains that China had made into jeopardy. In contrast to Wei's argument that democracy was essential to ], the government argued that economic growth must come before political liberalization, comparable to what happened in the ].{{cn|date=January 2024}} | ||
| With regard to ] engendered by the movement, the government has taken a three-pronged approach. First, dissidents who are widely known in the West such as ], ], and ] are deported. Although Chinese ] does not contain any provisions for ] citizens, these deportations are conducted by giving the dissident a severe jail sentence and then granting medical ]. Second, the less well-known leaders of a dissident movement are identified and given severe jail sentences. Generally, the government targets a relatively small number of organizers who are crucial in coordinating a movement and who are then charged with endangering ] or revealing official secrets. Thirdly, the government attempts to address the grievances of possible supporters of the movement. This is intended to isolate the leadership of the movement, and prevent disconnected ]s from combining into a general organized protest that can threaten the |
With regard to ] engendered by the movement, the government has taken a three-pronged approach. First, dissidents who are widely known in the West such as ], ], and ] are deported. Although Chinese ] does not contain any provisions for ] citizens, these deportations are conducted by giving the dissident a severe jail sentence and then granting medical ]. Second, the less well-known leaders of a dissident movement are identified and given severe jail sentences. Generally, the government targets a relatively small number of organizers who are crucial in coordinating a movement and who are then charged with endangering ] or revealing official secrets. Thirdly, the government attempts to address the grievances of possible supporters of the movement. This is intended to isolate the leadership of the movement, and prevent disconnected ]s from combining into a general organized protest that can threaten the CCP's hold on power.{{cn|date=January 2024}} | ||
| ===Chinese socialist democracy=== | ===Chinese socialist democracy=== | ||
| CCP leaders assert there are already elements of democracy; they dubbed the term "Chinese socialist democracy" for what they describe as a participatory representative government.<ref> |
CCP leaders assert there are already elements of democracy; they dubbed the term "Chinese socialist democracy" for what they describe as a participatory representative government.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-01-11 |title=Interview with Ambassador Liu Xiaoming On Nile TV International |url=http://big5.fmprc.gov.cn/gate/big5/eg.china-embassy.org/eng/dsxx/cfyj/2002/t77035.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111065440/http://big5.fmprc.gov.cn/gate/big5/eg.china-embassy.org/eng/dsxx/cfyj/2002/t77035.htm |archive-date=2012-01-11 |access-date=2022-12-02 |website=]}}</ref> | ||
| == |
== Academic interpretations == | ||
| Academic Lin Chun criticizes the phrase "democracy movement" as typically used in the scholarly and media discourse on China, noting that the term is often used exclusively to refer to the "demands and activism of an urban, educated group of people seeking liberal more than democratic values."<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Lin |first=Chun |title=The transformation of Chinese socialism |date=2006 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-8223-3785-0 |location=Durham |pages=208 |oclc=63178961}}</ref> She notes, for example, that the political turbulence in universities over the period 1986 to 1989 had specific flash points ranging from anger at the government's "too soft" position on ] to poor management of student welfare.<ref name=":0" /> | Academic Lin Chun criticizes the phrase "democracy movement" as typically used in the scholarly and media discourse on China, noting that the term is often used exclusively to refer to the "demands and activism of an urban, educated group of people seeking liberal more than democratic values."<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Lin |first=Chun |title=The transformation of Chinese socialism |date=2006 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-8223-3785-0 |location=Durham |pages=208 |oclc=63178961}}</ref> She notes, for example, that the political turbulence in universities over the period 1986 to 1989 had specific flash points ranging from anger at the government's "too soft" position on ] to poor management of student welfare.<ref name=":0" /> | ||
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| *] | *] | ||
| *] | *] | ||
| *] | |||
| ==References== | ==References== | ||
| {{Reflist}}{{China topics}} | {{Reflist}}{{China topics}} | ||
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| ] | ] | ||
| ] | ] | ||
| ] | |||
Latest revision as of 21:55, 1 November 2024
Series of political movements in PRC | You can help expand this article with text translated from the corresponding article in Chinese. Click for important translation instructions.
|
| Democracy movements of China | |
|---|---|
| Part of politics in China and protest and dissent in China | |
| Date | November 1978 (1978-11) – present (46 years, 1 month, 2 weeks and 3 days) |
| Location |  China |
| Caused by | Various, including:
|
| Status | Ongoing |
| Movements in contemporary |
| Chinese political thought |
|---|
 |
| Liberalism |
| Neoauthoritarianism |
| New Left |
Democracy movements of China are a series of organized political movements, inside and outside of China, addressing a variety of grievances, including objections to socialist bureaucratism and objections to the continuation of the one-party rule of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) itself. The Democracy Wall movement of November 1978 to spring 1981 is typically regarded as the beginning of contemporary Chinese democracy movement. In addition to the Democracy Wall movement, the events of the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre are among the notable examples of Chinese democracy movements.
History
Further information: New Enlightenment (China), Beijing Spring, and Democracy WallOrigin
The beginning of China's democracy movements is usually regarded as the Democracy Wall movement of November 1978 to spring 1981. The Democracy Wall movement framed the key issue as the elimination of bureaucratism and the bureaucratic class. Former Red Guards from both rebel and conservative factions were the core of the movement. Democracy Wall participants agreed that "democracy" was the means to resolve the conflict between the bureaucratic class and the people, the nature of the proposed democratic institutions was a major source of disagreement. A majority of participants in the movement favored viewed the movement as part of a struggle between correct and incorrect notions of Marxism. Many participants advocated classical Marxist views that drew on the Paris Commune for inspiration. The Democracy Wall movement also included non-Marxists and anti-Marxists, although these participants were a minority. Demands for "democracy" were frequent but without an agreed-upon meaning. Participants in the movement variously associated the concept of democracy with socialism, communism, liberal democracy, capitalism, and Christianity. They drew on a diverse range of intellectual resources "ranging from classical Marxist and socialist traditions to Enlightenment philosophers, experiments in Yugoslavia, and Western liberal democracy."
Significant documents of the Democracy Wall Movement include The Fifth Modernization manifesto by Wei Jingsheng, who was sentenced to fifteen years in prison for authoring the document. In it, Wei argued that political liberalization and the empowerment of the laboring masses was essential for modernization, that the CCP was controlled by reactionaries and that the people must struggle to overthrow the reactionaries via a long and possibly bloody fight.
Development
Throughout the 1980s, these ideas increased in popularity among college-educated Chinese, through the "New Enlightenment movement" led by intellectuals. In response to growing corruption, economic dislocation and the sense that reforms in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe were leaving China behind, the Tiananmen Square protests erupted in 1989, the second massive student movement after the 1986 student protests. In 1989, these protests were violently suppressed by government troops on June 4, 1989. In response, a number of pro-democracy organizations were formed by overseas Chinese student activists, and there was considerable sympathy for the movement among Westerners, who formed the China Support Network (CSN).
Government's response
 | This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this message) |
Ideologically, the government's first reaction to the democracy movement was an effort to focus on the personal behavior of individual dissidents and argue that they were tools of foreign powers. In the mid-1990s, the government began using more effective arguments which were influenced by Chinese Neo-Conservatism and Western authors such as Edmund Burke. The main argument was that China's main priority was economic growth, and economic growth required political stability. The democracy movement was flawed because it promoted radicalism and revolution which put the gains that China had made into jeopardy. In contrast to Wei's argument that democracy was essential to economic growth, the government argued that economic growth must come before political liberalization, comparable to what happened in the Four Asian Tigers.
With regard to political dissent engendered by the movement, the government has taken a three-pronged approach. First, dissidents who are widely known in the West such as Wei Jingsheng, Fang Lizhi, and Wang Dan are deported. Although Chinese criminal law does not contain any provisions for exiling citizens, these deportations are conducted by giving the dissident a severe jail sentence and then granting medical parole. Second, the less well-known leaders of a dissident movement are identified and given severe jail sentences. Generally, the government targets a relatively small number of organizers who are crucial in coordinating a movement and who are then charged with endangering state security or revealing official secrets. Thirdly, the government attempts to address the grievances of possible supporters of the movement. This is intended to isolate the leadership of the movement, and prevent disconnected protests from combining into a general organized protest that can threaten the CCP's hold on power.
Chinese socialist democracy
CCP leaders assert there are already elements of democracy; they dubbed the term "Chinese socialist democracy" for what they describe as a participatory representative government.
Academic interpretations
Academic Lin Chun criticizes the phrase "democracy movement" as typically used in the scholarly and media discourse on China, noting that the term is often used exclusively to refer to the "demands and activism of an urban, educated group of people seeking liberal more than democratic values." She notes, for example, that the political turbulence in universities over the period 1986 to 1989 had specific flash points ranging from anger at the government's "too soft" position on China–Japan relations to poor management of student welfare.
See also
References
- ^ Paltemaa, Lauri (24 October 2007). "The Democracy Wall Movement, Marxist Revisionism, and the Variations on Socialist Democracy". Journal of Contemporary China. 16 (53): 601–625. doi:10.1080/10670560701562325. ISSN 1067-0564. S2CID 143933209.
- ^ Wu, Yiching (2014). The Cultural Revolution at the Margins: Chinese Socialism in Crisis. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. pp. 213–215. ISBN 978-0-674-41985-8. OCLC 881183403.
- Li, Huaiyin (October 2012). "6 Challenging the Revolutionary Orthodoxy: "New Enlightenment" Historiography in the 1980s". Reinventing Modern China: Imagination and Authenticity in Chinese Historical Writing. University of Hawaiʻi Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824836085.003.0006. ISBN 9780824836085.
- Chen, Yan (2007). "意识形态的兴衰与知识分子的起落—— "反右"运动与八十年代"新启蒙"的背景分析" [The rise and fall of ideology and intellectuals—background analysis of the Anti-Rightist Campaign and the New Enlightenment in the 1980s]. Modern China Studies. 3.
- Shi, Tianjian (1990). "The Democratic Movement in China in 1989: Dynamics and Failure". Asian Survey. 30 (12): 1186–1205. doi:10.2307/2644993. ISSN 0004-4687. JSTOR 2644993.
- "Interview with Ambassador Liu Xiaoming On Nile TV International". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China. 2012-01-11. Archived from the original on 2012-01-11. Retrieved 2022-12-02.
- ^ Lin, Chun (2006). The transformation of Chinese socialism. Durham : Duke University Press. p. 208. ISBN 978-0-8223-3785-0. OCLC 63178961.