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The Indian caste system is the traditional system of social division in the Indian Subcontinent, in which social classes are defined by a number of endogamous groups often termed as jātis. The castes are hereditary, endogamous system, social classes or subclasses. Within a caste there exist exogamous groups known as gotras.

The caste system is different from the system of varnas sanctioned in Hindu scriptures including the Manusmriti. These scriptures split society into four broad groups but did not indicate that the groups were hereditary. Instead stating that one could earn the rank of a Brahmin (priest) even if they were born to Shudra (laborer) parents. Like in all societies, children occupied the occupations of their parents and through this process the hereditary and corrupted caste system was born.

The caste system is also followed by some groups of Muslims, and Christians in the subcontinent. The Indian Constitution has formally outlawed caste-based discrimination. The caste system is gradually declining, especially in urban areas and in the public sphere. However, it is still a major part of Indian societal structure in the private sphere, and caste practices are strongly adhered to in the rural areas.

Varna and jati

A varna is a division of the society that consists of many sub-castes or Jātis. Manusmriti and some other shastras mention four varnas: The Brahmins (teachers, scholars and priests), the Kshatriyas (kings and warriors), the Vaishyas (traders and some artisan groups such as pottery making and wood work etc.), and Shudras (agriculturists, service providers, and some artisan groups). Another group of untouchables excluded from the main society was called Parjanya or Antyaja. This group of former "untouchables" (Dalit) was considered either the lower section of Shudras or outside the caste system altogether.

Mixed in with the varna caste system was the jati sub-caste system. The jati was effectively a system similar to guilds, and was associated with occupation. Unlike the varnas, jati could originally be changed with occupation within a varna. According to the Manusmriti, every caste belongs to one of the four varnas. However, there have been many disputes about the varna of many castes, such as castes being considered Kshatriya by some scholars, while described as Shudra by others. While texts such as the Manusmriti attempted to rationalize ambiguous castes by placing them in varna-sankaras (i.e. mixed varna), a more complex system of subcastes and jātis is evident.

In the past individuals were excommunicated out of the caste (thus becoming an "outcaste") if they committed some unpardonable offences. They were denied the privilege of mingling socially with the rest of their former caste. This is an example of the previous plasticity of varnas. One could change from a Brahmin to an outcaste through one's actions.

History

Early historians propagated the theory that the varna system began with an Indo-Aryan migration to India. However, the theory of Indo-Aryan migration itself is now generally disputed by modern genetic evidence, which indicates that the population of India has remained largely homogenous over the last 10000 years. Thus the origin of the 'Aryan' or Vedic people is now postulated to be native to India and Iran, with modern day Iranians having much contact with Middle Eastern Arabs and Indians with the root Dravidian speaking population. Note that the existance of an independent 'Aryan' or Vedic race of people is also highly uncertain. Either way, the undoubted transmission of aspects of the Vedic language and culture to Europeans was to occur only later.

Many European scholars from the colonial era regarded the Manusmriti as the "law book" of the Hindus and thus concluded that the caste system is a part of Hinduism, an assertion that is rejected by many religious scholars of Hinduism, who prove that it is an anachronistic social practice, not a religious one. Although many Hindu scriptures contain passages that can be interpreted to sanction the caste system, they also contain indications that the caste system is not an essential part of the Hindu religion. The Vedas place very little importance on the caste system, mentioning caste only rarely and in a cursory manner. In the Vedic period, there also seems to be no discrimination against the Shudras (which later became an ensemble of the so-called low-castes). Later scriptures such as Bhagavad Gita and Manusmriti state that the four varnas are created by God.

Passages from scriptures such as Manusmriti show that the varna system was originally non-hereditary: Template:Quoter

The creation of the modern caste system was through political corruption and general trends in society. In all societies, the sons of kings are labelled princes and thus remain royalty despite whether they merit royalty or not. Similarly, within medieval India, the son of Brahmins were expected to be Brahmins by taking up their father's jobs. The sons of outcastes in the original varna systems were treated by the next generation as outcastes like their parents. Thus, varna became hereditary and transformed into the caste system. Some people, especially those of the forward castes, understand this political system as a way to propagate their children into a better life.

The status of Untouchables

The Dalits (earlier referred to as "untouchables" by some) in Indian society were the people who worked in what were seen as unhealthy, disgusting or polluting jobs. Like in most societies, workers in these jobs were looked down upon and were generally poor. Dalits were probably forced to live separately thus creating seemingly an unclean outward image with low peofile while having a noble and spiritual internal system of their own. The untouchables were therefore free from evil spirit of grreed,dishonesty, cheating, looting and commiting thefts, which polluted the minds of the people from other castes.The untouchables remained pure and clean hearted despite unclean jobs forced upon them. It was thus very hard for a Dalit to advance varna, but spiritually they were much adwanced than those advanced in terms of Varna System based on the concept of 'Jungle Rule' of 'might is right'. As they used to live separately from other varnas's evil practices and corrupt traditions, they were hit harder by the evil doers than people from other castes. Most of other castes would interfere adversely with their economic and social life since Dalits were considered easier to victimise on account of their non violent behaviour and noble, peaceful and spiritual life.

In the past, the Dalits suffered from social restrictions in addition to extreme poverty. They were not allowed temple worship with others, nor water from the same sources. Person of higher castes would not interact with them. They were not allowed to use the same wells as the other castes as that would "pollute" the water and indirectly the other castes who drank it. If somehow a member of a higher caste came into physical or social contact with an untouchable, the member of the higher caste was defiled, and had to bathe thoroughly to purge her/himself of the impurity. Such contact even included the shadow of an untouchable falling on the member of the higher caste. At the same time, the untouchables developed their own rich folk traditions with a lifestyle that was unhampered by the variety of restrictions on the rest of the society.

Discrimination is found even among the Dalits. The social status of Dalit sub-castes such as Bhangi has long been a source of contention within Indian society. Upper sub-castes among Dalits like dhobi, nai etc. do not interact with Bhangis, the lowest order among the Dalits. They are called untouchable among the untouchables. This is an example of deep set roots of caste system in the Indian psyche.

Reforms

Many Bhakti period saints rejected the caste discriminations and accepted all castes, including untouchables, into their fold. During the initial days of British East India Company's rules, caste privileges and customs were encouraged. However, the British law courts disagreed with the discrimination against the lower castes. During the British Raj, many Hindu reform movements such as Brahmo Samaj and Arya Samaj renounced caste-based discrimination. The inclusion of so-called untouchables into the mainstream was argued for by many social reformers (see the section Historical criticism). Mahatma Gandhi called them "Harijans" (people of God). However, the term Dalit ("downtrodden") is used now as the term Harijan is largely felt patronising. Gandhi's contribution toward the emancipation of the untouchables is considered controversial. This is usually highlighted by the commentary of his contemporary Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, an untouchable himself, who frequently saw his activities as detrimental to the cause of upliftment of his people.

The practice of untouchability was formally outlawed by the Constitution of India in 1950, and has declined heavily in independent India. K. R. Narayanan, who became the President of India in 1997 and K. G. Balakrishnan (the present Chief Justice of India) belong to the castes formerly considered as untouchable.

Modern status of the caste system

The Indian caste system is gradually relaxing, especially in metropolitan and other major urban areas, due to the penetration of higher education, co-existence of all communities and lesser knowledge about caste system due to alienation with rural roots of people. But in the countryside and small towns, this system is still very rigid. However, the total elimination of caste system seems distant, if ever possible, due to caste politics.

The Government of India has officially documented castes and subcastes, primarily to determine those deserving reservation (positive discrimination in education and jobs) through the census. The Indian reservation system relies entirely on quotas. The Government lists consist of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes:

Scheduled castes (SC)

Scheduled castes generally consist of former "untouchables" (the term "Dalit" is now preferred). Present population is 16% of total population of India i.e. around 160 million. For example, the Delhi state has 49 castes listed as SC.

Scheduled tribes (ST)

Scheduled tribes generally consist of tribal groups. Present population is 7% of total population of India i.e. around 70 million.

Other Backward Classes (OBC)

The Mandal Commission covered more than 3000 castes under OBC Category and stated that OBCs form around 52% of the Indian population. However, the National Sample Survey puts the figure at 32%.. There is substantial debate over the exact number of OBCs in India. It is generally estimated to be sizable, but many believe that it is lower than the figures quoted by either the Mandal Commission or the National Sample Survey

The caste-based reservations in India have led to wide-spread protests, with many complaining of reverse discrimination against the forward castes.

Though inter-caste marriages are now quite common in India, many Indians consider caste a major criteria for matrimonial choices. Almost all Indian matrimonial websites and matrimonial columns in Indian newspapers contain caste-based categories.

Caste System among non-Hindus

In some parts of India, the Christians are stratified by sect, location, and the castes of their predecessors. Presently in India, more than 70% of Christians are Dalits, but the higher caste Christians (30% by estimates) control 90% of the churches administrative jobs . Out of the 156 bishops, only 6 are from lower castesCite error: A <ref> tag is missing the closing </ref> (see the help page).. Many Dalit Catholics have spoken out against discrimination against them by the Catholic Church.

Despite Islam's egalitarian tenets, units of social stratification, termed as "castes" by many, have developed among Muslims in some parts of South Asia. Sources indicate that the castes among Muslims developed as the result of close contact with Hindu culture and Hindu converts to Islam.

Among Muslims, those who are referred to as Ashrafs are presumed to have a superior status derived from their foreign Arab ancestry, while the Ajlafs are assumed to be converts from Hinduism, and have a lower status. In addition, there is also the Arzal caste among Muslims, who were regarded by anti-caste activists like Babasaheb Ambedkar as the equivalent of untouchables. In the Bengal region of India, some Muslims also stratify their society according to 'Quoms'. While some scholars have asserted that the Muslim Castes are not as acute in their discrimination as that among Hindus, Ambedkar argued otherwise, writing that the social evils in Muslim society were "worse than those seen in Hindu society".

Caste-related violence

Independent India has witnessed considerable amount of violence and hate crimes motivated by caste. Ranvir Sena, a caste-supremacist fringe paramilitary group based in Bihar has committed violent acts against Dalits and other members of the scheduled caste community. Phoolan Devi, a bandit-turned-politician belonging to Mallah lower-caste was mistreated and raped by upper-caste Thakurs. She turned a bandit and carried out violent robberies against upper-caste people. In 1981, her gang massacred twenty-two Thakurs, most of whom were not involved in her kidnapping or rape.

Over the years, various incidents of violence against Dalits, such as Kherlanji Massacre have been reported from many parts of India. At the same time, many violent protests by Dalits, such as the 2006 Dalit protests in Maharashtra, have been reported as well.

Caste politics

Mahatma Gandhi, B. R. Ambedkar and Jawaharlal Nehru had radically different approaches to caste esp. over constitutional politics and the status of "untouchables". Till the mid-1970s, the politics of independent India was largely dominated by economic issues and questions of corruption. But since 1980s, caste has emerged as a major issue in the Politics of India.

The Mandal Commission was established in 1979 to "identify the socially or educationally backward", and to consider the question of seat reservations and quotas for people to redress caste discrimination. In 1980, the commission's report affirmed the affirmative action practice under Indian law whereby members of lower castes were given exclusive access to a certain portion of government jobs and slots in public universities. When V. P. Singh Government tried to implement the recommendations of Mandal Commission in 1989, massive protests were held in the country. Many alleged that the politicians were trying to cash on caste-based reservations for purely pragmatic electoral purposes.

Many political parties in India have openly indulged in caste-based votebank politics. Parties such as Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP), the Samajwadi Party and the Janata Dal claim that they are representing the backward castes, and rely primarily on OBC support, often in alliance with Dalit and Muslim support to win the elections.

Criticism

There has been strong criticism of the caste system, both within and outside India. Criticism of the Caste system in Hindu society came both from the Hindu fold and from without. In many cases, anti-Hindus have exploited the controversy to rake up prejudices against Hindus and Hindu culture. Typically, radical elements of other religions rake up caste issues to de-legitimize the right of Hindus to practice their faith.

Historical criticism

Gautama Buddha and Mahavira, the founders of Buddhism and Jainism respectively, were against any kind of caste structure. Many bhakti period saints such as Kabir, Dnyaneshwar, Eknath, Ramananda, Ramanuja and Tukaram rejected all caste-based discrimination and accepted disciples from all the castes. Many Hindu reformers such as Swami Vivekananda and Sathya Sai Baba believe that there is no place for the caste system in Hinduism. The 15th century saint Ramananda also accepted all castes, including untouchables, into his fold. Most of these saints subscribed to the Bhakti movements in Hinduism during the medieval period that rejected casteism. Nandanar, a low-caste Hindu cleric, also rejected casteism and accepted Dalits.

Some other movements in Hinduism have also welcomed lower-castes into their fold, the earliest being the Bhakti movements of the medieval period. Early Dalit politics involved many Hindu reform movements which arose primarily as a reaction to the advent of Christian Missionaries in India and their attempts to mass-convert Dalits to Christianity under the allure of escaping the caste system (however, the Caste system among Indian Christians remained in full force even after conversions).

In the 19th Century, the Brahmo Samaj under Raja Ram Mohan Roy, actively campaigned against untouchability and Casteism. The Arya Samaj founded by Swami Dayanand also renounced discrimination against Dalits.Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa founded the Ramakrishna Mission that participated in the emancipation of Dalits. Upper caste Hindus, such as Mannathu Padmanabhan also participated in movements to abolish Untouchability against Dalits, opening his family temple for Dalits to worship.Narayana Guru, a pious Hindu and an authority on the Vedas, also criticized casteism and campaigned for the rights of lower-caste Hindus within the context of Hinduism.

While there always have been places for Dalits to worship, the first "upper-caste" temple to openly welcome Dalits into their fold was the Laxminarayan Temple in Wardha in the year 1928 (the move was spearheaded by reformer Jamnalal Bajaj). Also, the Satnami movement was founded by Guru Ghasidas a Dalit himself.

The caste system has also been criticized by many Indian social reformers. Some reformers, such as Jyotirao Phule and Iyothee Thass argued that the lower caste people were the original inhabitants of India, and were conquered in the ancient past by Brahman invaders. Mahatma Gandhi coined the term "Harijan", a euphemistic word for untouchable, literally meaning Sons of God. B. R. Ambedkar, born in Hindu Dalit community, was a heavy critic of the caste system. He pioneered the Dalit Buddhist movement in India, and asked his followers to leave Hinduism, and convert to Buddhism.India's first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, based on his own relationship with Dalit reformer Ambedkar, also spread information about the dire need to eradicate untouchability for the benefit of the Dalit community. Another example was the Temple Entry Proclamation issued by the last Maharaja of Travancore in the Indian state of Kerala in the year 1936. The Maharaja proclaimed that "outcastes should not be denied the consolations and the solace of the Hindu faith". Even today, the Sri Padmanabhaswamy temple that first welcomed Dalits in the state of Kerala is revered by the Dalit Hindu community.

A prominent example of personalities exploiting the Caste system to spread prejudices against Hindus was Periyar Ramasami, a Tamil rationalist, who claimed to fight against the caste practice of Brahmins but was regarded as Anti-Hindu.Ambedkar was also regarded as an Anti-Hindu by some of the more orthodox elements of society but his supporters argue that he was not against Hindus per se, but against the orthodoxy of the Hindu Caste system (as evidenced by his not singling out Hindus for criticism but attacking the Caste system among South Asian Muslims as well).

Contemporary Criticism

The caste system has been often used to criticize Hinduism and India, in general. Often, the criticism decays into anti-Hindu prejudices. Kancha Ilaiah, a professor at Osmania University is known for his polemical attacks on Hindus and the caste system and is considered an anti-Hindu by his critics. Similarly, radicals such as Udit Raj, who have attacked Hindus in polemical speeches, have achieved some popularity among evangelical Christian groups such as the Dalit Freedom Network in their attacks on Hindus. Christian Missionaries of the fundamentalist persuasion often employ such tactics to convert Hindus to their fold. The website Dalitstan (presently taken down), once banned by the Indian government, is an example of anti-Brahmin and anti-Hindu rhetoric by Dalit extremists, allegedly supported by Christian missions.

Many Hindus point out that the caste system is related to the Indian society, and not Hinduism (as is evident by presence of caste among Indian Christians and Muslims). Hindu Nationalist organizations such as the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh have actively criticized the caste system.

Some activists consider that the caste system is a form of racial discrimination. The participants of the United Nations Conference Against Racism in Durban, South Africa in March 2001, condemned discrimination due to the caste system, and stated that caste as a basis for the segregation and oppression of peoples in terms of their descent and occupation is a form of apartheid..

This allegation has been rejected by many sociologists such as Andre Béteille, who writes that treating caste as a form of racism is "politically mischievous" and worse, "scientifically nonsense" since there is no discernible difference in the racial characteristics between Brahmins and Scheduled Castes. He writes that "Every social group cannot be regarded as a race simply because we want to protect it against prejudice and discrimination".

The Indian government denies the claims of equivalency between Caste and Racial discrimination, pointing out that the caste issues as essentially intra-racial and intra-cultural. Indian Attorney General Soli Sorabjee insisted that "he only reason India wants caste discrimination kept off the agenda is that it will distract participants from the main topic: racism. Caste discrimination in India is undeniable but caste and race are entirely distinct". Many scholars dispute the claim that casteism is akin to racism. The view of the caste system as "static and unchanging" has been disputed. Sociologists describe how the perception of the caste system as a static and textual stratification has given way to the perception of the caste system as a more processual, empirical and contextual stratification. Others have applied theoretical models to explain mobility and flexibility in the caste system in India. According to these scholars, groups of lower-caste individuals could seek to elevate the status of their caste by attempting to emulate the practices of higher castes. However, regardless of the education or social position of members of lower castes, they still experience caste discrimination, and social mobility is restricted by the behaviours of upper caste members.

Sociologist M. N. Srinivas has also debated the question of rigidity in Caste. For details see sanskritization.

In India, some observers felt that the caste system must be viewed as a system of exploitation of poor low-ranking groups by more prosperous high-ranking groups. In many parts of India, land is largely held by dominant castes high-ranking owners of property that economically exploit low-ranking landless labourers and poor artisans, all the while degrading them with ritual emphases on their so-called god-given inferior status.

Matt Cherry, claims that karma underpins the caste system, and the caste system traditionally determines the position and role of every member of Hindu society. Caste determines an individual's place in society, the work he or she may carry out, and who he or she may marry and meet. According to him, Hindus believe that the karma of previous life will determine the caste an individual will be (re)born into.

On 29 March 2007, the Supreme Court of India, as an interim measure, stayed the law providing for 27 percent reservation for Other Backward Classes in educational institutions like IITs and IIMs. This was done in response to a public interest litigation — Ashoka Kumar Thakur vs. Union of India . The Court held that the 1931 census could not be a determinative factor for identifying the OBCs for the purpose of providing reservation. The court also also observed, "Reservation cannot be permanent and appear to perpetuate backwardness".

References

1. ManuSmriti X:65
2. Francis Buchanan, Indian Census Record, 1883
3. Michael Bamshad; et al. (June). "Genetic evidence on the origins of Indian caste populations" (PDF). Genome Research. 11(6):994-1004. Retrieved 2006-12-08. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |year= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |quotes= (help); Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
4. Stephen Knapp. "Death of the Aryan Invasion Theory". Retrieved 2006-12-08.
5. David Frawley. "Solid Evidence Debunking Aryan Invasion". Retrieved 2006-12-08.
6. Elst, Koenraad. The saffron swastika: The notion of "Hindu fascism". Voice of India. ISBN 8185990697.
7. Brian Handwerk (2006-01-10). "India Acquired Language, Not Genes, From West, Study Says". National Geographic News. Retrieved 2006-12-08.
8. Alex Michaels, Hinduism: Past and Present 188-97 (Princeton 2004) ISBN 0-691-08953-1
9. Caste System View of Scholars
10. White Yajurveda 26.2
11. Hell’s Angels, Himal Magazine
12. Alavi, Seema (1998). Sepoys And The Company Tradition and transition in Northern India 1770-1830. Oxford University Press India. p. 5. ISBN 0-195-63484-5.
13. List of Scheduled Castes Delhi Govt.
14. Reply to SC daunting task for government, Tribune India
15. What is India's population of other backward classes?,Yahoo News
16. Vikas Kamat. "India's Arranged Marriages". Retrieved 2006-12-12.
17. Christian Castes Encyclopedia Britannica
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21. ^ Burton-Page, J. "Hindū." Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzeland W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2006. Brill Online.
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35. ^ An Untouchable Subject?
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39. Srinivas, M.N, Religion and Society among the Coorgs of South India by MN Srinivas, Page 32 (Oxford, 1952)
40. Caste in Modern India; And other essays: Page 48. (Media Promoters & Publishers Pvt. Ltd, Bombay; First Published: 1962, 11th Reprint: 1994)
41. India - A Country Study, USA Library of Congress, 1995, Chapter 5
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43. "Supreme Court stays OBC quota in IITs, IIMs". rediff.com. Rediff.com India Limited. March 29 2007. Retrieved 2007-04-01. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)

See also

• The varna system
• Caste
• List of Indian castes
• Reservations in India
• Lower-caste Hindu saints
• List of lower-caste Indian warriors

Further reading

See also: References

• Ambedkar, B.R. (1946). The Untouchables: Who Were They and Why They Became Untouchables? as reprinted in Volume 7 of Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Writings and Speeches, published by Government of Maharashtra 1990; Complete Writings
• Ambedkar, B.R. (1946) Who were the Shudras
• Jervoise Athelstane Baines (1893). General report on the Census of India, 1891, London, Her Majesty's Stationery Office

Atal, Yogesh (1968) "The Changing Frontiers of Caste" Delhi, National Publishing House Atal, Yogesh (2006) "Changing Indian Society" Chapter on Varna and Jati. Jaipur, Rawat Publications.

• E.A.H. Blunt (1931). The Caste System of Northern India, republished 1964, S. Chand, Delhi.
• Crooke, William (1896). Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh, 4 vols.
• G.S. Ghurye (1961). Caste, Class and Occupation. Popular Book Depot, Bombay.
• G.S. Ghurye (1969). Caste and Race in India, Popular Prakashan, Mumbai 1969 (1932)
• Lal, K. S. Growth of Scheduled Tribes and Castes in Medieval India (1995)
• Russell, R.V. and R.B. Hira Lal (1916). The Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces of India, 4 vols., London.
• Duiker/Spielvogel. The Essential World History Vol I: to 1800. 2nd Edition 2005
• Susan Bayly (2001), Caste, Society and Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age, Paperback Edition, Cambridge University Press
• Louis Dumont. Homo Hierarchicus: The Caste System and Its Implications. Complete English edition, revised. 540 p. 1970, 1980 Series: (Nature of Human Society)
• Christophe Jaffrelot (2003). India's Silent Revolution: The Rise of the Lower Castes, C. Hurst & Co
• Kane, Pandurang Vaman: History of Dharmasastra: (ancient and mediaeval, religious and civil law) — Poona : Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 1962-1975
• Murray Milner, Jr. (1994). Status and Sacredness: A General Theory of Status Relations and an Analysis of Indian Culture, New York: Oxford University Press
• Ranganayakamma (2001). For the solution of the "Caste" question, Buddha is not enough, Ambedkar is not enough either, Marx is a must, Hyderabad : Sweet Home Publications

External links

• Caste prejudice has nothing to do with the Hindu scriptures - Guardian
• Jati system in India
• India Together on Caste
• The Caste System in India
• Annihilation of Caste with a Reply to Mahatma Gandhi Part I & Part II by Dr.B.R.Ambedkar
• Writings by Dr Ambedkar about Caste Online texts
• Caste and the Census
• Varna Ashram and Hindu Scriptures (pdf)
• Articles on Caste by Koenraad Elst: Caste in India, Buddhism and Caste, Indian tribals and Caste, Physical anthropology and Caste, Etymology of Varna
• Is Caste System Intrinsic to Hinduism?
• Hindu Caste System & Hinduism: Vedic vocations (Hindu castes) were not related to heredity (birth)
• ISKCON view of caste and behavior
• These documented Results of 4-Varn system can make you Proud of your Hindu heritage
• news on caste, communalism, and class struggle from the Anti-Caste Information Page
• The Indian Caste System and The British -Ethnographic Mapping and the Construction of the British Census in India
• Early Evidence for Caste in South India by George L. Hart, Berkeley
• India's Caste System at Kamat's Potpourri
• Hidden Apartheid Caste Discrimination against India's "Untouchables"
• a Hindu group's view on eliminating the Caste system

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• Indian caste system
• Indian society
• Hindu law