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{{Short description|Ancient Egyptian dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period}} |
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{{Short description|Ancient Egyptian dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period}} |
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{{Infobox Former Country |
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{{Infobox Former Country|conventional_long_name=Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt|era=Bronze Age|government_type=]|nation=|image_map=14th dynasty territory.png|image_map_caption=In orange, the territory possibly under control of the 14th dynasty according to Ryholt.<ref name="ryholt"/>|image_flag=|flag=|flag_type=|year_start=ca. 1725 BC|year_end=ca. 1650 BC|p1=Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt|flag_p1=|s1=Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt|flag_s1=|capital=]|common_languages=]|religion=]|event_start=|event_end=}} |
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| conventional_long_name = Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt |
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| era = Second Intermediate Period of Egypt |
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| government_type = ] |
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| nation = |
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| image_map = 14th dynasty territory.png |
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| image_map_caption = Orange shading indicates the territory possibly under control of the 14th Dynasty, according to Ryholt.<ref name="ryholt"/> |
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| image_flag = |
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| flag = |
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| flag_type = |
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| year_start = ca. 1725 BC |
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| year_end = ca. 1650 BC |
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| p1 = Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt |
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| flag_p1 = |
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| p2 = Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt |
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| s1 = Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt |
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| flag_s1 = |
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| s2 = Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt |
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| s3 = Abydos Dynasty |
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| capital = ] or ] |
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| common_languages = ] |
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| religion = ] |
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| event_start = |
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| event_end = |
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}} |
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{{Egyptian Dynasty list}} |
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{{Egyptian Dynasty list}} |
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The '''Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt''' was a series of rulers reigning during the ] over the ] of Egypt. It lasted between 75 (c. 1725–1650 BC) and 155 years (c. 1805–1650 BC), depending on the scholar. The capital of the dynasty was probably ].<ref name="ryholt"/> The 14th Dynasty existed concurrently with the ] based in Memphis. The rulers of the 14th Dynasty are commonly identified by Egyptologists as being of ]ite (Semitic) descent, owing to the distinct origins of the names of some of their kings and princes, like Ipqu (West Semitic for ''"grace"''), Yakbim ("''ia-ak-bi-im''", an ] name), Qareh (West Semitic for ''"the bald one"''), or ].<ref name="ryholt"/> Names in relation with Nubia are also recorded in two cases, king Nehesy ("''The Nubian''") and queen ]. |
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The '''Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt''' was a series of rulers reigning during the ] over the ] of Egypt. It lasted between 75 (ca. 1725–1650 BC) and 155 years (ca. 1805–1650 BC), depending on the scholar. The capital of the dynasty was ] in central Delta according to the Egyptian historian ]. Kim Ryholt and some historians think it was probably ].<ref name="ryholt"/> The 14th Dynasty was another Egyptian dynasty that existed concurrently with the ] based in Memphis{{Citation needed|date=May 2022}}. The Egyptian rulers of the 14th dynasty are recorded and attested in the ancient Egyptian Turin List of Kings. On the other hand, another proposed list of contested vassals or rulers during the 14th Dynasty (proposed by Kim Ryholt) are identified as being of ]ite (Semitic) descent, owing to the foreign origins of the names of some of their rulers and princes, like Ipqu (West Semitic for ''"grace"''), ] ("''ia-ak-bi-im''", an ] name), ] (West Semitic for ''"the bald one"''), or ].<ref name="ryholt"/> Names in relation with Nubia are also recorded in two cases, king ] ("''The Nubian''") and queen ]. This probably remarks the beginning of ] control and domination over eastern Delta.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ilin-Tomich|first=Alexander|title=Second Intermediate Period|journal=UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology|year=2016|pages=3|url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/72q561r2}}</ref> |
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== Chronology == |
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== Chronology == |
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The 14th Dynasty is sometimes combined with the ], ] and ] Dynasties in the period ], though the 14th Dynasty overlaps at least partially with either (or both of) the 13th Dynasty and the ]. More commonly, the 14th Dynasty is grouped with the 13th, 15th, ] and ] in the '']''. |
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The 14th Dynasty is commonly grouped together with the 13th, 15th, ], and ], as the '']''. Less commonly, the 14th Dynasty is combined with the ], ], and ] Dynasties in the ] period, though the 14th Dynasty overlaps at least partially with either of (or both of) the 13th Dynasty and the ]. |
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Such are the gaps in the knowledge of the 14th Dynasty, that its absolute chronological position is debated and varies by as much as 75 years among authorities. Egyptologist ] proposes that the 14th Dynasty emerged during the late 12th Dynasty, c. 1805 BC, during or shortly after ]'s rule. He contends that the local Canaanite population residing in the eastern Delta declared its independence and staved off possible attempts from the 13th Dynasty Memphite kings to recover the Delta. According to Ryholt, the 14th Dynasty thus lasted from 1805 BC until its demise under the ] 15th Dynasty, c. 1650 BC, i.e. lasting 155 years. |
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There are enough gaps in the knowledge of the 14th Dynasty that its absolute chronological position is debated, and can vary by as much as 75 years between authorities. Egyptologist ] proposes that the 14th Dynasty emerged during the late 12th Dynasty, ca. 1805 BC, during or shortly after ]'s rule. He contends that the local Canaanite population residing in the eastern Delta declared their independence and staved off possible attempts from the 13th Dynasty Memphite kings to recover the Delta. According to Ryholt, the 14th Dynasty lasted from 1805 BC until its demise under the ] 15th Dynasty ca. 1650 BC, lasting a total of 155 years. |
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This hypothesis is not shared by some Egyptologists such as ], Daphna Ben Tor and ], who argue that the 14th Dynasty cannot have emerged before the mid 13th Dynasty, c. 1720 BC, after the reign of ].<ref name="basor">Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research (BASOR) 315, 1999, pp.47-73.</ref><ref>Janine Bourriau, "The Second Intermediate Period (c.1650-1550 BC)" in Ian Shaw (ed.) ''The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt'', Oxford University Press, 2000. pp.192 & 194</ref> In particular, they argue that the evidence from the strata levels in which 14th Dynasty seals were discovered conclusively establishes that the 14th Dynasty was only contemporary with the 13th Dynasty in the last half century of the latter's existence, i.e. after c. 1700 BC. Additionally, Manfred Bietak has dated the inscriptions and monuments of Nehesy, possibly the second ruler of the dynasty, to around 1700 BC as well.<ref>Bourriau, "The Second Intermediate Period," pp.178-179, 181</ref> |
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This hypothesis is not shared by some Egyptologists, such as ], Daphna Ben Tor, and ], who argue that the 14th Dynasty could not have emerged before the mid 13th Dynasty, ca. 1720 BC, after the reign of ].<ref name="basor">Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 315, 1999, pp.47-73.</ref><ref>Janine Bourriau, "The Second Intermediate Period (c.1650-1550 BC)" in Ian Shaw (ed.) ''The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt'', Oxford University Press, 2000. pp.192 & 194</ref> In particular, they argue that the evidence from the strata levels where 14th Dynasty seals have been discovered conclusively establishes that the 14th Dynasty was only contemporary with the 13th Dynasty in the last half century of the latter's existence, i.e., after ca. 1700 BC. Additionally, Manfred Bietak has dated the inscriptions and monuments of Nehesy, possibly the second ruler of the 14th Dynasty, to around 1700 BC as well.<ref>Bourriau, "The Second Intermediate Period," pp.178-179, 181</ref> |
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Following the very short reign of Nehesy, most scholars–among them, Manfred Bietak and Kim Ryholt–agree that the Delta region was struck by a prolonged famine and perhaps a plague lasting until the end of the 14th Dynasty.<ref name="ryholt"/><ref>Manfred Bietak, "Egypt and Canaan During the Middle Bronze Age," ''BASOR'', 281 (1991), pp. 21-72, esp. p. 38, </ref> The same famine may have affected the 13th Dynasty, which also exhibits instability and numerous ephemeral kings in its last 50 years of existence, from c. 1700 BC until 1650 BC. The weakened state of both kingdoms may explain, in part, why they fell rapidly to the emerging Hyksos power c. 1650 BC.<ref name="ryholt"/> |
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Following the very short reign of Nehesy, most scholars – including Manfred Bietak and Kim Ryholt – agree that the Delta region was struck by a prolonged famine and perhaps a plague lasting until the end of the 14th Dynasty.<ref name="ryholt"/><ref>Manfred Bietak, "Egypt and Canaan During the Middle Bronze Age," ''BASOR'', 281 (1991), pp. 21-72, esp. p. 38, </ref> The same famine may have affected the 13th Dynasty, which also exhibits instability and numerous ephemeral kings in its last 50 years of existence, from ca. 1700 BC until 1650 BC. The weakened state of both kingdoms may explain, in part, why they fell rapidly to the emerging Hyksos power around 1650 BC.<ref name="ryholt"/> |
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== Seat of power == |
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== Seat of power == |
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The ]nian tradition credits the Fourteenth Dynasty with as many as 76 kings ruling from ] rather than Avaris. However, Egyptologist ] notes that the ] mentions only c. 56 kings and does not have enough space to have recorded over 70 kings. Ryholt also points to excavations at Avaris which revealed the existence of a large royal palace dating to the second intermediate period. One of its courtyards housed a statue of a king or high-ranking official, over twice life-sized, and wearing non-Egyptian attributes. For these reasons, Ryholt and most Egyptologists share the view that Avaris rather than Xois was the seat of power of the 14th Dynasty.<ref name="ryholt"/> |
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The ]nian tradition credits the 14th Dynasty with as many as 76 kings ruling from ] rather than Avaris. However, Egyptologist ] notes that the ] mentions only approximately 56 kings, and does not have enough space to have recorded more than 70. Ryholt also points to excavations at Avaris that revealed the existence of a large royal palace dating to the Second Intermediate Period. One of its courtyards housed a statue of a king or high-ranking official, over twice life-size, and possessing non-Egyptian attributes. For these reasons, Ryholt and most Egyptologists share the view that Avaris – rather than Xois – was the 14th Dynasty's seat of power.<ref name="ryholt"/> |
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== Extent of rule and foreign relations == |
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== Extent of rule and foreign relations == |
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The precise borders of the 14th Dynasty state are not known due to the general scarcity of monuments left by this dynasty. In his study of the second intermediate period however, the Egyptologist Kim Ryholt concludes that the territory directly controlled by the 14th Dynasty roughly consisted of the Nile delta, with its border located around ] in the western Delta and ] in the east.<ref name="ryholt"/> |
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The precise borders of the 14th Dynasty state are not known, due to the general scarcity of its monuments. In his study of the Second Intermediate Period, Kim Ryholt concludes that the territory directly controlled by the 14th Dynasty roughly consisted of the Nile Delta, with borders located near ] in the western Delta and ] in the east.<ref name="ryholt"/> |
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Seals attributable to the 14th Dynasty have been found in Middle and Upper-Egypt, then 13th Dynasty territory, and as far south as ], beyond the ]. To the north, seals have been found in the southern Levant, principally along the Mediterranean coast and as far north as Tell Kabri, in modern-day ].<ref name="ryholt"/> This indicates the existence of an important trade with the 13th Dynasty, Canaanite city-states, and Nubia.<ref name="ryholt"/> Ryholt further proposes that king ], whom he sees as a 14th dynasty ruler, married a Nubian princess, queen Tati, to strengthen relations with the Kushite kingdom.<ref name="ryholt"/> |
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Seals attributable to the 14th Dynasty have been found in Middle and Upper Egypt – then entirely the territory of the 13th Dynasty – and as far south as ], beyond the Nile's ]. To the north, seals have been found in the southern Levant, principally along the Mediterranean coast, even as far north as ] (in modern-day northern ], near the border with ]).<ref name="ryholt"/> This indicates the existence of important trade conducted between the 13th Dynasty, the Canaanite city-states, and Nubia.<ref name="ryholt"/> Ryholt further proposes that king ], whom he sees as a 14th Dynasty ruler, married a Nubian princess, queen Tati, to strengthen relations with the Kushite kingdom.<ref name="ryholt"/> |
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==Rulers== |
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==Rulers== |
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The order of rulers for this dynasty is established by the Turin Royal Canon and is widely accepted, except for the first five rulers, which are given below after Ryholt.<ref name="ryholt"/> The names of these rulers is not given on the Turin Canon, except possibly for one, and Ryholt proposes that they were mentioned as ''wsf'' in the list, which denotes a lacuna in the original document from which the list was copied in the ].<ref name="ryholt"/> Rather, Ryholt identifies the first five kings thanks to a ] of their seals. His conclusions are debated however in Ben Tor's study of the strata levels in which seals attributed to the first five kings have been found. Ben Tor concludes that ]'s, ]'s and ]'s reigns date to the second half of the Hyksos 15th dynasty and are not contemporary with the 13th dynasty. Thus according to Ben Tor, these kings were most likely minor vassal rulers of the Hyksos kings reigning in the Nile Delta.<ref name="basor"/> |
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The order of rulers for this dynasty is established by the Turin Royal Canon and is widely accepted – except for the first five rulers, which are given below after Ryholt.<ref name="ryholt"/> The names of these rulers are not given on the Turin Canon (except for perhaps one), and Ryholt proposes that they were mentioned as ''wsf'' in the list, which denotes a lacuna in the original document from which the list was copied during the ].<ref name="ryholt"/> Rather, Ryholt identifies the first five kings thanks to a ] of their seals. His conclusions are debated, however, in Ben Tor's study of the strata levels, in which seals attributed to the first five kings have been found. Ben Tor concludes that the reigns of ], ], and ] date to the second half of the Hyksos 15th Dynasty, and are not contemporary with the 13th Dynasty. According to Ben Tor, these kings were most likely minor vassal rulers of the Hyksos kings that ruled over the Nile Delta.<ref name="basor"/> |
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{| class="wikitable" |
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{| class="wikitable" |
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|+Dynasty XIV pharaohs of Egypt (contested) |
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|+14th Dynasty pharaohs of Egypt (contested) |
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! Name of King !! Image !! Dates !! Comments |
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! Name of King !! Image !! Dates !! Comments |
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| ] ||] ||1805 BC – 1780 BC or after 1650 BC || Chronological position is contested, maybe a vassal of the 15th dynasty |
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| ] ||] ||1805 BC – 1780 BC or after 1650 BC || Chronological position is contested; might be a vassal of the 15th Dynasty |
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| ] || ] ||1780 BC – 1770 BC || Chronological position is contested |
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| ] || ] ||1780 BC – 1770 BC || Chronological position is contested |
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| ] || ] ||1770 BC – 1760 BC || Chronological position is contested |
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| ] || ]||1770 BC – 1760 BC || Chronological position is contested |
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| ] || ] ||1760 – 1745 BC or after 1650 BC || Chronological position is contested, maybe a vassal of the 15th dynasty |
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| ] || ]||1760 – 1745 BC or after 1650 BC || Chronological position is contested; might be a vassal of the 15th Dynasty |
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| ] || ] ||1745 BC – 1705 BC or after 1650 BC || Attested by over 300 ], possibly married to queen ] who was a ]. Chronological position is contested, maybe a vassal of the 15th dynasty |
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| ] || ]||1745 BC – 1705 BC or after 1650 BC || Attested by over 300 ], possibly married to queen ] who was a ]. Chronological position is contested; might be a vassal of the 15th Dynasty |
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The following rulers are not controversial, being established by the Turin canon as well as, for a few of them, by contemporary sources: |
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The following rulers are not controversial, being established by the Turin Canon – and, for a few of them, by contemporary sources as well: |
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{| class="wikitable" |
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{| class="wikitable" |
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|+Dynasty XIV pharaohs of Egypt |
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|+14th Dynasty pharaohs of Egypt (not contested) |
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! Name of King !! Image!! Dates !! Comments |
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! Name of King !! Image!! Dates !! Comments |
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| ]|| || ending 1694 BC ||- |
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| ]|| || ending 1694 BC ||- |
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| Webenre|| || ending 1693 BC||- |
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| ]|| || ending 1693 BC||- |
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| ''Unknown''|| || ||Lost in the Turin kinglist |
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| ''Unknown''|| || ||Lost in the Turin king list |
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| djefare|| || ||- |
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| Heribre|| || || - |
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| Heribre|| || || - |
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| ]|| ] || ||Attested by a jar bearing his prenomen. At least 5 months of reign. |
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| ]|| ] || ||Attested by a jar bearing his prenomen. Reigned for at least 5 months. |
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| ''Unknown''|| || ||''wsf'' in the Turin kinglist, indicating a lacuna in the document from which the list was copied |
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| ''Unknown''|| || ||''wsf'' in the Turin king list, indicating a lacuna in the document from which the list was copied |
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| re|| || || |
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| re|| || || |
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| ]|| ] || || With Nehesy, Nebsenre and Merdjefare, only undisputed king known from contemporary sources |
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| ]|| ] || || One of the only undisputed 14th Dynasty kings known from contemporary sources (along with Nehesy, Nebsenre, and Merdjefare). |
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| Djedkherewre|| || ||- |
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| kare]]|| || ||- |
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| ''Unknown''|| || ||Eight lines lost in the Turin kinglist |
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| ''Unknown''|| || ||Eight lines lost in the Turin king list |
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| Djedre|| || ||- |
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| ''Unknown''|| || ||Three lines lost in the Turin kinglist |
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| ''Unknown''|| || ||Three lines lost in the Turin king list |
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|'Ap |
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|Possibly ], see possible list below |
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| ''Unknown''|| || ||Five lines lost in the Turin king list |
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Finally, several rulers attested by contemporary artefacts and otherwise unknown from the Turin Canon may be dated to the 14th<ref name="ryholt">Kim Ryholt, ''The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period'', Museum Tusculanum Press, (1997)</ref> or 15th Dynasty.<ref>Daphna Ben-Tor: ''Scarabs, Chronology, and Interconnections: Egypt and Palestine in the Second Intermediate Period'', Volume 27 of Orbis biblicus et orientalis / Series archaeologica: Series archaeologica, Academic Press Fribourg 2007, {{ISBN|978-3-7278-1593-5}}, </ref> Their identities and chronological position remain unclear: |
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Finally, several rulers attested by contemporary artefacts who are otherwise unknown from the Turin Canon could be dated to the 14th<ref name="ryholt">Kim Ryholt, ''The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period'', Museum Tusculanum Press, (1997)</ref> or 15th Dynasty.<ref>Daphna Ben-Tor: ''Scarabs, Chronology, and Interconnections: Egypt and Palestine in the Second Intermediate Period'', Volume 27 of Orbis biblicus et orientalis / Series archaeologica: Series archaeologica, Academic Press Fribourg 2007, {{ISBN|978-3-7278-1593-5}}, </ref> Their identities and chronological position remain unclear: |
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{| class="wikitable" |
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{| class="wikitable" |
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|+Possible dynasty XIV pharaohs of Egypt (unclear) |
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|+Possible 14th Dynasty pharaohs of Egypt (unclear) |
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! Name of King !! Image!! Attestations |
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! Name of King !! Image!! Attestations |
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!Comments |
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| ] || ] || 1 ] |
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| ] || ] || 1 ] |
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| ]|| ] || 3 scarab-seals |
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| ]|| ] || 3 scarab-seals |
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| ]|| ] || 1 scarab-seal |
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| ]|| ] || 1 scarab-seal |
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| ]|| ] || 5 scarab-seals |
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| ]|| ] || 5 scarab-seals |
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| ]|| ] || 2 scarab-seals |
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| ]|| ] || 2 scarab-seals |
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| ]|| ] || 2 scarab-seals |
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| ]|| ] || 2 scarab-seals |
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| ]|| ] || 27 scarab-seals |
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| ]|| ] || 27 scarab-seals |
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|] |
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|] |
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|5 scarab-seals |
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|Turin Cannon preserves only 'Ap (see uncontested list above). Ryholt and Baker consider proper reconstruction to be 'Apepi, who they thus consider to be the 51st ruler of the 14th Dynasty, <abbr>c.</abbr> 1650 BC; von Beckerath sees 'Apepi as a member of the late 16th Dynasty and a vassal of the Hyksos rulers of the 15th Dynasty. |
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{{s-end}} |
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{{s-end}} |
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{{Pharaohs}} |
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There are enough gaps in the knowledge of the 14th Dynasty that its absolute chronological position is debated, and can vary by as much as 75 years between authorities. Egyptologist Kim Ryholt proposes that the 14th Dynasty emerged during the late 12th Dynasty, ca. 1805 BC, during or shortly after Sobekneferu's rule. He contends that the local Canaanite population residing in the eastern Delta declared their independence and staved off possible attempts from the 13th Dynasty Memphite kings to recover the Delta. According to Ryholt, the 14th Dynasty lasted from 1805 BC until its demise under the Hyksos 15th Dynasty ca. 1650 BC, lasting a total of 155 years.
Following the very short reign of Nehesy, most scholars – including Manfred Bietak and Kim Ryholt – agree that the Delta region was struck by a prolonged famine and perhaps a plague lasting until the end of the 14th Dynasty. The same famine may have affected the 13th Dynasty, which also exhibits instability and numerous ephemeral kings in its last 50 years of existence, from ca. 1700 BC until 1650 BC. The weakened state of both kingdoms may explain, in part, why they fell rapidly to the emerging Hyksos power around 1650 BC.
The precise borders of the 14th Dynasty state are not known, due to the general scarcity of its monuments. In his study of the Second Intermediate Period, Kim Ryholt concludes that the territory directly controlled by the 14th Dynasty roughly consisted of the Nile Delta, with borders located near Athribis in the western Delta and Bubastis in the east.
Seals attributable to the 14th Dynasty have been found in Middle and Upper Egypt – then entirely the territory of the 13th Dynasty – and as far south as Dongola, beyond the Nile's Third Cataract. To the north, seals have been found in the southern Levant, principally along the Mediterranean coast, even as far north as Tel Kabri (in modern-day northern Israel, near the border with Lebanon). This indicates the existence of important trade conducted between the 13th Dynasty, the Canaanite city-states, and Nubia. Ryholt further proposes that king Sheshi, whom he sees as a 14th Dynasty ruler, married a Nubian princess, queen Tati, to strengthen relations with the Kushite kingdom.
The order of rulers for this dynasty is established by the Turin Royal Canon and is widely accepted – except for the first five rulers, which are given below after Ryholt. The names of these rulers are not given on the Turin Canon (except for perhaps one), and Ryholt proposes that they were mentioned as wsf in the list, which denotes a lacuna in the original document from which the list was copied during the Ramesside period. Rather, Ryholt identifies the first five kings thanks to a seriation of their seals. His conclusions are debated, however, in Ben Tor's study of the strata levels, in which seals attributed to the first five kings have been found. Ben Tor concludes that the reigns of Sheshi, 'Ammu, and Yakbim date to the second half of the Hyksos 15th Dynasty, and are not contemporary with the 13th Dynasty. According to Ben Tor, these kings were most likely minor vassal rulers of the Hyksos kings that ruled over the Nile Delta.
The following rulers are not controversial, being established by the Turin Canon – and, for a few of them, by contemporary sources as well:
Finally, several rulers attested by contemporary artefacts who are otherwise unknown from the Turin Canon could be dated to the 14th or 15th Dynasty. Their identities and chronological position remain unclear:
Orange shading indicates the territory possibly under control of the 14th Dynasty, according to Ryholt.
_LACMA_M.86.313.12_(2_of_2).jpg)
