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{{short description|Reductionist theory}}
'''Technological ]''' is a ] theory that presumes that a society's ] drives the development of its social structure and cultural values. The term is believed to have been coined by ] (1857–1929), an American sociologist. The most radical technological determinist in the United States in the twentieth century was most likely ] who was a follower of ] and ]. ] was also known for his radical technological determinism.
{{Marxian economics|expanded=topics}}
'''Technological determinism''' is a ] ] in assuming that a society's ] progresses by following its own internal logic of ], while ] the development of the ] and ].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Héder|first=Mihály|title=AI and the resurrection of Technological Determinism|journal=Információs Társadalom (Information Society)|date=June 2021|volume=21|issue=2|pages=119–130|doi=10.22503/inftars.XXI.2021.2.8|s2cid=244186553 |url=https://inftars.infonia.hu/pub/inftars.XXI.2021.2.8.pdf}}</ref> The term is believed to have originated from ] (1857–1929), an American ] and ]. The most radical technological determinist in the United States in the 20th century was most likely ] who was a follower of ] as well as ]. ] was also known for his radical technological determinism and his theory on ].


== Origin == == Origin ==
The origins of '''technological determinism''' as a formal concept are often traced to ] (1857–1929), an influential American sociologist and economist. Veblen, known for his work on social and economic issues, introduced ideas that portrayed technology as a powerful, autonomous force capable of shaping ] and structures. He argued that the development and use of machinery exerted an independent influence on human thought and behavior, notably asserting that "the machine throws out anthropomorphic habits of thought.”<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Culture of Technology |url=https://mitpress.mit.edu/9780262660563/the-culture-of-technology/ |access-date=2024-10-29 |website=MIT Press |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Veblen |first=Thorstein |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=05goAAAAYAAJ |title=The Engineers and the Price System |date=1921 |publisher=B. W. Huebsch, Incorporated |isbn=978-0-670-29549-4 |language=en}}</ref> This notion laid the foundation for technological determinism by suggesting that technology inherently transforms society by reshaping patterns of ] and ].
The term is believed to have been coined by Thorstein Veblen (1857–1929), an American. Veblen's contemporary, popular historian Charles A. Beard, provided this apt determinist image, "Technology marches in seven-league boots from one ruthless, revolutionary conquest to another, tearing down old factories and industries, flinging up new processes with terrifying rapidity."<ref>Charles A. Beard, “Time, Technology, and the Creative Spirit in Political Science,” 21 Am. Pol. Sci. Rev. 1, 5 (Feb., 1927).</ref>

=== Historical Context and Influences ===
During Veblen's time, rapid ] and advancements in technology were radically altering ]. Innovations in ] and ], such as the ] and ], demonstrated technology’s potential to reshape economic and social structures. These changes helped popularize the idea that technology could independently drive ], creating the conditions for Veblen's ideas to resonate widely.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Marx |first=Leo |date=1997 |title="Technology": The Emergence of a Hazardous Concept |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40971194 |journal=Social Research |volume=64 |issue=3 |pages=965–988 |jstor=40971194 |issn=0037-783X}}</ref>

=== Influence of Karl Marx and Expansion by Clarence Ayres ===
Although Veblen is credited with coining the core ideas behind technological determinism, the influence of ] on these ideas is also significant. Marx argued that technology drives historical change by shaping the "material base" of society. For instance, he suggested that the railway in ] would challenge and erode the ] by introducing new economic activities and altering social hierarchies.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Manifesto of the Communist Party |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/communist-manifesto/ |access-date=2024-10-29 |website=www.marxists.org}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book |last=Avineri |first=Shlomo |url=https://archive.org/details/socialpoliticalt0000avin/mode/2up |title=The social and political thought of Karl Marx / by Shlomo Avineri |date=1968 |publisher=London ; New York : Cambridge at the University Press |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-521-04071-6}}</ref> Later, ], a 20th-century economist inspired by Veblen, expanded on these ideas by introducing the concept of "technological drag." According to Ayres, technology progresses as a dynamic, self-generating force, while traditional institutions often lag, resisting the transformative potential of technological change. Ayres’ theory further solidified technological determinism, emphasizing the inevitable clash between technological progress and social conservatism.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Clarence Edwin Ayres |url=https://archive.org/details/theoryofeconomic0000clar |title=The theory of economic progress |date=1944-01-01 |publisher=The University of North Carolina Press |others=Internet Archive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Journal of Economic Issues, Taylor & Francis Journals {{!}} IDEAS/RePEc |url=https://ideas.repec.org/s/mes/jeciss.html |access-date=2024-10-29 |website=ideas.repec.org}}</ref>


== Explanation == == Explanation ==
{{more citations needed section|date=February 2023}}
Technological determinism seeks to show technical developments, media, or technology as a whole, as the key mover in history and social change.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kunz|first=William M.|title=Culture Conglomerates: Consolidation in the Motion Picture and Television Industries|year=2006|publisher=Publisher: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.|isbn=0742540669|pages=2}}</ref>
Technological determinism seeks to show technical developments, media, or technology as a whole, as the key mover in history and social change.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kunz|first=William M.|title=Culture Conglomerates: Consolidation in the Motion Picture and Television Industries|year=2006|publisher=Publisher: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.|isbn=978-0742540668|pages=2}}</ref> It is a theory subscribed to by "hyperglobalists" who claim that as a consequence of the wide availability of technology, accelerated globalization is inevitable. Therefore, technological development and innovation become the principal motor of social, economic or political change.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Global politics|date=2015|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9781137349262|oclc=979008143}}</ref>


Strict adherents to technological determinism do not believe the influence of technology differs based on how much a technology is or can be used. Instead of considering technology as part of a larger spectrum of human activity, technological determinism sees technology as the basis for all human activity.
Most interpretations of technological determinism share two general ideas:
* that the development of technology itself follows a predictable, traceable path largely beyond cultural or political influence, and
* that technology in turn has "effects" on societies that are inherent, rather than socially conditioned or produced because that society organizes itself to support and further develop a technology once it has been introduced.


Technological determinism has been summarized as 'The belief in technology as a key governing force in society ...' (]). 'The idea that technological development determines social change ...' (Bruce Bimber). It changes the way people think and how they interact with others and can be described as '...a three-word logical proposition: "Technology determines history"' (]) <!--.-->. It is, '... the belief that social progress is driven by technological innovation, which in turn follows an "inevitable" course.'<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/28929481|title=Does technology drive history? : the dilemma of technological determinism|date=1994|publisher=MIT Press|others=Merritt Roe Smith, Leo Marx|isbn=0-262-19347-7|location=Cambridge, Mass.|oclc=28929481}}</ref> This 'idea of progress' or 'doctrine of progress' is centralized around the idea that social problems can be solved by technological advancement, and this is the way that society moves forward. Technological determinists believe that "'You can't stop progress', implying that we are unable to control technology" (]). This suggests that we are somewhat powerless, and society allows technology to drive social changes because "societies fail to be aware of the alternatives to the values embedded in it " (]).
Strict adherents to technological determinism do not believe the influence of technology differs based on how much a technology is or can be used. Instead of considering technology as part of a larger spectrum of human activity, technological determinism sees technology as the basis for all human activity.


Technological determinism has been defined as an approach that identifies technology, or technological advances, as the central causal element in processes of social change.<ref>(Croteau and Hoynes)</ref> As technology is stabilized, its design tends to dictate users' behaviors, consequently stating that "technological progress equals social progress."<ref name="ds.amu.edu.et">Wyatt, Sally. 2008. "Technological Determinism Is Dead; Long Live Technological Determinism." In The Handbook of Science and Technology Studies, edited by Edward Hackett, Olga Amsterdamska, Michael Lynch, and Lucy Wajcman, 165–80. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. https://ds.amu.edu.et/xmlui/bitstream/handle/123456789/1114/00349.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y#page=181.</ref> Key notions of this theory are separated into two parts, with the first being that the development of the technology itself may also be separate from social and political factors, arising from "the ways of inventors, engineers, and designers following an internal, technical logic that has nothing to do with social relationships".<ref name="ds.amu.edu.et"/> The second is that as technology is stabilized, its design tends to dictate users' behaviors, consequently resulting in social change.
Technological determinism has been summarized as 'The belief in technology as a key governing force in society ...' (]). 'The idea that technological development determines social change ...' (Bruce Bimber). It changes the way people think and how they interact with others and can be described as '...a three-word logical proposition: "Technology determines history"' (]) <!--.-->. It is, '... the belief that social progress is driven by technological innovation, which in turn follows an "inevitable" course.' (]). This 'idea of progress' or 'doctrine of progress' is centralised around the idea that social problems can be solved by technological advancement, and this is the way that society moves forward. Technological determinists believe that "'You can't stop progress', implying that we are unable to control technology" (]). This suggests that we are somewhat powerless and society allows technology to drive social changes because, "societies fail to be aware of the alternatives to the values embedded in it " (]).


As technology changes, the ways in which it is utilized and incorporated into the daily lives of individuals within a culture consequently affect the ways of living, highlighting how technology ultimately determines societal growth through its influence on relations and ways of living within a culture. To illustrate, "the invention of the wheel revolutionized human mobility, allowing humans to travel greater distances and carry greater loads with them".<ref>Drew, Chris. 2021. "Technological Determinism Theory (5 Examples, Pros & Cons)." Helpfulprofessor.com. October 28, 2021. https://helpfulprofessor.com/technological-determinism-theory/.</ref> This technological advancement also leads to interactions between different cultural groups, advanced trade, and thus impacts the size and relations both within and between different networks. Other examples include the invention of language, expanding modes of communication between individuals, the introduction of bookkeeping and written documentation, impacting the circulation of knowledge, and having streamlined effects on the socioeconomic and political systems as a whole. As Dusek (2006) notes, "culture and society cannot affect the direction of technology… as technology develops and changes, the institutions in the rest of society change, as does the art and religion of a society."<ref>Dusek, Val. 2006. Philosophy of Technology : An Introduction. Malden, Ma; Oxford: Blackwell Pub.</ref> Thus, technological determinism dictates that technological advances and social relations are inevitably tied, with the change of either affecting the other by consequence of normalization.<ref name="opentextbooks.clemson.edu">Salsone, Belle, Peter Sebastian Stein, Kaleb Gage Parsons, Thomas Kent, Krystal Nielsen, and David Thomas Nitz. 2020. "Technological Determinism." Opentextbooks.clemson.edu, July. https://opentextbooks.clemson.edu/sciencetechnologyandsociety/chapter/technological-determinism/.</ref>
Technological determinism has been defined as an approach that identifies technology, or technological advances, as the central causal element in processes of social change (Croteau and Hoynes). As a technology is stabilized, its design tends to dictate users' behaviors, consequently diminishing human agency. This stance however ignores the social and cultural circumstances in which the technology was developed. Sociologist Claude Fischer (1992) characterized the most prominent forms of technological determinism as "billiard ball" approaches, in which technology is seen as an external force introduced into a social situation, producing a series of ricochet effects.<ref>Croteau and Hoynes, 2003</ref>


According to scholar such as Hannah Arendt in 1958 speaks about how instrument and tools can classify the whole civilizations, using them to make a criterion on certain things, for example a country can be characterize by instrument or technologies they use to see their symbolic culture and others. Like Netherlands country can be characterize with Windmill.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wyat |first=Sally |title=The Handbook of Science & Technology Studies |publisher=MIT Press |date=2016 |isbn=9780262035682 |edition=4th}}</ref>
Rather than acknowledging that a society or culture interacts with and even shapes the technologies that are used, a technological determinist view holds that "the uses made of technology are largely determined by the structure of the technology itself, that is, that its functions follow from its form" (]). However, this is not to be confused with the ] (Daniel Chandler), which states that once a technology is introduced into a culture that what follows is the inevitable development of that technology.


This stance however ignores the social and cultural circumstances in which the technology was developed. Sociologist Claude Fischer (1992) characterized the most prominent forms of technological determinism as "billiard ball" approaches, in which technology is seen as an external force introduced into a social situation, producing a series of ricochet effects.<ref>Croteau and Hoynes, 2003</ref>
For example, we could examine why Romance Novels have become so dominant in our society compared to other forms of novels like the Detective or Western novel. We might say that it was because of the invention of the perfect binding system developed by publishers. This was where glue was used instead of the time-consuming and very costly process of binding books by sewing in separate signatures. This meant that these books could be mass-produced for the wider public. We would not be able to have mass literary without mass production. This example is closely related to ]'s belief that print helped produce the ]. This moved society on from an oral culture to a literate culture but also introduced a capitalist society where there was clear class distinction and individualism. As Postman maintains <!-- This is a poor example of technological determinism -->


Rather than acknowledging that a society or culture interacts with and even shapes the technologies that are used, a technological determinist view holds that "the uses made of technology are largely determined by the structure of the technology itself, that is, that its functions follow from its form" (]). However, this is not the sole view of TD following Smith and Marx's (1998)<ref name="doi.org">Wengenroth, Ulrich, Merritt Roe Smith, and Leo Marx. 1998. "Does Technology Drive History? The Dilemma of Technological Determinism." Technology and Culture 39 (4): 755. https://doi.org/10.2307/1215849.</ref> notion of "hard" determinism, which states that once a technology is introduced into a culture what follows is the inevitable development of that technology. In this view, the role of "agency (the power to affect change) is imputed on the technology itself, or some of its intrinsic attributes; thus the invention of technology leads to a situation of inescapable necessity."
<blockquote> "the printing press, the computer, and television are not therefore simply machines which convey information. They are metaphors through which we conceptualize reality in one way or another. They will classify the world for us, sequence it, frame it, enlarge it, reduce it, argue a case for what it is like. Through these media metaphors, we do not see the world as it is. We see it as our coding systems are. Such is the power of the form of information."<ref>Postman, Teaching as a Conserving Activity (1979), p. 39)</ref> </blockquote>


The other view follows what Smith and Marx (1998)<ref name="doi.org"/> dictate as "soft" determinism, where the development of technology is also dependent on social context, affecting how it is adopted into a culture, "and, if the technology is adopted, the social context will have important effects on how the technology is used and thus on its ultimate impact".<ref name="opentextbooks.clemson.edu"/>
== Hard and soft determinism ==


For example, we could examine the spread of mass-produced knowledge through the role of the printing press in the Protestant Reformation. Because of the urgency from the protestant side to get the reform off the ground before the church could react, "early Lutheran leaders, led by Luther himself, wrote thousands of anti-papal pamphlets in the Reformation's first decades and these works spread rapidly through reprinting in various print shops throughout central Europe".<ref>Boerner, Lars, Jared Rubin, and Battista Severgnini. 2021. "A Time to Print, a Time to Reform." European Economic Review 138 (September): 103826. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroecorev.2021.103826.</ref> As such the urgency of the socio-political context to utilize such technology in the beginning of its invention caused its fast adoption and normalization into European culture. We could view its uses in its popularization – for political propaganda purposes – in line with the continued traditions of newspapers in modern times, as well as newly adopted uses for other printed text, adapting to change in a social context such as an emphasis on leisurely activities such as reading. This follows the soft deterministic view because the technological invention – the printing press – was quickly adopted because of the socio-political context, and because of its fast integration into society, has impacted and continues to impact how society operates.
In examining ] '''Hard determinism''' can be contrasted with '''Soft Determinism'''. A ] says that it is possible for ] and determinism to exist in the world together while a ] would say that they can not and there must be one or the other. Those who support ] can be further divided.


== Hard and soft determinism ==
'''''Hard determinists''''' would view technology as developing independent from social concerns. They would say that technology creates a set of powerful forces acting to regulate our social activity and its meaning. According to this view of determinism we organize ourselves to meet the needs of technology and the outcome of this organization is beyond our control or we do not have the freedom to make a choice regarding the outcome (Autonomous Technology). The 20th century French philosopher and social theorist ] could be said to be a hard determinist and proponent of autonomous technique (technology). In his 1954 work ], Ellul essentially posits that technology, by virtue of its power through efficiency, determines which social aspects are best suited for its own development through a process of natural selection. A social system's values, mores, philosophy etc. that are most conducive to the advancement of technology allow that social system to enhance its power and spread at the expense of those social systems whose values, mores, philosophy etc. are less promoting of technology. ] (the Unabomber) is essentially a hard determinist. According to Kaczynski, "objective" material factors in the human environment are the principle determining factors in the evolution of social systems. Whereas geography, climate, and other "natural" factors largely determined the parameters of social conditions for most of human history, technology has recently become the dominant objective factor (largely due to forces unleashed by the industrial revolution) and it has been the principle objective and determining factor.
{{more citations needed section|date=February 2023}}


In examining ], “hard determinism” can be contrasted with “soft determinism”. A ] says that it is possible for ] and determinism to exist in the world together, while an ] would say that they cannot and there must be one or the other. Those who support ] can be further divided.
'''''Soft Determinism''''', as the name suggests, is a more passive view of the way technology interacts with socio-political situations. Soft determinists still subscribe to the fact that technology is the guiding force in our evolution, but would maintain that we have a ''chance'' to make decisions regarding the outcomes of a situation. This is not to say that free will exists but it is the possibility for us to ''roll the dice'' and see what the outcome is. A slightly different variant of soft determinism is the 1922 technology-driven theory of social change proposed by ], in which society must adjust to the consequences of major inventions, but often does so only after a period of ].<!-- This section needs a reference -->


“Hard determinists” would view technology as developing independent from social concerns. They would say that technology creates a set of powerful forces acting to regulate our social activity and its meaning. According to this view of determinism we organize ourselves to meet the needs of technology, and the outcome of this organization is beyond our control or we do not have the freedom to make a choice regarding the outcome (autonomous technology). The 20th century French philosopher and social theorist ] could be said to be a hard determinist and proponent of autonomous technique (technology). In his 1954 work '']'', Ellul essentially posits that technology, by virtue of its power through efficiency, determines which social aspects are best suited for its own development through a process of natural selection. A social system's values, morals, philosophy etc. that are most conducive to the advancement of technology allow that social system to enhance its power and spread at the expense of those social systems whose values, morals, philosophy etc. are less promoting of technology. While geography, climate, and other "natural" factors largely determined the parameters of social conditions for most of human history, technology has recently become the dominant objective factor (largely due to forces unleashed by the industrial revolution) and it has been the principal objective and determining factor.
== Technology as neutral ==
Individuals who consider technology as neutral see technology as neither good nor bad and what matters are the ways in which we use technology. An example of a neutral viewpoint is, "guns are neutral and its up to how we use them whether it would be 'good or bad'" (Green, 2001). Mackenzie and Wajcman <ref>(1997)</ref> believe that technology is neutral only if it's never been used before, or if no one knows what it is going to be used for (Green, 2001). In effect, guns would be classified as neutral if and only if society were none the wiser of their existence and functionality (Green, 2001). Obviously, such a society is non-existent and once becoming knowledgeable about technology, the society is drawn into a social progression where nothing is 'neutral about society' (Green). According to ], if one believes technology is neutral, one would disregard the cultural and social conditions that technology has produced (Green, 2001). This view is also referred to as technological instrumentalism.


“Soft determinism”, as the name suggests, is a more passive view of the way technology interacts with socio-political situations. Soft determinists still subscribe to the fact that technology is the guiding force in our evolution but would maintain that we have a ''chance'' to make decisions regarding the outcomes of a situation. This is not to say that free will exists, but that the possibility for us to ''roll the dice'' and see what the outcome exists. A slightly different variant of soft determinism is the 1922 technology-driven theory of social change proposed by ], in which society must adjust to the consequences of major inventions, but often does so only after a period of ]. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dafoe |first=Allan |date=2015 |title=On Technological Determinism: A Typology, Scope Conditions, and a Mechanism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43671266 |journal=Science, Technology, & Human Values |volume=40 |issue=6 |pages=1047–1076 |doi=10.1177/0162243915579283 |jstor=43671266 |issn=0162-2439}}</ref><!-- This section needs a reference -->
In what is often considered a definitive reflection on the topic, the historian ] famously wrote in the first of his ]: "Technology is neither good nor bad; nor is it neutral."


== Criticism == == Criticism ==
] about technological determinism emerged alongside increased ] about techno-science in the mid-20th century, in particular around the use of ] in the production of ], ] during ], and the problems of economic development in the ]. As a direct consequence, desire for greater control of the course of development of technology gave rise to disenchantment with the model of technological determinism in academia.


Modern theorists of technology and society no longer consider technological determinism to be a very accurate view of the way in which we interact with technology, even though determinist assumptions and language fairly saturate the writings of many boosters of technology, the business pages of many popular magazines, and much reporting on technology {{Citation needed|date=December 2017}}. Instead, research in ], ] and related fields have emphasized more nuanced views that resist easy causal formulations. They emphasize that "The relationship between technology and society cannot be reduced to a simplistic cause-and-effect formula. It is, rather, an 'intertwining'", whereby technology does not determine but "operates, and are operated upon in a complex social field" (Murphie and Potts).
Scepticism about technological determinism emerged alongside increased pessimism about techno-science in the mid-20th century, in particular around the use of ] in the production of ], ] during ], and the problems of economic development in the ]. As a direct consequence, desire for greater control of the course of development of technology gave rise to disenchantment with the model of technological determinism in academia.


T. Snyder approached the aspect of technological determinism in his concept: 'politics of inevitability'.<ref>The road to unfreedom, Snyder, 2018</ref> A concept utilized by politicians in which society is promised the idea that the future will be only more of the present, this concept removes responsibility. This could be applied to free markets, the development of nation states and technological progress.
Modern theorists of technology and society no longer consider technological determinism to be a very accurate view of the way in which we interact with technology, even though determinist assumptions and language fairly saturate the writings of many boosters of technology, the business pages of many popular magazines, and much reporting on technology. Instead, research in ], ] and related fields have emphasised more nuanced views that resist easy causal formulations. They emphasise that "The relationship between technology and society cannot be reduced to a simplistic cause-and-effect formula. It is, rather, an 'intertwining'", whereby technology does not determine but "...operates, and are operated upon in a complex social field" (Murphie and Potts).


In his article "Subversive Rationalization: Technology, Power and Democracy with Technology," ] argues that '''technological determinism''' is not a very well founded concept by illustrating that two of the founding theses of determinism are easily questionable and in doing so calls for what he calls ] (] 210–212). In his article "Subversive Rationalization: Technology, Power and Democracy with Technology," ] argues that technological determinism is not a very well founded concept by illustrating that two of the founding theses of determinism are easily questionable and in doing so calls for what he calls ] (] 210–212).


Prominent opposition to technologically determinist thinking has emerged within work on the ] (SCOT). SCOT research, such as that of Mackenzie and Wajcman (1997) argues that the path of innovation and its social consequences are strongly, if not entirely shaped by society itself through the influence of culture, politics, economic arrangements, regulatory mechanisms and the like. In its strongest form, verging on ], "What matters is not the technology itself, but the social or economic system in which it is embedded" (]). Prominent opposition to technologically determinist thinking has emerged within work on the ] (SCOT). SCOT research, such as that of Mackenzie and Wajcman (1997) argues that the path of innovation and its social consequences are strongly, if not entirely shaped by society itself through the influence of culture, politics, economic arrangements, regulatory mechanisms and the like. In its strongest form, verging on ], "What matters is not the technology itself, but the social or economic system in which it is embedded" (]).


In his influential but contested (see Woolgar and Cooper, 1999) article "Do Artifacts Have Politics?", ] illustrates not a form of determinism but the various sources of the politics of technologies. Those politics can stem from the intentions of the designer and the culture of the society in which a technology emerges or can stem from the technology itself, a "practical necessity" for it to function. For instance, New York City urban planner ] is purported to have built Long Island's parkway tunnels too low for buses to pass in order to keep minorities away from the island's beaches, an example of externally inscribed politics. On the other hand, an authoritarian command-and-control structure is a practical necessity of a nuclear power plant if radioactive waste is not to fall into the wrong hands. As such, Winner neither succumbs to technological determinism nor social determinism. The source of a technology's politics is determined only by carefully examining its features and history.
In his influential but contested (see Woolgar and Cooper, 1999) article "Do Artifacts Have Politics?", ] illustrates a form of technological determinism by elaborating instances in which artifacts can have politics.


Although "The deterministic model of technology is widely propagated in society" (]), it has also been widely questioned by scholars. ] explains that, "When technology was perceived as being outside society, it made sense to talk about technology as neutral". Yet, this idea fails to take into account that culture is not fixed and society is dynamic. When "Technology is implicated in social processes, there is nothing neutral about society" (]). This confirms one of the major problems with "technological determinism and the resulting denial of human responsibility for change. There is a loss of human involvement that shape technology and society" (]). Although "The deterministic model of technology is widely propagated in society" (Sarah Miller), it has also been widely questioned by scholars. ] explains that, "When technology was perceived as being outside society, it made sense to talk about technology as neutral". Yet, this idea fails to take into account that culture is not fixed and society is dynamic. When "Technology is implicated in social processes, there is nothing neutral about society" (]). This confirms one of the major problems with "technological determinism and the resulting denial of human responsibility for change. There is a loss of human involvement that shape technology and society" (Sarah Miller).


Another conflicting idea is that of ], a term coined by Winner in his essay "Technology as Forms of Life". Winner wonders whether or not we are simply ''sleepwalking'' through our existence with little concern or knowledge as to how we truly interact with technology. In this view it is still possible for us to wake up and once again take control of the direction in which we are traveling (Winner 104). However, it requires society to adopt ]'s claim that, "users don’t just passively consume technology, but actively transform it". Another conflicting idea is that of ], a term coined by Winner in his essay "Technology as Forms of Life". Winner wonders whether or not we are simply ''sleepwalking'' through our existence with little concern or knowledge as to how we truly interact with technology. In this view, it is still possible for us to wake up and once again take control of the direction in which we are traveling (Winner 104). However, it requires society to adopt ]'s claim that, "users don't just passively consume technology, but actively transform it".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schroeder |first1=Ralph |title=Rethinking Science, Technology, and Social Change |date=2007 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=9780804755887 |page=99 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m7jaAAAAMAAJ |access-date=29 April 2022}}</ref>


In opposition to technological determinism are those who subscribe to the belief of ] and ]. Social determinists believe that social circumstances alone select which technologies are adopted, with the result that no technology can be considered "inevitable" solely on its own merits. Technology and culture are not neutral and when knowledge comes into the equation, technology becomes implicated in social processes. The knowledge of how to create and enhance technology, and of how to use technology is socially bound knowledge. Postmodernists take another view, suggesting that what is right or wrong is dependent on circumstance. They believe technological change can have implications on the past, present and future.<ref>Green, Linda 2001, Technoculture, Allen & Unwin, Crows Nest pp.15</ref> While they believe technological change is influenced by changes in government policy, society and culture, they consider the notion of change to be a paradox, since change is constant. In opposition to technological determinism are those who subscribe to the belief of ] and ]. Social determinists believe that social circumstances alone select which technologies are adopted, with the result that no technology can be considered "inevitable" solely on its own merits. Technology and culture are not neutral and when knowledge comes into the equation, technology becomes implicated in social processes. The knowledge of how to create, enhance, and use technology is socially bound knowledge. Postmodernists take another view, suggesting that what is right or wrong is dependent on circumstance. They believe technological change can have implications on the past, present and future.<ref>{{cite book|last=Green|first=Leila|year=2001|title=Technoculture: From Alphabet to Cybersex|url=https://archive.org/details/technoculturefro00gree|url-access=limited|publisher=Allen & Unwin|location=Crows Nest|page=|isbn=9781865080482}}</ref> While they believe technological change is influenced by changes in government policy, society and culture, they consider the notion of change to be a paradox, since change is constant.


Media and cultural studies theorist ], in response to technological determinism, developed a model for the emergence of new technologies which is centered on the ]. In two of his books – ''Technologies of Seeing: Photography, Cinematography and Television'' (1997) and ''Media Technology and Society'' (1998) – Winston applied this model to show how technologies evolves over time, and how their 'invention' is mediated and controlled by society and societal factors which suppress the radical potential of a given technology. Media and cultural studies theorist ], in response to technological determinism, developed a model for the emergence of new technologies which is centered on the ]. In two of his books – ''Technologies of Seeing: Photography, Cinematography and Television'' (1997) and ''Media Technology and Society'' (1998) – Winston applied this model to show how technologies evolve over time, and how their 'invention' is mediated and controlled by society and societal factors which suppress the radical potential of a given technology.


==Notable technological determinists == ==Notable technological determinists ==


Some interpret ] as advocating technological determinism, with such statements as "The Handmill gives you society with the feudal lord: the ], society with the industrial capitalist" (''The Poverty of Philosophy,'' 1847), but others argue that Marx was not a determinist.<ref>, Daniel Chandler</ref>
], American journalist, columnist and author, admits to being a technological determinist in his book ''The World is Flat''.


Technological determinist ] reviews the societal transition from an oral culture to a written culture in his work ''Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word'' (1982). He asserts that this particular development is attributable to the use of new technologies of literacy (particularly print and writing,) to communicate thoughts which could previously only be verbalized. He furthers this argument by claiming that writing is purely context dependent as it is a "secondary modelling system" (8). Reliant upon the earlier primary system of spoken language, writing manipulates the potential of language as it depends purely upon the visual sense to communicate the intended information. Furthermore, the rather stagnant technology of literacy distinctly limits the usage and influence of knowledge, it unquestionably effects the evolution of society. In fact, Ong asserts that "more than any other single invention, writing has transformed human consciousness" (Ong 1982: 78).
Futurist ]'s theories about a ] follow a technologically deterministic view of history.


== Media determinism as a form of technological determinism ==
Some interpret Karl Marx as advocating technological determinism, with such statements as "The Handmill gives you society with the feudal lord: the ], society with the industrial capitalist" (''The Poverty of Philosophy,'' 1847), but others argue that Marx was not a determinist.<ref>, Daniel Chandler</ref>


Media determinism is a form of technological determinism, a philosophical and sociological position which posits the power of the media to impact society.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100529115801/http://www.regent.edu/acad/schcom/rojc/mdic/define.html |date=2010-05-29 }}, Regent University</ref> Two foundational media determinists are the Canadian scholars ] and ]. One of the best examples of technological determinism in media theory is Marshall McLuhan's theory "]" and the ideas of his mentor Harold Adams Innis. Both these Canadian theorists saw media as the essence of civilization. The association of different media with particular mental consequences by McLuhan and others can be seen as related to technological determinism. It is this variety of determinism that is referred to as media determinism. According to McLuhan, there is an association between communications media/technology and language; similarly, ] argues that language shapes our perception of thinking (]). For McLuhan, media is a more powerful and explicit determinant than is the more general concept of language. McLuhan was not necessarily a hard determinist. As a more moderate version of media determinism, he proposed that our use of particular media may have subtle influences on us, but more importantly, it is the social context of use that is crucial.<ref>{{citation|url=http://beforebefore.net/80f/s11/media/mcluhan.pdf |last=McLuhan|first=Marshall | title=Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324065603/http://beforebefore.net/80f/s11/media/mcluhan.pdf|archive-date= March 24, 2012|url-status= dead}}</ref> See also ].
Technological determinist Walter Ong reviews the societal transition from an oral culture to a written culture in his work “Orality and Literacy." He asserts that this particular development is attributable to the use of new technologies of literacy (particularly print and writing,) to communicate thoughts which could previously only be verbalized. He furthers this argument by claiming that writing is purely context dependent as it is a “secondary modelling system” (8). Reliant upon the earlier primary system of spoken language, writing manipulates the potential of language as it depends purely upon the visual sense to communicate the intended information. Furthermore, the rather stagnant technology of literacy distinctly limits the usage and influence of knowledge, it unquestionably effects the evolution of society. In fact, Ong asserts that “more than any other single invention, writing has transformed human consciousness” (Ong 1982: 78).
Media determinism is a form of the popular dominant theory of the relationship between ]. In a determinist view, technology takes on an active life of its own and is seen be as a driver of social phenomena. Innis believed that the social, cultural, political, and economic developments of each historical period can be related directly to the technology of the means of mass communication of that period. In this sense, like Dr. Frankenstein's monster, technology itself appears to be alive, or at least capable of shaping human behavior.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/1789051 |last=Hist|first=Martin |title= One tweet does not a revolution make: Technological determinism, media and social change|publisher= Deakin University}}</ref> However, it has been increasingly subject to critical review by scholars. For example, scholar ], criticizes media determinism and rather believes social movements define technological and media processes.<ref>{{cite book |last=Williams|first=Raymond |title=Television: Technology and Cultural Form|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PXSLD8j0kb8C&q=Determination+is+a+real+social+process,+but+never&pg=PA133 |access-date=28 May 2013 |year=1974 |publisher=Routledge |location=London and New York |isbn=978-0-415-31456-5 |page=133}}</ref> With regard to communications media, audience determinism is a viewpoint opposed to media determinism. This is described as instead of media being presented as doing things to people; the stress is on the way people do things with media. Individuals need to be aware that the term "deterministic" is a negative one for many social scientists and modern sociologists; in particular they often use the word as a term of abuse.<ref>{{citation |url=http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/tecdet/tecdet.html |last=Chandler| first= Daniel | title=Technological or Media Determinism |date=18 September 1995|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150421235047/http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/tecdet/tecdet.html|archive-date=April 21, 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

== Subset of technological determinism ==

Media determinism, a subset of technological determinism, is a philosophical and sociological position which posits the power of the media to impact society.<ref>, Regent University</ref> As a theory of change, it is seen as a cause and effect relationship. New media technologies bring about change in society. Much like the "magic bullet" theories of mass communication, media determinism provides a somewhat simplistic explanation for very complicated scenarios. Cause and effect relationships are reduced to their most basic premise, and explained as such. Techno-centrist theories make everything explainable in light of the media's relation to technological developments. Two leading media determinists are the Canadian scholars ] and ].


==See also== ==See also==
* {{annotated link|Instrumental conception of technology}}
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* {{annotated link|Determinism}}
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* {{annotated link|Historical materialism}}
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* {{annotated link|History of science and technology}}
*]
* {{annotated link|Orthodox Marxism}}
*]
* {{annotated link|Philosophy of technology}}
*]
* {{annotated link|Theory of the productive forces}}
*]
*]
*]
*]
*]
*]
*]
*]
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==Footnotes== ==Footnotes==
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{{reflist}} {{reflist}}


==Bibliography== ==Further reading==
*], ''Karl Marx's Theory of History: A Defence'', Oxford and Princeton, 1978. *], ''Karl Marx's Theory of History: A Defence'', Oxford and Princeton, 1978.
*{{cite book | first = Ruth Schwarz| last = Cowan| authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 1983 | month = | title = More Work for Mother: The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave | chapter = | editor = | others = | edition = | pages = | publisher = Basic Books | location = New York | id = | url = }} *{{cite book | first = Ruth Schwartz| last = Cowan| author-link = Ruth Schwartz Cowan |year = 1983 | title = More Work for Mother: The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave | publisher = Basic Books | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-465-04732-1| url =https://archive.org/details/moreworkformothe00cowa| url-access = registration}}
*{{cite book |last= Croteau |first= David |coauthors= Hoynes, William |title= Media Society: Industries, Images and Audiences |edition= (third edition) |publisher= Pine Forge Press |location= Thousand Oaks |year= 2003 | pages = 305–307 }} *{{cite book |last= Croteau |first= David |author2=Hoynes, William |title= Media Society: Industries, Images and Audiences |url= https://archive.org/details/mediasocietyindu0003crot |url-access= registration |edition= (third edition) |publisher= Pine Forge Press |location= Thousand Oaks |year= 2003 | pages = –307 |isbn= 9780761987734 }}
*{{cite book | first = Jacques| last = Ellul| authorlink = Jacques Ellul| coauthors = | year = 1964| month = | title = The Technological Society| chapter = | editor = | others = | edition = | pages = | publisher = Alfred A. Knopf| location = New York| id = | url = }} *{{cite book | first = Jacques| last = Ellul| author-link = Jacques Ellul| year = 1964| title = The Technological Society| publisher = Alfred A. Knopf| location = New York| url =https://archive.org/details/technologicalsoc0000ellu| url-access = registration}}
*{{cite book |last= Green |first= Lelia |title= Technoculture |edition= |publisher= Allen & Unwin| location = Crows Nest| pages = 1–20 }} *{{cite book |last= Green |first= Lelia |title= Technoculture |year= 2002 |url= https://archive.org/details/technoculturefro00gree |url-access= limited |publisher= Allen & Unwin| location = Crows Nest| pages = –20 |isbn= 9781865080482 }}
*Huesemann, Michael H., and Joyce A. Huesemann (2011). ''Technofix: Why Technology Won’t Save Us or the Environment'', New Society Publishers, Gabriola Island, British Columbia, Canada, ISBN 0865717044, 464 pp. *Huesemann, Michael H., and Joyce A. Huesemann (2011). , New Society Publishers, Gabriola Island, British Columbia, Canada, {{ISBN|0865717044}}, 464 pp.
*{{cite book | first = Sarah| last = Miller| authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 1997| month = January| title = Social Alternatives| chapter = Futures Work – Recognising the Social Determinants of Change | editor =| others = | edition = vol.1, No.1 | pages = 57–58 | publisher = | location = | id = | url = }} *{{cite book | first = Sarah| last = Miller|date=January 1997| title = Social Alternatives| chapter = Futures Work – Recognising the Social Determinants of Change | edition = vol.1, No.1 | pages = 57–58 }}
*{{cite book | first = Andrew | last = Murphie| authorlink = | coauthors = and Potts, John | year = 2003| month = | title = ''Culture and Technology''| chapter = 1 | editor =| others = | edition = | publisher = Palgrave | location = London| id = | url =| page = 21 }} *{{cite book | first = Andrew | last = Murphie|author2=Potts, John | year = 2003| title = ''Culture and Technology''| chapter = 1 | publisher = Palgrave | location = London| page = 21 }}
*Ong, Walter J (1982). Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. New York: Methuen. *Ong, Walter J (1982). Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. New York: Methuen.
*{{cite book | first = Neil | last = Postman| authorlink = Neil Postman| coauthors = | year = 1992| month = | title = ]| chapter = | editor = | others = | edition = | pages = 3–20| publisher = New York | location = Vintage| id = | url = }} *{{cite book | first = Neil | last = Postman| author-link = Neil Postman| year = 1992| title = Technopoly: the Surrender of Culture to Technology| pages = 3–20| publisher = New York | location = Vintage| title-link = Technopoly: the Surrender of Culture to Technology}}
*Roland, Alex. Once More into the Stirrups; Lynne White Jr, Medieval Technology and Social Change" Classics Revisited. 574- 585.
*{{cite book | first = Merritt Roe| last = Smith| authorlink = Merritt Roe Smith| coauthors = and ], eds.| year = 1994| month = | title = Does Technology Drive History? The Dilemma of Technological Determinism| chapter = | editor = | others = | edition = | pages = | publisher = MIT Press| location = Cambridge| id = | url = }}
*Sawyer, P.H. and R.H. Hilton. "Technical Determinism" Past & Present. April 1963: 90–100.
*{{cite book | first = John M.| last = Staudenmaier, S.J.| authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 1985| month = | title = Technology's Storytellers: Reweaving the Human Fabric| chapter = The Debate over Technological Determinism| editor = | others = | edition = | pages = 134–148| publisher = The ] and the MIT Press| location = Cambridge| id = | url = }}
*{{cite book | first = Langdon| last = Winner | authorlink = Langdon Winner| coauthors = | year = 1977| month = | title = Autonomous Technology: Technics-Out-of-Control as a Theme in Political Thought| chapter = | editor = | others = | edition = | pages = | publisher = MIT Press| location = Cambridge| id = | url = }} *{{cite book|editor1-first=Merritt Roe|editor1-last=Smith|editor1-link=Merritt Roe Smith|editor2-last=Marx|editor2-first=Leo|editor2-link=Leo Marx|year=1994|title=Does Technology Drive History? The Dilemma of Technological Determinism|publisher=MIT Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=9780262691673}}
*{{cite book | first = Langdon| last = Winner | authorlink = Langdon Winner| coauthors = | year = 1986| month = | title =''The Whale and the Reactor''| chapter = Do Artefacts Have Politics? | editor = | others = | edition = | publisher = University of Chicago Press| location = Chicago| id = | url =| page = 26 }} *{{cite book | first = John M.| last = Staudenmaier, S.J.| year = 1985| title = Technology's Storytellers: Reweaving the Human Fabric| chapter = The Debate over Technological Determinism| pages = 134–148| publisher = The ] and the MIT Press| location = Cambridge}}
*{{cite book | first = Langdon| last = Winner | author-link = Langdon Winner| year = 1977| title = Autonomous Technology: Technics-Out-of-Control as a Theme in Political Thought| publisher = MIT Press| location = Cambridge| isbn = 9780262230780 | url =https://archive.org/details/don00lang| url-access = registration}}
*{{cite book | first = Langdon| last = Winner | author-link = Langdon Winner| year = 1986| title =''The Whale and the Reactor''| url = https://archive.org/details/whalereactorsear00winn| url-access = registration| chapter = Do Artefacts Have Politics? | publisher = University of Chicago Press| location = Chicago| page = }}
*Winner, Langdon. "Technology as Forms of Life". <u>Readings in the Philosophy of Technology</u>. David M. Kaplan. Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield, 2004. 103–113 *Winner, Langdon. "Technology as Forms of Life". <u>Readings in the Philosophy of Technology</u>. David M. Kaplan. Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield, 2004. 103–113
*Woolgar, Steve and Cooper, Geoff (1999). "Do artefacts have ambivalence? Moses' bridges, Winner's bridges and other urban legends in S&TS". Social Studies of Science 29 (3), 433–449. *Woolgar, Steve and Cooper, Geoff (1999). "Do artefacts have ambivalence? Moses' bridges, Winner's bridges and other urban legends in S&TS". Social Studies of Science 29 (3), 433–449.
*{{cite book |first = Lynn| last = White | author-link = Lynn Townsend White, Jr.| year = 1966 | title =''Medieval Technology and Social Change''| publisher = Oxford University Press| location = New York}}
*Furbank, P.N. “The Myth of Determinism.” <u>Raritan</u>. Fall 2006: 79–87. EBSCOhost. Monroe Community College Library, Rochester, NY. 2 April 2007.
*Furbank, P.N. "The Myth of Determinism." <u>Raritan</u>. Fall 2006: 79–87. EBSCOhost. Monroe Community College Library, Rochester, NY. 2 April 2007.
*Feenberg, Andrew. "Democratic Rationalization". <u>Readings in the Philosophy of Technology</u>. David M. Kaplan. Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield, 2004. 209–225 *Feenberg, Andrew. "Democratic Rationalization". <u>Readings in the Philosophy of Technology</u>. David M. Kaplan. Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield, 2004. 209–225
*Chandler, Daniel. <u>Technological or Media Determinism</u>. 1995. 18 September 1995. <http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/tecdet/tecdet.html> *Chandler, Daniel. <u>Technological or Media Determinism</u>. 1995. 18 September 1995. <http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/tecdet/tecdet.html>
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Latest revision as of 02:42, 9 November 2024

Reductionist theory
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Technological determinism is a reductionist theory in assuming that a society's technology progresses by following its own internal logic of efficiency, while determining the development of the social structure and cultural values. The term is believed to have originated from Thorstein Veblen (1857–1929), an American sociologist and economist. The most radical technological determinist in the United States in the 20th century was most likely Clarence Ayres who was a follower of Thorstein Veblen as well as John Dewey. William Ogburn was also known for his radical technological determinism and his theory on cultural lag.

Origin

The origins of technological determinism as a formal concept are often traced to Thorstein Veblen (1857–1929), an influential American sociologist and economist. Veblen, known for his work on social and economic issues, introduced ideas that portrayed technology as a powerful, autonomous force capable of shaping societal norms and structures. He argued that the development and use of machinery exerted an independent influence on human thought and behavior, notably asserting that "the machine throws out anthropomorphic habits of thought.” This notion laid the foundation for technological determinism by suggesting that technology inherently transforms society by reshaping patterns of thought and behavior.

Historical Context and Influences

During Veblen's time, rapid industrialization and advancements in technology were radically altering American society. Innovations in manufacturing and transportation, such as the assembly line and railroads, demonstrated technology’s potential to reshape economic and social structures. These changes helped popularize the idea that technology could independently drive societal evolution, creating the conditions for Veblen's ideas to resonate widely.

Influence of Karl Marx and Expansion by Clarence Ayres

Although Veblen is credited with coining the core ideas behind technological determinism, the influence of Karl Marx on these ideas is also significant. Marx argued that technology drives historical change by shaping the "material base" of society. For instance, he suggested that the railway in colonial India would challenge and erode the caste system by introducing new economic activities and altering social hierarchies. Later, Clarence Ayres, a 20th-century economist inspired by Veblen, expanded on these ideas by introducing the concept of "technological drag." According to Ayres, technology progresses as a dynamic, self-generating force, while traditional institutions often lag, resisting the transformative potential of technological change. Ayres’ theory further solidified technological determinism, emphasizing the inevitable clash between technological progress and social conservatism.

Explanation

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Technological determinism seeks to show technical developments, media, or technology as a whole, as the key mover in history and social change. It is a theory subscribed to by "hyperglobalists" who claim that as a consequence of the wide availability of technology, accelerated globalization is inevitable. Therefore, technological development and innovation become the principal motor of social, economic or political change.

Strict adherents to technological determinism do not believe the influence of technology differs based on how much a technology is or can be used. Instead of considering technology as part of a larger spectrum of human activity, technological determinism sees technology as the basis for all human activity.

Technological determinism has been summarized as 'The belief in technology as a key governing force in society ...' (Merritt Roe Smith). 'The idea that technological development determines social change ...' (Bruce Bimber). It changes the way people think and how they interact with others and can be described as '...a three-word logical proposition: "Technology determines history"' (Rosalind H. Williams) . It is, '... the belief that social progress is driven by technological innovation, which in turn follows an "inevitable" course.' This 'idea of progress' or 'doctrine of progress' is centralized around the idea that social problems can be solved by technological advancement, and this is the way that society moves forward. Technological determinists believe that "'You can't stop progress', implying that we are unable to control technology" (Lelia Green). This suggests that we are somewhat powerless, and society allows technology to drive social changes because "societies fail to be aware of the alternatives to the values embedded in it " (Merritt Roe Smith).

Technological determinism has been defined as an approach that identifies technology, or technological advances, as the central causal element in processes of social change. As technology is stabilized, its design tends to dictate users' behaviors, consequently stating that "technological progress equals social progress." Key notions of this theory are separated into two parts, with the first being that the development of the technology itself may also be separate from social and political factors, arising from "the ways of inventors, engineers, and designers following an internal, technical logic that has nothing to do with social relationships". The second is that as technology is stabilized, its design tends to dictate users' behaviors, consequently resulting in social change.

As technology changes, the ways in which it is utilized and incorporated into the daily lives of individuals within a culture consequently affect the ways of living, highlighting how technology ultimately determines societal growth through its influence on relations and ways of living within a culture. To illustrate, "the invention of the wheel revolutionized human mobility, allowing humans to travel greater distances and carry greater loads with them". This technological advancement also leads to interactions between different cultural groups, advanced trade, and thus impacts the size and relations both within and between different networks. Other examples include the invention of language, expanding modes of communication between individuals, the introduction of bookkeeping and written documentation, impacting the circulation of knowledge, and having streamlined effects on the socioeconomic and political systems as a whole. As Dusek (2006) notes, "culture and society cannot affect the direction of technology… as technology develops and changes, the institutions in the rest of society change, as does the art and religion of a society." Thus, technological determinism dictates that technological advances and social relations are inevitably tied, with the change of either affecting the other by consequence of normalization.

According to scholar such as Hannah Arendt in 1958 speaks about how instrument and tools can classify the whole civilizations, using them to make a criterion on certain things, for example a country can be characterize by instrument or technologies they use to see their symbolic culture and others. Like Netherlands country can be characterize with Windmill.

This stance however ignores the social and cultural circumstances in which the technology was developed. Sociologist Claude Fischer (1992) characterized the most prominent forms of technological determinism as "billiard ball" approaches, in which technology is seen as an external force introduced into a social situation, producing a series of ricochet effects.

Rather than acknowledging that a society or culture interacts with and even shapes the technologies that are used, a technological determinist view holds that "the uses made of technology are largely determined by the structure of the technology itself, that is, that its functions follow from its form" (Neil Postman). However, this is not the sole view of TD following Smith and Marx's (1998) notion of "hard" determinism, which states that once a technology is introduced into a culture what follows is the inevitable development of that technology. In this view, the role of "agency (the power to affect change) is imputed on the technology itself, or some of its intrinsic attributes; thus the invention of technology leads to a situation of inescapable necessity."

The other view follows what Smith and Marx (1998) dictate as "soft" determinism, where the development of technology is also dependent on social context, affecting how it is adopted into a culture, "and, if the technology is adopted, the social context will have important effects on how the technology is used and thus on its ultimate impact".

For example, we could examine the spread of mass-produced knowledge through the role of the printing press in the Protestant Reformation. Because of the urgency from the protestant side to get the reform off the ground before the church could react, "early Lutheran leaders, led by Luther himself, wrote thousands of anti-papal pamphlets in the Reformation's first decades and these works spread rapidly through reprinting in various print shops throughout central Europe". As such the urgency of the socio-political context to utilize such technology in the beginning of its invention caused its fast adoption and normalization into European culture. We could view its uses in its popularization – for political propaganda purposes – in line with the continued traditions of newspapers in modern times, as well as newly adopted uses for other printed text, adapting to change in a social context such as an emphasis on leisurely activities such as reading. This follows the soft deterministic view because the technological invention – the printing press – was quickly adopted because of the socio-political context, and because of its fast integration into society, has impacted and continues to impact how society operates.

Hard and soft determinism

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In examining determinism, “hard determinism” can be contrasted with “soft determinism”. A compatibilist says that it is possible for free will and determinism to exist in the world together, while an incompatibilist would say that they cannot and there must be one or the other. Those who support determinism can be further divided.

“Hard determinists” would view technology as developing independent from social concerns. They would say that technology creates a set of powerful forces acting to regulate our social activity and its meaning. According to this view of determinism we organize ourselves to meet the needs of technology, and the outcome of this organization is beyond our control or we do not have the freedom to make a choice regarding the outcome (autonomous technology). The 20th century French philosopher and social theorist Jacques Ellul could be said to be a hard determinist and proponent of autonomous technique (technology). In his 1954 work The Technological Society, Ellul essentially posits that technology, by virtue of its power through efficiency, determines which social aspects are best suited for its own development through a process of natural selection. A social system's values, morals, philosophy etc. that are most conducive to the advancement of technology allow that social system to enhance its power and spread at the expense of those social systems whose values, morals, philosophy etc. are less promoting of technology. While geography, climate, and other "natural" factors largely determined the parameters of social conditions for most of human history, technology has recently become the dominant objective factor (largely due to forces unleashed by the industrial revolution) and it has been the principal objective and determining factor.

“Soft determinism”, as the name suggests, is a more passive view of the way technology interacts with socio-political situations. Soft determinists still subscribe to the fact that technology is the guiding force in our evolution but would maintain that we have a chance to make decisions regarding the outcomes of a situation. This is not to say that free will exists, but that the possibility for us to roll the dice and see what the outcome exists. A slightly different variant of soft determinism is the 1922 technology-driven theory of social change proposed by William Fielding Ogburn, in which society must adjust to the consequences of major inventions, but often does so only after a period of cultural lag.

Criticism

Skepticism about technological determinism emerged alongside increased pessimism about techno-science in the mid-20th century, in particular around the use of nuclear energy in the production of nuclear weapons, Nazi human experimentation during World War II, and the problems of economic development in the Third World. As a direct consequence, desire for greater control of the course of development of technology gave rise to disenchantment with the model of technological determinism in academia.

Modern theorists of technology and society no longer consider technological determinism to be a very accurate view of the way in which we interact with technology, even though determinist assumptions and language fairly saturate the writings of many boosters of technology, the business pages of many popular magazines, and much reporting on technology . Instead, research in science and technology studies, social construction of technology and related fields have emphasized more nuanced views that resist easy causal formulations. They emphasize that "The relationship between technology and society cannot be reduced to a simplistic cause-and-effect formula. It is, rather, an 'intertwining'", whereby technology does not determine but "operates, and are operated upon in a complex social field" (Murphie and Potts).

T. Snyder approached the aspect of technological determinism in his concept: 'politics of inevitability'. A concept utilized by politicians in which society is promised the idea that the future will be only more of the present, this concept removes responsibility. This could be applied to free markets, the development of nation states and technological progress.

In his article "Subversive Rationalization: Technology, Power and Democracy with Technology," Andrew Feenberg argues that technological determinism is not a very well founded concept by illustrating that two of the founding theses of determinism are easily questionable and in doing so calls for what he calls democratic rationalization (Feenberg 210–212).

Prominent opposition to technologically determinist thinking has emerged within work on the social construction of technology (SCOT). SCOT research, such as that of Mackenzie and Wajcman (1997) argues that the path of innovation and its social consequences are strongly, if not entirely shaped by society itself through the influence of culture, politics, economic arrangements, regulatory mechanisms and the like. In its strongest form, verging on social determinism, "What matters is not the technology itself, but the social or economic system in which it is embedded" (Langdon Winner).

In his influential but contested (see Woolgar and Cooper, 1999) article "Do Artifacts Have Politics?", Langdon Winner illustrates not a form of determinism but the various sources of the politics of technologies. Those politics can stem from the intentions of the designer and the culture of the society in which a technology emerges or can stem from the technology itself, a "practical necessity" for it to function. For instance, New York City urban planner Robert Moses is purported to have built Long Island's parkway tunnels too low for buses to pass in order to keep minorities away from the island's beaches, an example of externally inscribed politics. On the other hand, an authoritarian command-and-control structure is a practical necessity of a nuclear power plant if radioactive waste is not to fall into the wrong hands. As such, Winner neither succumbs to technological determinism nor social determinism. The source of a technology's politics is determined only by carefully examining its features and history.

Although "The deterministic model of technology is widely propagated in society" (Sarah Miller), it has also been widely questioned by scholars. Lelia Green explains that, "When technology was perceived as being outside society, it made sense to talk about technology as neutral". Yet, this idea fails to take into account that culture is not fixed and society is dynamic. When "Technology is implicated in social processes, there is nothing neutral about society" (Lelia Green). This confirms one of the major problems with "technological determinism and the resulting denial of human responsibility for change. There is a loss of human involvement that shape technology and society" (Sarah Miller).

Another conflicting idea is that of technological somnambulism, a term coined by Winner in his essay "Technology as Forms of Life". Winner wonders whether or not we are simply sleepwalking through our existence with little concern or knowledge as to how we truly interact with technology. In this view, it is still possible for us to wake up and once again take control of the direction in which we are traveling (Winner 104). However, it requires society to adopt Ralph Schroeder's claim that, "users don't just passively consume technology, but actively transform it".

In opposition to technological determinism are those who subscribe to the belief of social determinism and postmodernism. Social determinists believe that social circumstances alone select which technologies are adopted, with the result that no technology can be considered "inevitable" solely on its own merits. Technology and culture are not neutral and when knowledge comes into the equation, technology becomes implicated in social processes. The knowledge of how to create, enhance, and use technology is socially bound knowledge. Postmodernists take another view, suggesting that what is right or wrong is dependent on circumstance. They believe technological change can have implications on the past, present and future. While they believe technological change is influenced by changes in government policy, society and culture, they consider the notion of change to be a paradox, since change is constant.

Media and cultural studies theorist Brian Winston, in response to technological determinism, developed a model for the emergence of new technologies which is centered on the Law of the suppression of radical potential. In two of his books – Technologies of Seeing: Photography, Cinematography and Television (1997) and Media Technology and Society (1998) – Winston applied this model to show how technologies evolve over time, and how their 'invention' is mediated and controlled by society and societal factors which suppress the radical potential of a given technology.

Notable technological determinists

Some interpret Karl Marx as advocating technological determinism, with such statements as "The Handmill gives you society with the feudal lord: the steam-mill, society with the industrial capitalist" (The Poverty of Philosophy, 1847), but others argue that Marx was not a determinist.

Technological determinist Walter J. Ong reviews the societal transition from an oral culture to a written culture in his work Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word (1982). He asserts that this particular development is attributable to the use of new technologies of literacy (particularly print and writing,) to communicate thoughts which could previously only be verbalized. He furthers this argument by claiming that writing is purely context dependent as it is a "secondary modelling system" (8). Reliant upon the earlier primary system of spoken language, writing manipulates the potential of language as it depends purely upon the visual sense to communicate the intended information. Furthermore, the rather stagnant technology of literacy distinctly limits the usage and influence of knowledge, it unquestionably effects the evolution of society. In fact, Ong asserts that "more than any other single invention, writing has transformed human consciousness" (Ong 1982: 78).

Media determinism as a form of technological determinism

Media determinism is a form of technological determinism, a philosophical and sociological position which posits the power of the media to impact society. Two foundational media determinists are the Canadian scholars Harold Innis and Marshall McLuhan. One of the best examples of technological determinism in media theory is Marshall McLuhan's theory "the medium is the message" and the ideas of his mentor Harold Adams Innis. Both these Canadian theorists saw media as the essence of civilization. The association of different media with particular mental consequences by McLuhan and others can be seen as related to technological determinism. It is this variety of determinism that is referred to as media determinism. According to McLuhan, there is an association between communications media/technology and language; similarly, Benjamin Lee Whorf argues that language shapes our perception of thinking (linguistic determinism). For McLuhan, media is a more powerful and explicit determinant than is the more general concept of language. McLuhan was not necessarily a hard determinist. As a more moderate version of media determinism, he proposed that our use of particular media may have subtle influences on us, but more importantly, it is the social context of use that is crucial. See also Media ecology. Media determinism is a form of the popular dominant theory of the relationship between technology and society. In a determinist view, technology takes on an active life of its own and is seen be as a driver of social phenomena. Innis believed that the social, cultural, political, and economic developments of each historical period can be related directly to the technology of the means of mass communication of that period. In this sense, like Dr. Frankenstein's monster, technology itself appears to be alive, or at least capable of shaping human behavior. However, it has been increasingly subject to critical review by scholars. For example, scholar Raymond Williams, criticizes media determinism and rather believes social movements define technological and media processes. With regard to communications media, audience determinism is a viewpoint opposed to media determinism. This is described as instead of media being presented as doing things to people; the stress is on the way people do things with media. Individuals need to be aware that the term "deterministic" is a negative one for many social scientists and modern sociologists; in particular they often use the word as a term of abuse.

See also

Footnotes

References

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