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{{Short description|Social system in South Asia}}
{{Expand|date=February 2007}}
{{Cleanup lang|article|date=February 2023}}
] among ] ]s
] communities in South Asia have a system of ]<ref>{{Cite news |author=Pratik Patnaik |title=Caste Among Indian Muslims Is a Real Issue. So Why Deny Them Reservation? |url=https://thewire.in/caste/caste-among-indian-muslims-real-why-deny-reservation |date=December 2, 2020 |newspaper=The Wire}}</ref> arising from concepts other than "pure" and "impure", which are integral to the ].{{sfn|Azra Khanam|2013|pp=120–121}}<ref name="Webner">{{Cite book |title=The Migration Process: Capital, Gifts and Offerings among British Pakistanis |last1=Webner |first1=Pnina |date=2007 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing Plc |access-date=30 October 2016 |isbn=9781472518477 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1O2kBgAAQBAJ&q=caste+purity+among+Muslims&pg=PT84}}</ref> It developed as a result of relations among foreign conquerors, local ] ] convert to Islam ('']'', also known as ''tabqa-i ashrafiyya''{{sfn|Julien Levesque|2020|p=4}}) and local lower-caste converts (''ajlaf''), as well as the continuation of the Indian caste system by converts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gautier |first1=Laurence |last2=Levesque |first2=Julien |date=July 2020 |title=Introduction: Historicizing Sayyid-ness: Social Status and Muslim Identity in South Asia |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society |language=en |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=383–393 |doi=10.1017/S1356186320000139 |issn=1356-1863 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Non-''ashrafs'' are ] converts.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ashraf: Islamic Caste Group |publisher=Britannica |year=2021 |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/ashraf-Islamic-caste-group}}</ref> The concept of ''"pasmanda"'' includes ''ajlaf'' and ''arzal'' Muslims; ''ajlaf'' status is defined by descent from converts to Islam and by ''pesha'' (profession).{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} These terms are not part of the sociological vocabulary in regions such as ] and ], and say little about the functioning of Muslim society.{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}}
refers to units of social stratification that have developed among Muslims in ](largely the region that comprises ] and ]), despite Islam's egalitarian tenets<ref name="Britannica"> Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18 Oct. 2006</ref><ref name="EoI">Burton-Page, J. Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzeland W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2006. Brill Online.</ref>.


The ] system is social stratification in ] and, to an extent, India.<ref name="nihcr.edu.pk">{{citation |author=Mughees Ahmed |year=2009 |title=Local-bodies or local "biradari" system: An analysis of the role of burglaries in the local bodies system of Punjab |journal=Pakistan Journal of History and Culture |volume=30 |number=1 |pages=81–92 |url=http://www.nihcr.edu.pk/Latest_English_Journal/Local-Bodies.pdf }}</ref> The South Asian Muslim caste system includes hierarchical classifications of ''khandan'' (dynasty, family, or lineage).{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}}
==Origins==
According to some sources including ], and ] the castes among Muslims developed as the result of close contact with Hindu culture, as well as Hindu converts to Islam who chose to retain their caste customs.<ref name="Britannica"/><ref name="EoI"/><ref>Muslim Caste in Uttar Pradesh (A Study of Culture Contact), Ghaus Ansari, Lucknow, 1960, Page 66</ref><ref name="Sikand">{{cite web|last = Singh Sikand|first = Yoginder|title = Caste in Indian Muslim Society|publisher = Hamdard University|url = http://stateless.freehosting.net/Caste%20in%20Indian%20Muslim%20Society.htm|accessdate = 2006-10-18 }}</ref>.


== {{anchor|Historical development}}History ==
According to other scholars like Sajida Sultana Alvi and Imtiaz Ahmad, certain narratives regarding the Stratification of Muslim society were developed based on the idea of ''nasab'', or claims of descent from the prophet Mohamed, which would give the Arab-descended endogamous groups superior status and a social system that was not exclusively influenced by Hindu Castes<ref name="Alvi">Sajida Sultana Alvi, Advice on the art of governance, an Indo-Islamic Mirror for Princes P122, State University of New York Press, ISBN 0-88706-918-5</ref><ref name="Imtiaz">Ahmad, Imtiaz, "The Ashraf-Ajlaf dichotomy in Muslim social structure in India", Indian economic and social history review 33 (1966) pgs 268-78</ref>. The latter is evident from the fact that Muslim clerics were not influenced by Hindu caste narratives in the middle ages<ref name="Alvi"/>.
Although ] requires ]ism and does not recognize any ] (only ] ]),{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=27}} existing divisions in ] and India were adopted by local Muslim societies. Evidence of social stratification exists in later Persian works such as ]'s 11th-century {{transl|fa|]}}, ]'s 13th-century {{transl|fa|]}}, and the 17th-century {{transl|fa|Jam-i-Mufidi}}.{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=29}}


After ]'s death in the seventh century CE, tribes and families fought a war of succession.{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} After this, a determinant for social stratification in Arab society included being part of Muhammad's close family ({{transl|ar|]|}}).{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} This factor was present in ancient ] among Muslims since the eighth century.
In addition, scholars such as ], have asserted that while the influence of Hindu social mores on the Muslims might partially explain the continued salience of caste among them it does not fully explain how the Muslims of the region came to be stratified on the basis of caste in the first place. He has said that the claim that Muslim castes were "entirely influenced by Hinduism" is "based on the untenable assumption of a once pure, radically egalitarian Muslim community in India later coming under the baneful impact of Hinduism".<ref name="Sikand"/>. With the ], Muslim caste systems were preserved across the three countries where they existed in large numbers viz. ], ] and ].


This led to a further hierarchical determinant: ] versus non-Arabs.{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} Among non-Arabs, further divisions were made between Muslims who were converted in early Islamization campaigns ({{transl|ar|khadim-al islam}}) and those who converted more recently ({{transl|ar|jadid-al islam}}).{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} South Asian Muslims are divided by classifications that have resulted in Arab-origin higher castes ({{transl|ur|unch zat}}) and descendants of lower-caste converts ({{transl|ur|nich zat}}).{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} ] sultans were high-caste.{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}}
==Stratification==
Ashrafs have a superior status derived from their foreign ancestry<ref name="one">{{cite book| last = Aggarwal|first = Patrap|authorlink = Patrap C. Aggarwal|title = Caste and Social Stratification Among Muslims in India|publisher = Manohar|date = 1978 }}</ref><ref name="two">by Zarina Bhatty</ref>. The non-Ashrafs are assumed to be converts from Hinduism, and are therefore drawn from the indigenous population. They, in turn, are divided into a number of occupational castes.<ref name="two"/>


The Muslims who ] were already divided into vocation-based social "classes", including priests, nobles, and others, and racial segregation separated local Muslim converts from foreign-origin Muslims. The foreigners claimed superior status, since they were associated with the conquerors and considered themselves as '']'' ("noble").{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=30}} Indian Muslim society also split in accordance with the Hindu caste system.{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=30}} According to ] (1986) and R. K. Bhattacharya, Indian Hindu converts to Islam brought their caste system to the region's Muslim society.{{sfn|Azra Khanam|2013|pp=116}} ], however, believed that the Islamic conquerors adopted the Hindu caste system "as a compromise which they had to make in a predominantly Hindu environment."{{sfn|Azra Khanam|2013|pp=115–116}}
Ashraf are further divided into groups of ]s, Sheikhs, Mughals and Pathans, in that order of rank. It is however believed that some of them, like the other group are also converts from Hinduism. The Sayyids are said to be descendants of the Prophet and regarded in high esteem. The Sheikhs are of Arab descent and are next in line in prestige. The Mughals are descendents of the Islamic Mughal emperors of India, and occupy third place. Pathans including Sepahis hail from the northwestern regions including Afghanistan and form the last group of Ashraf.
Sections of the ulema (scholars of Islamic jurisprudence) provide religious legitimacy to caste with the help of the concept of kafa'a. A classical example of scholarly declaration of the Muslim caste system is the ''Fatawa-i Jahandari'', written by the fourteenth century Turkish scholar, Ziauddin Barani, a member of the court of ], of the Tughlaq dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate. Barani was known for his intensely casteist views, and regarded the Ashraf Muslims as racially superior to the Ajlaf Muslims. He divided the Muslims into grades and sub-grades. In his scheme, all high positions and privileges were to be a monopoly of the high born Turks, not the Indian Muslims. Even in his interpretation of the Koranic verse "Indeed, the pious amongst you are most honored by Allah", he considered piety to be associated with noble birth.<ref name="Alvi"/> Barrani was specific in his recommendation that the "sons of Mohamed" "be given a higher social status than the low-born <ref name="Das">Das, Arbind, Arthashastra of Kautilya and Fatwa-i-Jahandari of Ziauddin Barrani: an analysis, Pratibha Publications, Delhi 1996, ISBN 81-85268-45-2 pgs 138-139</ref>.His most significant contribution in the fatwa was his analysis of the castes with respect to Islam.<ref name="Das2">Ibid pg124</ref> His assertion was that castes would be mandated through state laws or "Zawabi" and would carry precedence over ] law whenever they were in conflict.<ref name="Das2"/> In the Fatwa-i-Jahandari (advice XXI), he wrote about the "qualities of the high-born" as being "virtuous" and the "low-born" being the "custodian of vices". Every act which is "contaminated with meanness and based on ignominity, comes elegantly ".<ref>Ibid p143</ref> Barani had a clear disdain for the Ajlaf and strongly recommended that they be denied education, lest they usurp the Ashraf masters. He sought appropriate religious sanction to that effect.<ref name="Sikand"/> Barrani also developed an elaborate system of promotion and demotion of Imperial officers ("Wazirs") that was primarily on the basis of their caste.<ref>Das pgs 138-139</ref>


], a 14th-century Indian political thinker in the ], suggested that the "sons of Mohamed" receive a higher social status than the low-born. His most significant contribution to the ] was his analysis of castes and Islam. Barani said that castes would be mandated through state laws (''zawabi''), which would take precedence over ] in a conflict. According to Barani, every act "contaminated with meanness and based on ignominy, comes elegantly ". He developed an elaborate system of promotion and demotion of imperial officers ('']''), primarily based on caste.<ref>{{cite book |quote= Barani never called himself Turk for one intention that he wanted to be an Indian than anything else |title=Arthashastra of Kautilya and Fatawa-i-Jahandari of Ziauddin Barani|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rXmCAAAAMAAJ&q=Barani+never+called+himself+Turk+for+one+intention+that+he+wanted+to+be+an+Indian+than+anything+else |page=144 |author= Arbind Das · |date=1996 |publisher=Pratibha Prakashan |isbn=9788185268453 }}</ref><ref name="Das">Das, Arbind, Arthashastra of Kautilya and Fatwa-i-Jahandari of Ziauddin Barrani: an analysis, Pratibha Publications, Delhi 1996, {{ISBN|81-85268-45-2}} pp. 124-143</ref><ref>{{citation |last=Sikand |first=Yoginder |title=Sacred Spaces: Exploring Traditions of Shared Faith in India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RBkwnoDPKgUC&pg=PA7 |year=2003 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-14-302931-1 |pages=7–}}</ref> Barani's opinions were not followed by his own sultanate. He accused the Tughlaq Sultans of appointing "low-born" people to high office; they included ]<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L5eFzeyjBTQC |title=Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206–1526) – Part One |author= Satish Chandra |date=2004 |page=99 |publisher=Har-Anand Publications |isbn=9788124110645 }}</ref> and ], Barani's patron in Delhi, who appointed a former slave captured from ] and converted as his ].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&dq=firuz+shah+khan+jahan+convert&pg=RA1-PA4 |title=Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture|id=Three-volume set |editor1=Jonathan Bloom|editor2=Sheila Blair|editor3=Sheila S. Blair |date=2009 |page=4 |publisher=Oup USA |isbn=978-0-19-530991-1 }}</ref>
In addition to the Ashraf/Ajlaf divide, there is also the ''Arzal'' caste among Muslims, who were regarded by anti-Caste activists like Babasaheb ] as the equivalent of untouchables.<ref name="Ambedkar">{{cite book |last = Ambedkar |first = Bhimrao |authorlink = B.R. Ambedkar |title = Pakistan or the Partition of India |publisher = Thackers Publishers }}</ref><ref name="Ambedkaronline"> </ref> The term "Arzal" stands for "degraded" and the Arzal castes are further subdivided into Bhanar, Halalkhor, Hijra, Kasbi, Lalbegi, Maugta, Mehtar etc.<ref name="Ambedkar"/><ref name="Ambedkaronline"/> The Arzal group was recorded in the 1901 census in India and are also called ] Muslims “with whom no other Muhammadan would associate, and who are forbidden to enter the mosque or to use the public burial ground”.They are relegated to "menial" professions such as scavenging and carrying ].<ref> by Tanweer Fazal,''Indian express''</ref>.


Muslims from the ''julaha'' (weaver) caste began to identify as "Ansaris", butchers as "Quereshis", and the sanitation and ''bhishti'' castes as "Sheikh".<ref name="Sanober"/> The Muslim concept of hereditary '']'', which the '']'' use to support ], justifies South Asian Muslim caste practices.{{sfn|Julien Levesque|2020|p=14}}{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}}
Indian Muslims also stratify their society according to 'Quoms' in the ] region of India and in ].<ref>{{cite book |last = Leach |first = Edmund Ronald|authorlink = E.R. Leach |title = Aspects of Caste in South India, Ceylon and North-West Pakistan (Pg 113)|publisher = Cambridge University Press|date = November 24, 1971 }}</ref> These Muslims practise a ritual-based system of social stratification. The Quoms who deal with human emissions are ranked the lowest. Studies of Bengal (India) Muslims indicate that the concepts of purity and impurity exist among them and are applicable in inter-group relationships, as the notions of hygiene and cleanliness in a person are related to the person's social position and not to his/her economic status.<ref name="two"/> ] is another caste distinction among Indian Muslims.


=== {{anchor|Ashrafization and Syedization}}Ashrafization ===
Genetic data has also shown proof of this stratification. ] and ] are one group, ] and ] another, and the lower castes are composed of ]is and ]s.<ref> ''Human Biology - Volume 77, Number 3, June 2005, pp. 343-353'' - </ref>
Ashrafization (or sharifization) includes adopting upper-caste Muslim practices to climb the social ladder.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Collective and Elective Ethnicity: Caste among Urban Muslims in India |first=Syed |last= Ali |date=December 2002 |journal=Sociological Forum |volume=17 |number=4 |publisher=Springer |page=602 |jstor=3070361 |doi=10.1023/A:1021077323866|s2cid=146701489 }}</ref> The ] of ] of the Delhi Sultanate was founded by a ].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CHbiAAAAMAAJ&q=and+rested+chiefly+on+its+causal+recognition+by+the+famous+saint+Sayyid+Jal%C3%A1l|title=The Cambridge History of India|date=1958|publisher=S. Chand|location=The claim of Khizr Khān , who founded the dynasty known as the Sayyids , to descent from the prophet of Arabia was dubious, and rested chiefly on its causal recognition by the famous saint Sayyid Jalāl – ud – dīn of Bukhārā .|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title= India in the Persianate Age: 1000–1765 |author= Richard M. Eaton |year= 2019 | isbn=978-0520325128 |page=117|publisher= University of California Press |language=en|quote=The career of Khizr Khan, a Punjabi chieftain belonging to the Khokar clan...}}</ref>


The ] who were ] in the ], originated from a marginal Indian peasant community in ] who claimed Sayyid ancestry. Mughal emperor ] wrote, "Some people make remarks about their lineage, but their bravery is a convincing proof of their being Sayyids".<ref name="kolff" /> This indicated that the brothers had assumed Sayyid identity due to military service rather than descent.<ref name=kolff>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SrdiVPsFRYIC&dq=barha+peasant+syeds&pg=PA18 |title=Naukar, Rajput, and Sepoy: The Ethnohistory of the Military Labour Market of Hindustan, 1450–1850 |page=18 |author= Dirk H. A. Kolff |date=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521523059 }}</ref>
==Interaction and Mobility==
Interactions between the ''oonchi zat'' (upper caste) and ''neechi zat'' (lower caste) are regulated by established patron-client relationships of the jajmani system, the upper castes being referred to as the 'Jajmans', and the lower caste as 'Kamin'. Upon contact with a low-caste Muslim, a Muslim of a higher ''zat'' can "purify" by taking a short bath, since there are no elaborate rituals for purification.<ref name="two"/> Higher caste Muslims and lower caste Muslims are sometimes even segregated by graveyards.<ref></ref>


==== {{anchor|Caste Associations}}Caste associations ====
Some data indicates that the castes among Muslims have never been as rigid as that among Hindus.<ref name="Muslim Communities">'''Muslim Communities of South Asia: Culture and Society''' Edited by T.N. Madan. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1976 pp. 114</ref> The rate of endogamous marriage, for example, is less than two thirds.<ref name="Muslim Communities" /> An old saying also goes "Last year I was a Julaha (weaver); this year a Shaikh; and next year if the harvest be good, I shall be a Sayyid.".<ref>''Muslim Civilization in India'' S. M. Ikram, New York: Columbia University Press, 1964</ref> However, other scholars, such as ], disagreed with this thesis (see criticism below).
Another type of ashrafization is the establishment of caste associations to promote a community's interests and provide social support.{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} These {{transliteration|fa|anjuman}} ('forum', 'society') is commonly termed {{transliteration|fa|jama'at}} ({{lang|fa|جماعت}}{{hairspace}}; 'congregation', 'group', 'community'), replacing the use of {{transliteration|ur|zat}} ('birth or origin group').{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} The Khoja caste, Ismaili Shias primarily in ] and ], are an example.{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} Other significant Muslim caste associations are those of the Memons and the Bohras in Sindh and ].{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}}


=== {{anchor|History of research}}Research ===
{{see also|Varna (Hinduism)}}
Definitions of ''caste'' vary, and opinions differ on whether the term can be used to denote ] in non-Hindu communities. Ghaus Ansari uses the term "caste" to describe Muslim social groups with the following characteristics: ] within the group; hierarchical gradation of groups; determination of group membership by birth; and, in some cases, association by occupation with a social group.{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=22}} Western ]s began to catalogue Muslim castes during the 19th century in:
* ]'s ''Supplement to the glossary of Indian terms'' (1844), later amplified into ''Memoirs on the history, folk-lore, and distribution of the Races of the North Western Provinces of India''
* John Charles Williams's ''Report on the Census of Oudh'' (1869)
* ]'s ''Census Report of Punjab'' (1883), later adapted into '']''
* ]'s ''Brief View of the Caste System of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh'' (1885)
* ]'s ''Tribes and castes of Bengal'' (1893)
* ]'s ''Tribes and Castes of the North-western Provinces and Oudh'' (1896){{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=22}}


In 20th-century British India, several works included Muslim social groups in their descriptions of Indian castes. These included ]'s '']'' (1911).{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=2}} Around 1915, Mirza Muhammad Hassan Qatil wrote about the four {{lang|und|firqa}} (classes) of the ''ashraf''.{{sfn|David Lelyveld|2005}} He described how people in the following occupations were considered {{lang|und|paji}} (contemptible): elephant caretaking, bread- and perfume-making, and dealing in bazaars.{{sfn|David Lelyveld|2005}} Ghaus Ansari began an academic discussion in 1960 about the concept of a Muslim caste system, and Imtiaz Ahmed elaborated on the subject in ''Caste and Social Stratification among the Muslims'' (1973).{{sfn|Azra Khanam|2013|p=115}}
==Castes in Pakistan==
The Caste system in ] creates sectarian divides and strong issues along similar lines to those divides seen in ].
The social stratification among Muslims in the "Swat" area of North Pakistan has been meaningfully compared to the Caste system in India. The society is rigidly divided into subgroups where each Quom is assigned a profession. Different Quoms are not permitted to intermarry or live in the same community<ref>
{{cite book
| last = Leach
| first = Edmund Ronald
| authorlink = E.R. Leach
| title = Aspects of Caste in South India, Ceylon and North-West Pakistan (Pg 113)
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| date = November 24, 1971
}}
</ref>.
These Muslims practice a ritual-based system of social stratification. The Quoms who deal with human emissions are ranked the lowest.
<ref>{{cite book
| last = Leach
| first = Edmund Ronald
| authorlink = E.R. Leach
| title = Aspects of Caste in South India, Ceylon and North-West Pakistan (Pg 113)
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| date = November 24, 1971
}}</ref>.


== {{anchor|Syedism, Ashrafism, Biradarism, Zatism, Sharifism, Arab Supremacy, and Divisions}}Divisions ==
Lower castes are often severely persecuted by the upper castes. Lower castes are denied privileges in many communities and violence is committed against them. A particularly infamous example of such incidents is that of ] in Pakistan, a low caste woman who was gang raped by upper caste men. In addition, educated Pakistani women from the lower castes are often persecuted by the higher castes for attempting to break the shackles of the restrictive system (that traditionally denied education to the lower castes, particularly the women). A recent example of this is the case of ], a low caste Muslim woman in Pakistan who, in addition to getting a higher education, had an uncle who ] with a woman of a high caste family. She was accosted and gang-raped by the upper-caste family. The chances of any legal action are low due to the Pakistani Government's inability to repeal the ] against women in Pakistan<ref> The Sunday Times - September 24, 2006</ref>, though, in ], Pakistan president ] proposed laws against Hudood making rape a punishable offense <ref>,''BBC''</ref>, which were ratified by the Pakistani senate. The law is meeting considerable opposition from the ] parties in Pakistan, who insist that amending the laws to make them more civilized towards women is against the mandate of Islamic religious law <ref>,''BBC''</ref>.
{{see also|List of Muslim Other Backward Classes communities in India}}
Ghaus Ansari (1960) identified the following four categories of Muslim social divisions in India:
*''Ashrafs'', who claim foreign-origin descent
*] converts
*Converts from other Indian ]
*Converts from ] castes{{page needed|date=May 2024}}


''Ashraf'' hierarchy is determined by the degree of nearness to Muhammad and country of origin; Syeds (who trace descent from Fatima, Muhammad's daughter) have the highest status.{{sfn|Imtiaz Ahmed|1967|p=887}} Non-Ashrafs are categorized as ''ajlaf'', with untouchable Hindu converts also categorized as ''arzal'' ("degraded").<ref name="Ambedkar">{{cite book |last=Ambedkar |first=Bhimrao |author-link=B.R. Ambedkar |title=Pakistan or the Partition of India |publisher= Thackers Publishers }}</ref><ref name="Ambedkaronline"></ref>{{better source needed|date=February 2023|reason=Need peer-reviewed content}} They are relegated to menial professions, such as scavenging and carrying ].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/dereserve-these-myths/12109/ |title=Dereserve these myths – Indian Express |website=archive.indianexpress.com |language=en-gb |access-date=2017-09-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Falahi |first1=Masood |title=Caste and caste-based discrimination s Among Indian Muslims' |url=http://sas-space.sas.ac.uk/5664/1/AHRC_16,_Caste_and_Caste_Based_Discriminations_Among_Indian_Muslims.pdf |website=SAS |access-date=5 January 2015}}</ref>
==See Also==
]


In ], social groups known as {{transliteration|ur|quoms}} have a social stratification comparable to the Indian caste system. The {{transliteration|ur|quoms}} differ widely in power, privilege, and wealth. Ethnic affiliation (such as ], ], ], and ], etc.) and membership in a ] are components of social identity.<ref name="barth">{{cite book |last=Barth |first=Fredrik |editor=E. R. Leach |title=The System Of Social Stratification In Swat, North Pakistan (Aspects of Caste in South India, Ceylon, and North-West Pakistan) |url=https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=2995517 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=113 |year=1962 |access-date=2017-08-25 |archive-date=2012-04-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120406091830/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=2995517 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Within the bounds of endogamy, close ] are preferred due to a unity of group- and individual factors. McKim Marriott said that a social stratification that is hierarchical, closed, endogamous, and hereditary is prevalent, particularly in western Pakistan.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Ecologic Relationships of Ethnic Groups in Swat, North Pakistan |author=Fredrick Barth |journal=American Anthropologist |doi=10.1525/aa.1956.58.6.02a00080 |volume=58 |issue=6 |pages=1079–1089 |date=December 1956 |doi-access=free}}</ref>{{sfn|Zeyauddin Ahmad|2011}}<ref>{{cite book |title=Caste ranking and community structure in five regions of India and Pakistan |author=McKim Marriott |year=1960 |publisher=Deccan College Postgraduate and Research Institute |oclc=186146571}}</ref> Numerically- and socially-influential tribes in Pakistani Punjab include the agricultural tribes of ], ], ], and ].<ref name="nihcr.edu.pk"/><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Punjab Province, Pakistan |encyclopedia=] |id=483579 |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Punjab-province-Pakistan |access-date=22 March 2022}}h</ref>
==Criticism==
Many Muslim scholars have termed the caste-like features in Indian Muslim society as a "flagrant violation of the Qur'anic worldview.". However, a few Muslim scholars tried to reconcile and resolve the "disjunction between Qur'anic egalitarianism and Indian Muslim social practice" through theorizing it in different ways and interpreting the Quran and Sharia to justify casteism<ref> Yoginder Singh Sikand, </ref>.


In Nepal, the castes of Muslims rank differ according to the criteria applied.<ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopaedia of the World Muslims: Tribes, Castes and Communities, Volume 1 |author=Nagendra Kr Singh, Abdul Mabud Khan |page=1124 |publisher=Global Vision Pub House |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zzfs_G7QHoAC&pg=PA1124 |isbn=9788187746072 |year=2001}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Islamic Culture - Volume 52 |page=207 |author=Marmaduke William Pickthall, Muhammad Asad |year=1978}}</ref> In India, most ''ulemas'' (theologians or doctors of the law) are part of the Syed; many Ashrafs are businessmen, landowners, and traders.{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} A regional "marriage circle" can be formed, where marriage alliances occur.{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} A Syed's status is sometimes based more on male descendants and ] marriage than ancestry.{{sfn|Remy Delage|2014}} Early Turks had subdivisions.{{sfn|Imtiaz Ahmed|1967|p=889}}
While some scholars have asserted that the Muslim Castes are not as acute in their discrimination as that among Hindus<ref name="Sikand"/><ref name="Muslim Communities" />, ] argued otherwise, writing that the social evils in Muslim society were "worse than those seen in Hindu society".<ref name="Ambedkar"/><ref name="Ambedkaronline"/>


In the ''Rasum-i Hind'', a textbook compiled by Master Pyare Lal in 1862, four ''firqa'' (''ashraf'' subdivisions) are explained and ''nasl'' (lineage) is described.{{sfn|David Lelyveld|2005}} Ancestors of the Mughal caste are said to be descended from the Biblical Noah,{{sfn|David Lelyveld|2005}} and ancestors of the Pathans are said to be Israelites from the time of ].{{sfn|David Lelyveld|2005}} In the Mughal Empire ruling class, Muslims were classified as native ]i, Afghan, Turani, and Irani.{{sfn|David Lelyveld|2005}}
Babasaheb ] was an illustrious figure in Indian politics and the chief architect of the ]. He was extremely critical of the Muslim Caste System and their practices, quoting that "Within these groups there are castes with social precedence of exactly the same nature as one finds among the Hindus". He was critical of how the Ashrafs regarded the Ajlaf and Arzal as "worthless" and the fact that Muslims tried to sugarcoat the sectarian divisions by using euphemisms like "brotherhood" to describe them. He was also critical of the precept of ] of scripture among Indian Muslims that led them to keep the Muslim Caste system rigid and discriminatory. He condemned the Indian Muslim Community of being unable to reform like Muslims in other countries like ] did during the early decades of the twentieth century.<ref name="Ambedkar"/><ref name="Ambedkaronline"/>.


=== Pakistani Punjab ===
==== {{anchor|Zamindars, Kammis, and the Seyp System|Elections}}Zamindars, Kammis, and the Seyp system ====
Zamindars (a landowning class) and Kammis, service-providing castes, are hierarchical groups in Pakistani Punjabi villages{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=ii}} which are based on parental occupation.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=ii}} In the Seyp system (contract labour), the Kammis provide work and services and receive favours, food, money, crops, and grains.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=5}} Zamindars are considered a dominant caste and tend to be village and town leaders.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=5}} Urban social, political, and economic affairs are dominated by Zamindars, and land is controlled by them;{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=5}} Kammis are socially marginalized.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=8}} Kammis and Zamindars intermarry.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=4}} Ancestral land ownership and agriculture are ascribed to Zamindars.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=10}}{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=6}} Other castes are higher than the Kammis and below the Zamindars.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=74}}


Caste endogamy exists in Pakistan, with members of a ''quom'' tending to marry within it.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=17}} In rural areas of Pakistani Punjab, endogamy is vital to the caste system.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=17}} Kammis include artisans, labourers, and service providers such as barbers, cobblers, and carpenters.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=18}} Most are labourers or perform low-ranking tasks.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=140}} According to a Kammi woman,
==References==
{{blockquote|Even if a Kammi acquires 100 acres of land, he remains Kammi, and Zamindars will always consider him lower. A Zamindar who owns one acre of land would think, "If a Kammi has bought 2 acres, so what? After all, he remains a Kammi". They do not accept us as equals.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=136}}}}
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
<references/>
</div>


''Quoms'' influence marriage practices.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=18}} Different Zamindar ''quoms'' sometimes intermarry, however, and may constitute a Biradari.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=139}} A study in a Pakistani Punjabi village found that in a ''seyp'' (contract) between Zamindar and Kammi families, Kammi families give goods to and perform services for the Zamindars, who provide the Kammis with grain. Kammi families also perform customary and ritual tasks, for example, a barber cooks in the Zamindar's house for special events and performs circumcisions.{{sfn|Julien Levesque|2020|p=10}}
]

''Quom'' loyalty is also evident in elections.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=18}} Biradaris are the sole criteria in local Pakistani Punjab elections;{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=160}} Zamindars outnumber Kammis there,{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=139}} and Kammis do not generally stand for election due to financial considerations.{{sfn|Ahmed Usman|2011|p=161}}

=== Bengal ===
Although class distinctions based on wealth and occupation exist, hereditary castes do not exist for mainstream Bangladeshi and Bengali Muslims (unlike Bangladeshi Hindus).<ref></ref>{{circular reference|date=May 2023|reason=the site uses Misplaced Pages as a source for its articles}}{{bsn|date=May 2023|reason=The site is maintained by someone who in their own words is "not a professor or an expert on the subjects I write about"}} About 35 Muslim castes reportedly exist in Bihari Muslims in West Bengal.{{sfn|Chowdhury|2009|p=8}}

=== Sharifism ===
Sharifism is the status given to claimants of prophetic ''nasab'' (or ''qarabah'', "closeness"): descent from Muhammad, Muhammad's Quraysh tribe, or Muhammad's family.<ref>{{cite book |title=Islamic and Comparative Religious Studies: Selected Writings |publisher=Ashgate Publisher, Ltd. |year=2010 |page=30}}</ref>

== Discrimination ==

=== Representation ===
In 20th-century India, ''ashraf'' Muslims dominated government jobs and parliamentary representation. Campaigns exist to include lower Muslim social classes among groups eligible for ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.milligazette.com/Archives/2004/01-15Sep04-Print-Edition/011509200449.htm |title=On reservation for Muslims |author=Asghar Ali Engineer |work=The Milli Gazette |publisher=Pharos |access-date=2004-09-01 }}</ref>

=== Burial ===
In India's ] state, ] Muslims have opposed the burial of ] Muslims with them.<ref name="rediff_burial">{{cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2003/mar/06bihar.htm |title=Backward Muslims protest denial of burial |author=Anand Mohan Sahay |work=] |access-date=2003-03-06 }}</ref><ref>Ahmad, I., 2010. "Can There Be a Category Called Dalit Muslims?". ''Studies in Inequality and Social Justice'', p.79</ref>

=== Cooking ===
A study in a Pakistani village found that a caste-like hierarchy exists in its Muslim community. The sweeper group is ranked lowest, and other Muslim communities do not allow sweepers to touch their cooking vessels.<ref name="Donnan1988">{{cite book |author=Hastings Donnan |title=Marriage Among Muslims: Preference and Choice in Northern Pakistan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PL_ACoFwJ2gC&pg=PR9 |year=1988 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-08416-2 |pages=51–56}}</ref>

=== {{anchor|Racial and historical}}Historical racism ===
According to ], Turkish sultans discriminated against Muslims of local descent;{{sfn|Imtiaz Ahmed|1967|p=889}} ] discriminated against low-birth Muslims by firing 33 of them from the government,{{sfn|Imtiaz Ahmed|1967|p=889}} and appointed Jamal Marzuq as ] of ]. Aziz Bahruz disagreed because of Marzuq's low birth status, and Marzuq was removed from his post.{{sfn|Imtiaz Ahmed|1967|p=889}} Low-born people could not be a ''mudabbiri'' or ''khwajgi'',{{clarify|date=May 2024|reason="Mudabbiri" and "khwajgi" need to be defined.}} and were not eligible for an ] recommendation.{{sfn|Imtiaz Ahmed|1967|p=889}}

] kept low-birth people from important offices, and criticized the appointment of Kamal Mohiyar as mutassarrif of Amroaha.{{sfn|Imtiaz Ahmed|1967|p=889}} A letter by Sayyid Ashraf Jahangiri explains that Balban researched the ancestry of his government servants and officers with genealogists in Delhi.{{sfn|Imtiaz Ahmed|1967|p=889}}

Tughlaq gave "preference to foreign-born Muslims in administration and government" and "systematically ignored the claims of Indian Muslims".{{sfn|Imtiaz Ahmed|1967|p=889}} According to Sayyid Ashraf Jahangiri,
{{blockquote|The Sultan went to the extent of offering the most responsible and distinguished offices of the kingdom – for instance, those of a Wazir, a Dabir, a military commander, a judge, a professor of theology, or a Shaikhul-Islam – to almost any foreigner of some learning. Foreigners coming to India were collectively known as "the Honourables" (''A'izza'').{{sfn|Imtiaz Ahmed|1967|p=889}}}}

Historians and Urdu writers, including Masood Alam Falahi, have explained how discrimination by ''ashraf'' Muslims against lower-caste and ]s was often disguised as claims of class and {{transl|ur|khandaani}} (family line) values by Uttar Pradesh Muslims.<ref name="Sanober">{{cite journal |title= The Identity of Language and the Language of Erasure: Urdu and the Racialized-Decastification of the "Backward Musalmaan" in India |first=Sanober |last=Umar |publisher=] |journal=Caste: A Global Journal on Social Exclusion |date=14 February 2020 |volume=1 |issue=1 |doi=10.26812/caste.v1i1.29 |page=187|doi-access=free }}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Islam}}

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== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{reflist|30em}}

=== Bibliography ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite journal |author=Imtiaz Ahmed |title=Ashraf and Ajlaf Categories in Indo-Muslim Society |date=May 13, 1967 |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |volume=2 |issue=19 |pages=887–891 |jstor=4357934}}
* {{cite book |last=Anis Ansari |first=Khalid |chapter=Pluralism and the Post-Minority Condition |editor1=Boaventura De Sousa Santos |editor2=Bruno Sena Martins |date=2021 |title=The Pluriverse of Human Rights: The Diversity of Struggles for Dignity: The Diversity of Struggles for Dignity |publisher=Routledge |pages=|isbn=978-1-00-039570-9 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m8cqEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT86}}
* {{cite book |author=Ghaus Ansari |title=Muslim Caste in Uttar Pradesh: A Study of Culture Contact |publisher=Ethnographic and Folk Culture Society |year=1960 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i0HRAAAAMAAJ |oclc=1104993 }}
* {{cite book |author=Fredrik Barth |author-link=Fredrik Barth |editor=Edmund Leach |title=Aspects of Caste in South India, Ceylon and North-West Pakistan |publisher=CUP Archive |year=1960 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OlU7AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA113 |isbn=9780521096645 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Berreman |first=Gerald D. |date=June 1972 |title=Social Categories and Social Interaction in Urban India |journal=American Anthropologist |volume =74 |issue=3 |pages=567–586 |issn=0002-7294 |doi =10.1525/aa.1972.74.3.02a00220 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |first=Iftekhar Uddin |last=Chowdhury |title=Caste-based Discrimination in South Asia: A Study of Bangladesh |publisher=Indian Institute of Dalit Studies |journal=Working Paper Series |url=https://idsn.org/wp-content/uploads/user_folder/pdf/New_files/Bangladesh/Caste-based_Discrimination_in_Bangladesh__IIDS_working_paper_.pdf |volume=III |number=7 |date=November 7, 2009}}
* {{cite journal |author=Remy Delage |title=Muslim Castes in India |journal=Books & Ideas |date=29 September 2014 |publisher=College De France |url=https://booksandideas.net/Muslim-Castes-in-India.html}}
* {{cite book |author=Azra Khanam |title=Muslim Backward Classes: A Sociological Perspective |publisher=SAGE |year=2013 |isbn=9788132116509 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sdz9AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA115 }}
* {{cite web |author=Julien Levesque |title=Debates on Muslim Caste in North India and Pakistan |year=2020 |publisher=HAL |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02697381}}
* {{cite web |author=David Lelyveld |title=Article on "Ashraf" in "Keywords in South Asian Studies" |editor=Rachel Dwyer |publisher=School of Oriental and African Studies |year=2005 |url=https://www.soas.ac.uk/south-asia-institute/keywords/file24799.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201227045820/https://www.soas.ac.uk/south-asia-institute/keywords/file24799.pdf |archive-date=December 27, 2020}}
* {{cite book |author=Robert W. Stern |title=Changing India: Bourgeois Revolution on the Subcontinent |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2003 |isbn=978-0-521-00912-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kb_z1KghC1oC&pg=PA76}}
* {{cite thesis |author=Ahmed Usman |title=Social Stratification in a Punjabi Village of Pakistan: The Dynamics between Caste, Gender, and Violence |type=PhD |url=https://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/21130/1/582096.pdf |publisher=The University of Leeds |year=2011}}
* {{cite book |title=Islamic and Comparative Religious Studies: Selected Writings |publisher=Ashgate Publisher, Ltd. |year=2010}}

{{refend}}

==Notes==
:A.{{Note|NoteA||This source gets the quotation from the following source: E A Gait, 'Census of India' 1901: Bengal Report 6 (1), Bengal Secretariat Press. 1902, p 439; the description in 'Imperial Gazetteer of India', v. 2, pp 329}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |author=Imtiaz Ahmad |title=Caste and social stratification among Muslims in India |year=1978 |publisher=Manohar |location=New Delhi |oclc=5147249 }}
* {{cite book |author=Zeyauddin Ahmad |chapter=Caste Elements Among the Muslims of Bihar |editor=Kenneth David |date=2011 |title=The New Wind: Changing Identities in South Asia |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |pages=337–356 |isbn=978-3-11-080775-2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vp_la9QMGIQC&pg=PA337}}
* {{cite book |last=Imam Ali |first=A.F. |title=Changing Social Stratification in Rural Bangladesh |date=September 1993 |publisher=South Asia Books |isbn=978-81-7169-267-5 }}
* {{cite journal |author=Syed Ali |date=December 2002 |title=Collective and Elective Ethnicity: Caste Among Urban Muslims in India |journal=Sociological Forum |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=593–620 |issn=0884-8971 |doi=10.1023/A:1021077323866 |s2cid=146701489 }}
* {{cite book |last=Sikand |first=Yoginder |title= Islam, Caste and Muslim Relations in India |year=2004 |publisher= Global Media Publications |isbn=978-81-88869-06-0 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Ahmad |first=S. Shamim |author2=A. K. Chakravarti |date=January 1981 |title=Some regional characteristics of Muslim caste systems in India |journal=GeoJournal |volume =5 |issue=1 |pages=55–60 |issn=0343-2521 |doi=10.1007/BF00185243 |s2cid=153606947 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Berreman |first=Gerald D. |date=June 1972 |title=Social Categories and Social Interaction in Urban India |journal=American Anthropologist |volume =74 |issue=3 |pages=567–586 |issn=0002-7294 |doi =10.1525/aa.1972.74.3.02a00220 |doi-access=free }}

{{Segregation by type|state=collapsed}}
{{Discrimination}}

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Revision as of 04:39, 20 November 2024

Social system in South Asia
This article should specify the language of its non-English content, using {{lang}}, {{transliteration}} for transliterated languages, and {{IPA}} for phonetic transcriptions, with an appropriate ISO 639 code. Misplaced Pages's multilingual support templates may also be used. See why. (February 2023)

Muslim communities in South Asia have a system of social stratification arising from concepts other than "pure" and "impure", which are integral to the caste system in India. It developed as a result of relations among foreign conquerors, local upper-caste Hindus convert to Islam (ashraf, also known as tabqa-i ashrafiyya) and local lower-caste converts (ajlaf), as well as the continuation of the Indian caste system by converts. Non-ashrafs are backward-caste converts. The concept of "pasmanda" includes ajlaf and arzal Muslims; ajlaf status is defined by descent from converts to Islam and by pesha (profession). These terms are not part of the sociological vocabulary in regions such as Kashmir and Uttar Pradesh, and say little about the functioning of Muslim society.

The Biradari system is social stratification in Pakistan and, to an extent, India. The South Asian Muslim caste system includes hierarchical classifications of khandan (dynasty, family, or lineage).

History

Although Islam requires egalitarianism and does not recognize any castes (only socio-economic classes), existing divisions in Persia and India were adopted by local Muslim societies. Evidence of social stratification exists in later Persian works such as Nizam al-Mulk's 11th-century Siyasatnama, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi's 13th-century Akhlaq-i Nasiri, and the 17th-century Jam-i-Mufidi.

After Muhammad's death in the seventh century CE, tribes and families fought a war of succession. After this, a determinant for social stratification in Arab society included being part of Muhammad's close family (ahl al-bayt). This factor was present in ancient South Asia among Muslims since the eighth century.

This led to a further hierarchical determinant: Arabs versus non-Arabs. Among non-Arabs, further divisions were made between Muslims who were converted in early Islamization campaigns (khadim-al islam) and those who converted more recently (jadid-al islam). South Asian Muslims are divided by classifications that have resulted in Arab-origin higher castes (unch zat) and descendants of lower-caste converts (nich zat). Mughal Empire sultans were high-caste.

The Muslims who came to the subcontinent during the 12th century were already divided into vocation-based social "classes", including priests, nobles, and others, and racial segregation separated local Muslim converts from foreign-origin Muslims. The foreigners claimed superior status, since they were associated with the conquerors and considered themselves as sharif ("noble"). Indian Muslim society also split in accordance with the Hindu caste system. According to M. N. Srinivas (1986) and R. K. Bhattacharya, Indian Hindu converts to Islam brought their caste system to the region's Muslim society. Louis Dumont, however, believed that the Islamic conquerors adopted the Hindu caste system "as a compromise which they had to make in a predominantly Hindu environment."

Ziauddin Barani, a 14th-century Indian political thinker in the Delhi Sultanate, suggested that the "sons of Mohamed" receive a higher social status than the low-born. His most significant contribution to the fatwa was his analysis of castes and Islam. Barani said that castes would be mandated through state laws (zawabi), which would take precedence over sharia in a conflict. According to Barani, every act "contaminated with meanness and based on ignominy, comes elegantly ". He developed an elaborate system of promotion and demotion of imperial officers (wazirs), primarily based on caste. Barani's opinions were not followed by his own sultanate. He accused the Tughlaq Sultans of appointing "low-born" people to high office; they included Sultan Muhammad Shah and Sultan Firuz Shah, Barani's patron in Delhi, who appointed a former slave captured from Telangana and converted as his grand vizier.

Muslims from the julaha (weaver) caste began to identify as "Ansaris", butchers as "Quereshis", and the sanitation and bhishti castes as "Sheikh". The Muslim concept of hereditary kafa'ah, which the ulama use to support endogamy, justifies South Asian Muslim caste practices.

Ashrafization

Ashrafization (or sharifization) includes adopting upper-caste Muslim practices to climb the social ladder. The Sayyid dynasty of Khizr Khan of the Delhi Sultanate was founded by a Punjabi Muslim.

The Sayyid brothers who were king-makers in the Mughal Empire, originated from a marginal Indian peasant community in Muzaffarnagar who claimed Sayyid ancestry. Mughal emperor Jahangir wrote, "Some people make remarks about their lineage, but their bravery is a convincing proof of their being Sayyids". This indicated that the brothers had assumed Sayyid identity due to military service rather than descent.

Caste associations

Another type of ashrafization is the establishment of caste associations to promote a community's interests and provide social support. These anjuman ('forum', 'society') is commonly termed jama'at (جماعت ; 'congregation', 'group', 'community'), replacing the use of zat ('birth or origin group'). The Khoja caste, Ismaili Shias primarily in Karachi and Sindh, are an example. Other significant Muslim caste associations are those of the Memons and the Bohras in Sindh and Gujarat.

Research

See also: Varna (Hinduism)

Definitions of caste vary, and opinions differ on whether the term can be used to denote social stratification in non-Hindu communities. Ghaus Ansari uses the term "caste" to describe Muslim social groups with the following characteristics: endogamy within the group; hierarchical gradation of groups; determination of group membership by birth; and, in some cases, association by occupation with a social group. Western Indologists began to catalogue Muslim castes during the 19th century in:

  • Henry Miers Elliot's Supplement to the glossary of Indian terms (1844), later amplified into Memoirs on the history, folk-lore, and distribution of the Races of the North Western Provinces of India
  • John Charles Williams's Report on the Census of Oudh (1869)
  • Denzil Ibbetson's Census Report of Punjab (1883), later adapted into Panjab Castes
  • John Nesfield's Brief View of the Caste System of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh (1885)
  • Herbert Hope Risley's Tribes and castes of Bengal (1893)
  • William Crooke's Tribes and Castes of the North-western Provinces and Oudh (1896)

In 20th-century British India, several works included Muslim social groups in their descriptions of Indian castes. These included H. A. Rose's A Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and North-West Frontier Province (1911). Around 1915, Mirza Muhammad Hassan Qatil wrote about the four firqa (classes) of the ashraf. He described how people in the following occupations were considered paji (contemptible): elephant caretaking, bread- and perfume-making, and dealing in bazaars. Ghaus Ansari began an academic discussion in 1960 about the concept of a Muslim caste system, and Imtiaz Ahmed elaborated on the subject in Caste and Social Stratification among the Muslims (1973).

Divisions

See also: List of Muslim Other Backward Classes communities in India

Ghaus Ansari (1960) identified the following four categories of Muslim social divisions in India:

Ashraf hierarchy is determined by the degree of nearness to Muhammad and country of origin; Syeds (who trace descent from Fatima, Muhammad's daughter) have the highest status. Non-Ashrafs are categorized as ajlaf, with untouchable Hindu converts also categorized as arzal ("degraded"). They are relegated to menial professions, such as scavenging and carrying night soil.

In Pakistan, social groups known as quoms have a social stratification comparable to the Indian caste system. The quoms differ widely in power, privilege, and wealth. Ethnic affiliation (such as Pathan, Sindhi, Baloch, and Punjabi, etc.) and membership in a biraderi are components of social identity. Within the bounds of endogamy, close consanguineous unions are preferred due to a unity of group- and individual factors. McKim Marriott said that a social stratification that is hierarchical, closed, endogamous, and hereditary is prevalent, particularly in western Pakistan. Numerically- and socially-influential tribes in Pakistani Punjab include the agricultural tribes of Awan, Rajput, Jat Muslim, and Gujjar.

In Nepal, the castes of Muslims rank differ according to the criteria applied. In India, most ulemas (theologians or doctors of the law) are part of the Syed; many Ashrafs are businessmen, landowners, and traders. A regional "marriage circle" can be formed, where marriage alliances occur. A Syed's status is sometimes based more on male descendants and hypergamous marriage than ancestry. Early Turks had subdivisions.

In the Rasum-i Hind, a textbook compiled by Master Pyare Lal in 1862, four firqa (ashraf subdivisions) are explained and nasl (lineage) is described. Ancestors of the Mughal caste are said to be descended from the Biblical Noah, and ancestors of the Pathans are said to be Israelites from the time of Solomon. In the Mughal Empire ruling class, Muslims were classified as native Hindustani, Afghan, Turani, and Irani.

Pakistani Punjab

Zamindars, Kammis, and the Seyp system

Zamindars (a landowning class) and Kammis, service-providing castes, are hierarchical groups in Pakistani Punjabi villages which are based on parental occupation. In the Seyp system (contract labour), the Kammis provide work and services and receive favours, food, money, crops, and grains. Zamindars are considered a dominant caste and tend to be village and town leaders. Urban social, political, and economic affairs are dominated by Zamindars, and land is controlled by them; Kammis are socially marginalized. Kammis and Zamindars intermarry. Ancestral land ownership and agriculture are ascribed to Zamindars. Other castes are higher than the Kammis and below the Zamindars.

Caste endogamy exists in Pakistan, with members of a quom tending to marry within it. In rural areas of Pakistani Punjab, endogamy is vital to the caste system. Kammis include artisans, labourers, and service providers such as barbers, cobblers, and carpenters. Most are labourers or perform low-ranking tasks. According to a Kammi woman,

Even if a Kammi acquires 100 acres of land, he remains Kammi, and Zamindars will always consider him lower. A Zamindar who owns one acre of land would think, "If a Kammi has bought 2 acres, so what? After all, he remains a Kammi". They do not accept us as equals.

Quoms influence marriage practices. Different Zamindar quoms sometimes intermarry, however, and may constitute a Biradari. A study in a Pakistani Punjabi village found that in a seyp (contract) between Zamindar and Kammi families, Kammi families give goods to and perform services for the Zamindars, who provide the Kammis with grain. Kammi families also perform customary and ritual tasks, for example, a barber cooks in the Zamindar's house for special events and performs circumcisions.

Quom loyalty is also evident in elections. Biradaris are the sole criteria in local Pakistani Punjab elections; Zamindars outnumber Kammis there, and Kammis do not generally stand for election due to financial considerations.

Bengal

Although class distinctions based on wealth and occupation exist, hereditary castes do not exist for mainstream Bangladeshi and Bengali Muslims (unlike Bangladeshi Hindus). About 35 Muslim castes reportedly exist in Bihari Muslims in West Bengal.

Sharifism

Sharifism is the status given to claimants of prophetic nasab (or qarabah, "closeness"): descent from Muhammad, Muhammad's Quraysh tribe, or Muhammad's family.

Discrimination

Representation

In 20th-century India, ashraf Muslims dominated government jobs and parliamentary representation. Campaigns exist to include lower Muslim social classes among groups eligible for affirmative action.

Burial

In India's Bihar state, forward-caste Muslims have opposed the burial of backward-caste Muslims with them.

Cooking

A study in a Pakistani village found that a caste-like hierarchy exists in its Muslim community. The sweeper group is ranked lowest, and other Muslim communities do not allow sweepers to touch their cooking vessels.

Historical racism

According to Ziauddin Barani, Turkish sultans discriminated against Muslims of local descent; Iltutmish discriminated against low-birth Muslims by firing 33 of them from the government, and appointed Jamal Marzuq as mutasarrif of Kannauj. Aziz Bahruz disagreed because of Marzuq's low birth status, and Marzuq was removed from his post. Low-born people could not be a mudabbiri or khwajgi, and were not eligible for an iqta recommendation.

Ghiyas ud din Balban kept low-birth people from important offices, and criticized the appointment of Kamal Mohiyar as mutassarrif of Amroaha. A letter by Sayyid Ashraf Jahangiri explains that Balban researched the ancestry of his government servants and officers with genealogists in Delhi.

Tughlaq gave "preference to foreign-born Muslims in administration and government" and "systematically ignored the claims of Indian Muslims". According to Sayyid Ashraf Jahangiri,

The Sultan went to the extent of offering the most responsible and distinguished offices of the kingdom – for instance, those of a Wazir, a Dabir, a military commander, a judge, a professor of theology, or a Shaikhul-Islam – to almost any foreigner of some learning. Foreigners coming to India were collectively known as "the Honourables" (A'izza).

Historians and Urdu writers, including Masood Alam Falahi, have explained how discrimination by ashraf Muslims against lower-caste and Dalit Muslims was often disguised as claims of class and khandaani (family line) values by Uttar Pradesh Muslims.

See also

References

Citations

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Bibliography

Notes

A. This source gets the quotation from the following source: E A Gait, 'Census of India' 1901: Bengal Report 6 (1), Bengal Secretariat Press. 1902, p 439; the description in 'Imperial Gazetteer of India', v. 2, pp 329

Further reading

Segregation in countries by type (in some countries, categories overlap)
Religious
Ethnic and racial
Gender
Dynamics
Related
topics
Discrimination
Forms
Attributes
Social
Religious
Ethnic/National
Manifestations
Discriminatory
policies
Countermeasures
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