Misplaced Pages

Manchuria: Difference between revisions

Article snapshot taken from Wikipedia with creative commons attribution-sharealike license. Give it a read and then ask your questions in the chat. We can research this topic together.
Browse history interactively← Previous editContent deleted Content addedVisualWikitext
Revision as of 04:26, 24 September 2006 edit69.216.19.9 (talk)No edit summary← Previous edit Latest revision as of 17:29, 22 November 2024 edit undo2001:448a:7066:2140:dc72:5f15:571e:36e4 (talk)No edit summaryTags: Visual edit Mobile edit Mobile web edit 
Line 1: Line 1:
{{Short description|Geographical region in Northeast Asia}}
{{copyedit}}
{{About|the region of Northeast Asia|the former Japanese puppet state in Manchuria|Manchukuo|other uses}}
'''Manchuria''' (]: ''Manju'', {{zh-tsp|t=滿洲|s=满洲|p=Mǎnzhōu}}, ]: {{lang|ru|Маньчжурия}}) is a vast territorial region in northeast ]. Depending on the definition of its extent, Manchuria is divided between China and ].
{{Redirect|Manzhou|the township in southern Taiwan|Manzhou, Pingtung}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2017}}


{{Infobox Chinese
Manchuria was the traditional homeland of the ], the ] and the ]. Some of them built the dynasty of Korean, and others built several dynasties in both Manchuria and ], and most recently and famously the ]s, who lent their name to the region and, in the 17th century, conquered and ruled China until the collapse of the ] in 1911. The west of Manchuria was the territory of Qing, and East of Manchuria was the territory of ] at least until 19th century. See for more detail ] and ]. In 20th century, east side of Gando was sold to China by Japan when Korean was a colony of Japan. For more detail, see ]. The area of Manchuria inside ] is at least 1.55 million ]. ]
| pic = File: Manchuria.png
| piccap = Map of Manchuria with the central part coloured in red (]); eastern ] to the west, in slightly lighter red; and ] to the north-east, in pink.
| s = {{linktext|满洲}}
| t = {{linktext|滿洲}}
| p = Mǎnzhōu
| w = Man-chou
| gr = Maanjou
| tp = Mǎnjhou
| bpmf = ㄇㄢˇ ㄓㄡ
| mi = {{IPAc-cmn|m|an|3|.|zh|ou|1}}
| j = Mun<sup>5</sup>-zau<sup>1</sup>
| wuu = Moe<sup>上</sup>-tseu<sup>平</sup>
| mnc = ]
| mnc_rom = Manju Gurun
| mong = ᠮᠠᠨᠵᠤᠤᠷ
| mon = Манжуур
| monr = Manjuur
| rus = Маньчжурия
| rusr = Man'chzhuriya
| kanji = {{linktext|満州}}
| kana = まんしゅう
| romaji = Manshū
| kunrei = Mansyû
| order = st
| c =
| ci =
| altname =
| hangul = 만주
| hanja = 滿洲
| rr = Manju
| mr = Manju
}}


'''Manchuria'''<!-- Chinese in infobox; see WP:MOS-ZH --> is a term that refers to a ] in ] encompassing the entirety of present-day ], and historically parts of the modern-day ], often referred to as ]. Its definition may refer to varying geographical extents as follows: in the narrow sense, the area constituted by three Chinese provinces of ], ], and ] but broadly also including the eastern ]n ] of ], ], ], and ], collectively known as Northeast China; in a broader sense, the area of historical Manchuria includes the aforementioned regions plus the ] basin, parts of which were ceded to the ] by the Manchu-led ] during the ] of 1858–1860. The parts of Manchuria ceded to Russia are collectively known as ] or Russian Manchuria, which include present-day ], ], the ], the southern part of ], and the eastern edge of ].
== Extent of Manchuria ==
Depending on the definition one uses, “Manchuria” can refer to any of several regions of various sizes. These are, from smallest to largest:


The name ''Manchuria'' is an ] (derived from the endonym "]") of ] origin. The history of "Manchuria" (''Manzhou'') as a ] in China is disputed, with some scholars believing it was never used while others believe it was by the late 19th century. The area was historically referred to by various names in the Qing dynasty such as ''Guandong'' (East of the ]) or the ''Three Provinces'' referring to ], ], and ]. ''Manchuria'' as a geographical term was first used in the 18th or 19th centuries by the Japanese before spreading to ]. The term was promoted by the ] in support for the existence of its puppet state, ]. Although the toponym is still used, some scholars treat the term with caution or avoid it altogether due to its association with ]. The term is deprecated in China due to its association with Japanese imperialism and ethnic connotations. As a result, areas once considered part of Manchuria are simply referred to as the '']''.<ref name="Elliot 2000"/> The ''Three Provinces'' and the ''Northeast'' were also in concurrent use among the Japanese along with ''Manchuria'' until the ] of 1931.{{sfn|Narangoa|2002|p=5}}
# ]: officially defined as the three provinces of ], ] and ]
# The above, plus part of northeastern ]
# The above two together is termed Chinese Manchuria to contrast it with Russian Manchuria or the Maritime Province of Siberia. (see below)
# The above, plus '''Russian Manchuria''', a region in ] that stretches from the ] and ] rivers to the ] and the ]. Russian Far East comprises ], southern ], the ] and ]. These were part of Manchu China according to the ] of ], but were ceded to Russia by the ] (1858);
# The above, plus ], which is generally included on Chinese maps as part of Outer Manchuria, even though it is not explicitly mentioned in the Treaty of Nerchinsk.


The area is home to many ethnic groups, including the ], ], ], ], ], and ]. Many of the early ancient ] kingdoms were established in the area. It is the ancestral homeland to the Tungusic-speaking ] and their descendants, the Manchus.
Manchuria borders ] in the west, ] in the north, ] to the south and ] in the southeast. Chinese Manchuria has access to the ] and the ] to the south, while Russian Manchuria has access to the ] and the ] to the east and northeast.


== Naming == == Boundaries ==
] of the ], also showing the island of ] in the east, apart to the west towards Mongolia, roughly corresponds to the geographical area of the historic land of the Manchu people]]
''Manchuria'' is a translation of the Manchurian word ''Manzhou''. After the ] in China, which resulted in the collapse of the Manchu's ] empire, the name of the region where the Manchus originated, ''Manzhou'' or Manchuria, was replaced by "the Northeast" only in chinese official documents. Due to the tumultous history of Manchuria in the 20th century, the name "Manchuria" now may evoke a mixed reaction in the region: on one hand, some, especially among the older generations, still prefer to call their homeland "Bei Man (Northern Manchuria)" or "Nan Man (Southern Manchuria)"; on the other hand, the memory of ], a Japanese-supported state in Manchuria during World War II, has resulted in a stigma among the Chinese in other regions surrounding the name "Manchuria", due to connotations of separatism and collaboration with the invaders. The stigma applies only to the geographical term. "]" ({{zh-tsp |t=滿族|s=满族|p=Mǎnzú}}) is considered a legitimate and neutral name for one of the ethnic group that originated in Manchuria.
Manchuria is now most often associated with the three ] of ], ], and ].<ref>{{ cite journal
| title =The Power of Imagination: Whose Northeast and Whose Manchuria?
| author = Li Narangoa
| journal = Inner Asia
| volume= 4 | number= 1
| year = 2002
| pages = 3–25
| jstor = 23615422
| publisher = Brill
}}</ref>{{rp|3}}{{refn|This is the sense used, e.g., in the ].<ref>{{cite book |last=Brummitt |first=R.K. |year=2001 |title=World Geographical Scheme for Recording Plant Distributions: Edition 2 |publisher=International Working Group on Taxonomic Databases For Plant Sciences (TDWG) |url=http://www.nhm.ac.uk/hosted_sites/tdwg/TDWG_geo2.pdf |access-date=2006-11-27 |p=12 |archive-date=25 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160125135239/http://www.nhm.ac.uk/hosted_sites/tdwg/TDWG_geo2.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>}} The former Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo further included the prefectures of ] (now in ]), and ], ], ], and ] (now in ]). The region of the Qing dynasty referenced as Manchuria originally further included ], the ], the southern parts of ] and ], and a corner of ]. These districts were acknowledged as Qing territory by the 1689 ] but ceded to the ] due to the ] in the ] 1858 ] and 1860 ] (the ] indirectly ] in the 1960s, but has more recently signed agreements such as the ], which affirm the current status quo;<ref>] (2001), Article 6.</ref> a minor exchange nonetheless occurred in 2004 at the confluence of the ] and ] rivers).<ref>] (2004).</ref> Various senses of Greater Manchuria sometimes further include ], which despite its lack of mention in treaties was shown as Qing territory on period Chinese, Japanese, Russian, and French maps of the area.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}}


The ] of the ] apart to the east towards Mongolia roughly corresponds to the geographical area of the historic land of the Manchu people. The northern boundary was marked by mountains.
==Geography and climate==
Manchuria consists primarily of the northern side of the funnel-shaped ], a large area of highly tiled and overlaid ] rocks. The North China Craton was an independent continent prior to the ] period, and is known to have been the most northerly land in the world during the ]. The Khingan Mountains in the west are a Triassic mountain range formed by the collision of the North China Craton with the Siberian Craton, which in fact marked the final stage of the formation of the ] ].


{{anchor|Etymology|Toponymy|Name|Names}}<!--linked-->
Although no part of Manchuria was ] during the ], the surface geology of most of the lower-lying and more fertile parts of the region consists of extremely deep layers of ], which have been formed by the wind-born movement of ] and ] particles formed in glaciated parts of the ]s, ] and ], as well as the ] and ] Deserts. Soils are mostly fertile ] and ]s, except in the more mountainous parts where they are poorly developed ]s, as well as the extreme north where ] occurs and ] dominate.


== Names ==
The climate of Manchuria has extreme seasonal contrasts, ranging from humid, almost tropical heat in the summer to windy, dry, Arctic cold in the winter. This extreme character occurs because the position of Manchuria on the boundary between the great Eurasian continental landmass and the huge ] causes a complete ]al wind reversal.
{{Further|Manchu people#Name}}


], 1851). Previously, the term "]" had been commonly applied in the West to Manchuria and Mongolia<ref>E.g. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116111259/https://books.google.com/books?id=dJo8AAAAIAAJ |date=16 November 2022 }}, 1867, p. 162</ref>]]
In summer, when the land heats up faster than the ocean, low pressure forms over Asia and warm, moist south to southeasterly ]s bring heavy, thundery rain, yielding annual rainfalls ranging from 400&nbsp;millimetres (16&nbsp;inches), or less in the west, to over 1150&nbsp;millimetres (45&nbsp;inches) in the Changbai Mountains. Temperatures in the summer are very warm to hot, with July averages ranging from 31°C (88°F) in the south to 24°C (75°F) in the extreme north. Except in the far north near the ], high humidity causes major discomfort at this time of year.
] <small>(1911)</small>{{sfnp|''EB''|1911}}]]
] and its rail network, c.{{nbsp}}1945]]


===Manchuria===
In the winter, however, the vast ]n ] causes very cold, north to northwesterly winds that bring temperatures as low as −5°C (23°F) in the extreme south and −30°C (-22°F) in the north, where the zone of ] reaches northern Heilongjiang. However, because the winds from Siberia are exceedingly dry, ] only falls on a few days every winter and it is never heavy. This explains why, whereas corresponding latitudes of ] were fully glaciated during glacial periods of the Quaternary, Manchuria, though equally cold, always remained too dry to form ]s – a state of affairs enhanced by stronger westerly winds from the surface of the ] in ].
====Origins====
The geographical term "Manchuria" was first used in the 18th or 19th century by the ]ese. "Manchuria" – variations of which arrived in European languages through ] – is a ] of ] of the Japanese placename ''Manshū'' {{nowrap|({{lang|ja|{{linktext|満州}}}},}} "Region of the Manchus"), which dates from the 18th century.<ref name="Tatsuo"/>


According to the American researcher Mark C. Elliott, the term ''Manshū'' first appeared as a placename in Katsuragawa Hoshū's 1794 work ''Hokusa Bunryaku'' in two maps, "Ashia zenzu" and "Chikyū hankyū sōzu", which were also created by Katsuragawa.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126060127/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2658945 |date=26 January 2017 }}, p. 626.</ref> According to Junko Miyawaki-Okada, Japanese geographer Takahashi Kageyasu was the first to use the term ''Manshū'' as a toponym in 1809 in the ''Nippon Henkai Ryakuzu'', and it was from that work that Westerners adopted the name.<ref name="japanese1"> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116111259/https://books.google.com/books?id=LbmP_1KIQ_8C&pg=PA159|date=16 November 2022}}{{harvnb|Pozzi|2006|p=159}}.</ref><ref name="japanese2"> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116111300/https://books.google.com/books?id=LbmP_1KIQ_8C&pg=PA167|date=16 November 2022}}{{harvnb|Pozzi|2006|p=167}}.</ref> By the 1830s, various Indo-European forms of ''Manshū'' could be found.<ref name="Elliot 2000"/> However, according to Li Narangoa, the term was introduced to Japan in the 18th century through European maps following ] conventions.{{sfn|Narangoa|2002|p=5}}
== History ==
===Earlier history===
Manchuria was the homeland of several nomadic tribes, including the ], Manchu, ], ] (also known as the Goldi and Nanai). Various ethnic groups and their respective kingdoms, including the ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ], have risen to power in Manchuria.
] governed most of Manchuria from B.C. 2333 to B.C. 108 until they are destroyed by ]. (). Gojoseon was the first country formed in Manchu and was based on the Bronze culture. Gojoson's patriarch was referred to as ] Wanggom. In ], he established the kingdom of Gojoseon in 2333 B.C. It is thought that this is the fact about formation of a patriarchal state through the union of separate tribes with different clans such as ] and ]. Gojoseon first developed with the Liaoning district as its center. Thus, Gojoson gradually rose as a center of the East. Then, around the 4th century B.C., as it faced the Yan nation of China across its borders, it began to struggle for supremacy.


''Manshū'' then increasingly appeared on maps by Japanese cartographers such as Kondi Jūzō, Takahashi Kageyasu, Baba Sadayoshi, and Yamada Ren. Their maps were brought to Europe by ].<ref name="Elliot 2000"> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126060127/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2658945 |date=26 January 2017 }}, p. 628.</ref> According to Japanese scholar Nakami Tatsuo, Siebold was the one who brought the usage of the term ''Manchuria'' to Europeans after borrowing it from the Japanese, who were the first to use it in a geographic manner in the 18th century.<ref name="Tatsuo"/>
After the destruction of Gojoseon, there had been several nation such as ] and ], and ] was the strongest nation around Manchuria. The Goguryeo Kingdom was founded in 37 B.C., and by the first century, it had firmly established itself as a powerful state. Goguryeo covered large parts of present-day Manchuria. The country was not only the most powerful and most aggressive kingdom of three kingdoms in existence but also the most powerful in Northeast Asia in the 5th century. Great King ] (375-413), in particular, conquered the largest territory. For the details, refer to. Goguryeo had several wars with ancient chinese such as ] and , and ] was destroyed because its power was decreased by the war with ]. For the detail, refer to ].


====China====
After destruction of Goguryeo, ] was established, continue for about 200 years until they are destroyed by ]. For the details, refer to . After the destruction of Goguryeo, the remaining people in Manchuria rose up in a restoration movement. ], a former general of Googuryeo, led the remaining people of Goguryeo and the ] tribe to found a new state in the area of Dongmiaoshan in Dunhuaxian, Jilin calling his country ] in 698. Later Chin was renamed ].
The history of the use of "Manchuria" as a toponym in China is uncertain. According to one stream of thought, it was not used by the Manchus or the Chinese.<ref name="Tatsuo">Nakami Tatsuo. "Qing China's Northeast Crescent: The Great Game." ''The Russo-Japanese War in Global Perspective: World War Zero, Volume 2.'' David Wolff et al., eds. Brill, 2005. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116111300/https://books.google.com/books?id=xlg0lM8f9Y4C&pg=PA514 |date=16 November 2022 }} {{ISBN|9789004154162}}''"The use of the term 'Manchuria' as a place-name had begun with the Japanese in the eighteenth century, and it was later introduced to Europe by ]" .{{pb}}{{harvnb |Giles|1912|loc= ''"It may be noted here that 'Manchuria' is unknown to the Chinese or to the Manchus themselves as a geographical expression. The present extensive home of the Manchus is usually spoken of as the Three Eastern Provinces,..."''}}</ref><ref name="Elliott 2001"/> The name ''Manchu'' was given to the ] by ] in 1635 as a new name for their ethnic group. However neither the name ''Manchu'' or the Chinese rendering of ''Manshū'' as ''Manzhou'' ever acquired geographical connotations, while in Japanese, both ''Manchuria'' and ''Manchu'' are rendered as ''Manshū''. According to Nakami Tatsuo, ''Manzhou'' was used to refer to Manchu people or one of their states rather than a region: "Originally, ''Manzhou'' was the name of the Manchu people or of their state; it was not the name of a region. In fact, neither Manchus nor Han Chinese have ever called China's Northeast 'Manzhou'."{{sfn|Narangoa|2002|p=5}}<ref name="Elliot 2000"/> Even advocates of an independent Manchuria such as Inaba Iwakichi acknowledged this.<ref name="Elliot 2000"/><ref name="Elliott 2001">Mark C. Elliott. ''The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China.'' Stanford University Press, 2001. {{ISBN|9780804746847}} ''"...the name 'Manchu' was officially adopted in 1635 as the name for all Jurchen people."''</ref> In 1912, British diplomat and ] ] stated in ''China and the Manchus'' that "'Manchuria' is unknown to the Chinese or to the Manchus themselves as a geographical expression".<ref name="Tatsuo"/> According to Owen Latimore, during his travels in China during the late 1920s, he found "no single Chinese name for Manchuria as a unit".<ref name="Tamanoi"/>{{sfn|Tamanoi|2005|p=2-3}} Historical geographer Philippe Forêt concurred, noting that there is no word for ''Manchuria'' in either Chinese or Manchu languages.<ref name="Forêt2000"/>
] recovered almost all of Manchuria territory, and dominated Manchuria, the Maritime Provinces become a powerful nation.


Another perspective delineated by scholars such as Mark C. Elliott and Li Narangoa argues that Manchu consciousness of their homeland as a unique place contributed to the creation of Manchuria as a distinct geographical entity, and that "Manchuria" (''Manzhou'') was used as a toponym by the Chinese. According to Elliott, the Manchu imperial lineage believed that their original homeland was the ]. The Qing court endeavored to create a regional identity focused on the Changbai Mountains, which gradually became a symbol of Manchu identity. However, it is uncertain whether that notion was shared among ordinary Manchus, and there is evidence that part of that effort was to combat widespread ] among Manchus, resulting in the loss of their language. As part of this effort, Jesuits were commissioned to create maps that enhanced Manchu conceptualization of their homeland, which Elliot believes to have been the original impetus to label the region as Manchuria in European and Japanese maps. In 1877, ''Manzhou'' was used as a toponym in an essay by Gong Chai, a scholar from ]. The description of ''Manzhou'' located it to the northeast of ] and identified it as the birthplace of the dynasty. ''Manzhou'' was used as a place name again 20 years later by Qing officials. ''Manzhou'' began to appear on Chinese maps in the first decade of the 1900s. Maps that used ''Manzhou'' were in the minority during the early ] but the name remained in common use among the ] into the 1930s. Names for the region were relatively fluid before the ] of 1931, after which alternative names in Japanese were discarded for ''Manshū'', and ''Dongbei'' (Northeast) and ''Dongsansheng'' (Three Eastern Provinces) became the orthodox names for the Chinese. According to Mark Gamsa, ''Manzhou'' was not widely used among the Chinese but the ] disapproved of it regardless. By the 1950s, ''Manzhou'' had virtually disappeared as a toponym although some still used it out of habit.<ref name="Elliot 2000"/>{{sfn|Narangoa|2002|p=5}}{{sfn|Gamsa|2020|p=6}}
] ] in China loosely controlled southern Manchuria until the ]. During the Song dynasty, the ] set up the ] dynasty in Manchuria. Later, the ] (Manchu) overthrew the Liao and formed the ], which went on to conquer Northern China. In 1234, the Jin Dynasty fell to the Mongols, who were later replaced by the ] in 1368. In 1644, the Manchu conquered the entirety of China and established the ] (1644–1912).


====Japan====
To the south, the region was separated from China proper by the Inner Willow Palisade, a ditch and embankment planted with ]s intended to restrict the movement of the Han Chinese into Manchuria during the ], as the area was off-limits to the Han until the Qing started colonizing the area with them later on in the dynasty's rule. The Manchu area was still separated from modern-day ] by the Outer Willow Palisade, which kept the Manchu and the Mongols in the area separate.
The term ''Manchuria'' has been described as "controversial" or "troublesome" by several scholars including Mark C. Elliott, Norman Smith, and Mariko Asano Tamanoi. The historian Norman Smith wrote that "The term 'Manchuria' is controversial" based on reasons outlined by Mariko Asano Tamanoi in the "Introduction" of ''Crossed Histories: Manchuria in the Age of Empire'' (2005).<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116111301/https://books.google.com/books?id=2pjbx91hb_gC&pg=PA219 |date=16 November 2022 }}, p. 219.</ref> According to Tamanoi, "'Manchuria' is a product of Japanese imperialism, and to call the area Manzhou is to accept uncritically a Japanese colonial legacy." Japan used the name "Manchuria" to convey the idea of a contested region distinct from China while China insisted on its ownership of the region by rejecting the name "Manchuria". Japanese colonists who returned to Japan from ] in the post-war period used terms such as ''Manshu'' (Manchuria), ''Man-mō'' (Manchuria-Mongolia), and ''Mō-man'' (Mongolia-Manchuria) almost interchangeably.{{sfn|Tamanoi|2005|p=2-3}}{{sfn|Narangoa|2002|p=5}} Hyphenated terms such as ''Man-sēn'' (Manchuria and Korea) and ''Man-mō'' (Manchuria-Mongolia) emerged in Japanese media and traveler writings during the first three decades of the 20th century, implying that these regions were extensions of each other.{{sfn|Narangoa|2002|p=12}} Tamanoi notes that the name "Manchuria" cannot be found on Chinese maps and acknowledged that she "should use the term in quotation marks" even though she did not.<ref name ="Tamanoi"> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190702073843/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2658656 |date=2 July 2019 }}, p. 249.</ref>


Historian Bill Sewell denies that ''Manchuria'' is "a genuine geographic term", claiming the Japanese never viewed Manchuria as a discrete entity and it was Europeans who first started using the name Manchuria to refer to the location.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116111300/https://books.google.com/books?id=El9Lj_EKzBAC&pg=PA114 |date=16 November 2022 }}, p. 114.</ref> Others such as Forêt described ''Manchuria'' as a solely geographical term without indicating a political connection and used it in that capacity despite acknowledging its imperialistic overtones.<ref name="Forêt2000"/> The historian ] agreed with Robert H.&nbsp;G. Lee's statement that "The term Manchuria or Man-chou is a modern creation used mainly by westerners and Japanese", with McCormack writing that the term Manchuria is imperialistic in nature and has no "precise meaning" since the Japanese deliberately promoted the use of "Manchuria" as a geographic name to promote its separation from China at the time they were setting up their puppet state of Manchukuo.<ref>McCormack 1977, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116111301/https://books.google.com/books?id=GoSrAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA4 |date=16 November 2022 }}.</ref> In the 1920s, Japanese media still presented Manchuria as part of China, albeit as a distinct region, and sometimes called it the "Garden of China". However, in 1932, the puppet state of Manchukuo was founded covering not only the northeastern three provinces but also parts of eastern Inner Mongolia.{{sfn|Narangoa|2002|p=12}} In 1933, the Bureau of Information and the Publicity Department of Foreign Affairs of the Manchukuo Government published a ''Handbook of Information of Manchukuo'' stating that Manchuria did not belong to China, had its own history and traditions, and was the home of the Manchus and Mongols.{{sfn|Narangoa|2002|p=18-19}} Elliot notes that one scholar considered the use of "Manchuria" as not only inaccurate but giving approval to Japanese colonialism.<ref name="Elliot 2000"/>
=== Russian and Japanese influence ===
To the north, the boundary with ]n ] was fixed by the ] (]) as running along the watershed of the ] mountains. South of the Stanovoy Mountains, the basin of the ] and its tributaries belonged to the ]. North of the Stanovoy Mountains, the Uda valley and Siberia belonged to the ]. In ], a weakening Manchu China was forced to cede Manchuria north of the Amur to Russia at the ], except for a small region known as the ]. In ], at the ], the Russians managed to extort a further large slice of Manchuria, east of the ]. Finally, in ], Russia invaded and occupied the ]. As a result, Manchuria was divided into a Russian half known as “]”, and a remaining Chinese half known as just “Manchuria”. In modern literature, “Manchuria” usually refers to Chinese Manchuria. (cf. Inner and Outer ]). As a result of the Treaties of Argun and Peking, Manchuria (and China) lost access to the ].


===Nurgan===
Manchuria was known for its ], ] and ]s. The Manchu imperial symbol was a tiger with a ball of opium in its mouth. Manchu Emperors were, first and foremost, accomplished ]s. By the ], Manchu rule had become increasingly ] and, along with other borderlands of the Chinese Empire such as ] and ], came under the influence of colonial powers. ] nibbled at Tibet, ] at ] and ] at ], while ] encroached upon ] and ], having annexed Outer Manchuria.
], the ] name for the region that was inhabited by ]]]
During the ] the area in which the Jurchens lived was referred to as ].<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116111302/https://books.google.com/books?id=Wn4iv_RJv8oC&pg=PA55 |date=16 November 2022 }}, p. 55.</ref>


===Three Provinces===
Inner Manchuria also came under strong Russian influence with the building of the Chinese eastern railway through ] to ]. ] replaced Russian influence in Inner Manchuria as a result of the ] in ]–], and Japan laid the ] in ] to ] (Japanese: Ryojun).
During the Qing dynasty, the region was known as the "three eastern provinces" ({{zh|first=t|labels=no|s=东三省|t=東三省|p=Dōngsānshěng}}; ]{{nbsp}}{{MongolUnicode|ᡩᡝᡵᡤᡳ<br />ᡳᠯᠠᠨ<br />ᡤᠣᠯᠣ}}, ''Dergi Ilan Golo''), which referred to Jilin, Heilongjiang, and Fengtian since 1683 when Jilin and Heilongjiang were separated.<ref name="Clausen">Søren Clausen and Stig Thøgersen. ''The Making of a Chinese City: History and Historiography in Harbin.'' M. E. Sharpe, 1995. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116111302/https://books.google.com/books?id=RpIvpEjlEJQC&pg=PA7 |date=16 November 2022 }} {{ISBN|9781563244766}} ''"In 1653 Jilin became an independent administrative unit, and in 1683 Heilongjiang was separated from Jilin. From then on, the three districts of Fengtian (roughly equivalent to present-day Liaoning), Jilin, and Heilongjiang became known as the "Three Eastern Provinces" (''San dong sheng'') although Jilin and Heilongjiang had not functioned as provinces in the full sense of the word until 1907–08."''</ref> However, Jilin and Heilongjiang did not receive the full function of provinces until 1907.<ref name="Clausen" /><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3utRAQAAIAAJ&q=chahars+hunghutze&dq=chahars+hunghutze|title=Oriental Affairs: A Monthly Review|year=1935|page=189}}</ref> The Japanese also used the name "Three Eastern Provinces" (''Tōsanshō'') during the 1920s and 1930s along with ''Manshū''. However, after the ] of 1931, ''Tōsanshō'' was completely replaced by ''Manshū'' in Japanese usage while the ''Three Provinces'' and ''Northeast'' became the orthodox name for the same region in Chinese usage.{{sfn|Narangoa|2002|p=5}}


===Guandong===
Between ] and ], Manchuria became a political and military battleground. Japanese influence extended into Outer Manchuria in the wake of the ], but Outer Manchuria had reverted to ] control by ]. Japan took advantage of the disorder following the Russian Revolution to occupy Outer Manchuria, but Soviet successes and ] economic pressure forced Japanese withdrawal.
Manchuria has been referred to as ''Guandong'' ({{zh|first=t|labels=no|s=关东|t=關東|p=Guāndōng}}), which literally means "east of the pass", and similarly ''Guanwai'' ({{zh|first=t|labels=no|t=關外 |s=关外 |p=Guānwài |l=outside the pass}}), a reference to ] in ] in today's ], at the eastern end of the ]. This usage is seen in the expression '']'' (literally "Rushing into Guandong") referring to the mass migration of ] to Manchuria in the 19th and 20th centuries. The name ] later came to be used more narrowly for the area of the ] on the ]. It is not to be confused with the southern province of ].<ref name="thoughtco">{{Cite web|url=https://www.thoughtco.com/where-is-manchuria-195353|title=The Controversial Manchuria|website=ThoughtCo}}</ref>


===Northeast Region===
During the period of the ]s in China, ] established himself in Inner Manchuria but, being too dependent on the increasing Japanese influence, was murdered; the last Manchu emperor, ], was then placed on the throne to lead a Japanese ]. Inner Manchuria was proclaimed as an independent state, '']'', which was in reality controlled by the Japanese. Inner Manchuria was thus formally detached from China by Japan in the ] to create a buffer zone to defend Japan from Russia's Southing Strategy and, with Japanese investment and rich natural resources, became an industrial powerhouse. Prior to World War II, Manchuria was colonized by the Japanese, and Manchukuo was used as a base to invade China, an expensive action (in terms of the damage to men, matériel and political integrity) that was as costly to Japan as the invasion of Russia was to ], and for the same reasons.
]


The term "Manchuria" is deprecated among people of the ] (PRC) due to its association with ], the puppet state of Manchukuo of the ], and ]. Official state documents use the term Northeast Region (东北; Dōngběi) to describe the region. Northeast China is predominantly occupied by ] due to internal Chinese migrations<ref name=":0" /> and ], especially during the ]. It is considered the original homeland of several historical groups besides the Manchus, including the ]<ref>*{{Cite book|title=The Ancient State of Puyŏ in Northeast Asia: Archaeology and Historical Memory|last=Byington|first=Mark E.|publisher=Harvard University Asia Center|year=2016|isbn=978-0-674-73719-8|location=Cambridge (Massachusetts) and London|pages=11, 13}}
=== After World War II ===
* {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6NPMDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 |title=Ethnic Fermented Foods and Alcoholic Beverages of Asia|last=Tamang|first=Jyoti Prakash|date=2016-08-05|publisher=Springer|isbn=9788132228004|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u7-SCzkMZgAC&pg=PA81 |title=Haan (han, Han) of Minjung Theology and Han (han, Han) of Han Philosophy: In the Paradigm of Process Philosophy and Metaphysics of Relatedness|last=Son|first=Chang-Hee|date=2000|publisher=University Press of America|isbn=978-0-7618-1860-1|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O1wPDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA32|title=Reconstructing Ancient Korean History: The Formation of Korean-ness in the Shadow of History|last=Xu|first=Stella|date=2016-05-12|publisher=Lexington Books|isbn=978-1-4985-2145-1|language=en}}</ref> the ],<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kallie |first1=Szczepanski |title=A Brief History of Manchuria |url=https://www.thoughtco.com/where-is-manchuria-195353 |website=ThoughtCo}}</ref> the ], and the ]. The area is also home to many ] and ].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The Mongols of Manchuria|journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society|volume=68|issue=4|pages=714–715|last=Lattimore|first=Owen|date=1934|publisher=George Allen and Unwin, Ltd.|language=en|doi=10.1017/S0035869X00085245}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/manchuriaitspeop00hosi/page/n12|title=Manchuria; its people, resources and recent history|first=Alexander|last=Hosie|date=1910 |location=Boston |publisher=J. B. Millet|language=en}}</ref>
After the ]ing of Japan in ], the ] invaded from Russian Manchuria as part of its declaration of war against Japan. From 1945 to ], Inner Manchuria was a base area for the ] ] in the ]. With the encouragement of the Soviet Union, Manchuria was used as a ] during the Civil War for the ], who were victorious in ].


In present-day Chinese, an inhabitant of the Northeast is a "Northeasterner" ({{zh|s=东北人|p=Dōngběirén|labels=no}}). "The Northeast" is a term that expresses the entire region, encompassing its history and various cultures. It is usually restricted to the "Three East Provinces" or "Three Northeast Provinces", excluding northeastern Inner Mongolia. In China, the term Manchuria ({{zh|s=满洲|t=滿洲|p=Mǎnzhōu|first=t}}) is rarely used today, and the term is often negatively associated with the Japanese imperial legacy and the puppet state of ].<ref>*{{Cite book|title=Memory Maps: The State and Manchuria in Postwar Japan|last=Tamanoi|first=Mariko|publisher=]|year=2009|page=10}}
During the ] of the ], 300,000 soldiers of the Chinese ] crossed the Chinese-Korean border from Manchuria to recapture Korea from ] forces led by the United States.
* {{Cite book|title=A Lost Mathematician, Takeo Nakasawa: The Forgotten Father of Matroid Theory |last=Nishimura |first=Hirokazu |last2=Kuroda |first2=Susumu |publisher=Springer |year=2009 |page=15}}</ref><ref name="Forêt2000">{{cite book|author=Philippe Forêt|title=Mapping Chengde: The Qing Landscape Enterprise|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tAfF7d-7ysEC&pg=PR16&dq=gioro|date=January 2000|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-2293-4|pages=16–}}</ref> The ''Northeast'' (''Tōhoku'') was also used as a name for Manchuria by the Japanese during the 1920s and 1930s.{{sfn|Narangoa|2002|p=5}}


== Geography and climate ==
In the ], Manchuria became the site of the most serious tension between the Soviet Union and Communist China. The treaties of 1858 and 1860, which ceded territory north of the Amur, were ambiguous as to which course of the river was the boundary. This ambiguity led to dispute over the political status of several islands. This led to armed conflict in ], called the ].
]


Manchuria consists mainly of the northern side of the funnel-shaped ], a large area of tilled and overlaid ] rocks spanning {{convert|100|e6ha|e6acre|abbr=off}}. The North China Craton was an independent continent before the ] period and is known to have been the northernmost piece of land in the world during the ]. The ] in the west are a Jurassic<ref>Bogatikov, Oleg Alekseevich (2000); ''Magmatism and Geodynamics: Terrestrial Magmatism throughout the Earth's History''; pp. 150–151; {{ISBN|90-5699-168-X}}</ref> mountain range formed by the collision of the North China Craton with the ], which marked the final stage of the formation of the ] ].
With the end of the ], this boundary issue was discussed through negotiations. In ], Russia agreed to transfer ] and one half of ] to China, ending a long-standing border dispute. Both islands are found at the confluence of the ] and ] Rivers, and were until then administered by Russia and claimed by China. The event was meant to foster feelings of reconciliation and cooperation between the two countries by their leaders, but it has also sparked different degrees of discontents on both sides. Russians, especially ] farmers of ], who would lose their plowlands on the islands, were unhappy about the apparent loss of territory. Meanwhile, some Chinese both at home and abroad have criticized the treaty as an official acknowledgement of the legitimacy of Russian rule over ], which was ceded by the ] to ] under a series of ], which included the ] in 1858 and the ] in 1860, in order to exchange exclusive usage of Russia's rich oil resources. As a result of these criticisms, news and information regarding the border treaty were censored in ] by the PRC government. The transfer has been ratified by both the Chinese ] and the Russian ], but has yet to be carried out to date.
] near Hailin City in ]]]
No part of Manchuria was ] during the ], but the surface geology of most of the lower-lying and more fertile parts of Manchuria consists of very deep layers of ], which have been formed by the wind-borne movement of ] and ] particles formed in glaciated parts of the ]s, ] and ], as well as the ] and ] Deserts.<ref>Kropotkin, Prince P.; "Geology and Geo-Botany of Asia"; in ''Popular Science'', May 1904; pp. 68–69</ref> Soils are mostly fertile ] and ]s except in the more mountainous parts where they have poorly developed ]s, as well as in the extreme north where ] occurs and ] dominate.<ref>Juo, A. S. R. and Franzlübbers, Kathrin Tropical Soils: Properties and Management for Sustainable Agriculture; pp. 118–119; {{ISBN|0-19-511598-8}}</ref>


The climate of Manchuria has extreme seasonal contrasts, ranging from humid, almost tropical heat in summer to windy, dry, Arctic cold in winter. This pattern occurs because the position of Manchuria on the boundary between the great ]n continental landmass and the huge Pacific Ocean causes complete ]al wind reversal.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}
==Demographics and Economy ==
The three provinces of ], ], and ] have a total population of 107,400,000 people, the majority of which is ]. ]s form a significant minority, and have been almost completely assimilated into the Han Chinese; the ] is almost extinct, and many ] in Northeast China, as well as the rest of China, can claim some Manchu ancestry. Other major ethnic groups include the ]s, the ], and the ].


In summer, when the land heats faster than the ocean, low-pressure forms over Asia and warm, moist south to southeasterly winds bring heavy, thundery rain, yielding annual rainfall ranging from {{cvt|400|mm}}, or less in the west, to over {{cvt|1150|mm}} in the ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.amlinkint.com/English/travel-to-china/images/about-china-annual-precipit.jpg |title=Average Annual Precipitation in China |access-date=2010-05-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100602163920/http://www.amlinkint.com/English/travel-to-china/images/about-china-annual-precipit.jpg |archive-date=2 June 2010 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Temperatures in summer are very warm to hot, with July average maxima ranging from {{cvt|31|C}} in the south to {{cvt|24|C|}} in the extreme north.<ref>Kaisha, Tesudo Kabushiki and Manshi, Minami; ''Manchuria: Land of Opportunities''; pp. 1–2; {{ISBN|1-110-97760-3}}</ref>
Manchuria was one of the earlier regions to ] in China. After the founding of the ], Northeast China continued to be a major industrial base of the country. Recent years, however, has seen the stagnation of Northeast China's heavy-industry-based economy, as China's economy continues to liberalize and privatize; the government has initialized the ] campaign to counter this problem.


In winter, however, the vast ]n ] causes very cold, north-to-northwesterly winds that bring temperatures as low as {{cvt|−5|C}} in the extreme south and {{cvt|−30|C}} in the north<ref>Kaisha and Manshi; ''Manchuria''; pp. 1–2</ref> where the zone of ] reaches northern ]. However, because the winds from ] are exceedingly dry, snow falls only on a few days every winter, and it is never heavy. This explains why corresponding latitudes of North America were fully glaciated during glacial periods of the Quaternary while Manchuria, though even colder, always remained too dry to form ]s<ref> (page 15)</ref>&nbsp;– a state of affairs enhanced by stronger westerly winds from the surface of the ] in Europe.
The region is, on the whole, more heavily urbanised than most parts of China, largely because it was the first part of the country to develop ] owing to its abundant ] reserves. Major cities include ], ], ] and ], all with several million inhabitants. Other cities include the ] making centres of ] and ] in Liaoning, ] in Jilin, and ] and ] in Heilongjiang. Harbin, more than any other city in China, possesses significant Russian influences: there are many Orthodox churches that have fallen out of use since the Cultural Revolution.


== History ==
The rural population of Manchuria is heavily concentrated in the warmer southern part of the area, where very warm to hot summer weather permits crops such as ] and ] to be grown with high yields. ] and ] are also very important, as are ] and ]. The region possesses large flocks of ], and ] are abundant in the more densely settled southern part. The northern half of Heilongjiang is so cold and poorly drained that agriculture is almost impossible; however, the Amur River provides very rich ] prospects, and sheep are even more abundant than in southern Heilongjiang.
{{History of Manchuria}}
{{Main|History of Manchuria}}


== Culture == === Early history ===
<!-- ''Main article: ]'' -->
The concept of "the Northeast or the East to the Great Wall" is important in the way Northeasterners view themselves. People from Northeast usually define themselves as "Northeasterners" first and then by province (], ], ]). This stands in contrast with the rest of China, where people usually identify themselves first and foremost by province.


] stone tortoise in today's ]]]
This self-concept exists in part because the three provinces share the common history and are cultturally homogeneous &mdash; Northeasterners have a sense that they are similar to each other, and different from the "inner Wall" China. This is because most people in Northeast China are descended from relatively recent immigrants, who left their homes in the late 19th or early 20th century to trailblaze a new life in Manchuria, which was scarcely populated and had plenty of available rich farmland at the time. Also, provincial boundaries in the Northeast have been more temporary than in other parts of China, thus giving little time for provincial identities or cultural contrasts to take hold. Most other provincial boundaries were fixed during the ], some as early as in the ], while those in Northeast China were first drawn in the late 19th century and have been changed numerous times since then.
] occupied roughly half of Manchuria, 5th century AD]]
Manchuria was the homeland of several ethnic groups, including ], ], ], ], ], ], ], possibly ], and ] in southern Manchuria.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}} Various ethnic groups and their respective kingdoms, including the ], ], ], ], ], ] and ], have risen to power in Manchuria. ] kingdoms such as ] (before 108 BCE), ] (2nd century BCE to 494 CE) and ] (37 BCE to 688 CE) also became established in large parts of this area. The Chinese ] (221–206 BCE), ] (202 BCE–9 CE and 25 CE–220 CE), ] (220–266), ] (266–316), and ] (618–690 and 705–907) dynasties controlled parts of Manchuria.<ref>''The Cambridge History of China'', Vol. 03: "Sui and T'ang China, 589–906, Part 1," at 32, 33.</ref> Parts of northwestern Manchuria came under the control of the ] of 552–603 and of the ] of 581–630. Early Manchuria had a mixed economy of hunting, fishing, livestock, and agriculture.


With the ] (960–1269) to the south, the ] of ] created the ] (916–1125) and conquered Outer Mongolia and Manchuria, going on to control the adjacent part of the ] in ] as well. The Liao dynasty became the first state to control all of Manchuria.<ref>* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116111803/https://books.google.com/books?id=eTFMPO5NdKgC&pg=PA227 |date=16 November 2022 }}
In general, the culture of the Northeast takes its elements from the cultures of north China (especially ], where most of the ] migration into Manchuria originated), the native Tungus peoples and its own innovations. Traces of Russian and Japanese influence are also seen in the culture of Manchuria, especially the architecture and cuisine.
* Ledyard, 1983, 323</ref>


] in the 14th century, including ] of ] and northern Korea]]
People from the Northeast speak northeastern varieties of ] ], known collectively as ''Dongbeihua'', or the ]. This dialect is very similar to the ], upon which standard Mandarin Chinese (]) is based, and some Northeasterners claim to speak a more pure form of Mandarin than those in China's capital.
] in 1616, the homeland of the ] who became the ] and founded ]]]
In the early 12th century, the ] Jurchen people, who were Liao's tributaries, overthrew the Liao and formed the ], which went on to control parts of Northern China and Mongolia ]. During the Mongol ] rule of China (1271–1368),<ref>Berger, Patricia A. ''Empire of emptiness: Buddhist art and political authority in Qing China''. p.25.</ref> Manchuria was ] as ]. In 1375 ], a Mongol official of the Mongolia-based ] of 1368–1635 in Liaoyang province invaded Liaodong, but later ] in 1387. In order to protect the northern border areas, the Ming dynasty decided to "pacify" the Jurchens in order to deal with its problems with Yuan remnants along its northern border. The Ming ] under the ] ({{reign | 1402 | 1424}}), establishing the ] of 1409–1435. Starting in the 1580s, a ] chieftain, ] (1558–1626), started to unify Jurchen tribes of the region. Over the next several decades, the Jurchen ]. In 1616 Nurhaci founded the Later Jin dynasty, which later became known as the ]. The Qing defeated the ]-] federation led by the Evenki chief ] and beheaded Bombogor in 1640, with Qing armies massacring and deporting Evenkis and absorbing the survivors into the ].<ref>{{cite book |last1= Crossley |first1= Pamela Kyle |title= A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology |date= 2002 |publisher= University of California Press |isbn= 978-0-520-23424-6 |page= 196 |edition= illustrated, reprint |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=hbEwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA196}}</ref>


]
However, ''Dongbeihua'' also retains elements from native Tungus languages, Japanese and Russian: there are enough differences to give the dialect its own distinctive characteristics. Ethnic ] speak Mandarin, and the ] is almost extinct due to widespread assimilation to Han culture over the last four centuries. Ethnic ] and ] tend to be bilingual in both their own languages (] and ]) and the ].


Chinese cultural and religious influence such as Chinese New Year, the "]", motifs such as the dragon, spirals, and scrolls, agriculture, husbandry, methods of heating, and material goods such as iron cooking-pots, silk, and cotton spread among the Amur natives including the ], ]s, and ].<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116111804/https://books.google.com/books?id=nzhq85nPrdsC&pg=PA214 |date=16 November 2022 }}, p. 214.</ref>
The ] reflects the region's ethnic diversity. Native Manchu, Korean, Northern Chinese, Russian and Japanese cooking styles all find their traces in Manchurian cooking. One of the distinguishing characteristics of the cuisine is the use of uncooked fresh vegetables. In almost every other region of China, vegetables are cooked thoroughly before being eaten. ] (similar to ]) and ] (in Southern Manchuria) are among the well known food items in Manchuria. Northeast China is also distinguished by the popularity of extremely strong distilled spirits, known collectively as ] or ].


In 1644, after peasant rebels sacked the ]'s capital of Beijing, the Jurchens (now called Manchus) allied with Ming general ] and seized control of Beijing, overthrowing the short-lived ] (1644–1649) and establishing ] rule (1644–1912) over all of China. The Manchu conquest of China involved the deaths of over 25&nbsp;million people.<ref>{{cite news |title= 5 Of The 10 Deadliest Wars Began In China |url= https://www.businessinsider.com/bloodiest-conflicts-in-chinese-history-2014-10 |work= Business Insider |date= 6 October 2014}}</ref> The Qing dynasty built the ] – a system of ditches and embankments – during the later 17th century to restrict the movement of Han civilians into Jilin and Heilongjiang.<ref>Elliott, Mark C. "The Limits of Tartary: Manchuria in Imperial and National Geographies." ''Journal of Asian Studies'' 59, no. 3 (2000): 603–46. {{doi|10.2307/2658945}}</ref> Only ], including Han bannermen, were allowed to settle in ] and ].
], ] and ] are popular forms of traditional entertainment in Northeast China.
] in 1820, including the provinces of Fengtian, Jilin and Heilongjiang]]
After conquering the Ming, the Qing often identified their state as "China" (中國, ''Zhongguo''; "Middle Kingdom"), and referred to it as ''Dulimbai Gurun'' ("Middle Kingdom") in Manchu.<ref>* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116111804/https://books.google.com/books?id=NESwGW_5uLoC&pg=PA117 |date=16 November 2022 }}, p. 117.
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116112044/https://books.google.com/books?id=TmhtAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA80 |date=16 November 2022 }}, p. 80.
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116112043/https://books.google.com/books?id=zqVug_wN4hEC&pg=PA102 |date=16 November 2022 }}, p. 102.</ref> In the '']'' the lands of the Qing state (including Manchuria and present-day Xinjiang, Mongolia, and Tibet) are thus identified as "the Middle Kingdom" in both the Chinese and ] languages in roughly two-thirds of the cases, while the term refers to the traditional Chinese provinces populated by the Han in roughly one third of the cases. It was also common to use "China" (''Zhongguo'', ''Dulimbai gurun'') to refer to the Qing in official documents, international treaties, and foreign affairs. In diplomatic documents, the term "Chinese language" (''Dulimbai gurun i bithe'') referred to the Chinese, Manchu, and Mongol languages, and the term "Chinese people" (中國人 Zhongguo ren; Manchu: Dulimbai gurun i niyalma) referred to all Han, Manchus, and Mongol subjects of the Qing. The Qing explicitly stated that the lands in Manchuria belonged to "China" (Zhongguo, Dulimbai gurun) in Qing edicts and in the 1689 ].<ref>, pp. 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14.</ref>


===Population change===
Because of its climatic conditions, Northeast China is the base for China's ]. ] and ] athletes often come from or were educated in Northeast China.
Despite migration restrictions, Qing rule saw massively increasing numbers of Han Chinese both illegally and legally streaming into Manchuria and settling down to cultivate land – Manchu landlords desired Han Chinese peasants to rent their land and to grow grain; most Han Chinese migrants were not evicted as they crossed the Great Wall and Willow Palisade. During the eighteenth century Han Chinese farmed 500,000 hectares of privately owned land in Manchuria and 203,583 hectares of lands which were part of courier stations, noble estates, and Banner lands; in garrisons and towns in Manchuria Han Chinese made up 80% of the population.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116112050/https://books.google.com/books?id=HQ5KbXYhEB8C&pg=PA141 |date=16 November 2022 }}, p. 141.</ref>


The Qing resettled Han Chinese farmers from north China to the area along the ] in order to restore the land to cultivation.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126032156/http://www.jstor.org/stable/3985584 |date=26 January 2017 }}, p. 504.</ref> Han Chinese squatters reclaimed wasteland, and other Han rented land from Manchu landlords.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126032156/http://www.jstor.org/stable/3985584 |date=26 January 2017 }}, p. 505.</ref>
==Current issue of East Side of Manchuria: Gando==


By the 18th century, despite officially prohibiting Han Chinese settlement on Manchu and Mongol lands, the Qing decided to settle Han refugees from northern China – who were suffering from famine, floods, and drought – into Manchuria and Inner Mongolia, so that Han Chinese farmed 500,000 hectares in Manchuria and tens of thousands of hectares in Inner Mongolia by the 1780s.<ref>{{cite journal |last = Reardon-Anderson | first = James |title = Land Use and Society in Manchuria and Inner Mongolia During the Qing Dynasty |journal = Environmental History |volume = 5 | issue = 4 |pages = 503–509 |date = 2000 | jstor = 3985584 | doi = 10.2307/3985584 }}</ref> The ] ({{reign | 1735 | 1796}}) allowed Han Chinese peasants suffering from drought to move into Manchuria despite his having issued edicts in favor of banning them from 1740 to 1776.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181006200908/http://www.phil-fak.uni-koeln.de/fileadmin/chinastudien/papers/No_1998-1.pdf |date=6 October 2018 }}, p. 18.</ref> Han Chinese then streamed into Manchuria, both illegally and legally, over the ] and the ].<ref>{{citation|first = John F. |last = Richards|title= The Unending Frontier: An Environmental History of the Early Modern World|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=HQ5KbXYhEB8C&pg=PA141|date= 2003|publisher= University of California Press|isbn= 978-0-520-23075-0|page= 141}}</ref> Chinese tenant farmers rented or even claimed title to land from the "imperial estates" and Manchu Bannerlands in the area.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126032156/http://www.jstor.org/stable/3985584 |date=26 January 2017 }}, p. 507.</ref> Besides moving into the Liao area in southern Manchuria, Han Chinese settled the path linking ], ], ], ], ], and ] during the Qianlong Emperor's reign, and Han Chinese had become the majority in urban areas of Manchuria by 1800.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126032156/http://www.jstor.org/stable/3985584 |date=26 January 2017 }}, p. 508.</ref> To increase the Imperial Treasury's revenue, the Qing sold formerly Manchu-only lands along the ] to Han Chinese at the beginning of the ]'s 1820–1850 reign, and Han Chinese filled up most of Manchuria's towns by the 1840s, according to ].<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126032156/http://www.jstor.org/stable/3985584 |date=26 January 2017 }}, p. 509.</ref>
Korean claims over east side of manchuria or Gando stem from what is perceived as an ambiguity in the original Sino-Korean boundary agreement.


The demographic change was not caused solely by Han migration. Manchus also refused to stay in Manchuria. In the late 18th century, Manchus in Beijing were sent to Manchuria as part of a plan to reduce the burden on the court, but they tried to return by every means possible. With the exception of 20,000 to 30,000 soldiers and their families and a military colony established in the 1850s, Manchuria was devoid of Manchus. By 1900, 15 million of Manchuria's 17 million inhabitants were Han Chinese.<ref name="Elliot 2000"/>{{rp|636}}{{sfn|Gamsa|2020|p=8}}
In 1712, the ] of Korea and ] of China agreed to dilineate the boundaries of the two countries at the Yalu and ] Rivers. In the 1870's the Qing government reversed its policy of prohibiting entry to ], and began allowing ] settlers into the territory in response to growing ]n encroachment. The area around Gando was opened up to settlement in 1881, but Chinese settlers quickly discovered some Korean farming communities already settled in the area.
]
The farmers, unwilling to abandon their homes, argued that because of the ambiguity in the naming of the Tumen river, they were actually already in Korean territory. The ] River boundary is of little dispute, but the interpretation of the ] boundary 土門 (Tomoon) causes problems. The name of the river itself originates from the ] word ''tumen'', meaning "ten thousand". The official boundary agreement in 1712 identified the Tumen river using the characters 土門 (]:tǔmen) for the phonetic transcription. However, the modern ] is written as 圖們 (]:túmen) in modern Chinese and as 豆滿 (Duman) "Duman" in modern Korean. Some Koreans hence identified it with another Tumen River that is a tributary of the ]. Under this interpretation, Gando (where the Koreans settled) would be part of Korean territory. This confusion arises as the two names sound identical, and neither name is actually of Chinese origin. The two rivers can be seen in the following map from the period. It is uncertain which modern river the Korean claim corresponds to, as there is no modern tributary of the Songhua River with that name. For more detail, see ]
]'s Kitayskaya Street (] for "Chinese Street"), now ] (] for "Central Street"), before 1945]]


==Sea also== ===Russian invasions===
The ] was met with indigenous resistance to colonization, but ] crushed the natives. The conquest of Siberia and Manchuria also resulted in the spread of ]. Historian John F. Richards wrote: "... New diseases weakened and demoralized the indigenous peoples of Siberia. The worst of these was ] "because of its swift spread, the high death rates, and the permanent disfigurement of survivors." ... In the 1690s, smallpox epidemics reduced Yukagir numbers by an estimated 44 percent."<ref>{{cite book |last1= Richards |first1= John F. |title= The Unending Frontier: An Environmental History of the Early Modern World |date= 2003 |publisher= University of California Press |isbn= 0-520-93935-2 |page= 538 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=i85noYD9C0EC&pg=PA538}}</ref> At the behest of people like ] in 1645 and ] in 1650, Russian Cossacks killed some peoples like the ] of ] and ] to the extent that some authors speak of ].<ref>For example:
*]
{{cite book
*]
| last1 = Bisher
| first1 = Jamie
| orig-year = 2005
| title = White Terror: Cossack Warlords of the Trans-Siberian
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Mg6RAgAAQBAJ
| location = London
| publisher = Routledge
| publication-date = 2006
| page = 6
| isbn = 978-1-135-76595-8
| access-date = 24 September 2020
| quote = Armed resistance against the Russian conquest begat slaughters by both invaders and the original inhabitants, but the worst cases led to genocide of indigenous groups such as the Dauri people on the Amur River, who were hunted down and butchered during campaigns by Vasilii Poyarkov about 1645 and Yerofei Khabarov in 1650.
}}</ref>
The Daurs initially deserted their villages since they had heard about the cruelty of the Russians the first time Khabarov came.<ref>{{cite news | date= 17 December 2009 | title=The Amur's siren song | url= http://www.economist.com/node/15108641 | newspaper= The Economist | edition= From the print edition: Christmas Specials |access-date= 15 August 2014 }}</ref> The second time he came, the Daurs decided to do battle against the Russians instead, but were slaughtered by Russian guns.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116112044/https://books.google.com/books?id=nzhq85nPrdsC&pg=PA104 |date=16 November 2022 }}, p. 104.</ref> The Russians came to be known as "red-beards".<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116112046/https://books.google.com/books?id=Jce4rBWjG5wC&pg=PA64 |date=16 November 2022 }}, p. 64.</ref> The Amur natives called Russian Cossacks ''luocha'' (羅剎), after demons in Buddhist mythology, because of their cruelty towards the Amur tribespeople, who were subjects of the Qing.<ref> {{webarchive|url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140523204757/http://history.emory.edu/home/assets/documents/endeavors/volume4/EmoryEndeavors4Complete.pdf |date= 23 May 2014 }}, p. 1.</ref> The Qing viewed Russian proselytization of ] to the indigenous peoples along the Amur River as a threat.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161012195320/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.13173/centasiaj.56.2013.0169 |date=12 October 2016 }}, p. 169.</ref>


In 1858 Russian diplomacy forced a weakening Qing dynasty to cede Manchuria north of the Amur to Russia under the ]. In 1860, with the ], the Russians managed to obtain a further large slice of Manchuria, east of the ]. As a result, Manchuria became divided into a Russian half (known as ] or Russian Manchuria), and a remaining Chinese region (known as Manchuria). In modern literature, "Manchuria" usually refers to Manchuria in China.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Manchuria {{!}} historical region, China {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Manchuria |access-date=2023-04-05 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> As a result of the Treaties of Aigun and Peking, Qing China lost access to the ].
]


=== History after 1860 ===
]
] visa issued at Hamburg]]
]

]
Manchuria in China also came under strong Russian influence with the building of the ] through ] to ]. In the '']'' movement, many ] farmers, mostly from the ] moved there. By 1921, Harbin, northern Manchuria's largest city, had a population of 300,000, including 100,000 ].<ref>'' {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116112046/https://books.google.com/books?id=bxFC5ynXN2YC&pg=PA68 |date=16 November 2022 }}''. Yu-lin Wu (1995). ]. p.68. {{ISBN|981-02-2287-4}}</ref> Japan replaced Russian influence in the southern half of Manchuria as a result of the ] in 1904–1905. Most of the southern branch of the Chinese Eastern Railway was transferred from Russia to Japan, and became the ]. Japanese influence extended into ] in the wake of the ], but Outer Manchuria had reverted to Soviet control by 1925. Manchuria was an important region due to its rich natural resources including coal, fertile soil, and various minerals. For ], Manchuria was an essential source of raw materials. Without occupying Manchuria, the Japanese probably could not have carried out their plan for conquest over Southeast Asia or taken the risk of attacking the ] and the ] in 1941.<ref>Edward Behr, ''The Last Emperor'', 1987, p. 202</ref>
]

]
There was a major ] known as the ] in 1910–1911, likely caused by the inexperienced hunting of ], many of whom are diseased. The cheap railway transport and the harsh winters, where the hunters sheltered in close confinement, helped to propagate the disease.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180308205528/https://disasterhistory.org/the-manchurian-plague-1910-11 |date=8 March 2018 }}, disasterhistory.org, Iain Meiklejohn.</ref> The response required close coordination between the Chinese, Russian and Japanese authorities and international disease experts held an 'International Plague Conference' in the northern city of Shenyang after the disease was under control to learn the lessons.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200419065959/https://edition.cnn.com/2020/04/18/china/great-manchurian-plague-china-hnk-intl/index.html |date=19 April 2020 }} CNN, April 19, 2020</ref>
]

]
It was reported that among Banner people, both Manchu and Chinese (Hanjun) in Aihun, Heilongjiang in the 1920s, would seldom marry with Han civilians, but they (Manchu and Chinese Bannermen) would mostly intermarry with each other.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116112046/https://books.google.com/books?id=tgq1miGno-4C&pg=PA263 |date=16 November 2022 }}, p. 263.</ref> Owen Lattimore reported that during his January 1930 visit to Manchuria, he studied a community in Jilin (Kirin), where both Manchu and Chinese Bannermen were settled at a town called Wulakai, and eventually the Chinese Bannermen there could not be differentiated from Manchus since they were effectively Manchufied (assimilated). The Han civilian population was in the process of absorbing and mixing with them when Lattimore wrote his article.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161012092825/https://www.jstor.org/stable/535718 |date=12 October 2016 }}, p. 272.</ref>
]

]
{{Clear}}
]
] (1933–1945)]]
]

]
Around the time of ], ] established himself as a powerful ] with influence over most of Manchuria. During his rule, the Manchurian economy grew tremendously, backed by the immigration of Chinese from other parts of China. The Japanese assassinated him on 2 June 1928, in what is known as the ].<ref>Edward Behr, ''ibid'', p. 168</ref> Following the ] in 1931 and the subsequent ], the Japanese declared Manchuria an "independent state", and appointed the deposed Qing emperor ] as ] of ]. Under Japanese control, Manchuria was brutally run, with a systematic campaign of terror and intimidation against the local populations including arrests, organised riots and other forms of subjugation.<ref>Edward Behr, ''ibid'', p. 202</ref> Manchukuo was used by Japan as a base to invade the rest of China. At that time, hundreds of thousands of ].
]

]
At the ] in February 1945, ] had agreed that the ] would declare war on Japan within three months after ].<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/yalta-conference| title = Yalta Conference| date = November 1, 2022| website = ]| publisher = ]| access-date = 2024-04-27}}</ref> Accordingly, in August the Soviet Union issued its ] and launched the ]. Soon afterwards, the ] and ] (Kuomintang) started fighting for control over Manchuria. The communists won in the ] and took complete control over Manchuria. With the encouragement of the Soviet Union, Manchuria was then used as a ] during the ] for the ], which emerged victorious in 1949. Ambiguities in the treaties that ceded Outer Manchuria to Russia led to disputes over the political status of several islands. The Kuomintang government in Taiwan (Formosa) complained to the ], which passed ] on 1 February 1952, denouncing Soviet actions over the violations of the 1945 ].
]

]
As part of the ], this ambiguity led to armed conflict in 1969, called the ], resulting in an agreement. In 2004, Russia agreed to transfer ] and one half of ] to China, ending an enduring border dispute.
]

]
{{Clear}}
]

]
== See also ==
]
* ]
]
* ]
]
* ]

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

=== Bibliography ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book|title=White Terror: Cossack Warlords of the Trans-Siberian |first=Jamie |last=Bisher|year=2006|publisher=Routledge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=28iPAgAAQBAJ |isbn=1-135-76596-0|access-date=24 April 2014}}
* {{cite book|title=The Making of a Chinese City: History and Historiography in Harbin|first=Søren|last=Clausen|others=Contributor: Stig Thøgersen|edition=illustrated|year=1995|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RpIvpEjlEJQC |isbn=1-56324-476-4|access-date=10 March 2014| ref = }}
* {{cite book|title=A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology|first=Pamela Kyle|last=Crossley|year=1999|publisher=University of California Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wn4iv_RJv8oC |isbn=0-520-92884-9|access-date=10 March 2014| ref = }}
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Manchuria |volume= 17 |last= Douglas |first= Robert Kennaway |date=1911 | pages=552–554 |ref={{harvid|''EB''|1911}}}}
* {{cite book|title=Chinas religionen ...|first=Rudolf|last=Dvořák|volume=12; Volume 15 of Darstellungen aus dem Gebiete der nichtchristlichen Religionsgeschichte|edition=illustrated|year=1895|publisher=Aschendorff (Druck und Verlag der Aschendorffschen Buchhandlung)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TmhtAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover|isbn=0-19-979205-4|access-date=10 March 2014| ref = }}
* {{cite journal|jstor=2658945 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20161217200852/http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/elliott/files/elliott_jas_limits_of_tartary_0.pdf |archive-date=17 December 2016 |url=http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/elliott/files/elliott_jas_limits_of_tartary_0.pdf |access-date=17 December 2016 |doi=10.2307/2658945 |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |title=The Limits of Tartary: Manchuria in Imperial and National Geographies |last=Elliott |first=Mark C. |volume=59 |number=3 |date=August 2000 |pages=603–646 |publisher=Association for Asian Studies }}
* Elliott, Mark C. "The Limits of Tartary: Manchuria in Imperial and National Geographies." ''Journal of Asian Studies'' 59, no. 3 (2000): 603–46.
* {{cite book|title= A History of the Peoples of Siberia: Russia's North Asian Colony 1581–1990 |first= James|last=Forsyth|edition=illustrated, reprint, revised|year=1994|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nzhq85nPrdsC&printsec=frontcover|isbn=0-521-47771-9|access-date=24 April 2014}}
* {{citation|last=Gamsa|first=Mark|year=2020|title=Manchuria: A Concise History|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic}}
* {{cite thesis |last= Garcia |first= Chad D. |date= 2012 |title= Horsemen from the Edge of Empire: The Rise of the Jurchen Coalition |url= https://dlib.lib.washington.edu/researchworks/bitstream/handle/1773/20679/Garcia_washington_0250E_10365.pdf?sequence=1 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140911002021/https://dlib.lib.washington.edu/researchworks/bitstream/handle/1773/20679/Garcia_washington_0250E_10365.pdf?sequence=1 |url-status= dead |archive-date= 2014-09-11 |publisher= University of Washington |pages= 1–315 |type= A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy |access-date= 6 September 2014 }}
* {{cite book|title=China and the Manchus|first=Herbert A.|last=Giles|year=1912|publisher=(Cambridge: at the University Press) (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yCqMneCHMJ4C&printsec=frontcover|access-date=31 January 2014}}
* Hata, Ikuhiro. "Continental Expansion: 1905–1941". In ''The Cambridge History of Japan''. Vol. 6. Cambridge University Press. 1988.
* {{cite book|title=Handwörterbuch der Mandschusprache|first=Erich|last=Hauer|editor-first=Oliver|editor-last=Corff|volume=12; Volume 15 of Darstellungen aus dem Gebiete der nichtchristlichen Religionsgeschichte|edition=illustrated|year=2007|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NESwGW_5uLoC&printsec=frontcover|isbn=978-3-447-05528-4|access-date=10 March 2014| ref = }}
* Jones, Francis Clifford, ''Manchuria Since 1931'', London, Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1949
* {{cite journal |last= KANG |first= Hyeokhweon |editor-last= Shiau |editor-first= Jeffrey |title= Big Heads and Buddhist Demons:The Korean Military Revolution and Northern Expeditions of 1654 and 1658 |url= http://history.emory.edu/home/assets/documents/endeavors/volume4/Kang.pdf |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140115010819/http://history.emory.edu/home/assets/documents/endeavors/volume4/Kang.pdf |archive-date= 15 January 2014 |journal= Emory Endeavors in World History |volume= 4: Transnational Encounters in Asia |edition= 2013 |pages= 1–22 |access-date= 10 March 2014 |url-status= dead }}
* {{cite journal|last=Kim 金|first=Loretta E. 由美|date=2012–2013|title=Saints for Shamans? Culture, Religion and Borderland Politics in Amuria from the Seventeenth to Nineteenth Centuries|journal=Central Asiatic Journal|publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag|volume= 56|pages=169–202|jstor=10.13173/centasiaj.56.2013.0169}}
* Kwong, Chi Man. ''War and Geopolitics in Interwar Manchuria'' (2017).
* {{cite journal|doi=10.2307/535718|jstor=535718|title=Wulakai Tales from Manchuria|last=Lattimore|first=Owen|date=Jul–Sep 1933|volume= 46|number=181|journal=The Journal of American Folklore|pages=272–286|publisher=American Folklore Society}}
* {{cite book|title=Chang Tso-lin in Northeast China, 1911–1928: China, Japan, and the Manchurian Idea|first=Gavan|last=McCormack|edition=illustrated|year=1977|publisher=Stanford University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GoSrAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover|isbn=0-8047-0945-9|access-date=10 March 2014| ref = }}
* {{citation|last=Narangoa|first=Li|year=2002|title=The Power of Imagination: Whose Northeast and Whose Manchuria?|journal=Inner Asia}}
* Masafumi, Asada. "The China-Russia-Japan Military Balance in Manchuria, 1906–1918." ''Modern Asian Studies'' 44.6 (2010): 1283–1311.
* Nish, Ian. ''The History of Manchuria, 1840–1948: A Sino-Russo-Japanese Triangle'' (2016)
* {{cite book|title=American Diplomacy Concerning Manchuria|first=Chao-ying|last=Pʻan|year=1938|publisher=The Catholic University of America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AC6tAAAAMAAJ|access-date=10 March 2014| ref = }}
* {{cite book|title=Tumen Jalafun Jecen Akū Manchu Studies in Honour of Giovanni Stary|editor1-first=Alessandra|editor1-last=Pozzi |editor2-first=Juha Antero |editor2-last=Janhunen|editor3-first=Michael|editor3-last=Weiers|others=Contributor: Giovanni Stary |volume=20 of Tunguso Sibirica|year=2006|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=3-447-05378-X|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LbmP_1KIQ_8C&printsec=frontcover|access-date=1 April 2013| ref = {{harvid|Pozzi|2006}} }}
* {{cite journal|jstor=3985584|title=Land Use and Society in Manchuria and Inner Mongolia during the Qing Dynasty|last=Reardon-Anderson|first=James|date=October 2000|volume= 5|number=4|journal=Environmental History|pages=503–530|publisher=Forest History Society and American Society for Environmental History|doi=10.2307/3985584}}
* {{cite book|title=Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928|first=Edward J. M.|last=Rhoads|year=2011|publisher=University of Washington Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tgq1miGno-4C&printsec=frontcover|isbn=978-0-295-80412-5|access-date=10 March 2014| ref = }}
* {{cite journal |last= Scharping |first= Thomas |date= 1998 |title= Minorities, Majorities and National Expansion: The History and Politics of Population Development in Manchuria 1610–1993 |url= http://www.phil-fak.uni-koeln.de/fileadmin/chinastudien/papers/No_1998-1.pdf |journal=Cologne China Studies Online – Working Papers on Chinese Politics, Economy and Society (Kölner China-Studien Online – Arbeitspapiere zu Politik, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft Chinas) |publisher=Modern China Studies, Chair for Politics, Economy and Society of Modern China, at the University of Cologne |issue= 1 |access-date=14 August 2014}}
* {{citation|last=Tamanoi|first=Mariko Asano|year=2005|title=Crossed Histories: Manchuria in the Age of Empire}}
* {{cite book|title=Japan at the Millennium: Joining Past and Future|first=Bill|last=Sewell|editor-first=David W.|editor-last=Edgington|edition=illustrated|year=2003|publisher=UBC Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=El9Lj_EKzBAC&printsec=frontcover|isbn=0-7748-0899-3|access-date=10 March 2014| ref = }}
* {{cite book|title=Intoxicating Manchuria: Alcohol, Opium, and Culture in China's Northeast|series=Contemporary Chinese Studies Series|first=Norman|last=Smith|edition=illustrated|year=2012|publisher=UBC Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2pjbx91hb_gC&printsec=frontcover|isbn=978-0-7748-2431-6|access-date=10 March 2014| ref = }}
* {{cite book|title= The Russian Far East: A History |first= John J. |last=Stephan|edition=illustrated, reprint|year=1996|publisher=Stanford University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jce4rBWjG5wC&printsec=frontcover|isbn=0-8047-2701-5|access-date=24 April 2014}}
* {{cite journal|jstor=2658656|doi=10.2307/2658656|journal=The Journal of Asian Studies|title=Knowledge, Power, and Racial Classification: The "Japanese" in "Manchuria"|last=Tamanoi|first=Mariko Asano|volume= 59|number=2|date=May 2000|pages=248–276|publisher=Association for Asian Studies}}
* Tao, Jing-shen, ''The Jurchen in Twelfth-Century China''. University of Washington Press, 1976, {{ISBN|0-295-95514-7}}.
* KISHI Toshihiko, MATSUSHIGE Mitsuhiro and MATSUMURA Fuminori eds, 20 Seiki Manshu Rekishi Jiten , Tokyo: Yoshikawa Kobunkan, 2012, {{ISBN|978-4642014694}}
* {{cite book|title=Die Eroberung von Qinghai unter Berücksichtigung von Tibet und Khams 1717–1727: anhand der Throneingaben des Grossfeldherrn Nian Gengyao|first=Shuhui|last=Wu|volume=2 of Tunguso Sibirica|edition=reprint|year=1995|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zqVug_wN4hEC&printsec=frontcover|isbn=3-447-03756-3|access-date=10 March 2014| ref = }}
* {{cite book|title=The Russo-Japanese War in Global Perspective: World War Zero, Volume 2|editor1-first=David|editor1-last=Wolff|editor2-first=John W.|editor2-last=Steinberg|volume=2 of The Russo-Japanese War in Global Perspective|year=2007|edition=illustrated|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-9004154162|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xlg0lM8f9Y4C&printsec=frontcover|access-date=1 April 2013| ref = {{harvid|Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|2006}} }}
* {{cite journal | jstor = 20062627 | doi = 10.1177/0097700405282349 |url= http://mcx.sagepub.com/content/32/1/3.abstract |archive-date = 25 March 2014 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140325231543/https://webspace.utexas.edu/hl4958/perspectives/Zhao%20-%20reinventing%20china.pdf |title= Reinventing China Imperial Qing Ideology and the Rise of Modern Chinese National Identity in the Early Twentieth Century| journal = Modern China |last1= Zhao|first1=Gang |volume= 32 | pages = 3–30 |number= 1 |date= January 2006|publisher= Sage Publications}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Wiktionary|Manchuria|Manchooria}}
{{EB1911 poster|Manchuria}}
* {{commons category-inline|Manchuria}}
* ]

{{coord|43|N|125|E|dim:1000km|display=title}}
{{Authority control}}
{{bots|deny=Citation bot}}
{{Regions of the world}}

]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]

Latest revision as of 17:29, 22 November 2024

Geographical region in Northeast Asia This article is about the region of Northeast Asia. For the former Japanese puppet state in Manchuria, see Manchukuo. For other uses, see Manchuria (disambiguation). "Manzhou" redirects here. For the township in southern Taiwan, see Manzhou, Pingtung.

Manchuria
Map of Manchuria with the central part coloured in red (northeast China); eastern Inner Mongolia to the west, in slightly lighter red; and Outer Manchuria to the north-east, in pink.
Chinese name
Simplified Chinese满洲
Traditional Chinese滿洲
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinMǎnzhōu
Bopomofoㄇㄢˇ ㄓㄡ
Gwoyeu RomatzyhMaanjou
Wade–GilesMan-chou
Tongyong PinyinMǎnjhou
IPA
Wu
Romanization Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 9) (help)
Yue: Cantonese
JyutpingMun-zau
Korean name
Hangul만주
Hanja滿洲
Transcriptions
Revised RomanizationManju
McCune–ReischauerManju
Mongolian name
Mongolian CyrillicМанжуур
Mongolian scriptᠮᠠᠨᠵᠤᠤᠷ
Transcriptions
SASM/GNCManjuur
Japanese name
Kanji満州
Kanaまんしゅう
Transcriptions
RomanizationManshū
Kunrei-shikiMansyû
Manchu name
Manchu scriptᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ
ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ
RomanizationManju Gurun
Russian name
RussianМаньчжурия
RomanizationMan'chzhuriya

Manchuria is a term that refers to a region in northeast Asia encompassing the entirety of present-day northeast China, and historically parts of the modern-day Russian Far East, often referred to as Outer Manchuria. Its definition may refer to varying geographical extents as follows: in the narrow sense, the area constituted by three Chinese provinces of Heilongjiang, Jilin, and Liaoning but broadly also including the eastern Inner Mongolian prefectures of Hulunbuir, Hinggan, Tongliao, and Chifeng, collectively known as Northeast China; in a broader sense, the area of historical Manchuria includes the aforementioned regions plus the Amur river basin, parts of which were ceded to the Russian Empire by the Manchu-led Qing dynasty during the Amur Annexation of 1858–1860. The parts of Manchuria ceded to Russia are collectively known as Outer Manchuria or Russian Manchuria, which include present-day Amur Oblast, Primorsky Krai, the Jewish Autonomous Oblast, the southern part of Khabarovsk Krai, and the eastern edge of Zabaykalsky Krai.

The name Manchuria is an exonym (derived from the endonym "Manchu") of Japanese origin. The history of "Manchuria" (Manzhou) as a toponym in China is disputed, with some scholars believing it was never used while others believe it was by the late 19th century. The area was historically referred to by various names in the Qing dynasty such as Guandong (East of the Pass) or the Three Provinces referring to Fengtian, Heilongjiang, and Jilin. Manchuria as a geographical term was first used in the 18th or 19th centuries by the Japanese before spreading to Europe. The term was promoted by the Japanese Empire in support for the existence of its puppet state, Manchukuo. Although the toponym is still used, some scholars treat the term with caution or avoid it altogether due to its association with Japanese colonialism. The term is deprecated in China due to its association with Japanese imperialism and ethnic connotations. As a result, areas once considered part of Manchuria are simply referred to as the Northeast. The Three Provinces and the Northeast were also in concurrent use among the Japanese along with Manchuria until the Mukden Incident of 1931.

The area is home to many ethnic groups, including the Manchus, Mongols, Koreans, Nanai, Nivkhs, and Ulchs. Many of the early ancient Koreanic kingdoms were established in the area. It is the ancestral homeland to the Tungusic-speaking Jurchens and their descendants, the Manchus.

Boundaries

The drainage basin of the Amur River, also showing the island of Sakhalin in the east, apart to the west towards Mongolia, roughly corresponds to the geographical area of the historic land of the Manchu people

Manchuria is now most often associated with the three Chinese provinces of Heilongjiang, Jilin, and Liaoning. The former Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo further included the prefectures of Chengde (now in Hebei), and Hulunbuir, Hinggan, Tongliao, and Chifeng (now in Inner Mongolia). The region of the Qing dynasty referenced as Manchuria originally further included Primorskiy Kray, the Jewish Autonomous Oblast, the southern parts of Amur Oblast and Khabarovskiy Kray, and a corner of Zabaykalʼskiy Kray. These districts were acknowledged as Qing territory by the 1689 Treaty of Nerchinsk but ceded to the Russian Empire due to the Amur Annexation in the unequal 1858 Treaty of Aigun and 1860 Convention of Beijing (the People's Republic of China indirectly questioned the legitimacy of these treaties in the 1960s, but has more recently signed agreements such as the 2001 Sino-Russian Treaty of Friendship, which affirm the current status quo; a minor exchange nonetheless occurred in 2004 at the confluence of the Amur and Ussuri rivers). Various senses of Greater Manchuria sometimes further include Sakhalin Island, which despite its lack of mention in treaties was shown as Qing territory on period Chinese, Japanese, Russian, and French maps of the area.

The drainage basin of the Amur River apart to the east towards Mongolia roughly corresponds to the geographical area of the historic land of the Manchu people. The northern boundary was marked by mountains.

Names

Further information: Manchu people § Name
One of the earliest European maps using the term "Manchuria" (Mandchouria) (John Tallis, 1851). Previously, the term "Chinese Tartary" had been commonly applied in the West to Manchuria and Mongolia
Map of the three provinces of Northeast China (1911)
Map of Manchukuo and its rail network, c. 1945

Manchuria

Origins

The geographical term "Manchuria" was first used in the 18th or 19th century by the Japanese. "Manchuria" – variations of which arrived in European languages through Dutch – is a calque of Latin of the Japanese placename Manshū (満州, "Region of the Manchus"), which dates from the 18th century.

According to the American researcher Mark C. Elliott, the term Manshū first appeared as a placename in Katsuragawa Hoshū's 1794 work Hokusa Bunryaku in two maps, "Ashia zenzu" and "Chikyū hankyū sōzu", which were also created by Katsuragawa. According to Junko Miyawaki-Okada, Japanese geographer Takahashi Kageyasu was the first to use the term Manshū as a toponym in 1809 in the Nippon Henkai Ryakuzu, and it was from that work that Westerners adopted the name. By the 1830s, various Indo-European forms of Manshū could be found. However, according to Li Narangoa, the term was introduced to Japan in the 18th century through European maps following Jesuit conventions.

Manshū then increasingly appeared on maps by Japanese cartographers such as Kondi Jūzō, Takahashi Kageyasu, Baba Sadayoshi, and Yamada Ren. Their maps were brought to Europe by Philipp Franz von Siebold. According to Japanese scholar Nakami Tatsuo, Siebold was the one who brought the usage of the term Manchuria to Europeans after borrowing it from the Japanese, who were the first to use it in a geographic manner in the 18th century.

China

The history of the use of "Manchuria" as a toponym in China is uncertain. According to one stream of thought, it was not used by the Manchus or the Chinese. The name Manchu was given to the Jurchen people by Hong Taiji in 1635 as a new name for their ethnic group. However neither the name Manchu or the Chinese rendering of Manshū as Manzhou ever acquired geographical connotations, while in Japanese, both Manchuria and Manchu are rendered as Manshū. According to Nakami Tatsuo, Manzhou was used to refer to Manchu people or one of their states rather than a region: "Originally, Manzhou was the name of the Manchu people or of their state; it was not the name of a region. In fact, neither Manchus nor Han Chinese have ever called China's Northeast 'Manzhou'." Even advocates of an independent Manchuria such as Inaba Iwakichi acknowledged this. In 1912, British diplomat and sinologist Herbert Giles stated in China and the Manchus that "'Manchuria' is unknown to the Chinese or to the Manchus themselves as a geographical expression". According to Owen Latimore, during his travels in China during the late 1920s, he found "no single Chinese name for Manchuria as a unit". Historical geographer Philippe Forêt concurred, noting that there is no word for Manchuria in either Chinese or Manchu languages.

Another perspective delineated by scholars such as Mark C. Elliott and Li Narangoa argues that Manchu consciousness of their homeland as a unique place contributed to the creation of Manchuria as a distinct geographical entity, and that "Manchuria" (Manzhou) was used as a toponym by the Chinese. According to Elliott, the Manchu imperial lineage believed that their original homeland was the Changbai Mountains. The Qing court endeavored to create a regional identity focused on the Changbai Mountains, which gradually became a symbol of Manchu identity. However, it is uncertain whether that notion was shared among ordinary Manchus, and there is evidence that part of that effort was to combat widespread acculturation among Manchus, resulting in the loss of their language. As part of this effort, Jesuits were commissioned to create maps that enhanced Manchu conceptualization of their homeland, which Elliot believes to have been the original impetus to label the region as Manchuria in European and Japanese maps. In 1877, Manzhou was used as a toponym in an essay by Gong Chai, a scholar from Ningbo. The description of Manzhou located it to the northeast of Beijing and identified it as the birthplace of the dynasty. Manzhou was used as a place name again 20 years later by Qing officials. Manzhou began to appear on Chinese maps in the first decade of the 1900s. Maps that used Manzhou were in the minority during the early Republican period but the name remained in common use among the Chinese Communist Party into the 1930s. Names for the region were relatively fluid before the Mukden Incident of 1931, after which alternative names in Japanese were discarded for Manshū, and Dongbei (Northeast) and Dongsansheng (Three Eastern Provinces) became the orthodox names for the Chinese. According to Mark Gamsa, Manzhou was not widely used among the Chinese but the People's Republic of China disapproved of it regardless. By the 1950s, Manzhou had virtually disappeared as a toponym although some still used it out of habit.

Japan

The term Manchuria has been described as "controversial" or "troublesome" by several scholars including Mark C. Elliott, Norman Smith, and Mariko Asano Tamanoi. The historian Norman Smith wrote that "The term 'Manchuria' is controversial" based on reasons outlined by Mariko Asano Tamanoi in the "Introduction" of Crossed Histories: Manchuria in the Age of Empire (2005). According to Tamanoi, "'Manchuria' is a product of Japanese imperialism, and to call the area Manzhou is to accept uncritically a Japanese colonial legacy." Japan used the name "Manchuria" to convey the idea of a contested region distinct from China while China insisted on its ownership of the region by rejecting the name "Manchuria". Japanese colonists who returned to Japan from Manchukuo in the post-war period used terms such as Manshu (Manchuria), Man-mō (Manchuria-Mongolia), and Mō-man (Mongolia-Manchuria) almost interchangeably. Hyphenated terms such as Man-sēn (Manchuria and Korea) and Man-mō (Manchuria-Mongolia) emerged in Japanese media and traveler writings during the first three decades of the 20th century, implying that these regions were extensions of each other. Tamanoi notes that the name "Manchuria" cannot be found on Chinese maps and acknowledged that she "should use the term in quotation marks" even though she did not.

Historian Bill Sewell denies that Manchuria is "a genuine geographic term", claiming the Japanese never viewed Manchuria as a discrete entity and it was Europeans who first started using the name Manchuria to refer to the location. Others such as Forêt described Manchuria as a solely geographical term without indicating a political connection and used it in that capacity despite acknowledging its imperialistic overtones. The historian Gavan McCormack agreed with Robert H. G. Lee's statement that "The term Manchuria or Man-chou is a modern creation used mainly by westerners and Japanese", with McCormack writing that the term Manchuria is imperialistic in nature and has no "precise meaning" since the Japanese deliberately promoted the use of "Manchuria" as a geographic name to promote its separation from China at the time they were setting up their puppet state of Manchukuo. In the 1920s, Japanese media still presented Manchuria as part of China, albeit as a distinct region, and sometimes called it the "Garden of China". However, in 1932, the puppet state of Manchukuo was founded covering not only the northeastern three provinces but also parts of eastern Inner Mongolia. In 1933, the Bureau of Information and the Publicity Department of Foreign Affairs of the Manchukuo Government published a Handbook of Information of Manchukuo stating that Manchuria did not belong to China, had its own history and traditions, and was the home of the Manchus and Mongols. Elliot notes that one scholar considered the use of "Manchuria" as not only inaccurate but giving approval to Japanese colonialism.

Nurgan

Nurgan, the Ming dynasty name for the region that was inhabited by Jurchens

During the Ming dynasty the area in which the Jurchens lived was referred to as Nurgan.

Three Provinces

During the Qing dynasty, the region was known as the "three eastern provinces" (東三省; 东三省; Dōngsānshěng; Manchu ᡩᡝᡵᡤᡳ
ᡳᠯᠠᠨ
ᡤᠣᠯᠣ, Dergi Ilan Golo), which referred to Jilin, Heilongjiang, and Fengtian since 1683 when Jilin and Heilongjiang were separated. However, Jilin and Heilongjiang did not receive the full function of provinces until 1907. The Japanese also used the name "Three Eastern Provinces" (Tōsanshō) during the 1920s and 1930s along with Manshū. However, after the Manchurian Incident of 1931, Tōsanshō was completely replaced by Manshū in Japanese usage while the Three Provinces and Northeast became the orthodox name for the same region in Chinese usage.

Guandong

Manchuria has been referred to as Guandong (關東; 关东; Guāndōng), which literally means "east of the pass", and similarly Guanwai (關外; 关外; Guānwài; 'outside the pass'), a reference to Shanhai Pass in Qinhuangdao in today's Hebei, at the eastern end of the Great Wall of China. This usage is seen in the expression Chuǎng Guāndōng (literally "Rushing into Guandong") referring to the mass migration of Han Chinese to Manchuria in the 19th and 20th centuries. The name Guandong later came to be used more narrowly for the area of the Kwantung Leased Territory on the Liaodong Peninsula. It is not to be confused with the southern province of Guangdong.

Northeast Region

1900s map of Manchuria, in pink

The term "Manchuria" is deprecated among people of the People's Republic of China (PRC) due to its association with Japanese imperialism, the puppet state of Manchukuo of the Empire of Japan, and Manchurian nationalism. Official state documents use the term Northeast Region (东北; Dōngběi) to describe the region. Northeast China is predominantly occupied by Han Chinese due to internal Chinese migrations and Sinicization of the Manchus, especially during the Qing dynasty. It is considered the original homeland of several historical groups besides the Manchus, including the Yemaek the Xianbei, the Shiwei, and the Khitans. The area is also home to many Mongols and Hui.

In present-day Chinese, an inhabitant of the Northeast is a "Northeasterner" (东北人; Dōngběirén). "The Northeast" is a term that expresses the entire region, encompassing its history and various cultures. It is usually restricted to the "Three East Provinces" or "Three Northeast Provinces", excluding northeastern Inner Mongolia. In China, the term Manchuria (traditional Chinese: 滿洲; simplified Chinese: 满洲; pinyin: Mǎnzhōu) is rarely used today, and the term is often negatively associated with the Japanese imperial legacy and the puppet state of Manchukuo. The Northeast (Tōhoku) was also used as a name for Manchuria by the Japanese during the 1920s and 1930s.

Geography and climate

Climate map of Manchuria or Northeast China.

Manchuria consists mainly of the northern side of the funnel-shaped North China Craton, a large area of tilled and overlaid Precambrian rocks spanning 100 million hectares (250 million acres). The North China Craton was an independent continent before the Triassic period and is known to have been the northernmost piece of land in the world during the Carboniferous. The Khingan Mountains in the west are a Jurassic mountain range formed by the collision of the North China Craton with the Siberian Craton, which marked the final stage of the formation of the supercontinent Pangaea.

Hailang River near Hailin City in Heilongjiang

No part of Manchuria was glaciated during the Quaternary, but the surface geology of most of the lower-lying and more fertile parts of Manchuria consists of very deep layers of loess, which have been formed by the wind-borne movement of dust and till particles formed in glaciated parts of the Himalayas, Kunlun Shan and Tien Shan, as well as the Gobi and Taklamakan Deserts. Soils are mostly fertile mollisols and fluvents except in the more mountainous parts where they have poorly developed orthents, as well as in the extreme north where permafrost occurs and orthels dominate.

The climate of Manchuria has extreme seasonal contrasts, ranging from humid, almost tropical heat in summer to windy, dry, Arctic cold in winter. This pattern occurs because the position of Manchuria on the boundary between the great Eurasian continental landmass and the huge Pacific Ocean causes complete monsoonal wind reversal.

In summer, when the land heats faster than the ocean, low-pressure forms over Asia and warm, moist south to southeasterly winds bring heavy, thundery rain, yielding annual rainfall ranging from 400 mm (16 in), or less in the west, to over 1,150 mm (45 in) in the Changbai Mountains. Temperatures in summer are very warm to hot, with July average maxima ranging from 31 °C (88 °F) in the south to 24 °C (75 °F) in the extreme north.

In winter, however, the vast Siberian High causes very cold, north-to-northwesterly winds that bring temperatures as low as −5 °C (23 °F) in the extreme south and −30 °C (−22 °F) in the north where the zone of discontinuous permafrost reaches northern Heilongjiang. However, because the winds from Siberia are exceedingly dry, snow falls only on a few days every winter, and it is never heavy. This explains why corresponding latitudes of North America were fully glaciated during glacial periods of the Quaternary while Manchuria, though even colder, always remained too dry to form glaciers – a state of affairs enhanced by stronger westerly winds from the surface of the ice sheet in Europe.

History

Part of a series on the
History of Manchuria
Prehistoric period
Ancient to Classical period
Medieval to Early Modern period
Modern period
Main article: History of Manchuria

Early history

A 12th-century Jurchen stone tortoise in today's Ussuriysk
The Three Kingdoms of Korea occupied roughly half of Manchuria, 5th century AD

Manchuria was the homeland of several ethnic groups, including Manchu, Mongols, Koreans, Nanai, Nivkhs, Ulchs, Hui, possibly Turkic peoples, and ethnic Han Chinese in southern Manchuria. Various ethnic groups and their respective kingdoms, including the Sushen, Donghu, Xianbei, Wuhuan, Mohe, Khitan and Jurchens, have risen to power in Manchuria. Koreanic kingdoms such as Gojoseon (before 108 BCE), Buyeo (2nd century BCE to 494 CE) and Goguryeo (37 BCE to 688 CE) also became established in large parts of this area. The Chinese Qin (221–206 BCE), Han (202 BCE–9 CE and 25 CE–220 CE), Cao Wei (220–266), Western Jin (266–316), and Tang (618–690 and 705–907) dynasties controlled parts of Manchuria. Parts of northwestern Manchuria came under the control of the First Turkic Khaganate of 552–603 and of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate of 581–630. Early Manchuria had a mixed economy of hunting, fishing, livestock, and agriculture.

With the Song dynasty (960–1269) to the south, the Khitan people of Inner Mongolia created the Liao dynasty (916–1125) and conquered Outer Mongolia and Manchuria, going on to control the adjacent part of the Sixteen Prefectures in Northern China as well. The Liao dynasty became the first state to control all of Manchuria.

Map of Manchuria under Yuan rule in the 14th century, including province of Liaoyang and northern Korea
Map Manchuria under Ming rule in 1616, the homeland of the Jurchens who became the Manchus and founded Later Jin (1616–1636)

In the early 12th century, the Tungusic Jurchen people, who were Liao's tributaries, overthrew the Liao and formed the Jin dynasty (1115–1234), which went on to control parts of Northern China and Mongolia after a series of successful military campaigns. During the Mongol Yuan dynasty rule of China (1271–1368), Manchuria was administered as Liaoyang province. In 1375 Naghachu, a Mongol official of the Mongolia-based Northern Yuan dynasty of 1368–1635 in Liaoyang province invaded Liaodong, but later surrendered to the Ming dynasty in 1387. In order to protect the northern border areas, the Ming dynasty decided to "pacify" the Jurchens in order to deal with its problems with Yuan remnants along its northern border. The Ming solidified control over Manchuria under the Yongle Emperor (r. 1402–1424), establishing the Nurgan Regional Military Commission of 1409–1435. Starting in the 1580s, a Jianzhou Jurchen chieftain, Nurhaci (1558–1626), started to unify Jurchen tribes of the region. Over the next several decades, the Jurchen took control of most of Manchuria. In 1616 Nurhaci founded the Later Jin dynasty, which later became known as the Qing dynasty. The Qing defeated the Evenk-Daur federation led by the Evenki chief Bombogor and beheaded Bombogor in 1640, with Qing armies massacring and deporting Evenkis and absorbing the survivors into the Banners.

A Jurchen man hunting from his horse, from a 15th-century ink-and-color painting on silk

Chinese cultural and religious influence such as Chinese New Year, the "Chinese god", motifs such as the dragon, spirals, and scrolls, agriculture, husbandry, methods of heating, and material goods such as iron cooking-pots, silk, and cotton spread among the Amur natives including the Udeghes, Ulchis, and Nanais.

In 1644, after peasant rebels sacked the Ming dynasty's capital of Beijing, the Jurchens (now called Manchus) allied with Ming general Wu Sangui and seized control of Beijing, overthrowing the short-lived Shun dynasty (1644–1649) and establishing Qing-dynasty rule (1644–1912) over all of China. The Manchu conquest of China involved the deaths of over 25 million people. The Qing dynasty built the Willow Palisade – a system of ditches and embankments – during the later 17th century to restrict the movement of Han civilians into Jilin and Heilongjiang. Only bannermen, including Han bannermen, were allowed to settle in Jilin and Heilongjiang.

Map of Manchuria under Qing rule in 1820, including the provinces of Fengtian, Jilin and Heilongjiang

After conquering the Ming, the Qing often identified their state as "China" (中國, Zhongguo; "Middle Kingdom"), and referred to it as Dulimbai Gurun ("Middle Kingdom") in Manchu. In the Qing shilu the lands of the Qing state (including Manchuria and present-day Xinjiang, Mongolia, and Tibet) are thus identified as "the Middle Kingdom" in both the Chinese and Manchu languages in roughly two-thirds of the cases, while the term refers to the traditional Chinese provinces populated by the Han in roughly one third of the cases. It was also common to use "China" (Zhongguo, Dulimbai gurun) to refer to the Qing in official documents, international treaties, and foreign affairs. In diplomatic documents, the term "Chinese language" (Dulimbai gurun i bithe) referred to the Chinese, Manchu, and Mongol languages, and the term "Chinese people" (中國人 Zhongguo ren; Manchu: Dulimbai gurun i niyalma) referred to all Han, Manchus, and Mongol subjects of the Qing. The Qing explicitly stated that the lands in Manchuria belonged to "China" (Zhongguo, Dulimbai gurun) in Qing edicts and in the 1689 Treaty of Nerchinsk.

Population change

Despite migration restrictions, Qing rule saw massively increasing numbers of Han Chinese both illegally and legally streaming into Manchuria and settling down to cultivate land – Manchu landlords desired Han Chinese peasants to rent their land and to grow grain; most Han Chinese migrants were not evicted as they crossed the Great Wall and Willow Palisade. During the eighteenth century Han Chinese farmed 500,000 hectares of privately owned land in Manchuria and 203,583 hectares of lands which were part of courier stations, noble estates, and Banner lands; in garrisons and towns in Manchuria Han Chinese made up 80% of the population.

The Qing resettled Han Chinese farmers from north China to the area along the Liao River in order to restore the land to cultivation. Han Chinese squatters reclaimed wasteland, and other Han rented land from Manchu landlords.

By the 18th century, despite officially prohibiting Han Chinese settlement on Manchu and Mongol lands, the Qing decided to settle Han refugees from northern China – who were suffering from famine, floods, and drought – into Manchuria and Inner Mongolia, so that Han Chinese farmed 500,000 hectares in Manchuria and tens of thousands of hectares in Inner Mongolia by the 1780s. The Qianlong Emperor (r. 1735–1796) allowed Han Chinese peasants suffering from drought to move into Manchuria despite his having issued edicts in favor of banning them from 1740 to 1776. Han Chinese then streamed into Manchuria, both illegally and legally, over the Great Wall of China and the Willow Palisade. Chinese tenant farmers rented or even claimed title to land from the "imperial estates" and Manchu Bannerlands in the area. Besides moving into the Liao area in southern Manchuria, Han Chinese settled the path linking Jinzhou, Fengtian, Tieling, Changchun, Hulun, and Ningguta during the Qianlong Emperor's reign, and Han Chinese had become the majority in urban areas of Manchuria by 1800. To increase the Imperial Treasury's revenue, the Qing sold formerly Manchu-only lands along the Sungari to Han Chinese at the beginning of the Daoguang Emperor's 1820–1850 reign, and Han Chinese filled up most of Manchuria's towns by the 1840s, according to Abbé Huc.

The demographic change was not caused solely by Han migration. Manchus also refused to stay in Manchuria. In the late 18th century, Manchus in Beijing were sent to Manchuria as part of a plan to reduce the burden on the court, but they tried to return by every means possible. With the exception of 20,000 to 30,000 soldiers and their families and a military colony established in the 1850s, Manchuria was devoid of Manchus. By 1900, 15 million of Manchuria's 17 million inhabitants were Han Chinese.

Map showing the original border (in pink) between Manchuria and Russia according to the Treaty of Nerchinsk 1689, and subsequent losses of territory to Russia in the treaties of Aigun 1858 (beige) and Peking 1860 (red)
Harbin's Kitayskaya Street (Russian for "Chinese Street"), now Zhongyang Street (Chinese for "Central Street"), before 1945

Russian invasions

The Russian conquest of Siberia was met with indigenous resistance to colonization, but Russian Cossacks crushed the natives. The conquest of Siberia and Manchuria also resulted in the spread of infectious diseases. Historian John F. Richards wrote: "... New diseases weakened and demoralized the indigenous peoples of Siberia. The worst of these was smallpox "because of its swift spread, the high death rates, and the permanent disfigurement of survivors." ... In the 1690s, smallpox epidemics reduced Yukagir numbers by an estimated 44 percent." At the behest of people like Vasilii Poyarkov in 1645 and Yerofei Khabarov in 1650, Russian Cossacks killed some peoples like the Daur people of Inner Mongolia and Xinjiang to the extent that some authors speak of genocide. The Daurs initially deserted their villages since they had heard about the cruelty of the Russians the first time Khabarov came. The second time he came, the Daurs decided to do battle against the Russians instead, but were slaughtered by Russian guns. The Russians came to be known as "red-beards". The Amur natives called Russian Cossacks luocha (羅剎), after demons in Buddhist mythology, because of their cruelty towards the Amur tribespeople, who were subjects of the Qing. The Qing viewed Russian proselytization of Eastern Orthodox Christianity to the indigenous peoples along the Amur River as a threat.

In 1858 Russian diplomacy forced a weakening Qing dynasty to cede Manchuria north of the Amur to Russia under the Treaty of Aigun. In 1860, with the Treaty of Peking, the Russians managed to obtain a further large slice of Manchuria, east of the Ussuri River. As a result, Manchuria became divided into a Russian half (known as Outer Manchuria or Russian Manchuria), and a remaining Chinese region (known as Manchuria). In modern literature, "Manchuria" usually refers to Manchuria in China. As a result of the Treaties of Aigun and Peking, Qing China lost access to the Sea of Japan.

History after 1860

1940 Manchukuo visa issued at Hamburg

Manchuria in China also came under strong Russian influence with the building of the Chinese Eastern Railway through Harbin to Vladivostok. In the Chuang Guandong movement, many Han farmers, mostly from the Shandong peninsula moved there. By 1921, Harbin, northern Manchuria's largest city, had a population of 300,000, including 100,000 Russians. Japan replaced Russian influence in the southern half of Manchuria as a result of the Russo-Japanese War in 1904–1905. Most of the southern branch of the Chinese Eastern Railway was transferred from Russia to Japan, and became the South Manchurian Railway. Japanese influence extended into Outer Manchuria in the wake of the Russian Revolution of 1917, but Outer Manchuria had reverted to Soviet control by 1925. Manchuria was an important region due to its rich natural resources including coal, fertile soil, and various minerals. For pre–World War II Japan, Manchuria was an essential source of raw materials. Without occupying Manchuria, the Japanese probably could not have carried out their plan for conquest over Southeast Asia or taken the risk of attacking the United States and the British Empire in 1941.

There was a major epidemic known as the Manchurian plague in 1910–1911, likely caused by the inexperienced hunting of marmots, many of whom are diseased. The cheap railway transport and the harsh winters, where the hunters sheltered in close confinement, helped to propagate the disease. The response required close coordination between the Chinese, Russian and Japanese authorities and international disease experts held an 'International Plague Conference' in the northern city of Shenyang after the disease was under control to learn the lessons.

It was reported that among Banner people, both Manchu and Chinese (Hanjun) in Aihun, Heilongjiang in the 1920s, would seldom marry with Han civilians, but they (Manchu and Chinese Bannermen) would mostly intermarry with each other. Owen Lattimore reported that during his January 1930 visit to Manchuria, he studied a community in Jilin (Kirin), where both Manchu and Chinese Bannermen were settled at a town called Wulakai, and eventually the Chinese Bannermen there could not be differentiated from Manchus since they were effectively Manchufied (assimilated). The Han civilian population was in the process of absorbing and mixing with them when Lattimore wrote his article.

Map of Manchukuo (1933–1945)

Around the time of World War I, Zhang Zuolin established himself as a powerful warlord with influence over most of Manchuria. During his rule, the Manchurian economy grew tremendously, backed by the immigration of Chinese from other parts of China. The Japanese assassinated him on 2 June 1928, in what is known as the Huanggutun Incident. Following the Mukden Incident in 1931 and the subsequent Japanese invasion of Manchuria, the Japanese declared Manchuria an "independent state", and appointed the deposed Qing emperor Puyi as puppet emperor of Manchukuo. Under Japanese control, Manchuria was brutally run, with a systematic campaign of terror and intimidation against the local populations including arrests, organised riots and other forms of subjugation. Manchukuo was used by Japan as a base to invade the rest of China. At that time, hundreds of thousands of Japanese settlers arrived in Manchuria.

At the Yalta Conference in February 1945, Joseph Stalin had agreed that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months after Germany surrendered. Accordingly, in August the Soviet Union issued its declaration of war and launched the Soviet invasion of Manchuria. Soon afterwards, the Chinese Communist Party and Chinese Nationalist Party (Kuomintang) started fighting for control over Manchuria. The communists won in the Liaoshen Campaign and took complete control over Manchuria. With the encouragement of the Soviet Union, Manchuria was then used as a staging ground during the Chinese Civil War for the Chinese Communist Party, which emerged victorious in 1949. Ambiguities in the treaties that ceded Outer Manchuria to Russia led to disputes over the political status of several islands. The Kuomintang government in Taiwan (Formosa) complained to the United Nations, which passed resolution 505 on 1 February 1952, denouncing Soviet actions over the violations of the 1945 Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance.

As part of the Sino-Soviet split, this ambiguity led to armed conflict in 1969, called the Sino-Soviet border conflict, resulting in an agreement. In 2004, Russia agreed to transfer Yinlong Island and one half of Heixiazi Island to China, ending an enduring border dispute.

See also

References

Citations

  1. ^ Elliot 2000 Archived 26 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine, p. 628.
  2. ^ Narangoa 2002, p. 5.
  3. Li Narangoa (2002). "The Power of Imagination: Whose Northeast and Whose Manchuria?". Inner Asia. 4 (1). Brill: 3–25. JSTOR 23615422.
  4. Brummitt, R.K. (2001). World Geographical Scheme for Recording Plant Distributions: Edition 2 (PDF). International Working Group on Taxonomic Databases For Plant Sciences (TDWG). p. 12. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 January 2016. Retrieved 27 November 2006.
  5. This is the sense used, e.g., in the World Geographical Scheme for Recording Plant Distributions.
  6. Sino-Russian Treaty of Friendship (2001), Article 6.
  7. Complementary Agreement between the People's Republic of China and the Russian Federation on the Eastern Section of the China-Russia Boundary (2004).
  8. E.g. Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, Volumes 11–12 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine, 1867, p. 162
  9. EB (1911).
  10. ^ Nakami Tatsuo. "Qing China's Northeast Crescent: The Great Game." The Russo-Japanese War in Global Perspective: World War Zero, Volume 2. David Wolff et al., eds. Brill, 2005. p. 514. Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine ISBN 9789004154162"The use of the term 'Manchuria' as a place-name had begun with the Japanese in the eighteenth century, and it was later introduced to Europe by Philipp Franz von Siebold" .Giles 1912, p. 8 "It may be noted here that 'Manchuria' is unknown to the Chinese or to the Manchus themselves as a geographical expression. The present extensive home of the Manchus is usually spoken of as the Three Eastern Provinces,..."
  11. Elliot 2000 Archived 26 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine, p. 626.
  12. Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback MachinePozzi 2006, p. 159.
  13. Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback MachinePozzi 2006, p. 167.
  14. ^ Mark C. Elliott. The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China. Stanford University Press, 2001. p. 63. ISBN 9780804746847 "...the name 'Manchu' was officially adopted in 1635 as the name for all Jurchen people."
  15. ^ Tamanoi 2000 Archived 2 July 2019 at the Wayback Machine, p. 249.
  16. ^ Tamanoi 2005, p. 2-3.
  17. ^ Philippe Forêt (January 2000). Mapping Chengde: The Qing Landscape Enterprise. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 16–. ISBN 978-0-8248-2293-4.
  18. Gamsa 2020, p. 6.
  19. Smith 2012 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine, p. 219.
  20. ^ Narangoa 2002, p. 12.
  21. ed. Edgington 2003 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine, p. 114.
  22. McCormack 1977, p. 4 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine.
  23. Narangoa 2002, p. 18-19.
  24. Crossley 1999 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine, p. 55.
  25. ^ Søren Clausen and Stig Thøgersen. The Making of a Chinese City: History and Historiography in Harbin. M. E. Sharpe, 1995. p. 7. Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine ISBN 9781563244766 "In 1653 Jilin became an independent administrative unit, and in 1683 Heilongjiang was separated from Jilin. From then on, the three districts of Fengtian (roughly equivalent to present-day Liaoning), Jilin, and Heilongjiang became known as the "Three Eastern Provinces" (San dong sheng) although Jilin and Heilongjiang had not functioned as provinces in the full sense of the word until 1907–08."
  26. Oriental Affairs: A Monthly Review. 1935. p. 189.
  27. "The Controversial Manchuria". ThoughtCo.
  28. ^ Hosie, Alexander (1910). Manchuria; its people, resources and recent history. Boston: J. B. Millet.
  29. *Byington, Mark E. (2016). The Ancient State of Puyŏ in Northeast Asia: Archaeology and Historical Memory. Cambridge (Massachusetts) and London: Harvard University Asia Center. pp. 11, 13. ISBN 978-0-674-73719-8.
  30. Son, Chang-Hee (2000). Haan (han, Han) of Minjung Theology and Han (han, Han) of Han Philosophy: In the Paradigm of Process Philosophy and Metaphysics of Relatedness. University Press of America. ISBN 978-0-7618-1860-1.
  31. Xu, Stella (12 May 2016). Reconstructing Ancient Korean History: The Formation of Korean-ness in the Shadow of History. Lexington Books. ISBN 978-1-4985-2145-1.
  32. Kallie, Szczepanski. "A Brief History of Manchuria". ThoughtCo.
  33. Lattimore, Owen (1934). "The Mongols of Manchuria". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. 68 (4). George Allen and Unwin, Ltd.: 714–715. doi:10.1017/S0035869X00085245.
  34. *Tamanoi, Mariko (2009). Memory Maps: The State and Manchuria in Postwar Japan. University of Hawaii Press. p. 10.
    • Nishimura, Hirokazu; Kuroda, Susumu (2009). A Lost Mathematician, Takeo Nakasawa: The Forgotten Father of Matroid Theory. Springer. p. 15.
  35. Bogatikov, Oleg Alekseevich (2000); Magmatism and Geodynamics: Terrestrial Magmatism throughout the Earth's History; pp. 150–151; ISBN 90-5699-168-X
  36. Kropotkin, Prince P.; "Geology and Geo-Botany of Asia"; in Popular Science, May 1904; pp. 68–69
  37. Juo, A. S. R. and Franzlübbers, Kathrin Tropical Soils: Properties and Management for Sustainable Agriculture; pp. 118–119; ISBN 0-19-511598-8
  38. "Average Annual Precipitation in China". Archived from the original on 2 June 2010. Retrieved 18 May 2010.
  39. Kaisha, Tesudo Kabushiki and Manshi, Minami; Manchuria: Land of Opportunities; pp. 1–2; ISBN 1-110-97760-3
  40. Kaisha and Manshi; Manchuria; pp. 1–2
  41. Earth History 2001 (page 15)
  42. The Cambridge History of China, Vol. 03: "Sui and T'ang China, 589–906, Part 1," at 32, 33.
  43. *Ruins of Identity: Ethnogenesis in the Japanese Islands By Mark Hudson Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine
    • Ledyard, 1983, 323
  44. Berger, Patricia A. Empire of emptiness: Buddhist art and political authority in Qing China. p.25.
  45. Crossley, Pamela Kyle (2002). A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology (illustrated, reprint ed.). University of California Press. p. 196. ISBN 978-0-520-23424-6.
  46. Forsyth 1994 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine, p. 214.
  47. "5 Of The 10 Deadliest Wars Began In China". Business Insider. 6 October 2014.
  48. Elliott, Mark C. "The Limits of Tartary: Manchuria in Imperial and National Geographies." Journal of Asian Studies 59, no. 3 (2000): 603–46. doi:10.2307/2658945
  49. *Hauer 2007 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine, p. 117.
  50. Zhao 2006, pp. 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14.
  51. Richards 2003 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine, p. 141.
  52. Reardon-Anderson 2000 Archived 26 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine, p. 504.
  53. Reardon-Anderson 2000 Archived 26 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine, p. 505.
  54. Reardon-Anderson, James (2000). "Land Use and Society in Manchuria and Inner Mongolia During the Qing Dynasty". Environmental History. 5 (4): 503–509. doi:10.2307/3985584. JSTOR 3985584.
  55. Scharping 1998 Archived 6 October 2018 at the Wayback Machine, p. 18.
  56. Richards, John F. (2003), The Unending Frontier: An Environmental History of the Early Modern World, University of California Press, p. 141, ISBN 978-0-520-23075-0
  57. Reardon-Anderson 2000 Archived 26 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine, p. 507.
  58. Reardon-Anderson 2000 Archived 26 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine, p. 508.
  59. Reardon-Anderson 2000 Archived 26 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine, p. 509.
  60. Gamsa 2020, p. 8.
  61. Richards, John F. (2003). The Unending Frontier: An Environmental History of the Early Modern World. University of California Press. p. 538. ISBN 0-520-93935-2.
  62. For example: Bisher, Jamie (2006) . White Terror: Cossack Warlords of the Trans-Siberian. London: Routledge. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-135-76595-8. Retrieved 24 September 2020. Armed resistance against the Russian conquest begat slaughters by both invaders and the original inhabitants, but the worst cases led to genocide of indigenous groups such as the Dauri people on the Amur River, who were hunted down and butchered during campaigns by Vasilii Poyarkov about 1645 and Yerofei Khabarov in 1650.
  63. "The Amur's siren song". The Economist (From the print edition: Christmas Specials ed.). 17 December 2009. Retrieved 15 August 2014.
  64. Forsyth 1994 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine, p. 104.
  65. Stephan 1996 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine, p. 64.
  66. Kang 2013 Archived 23 May 2014 at the Wayback Machine, p. 1.
  67. Kim 2012/2013 Archived 12 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine, p. 169.
  68. "Manchuria | historical region, China | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 5 April 2023.
  69. Memories of Dr. Wu Lien-teh, plague fighter Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine. Yu-lin Wu (1995). World Scientific. p.68. ISBN 981-02-2287-4
  70. Edward Behr, The Last Emperor, 1987, p. 202
  71. "Manchurian plague, 1910–11" Archived 8 March 2018 at the Wayback Machine, disasterhistory.org, Iain Meiklejohn.
  72. In 1911, another epidemic swept through China. That time, the world came together. Archived 19 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine CNN, April 19, 2020
  73. Rhoads 2011 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine, p. 263.
  74. Lattimore 1933 Archived 12 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine, p. 272.
  75. Edward Behr, ibid, p. 168
  76. Edward Behr, ibid, p. 202
  77. "Yalta Conference". history.com. History Channel. 1 November 2022. Retrieved 27 April 2024.

Bibliography

External links

43°N 125°E / 43°N 125°E / 43; 125

Earth's primary regions and subregions
Worlds
Hemispheres
Landmasses
Continents
Africa
Antarctica
Asia
Europe
North America
Oceania
South America
Islands
By continent
By ocean
Oceans
Other waterbodies
Rim
Polar
Global
Categories: