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{{Short description|Czech-Canadian physician and sexologist (1914–1996)}}
⚫ {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2021}}
{{Infobox scientist {{Infobox scientist
| name = Kurt Freund | name = Kurt Freund
| image = Freund, Dr Kurt, 1914-1996 ~CIP 66.jpg | image = Freund, Dr Kurt, 1914-1996 ~CIP 66.jpg
| caption = Kurt Freund circa 1966. | caption = Freund circa 1966
| birth_date = 17 January 1914 | birth_date = 17 January 1914
| birth_place = ], ] | birth_place = ], ]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1996|10|23|1914|1|17|df=y}} | death_date = {{death date and age|1996|10|23|1914|1|17|df=y}}
| death_place = ], Canada | death_place = ], Canada
| residence = ] | citizenship = Czechoslovakia, Canada
| nationality = Czechoslovakian-Canadian
| field = ] | field = ]
| work_institution = ] | work_institution =Department of Psychiatry at ], ]
| alma_mater = ] | alma_mater = ]
| doctoral_advisor = | doctoral_advisor =
| doctoral_students = | doctoral_students =
| known_for = ] | known_for = ], ]
| prizes = | prizes =
| religion = | religion =
| footnotes = }} | footnotes = }}
⚫ {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2012}}


'''Kurt Freund''' (17 January 1914 – 23 October 1996) was a Czech-Canadian ] and ] best known for developing ] (the objective measurement of ] in males), research studies in ], and for the "]" hypothesis as a taxonomy of certain ]s (], ], ], ], and what he called "]"). '''Kurt Freund''' (17 January 1914 – 23 October 1996) was a Czech-Canadian ] and ] best known for developing the ] (a measurement of ] in males), research studies in ], and for the "]" hypothesis as a taxonomy of certain ]s (], ], ], ], and what he called "]"). After unsuccessful attempts to change men's sexual orientation, he advocated against ] and in favor of the ].


==Early life== ==Early life==
Freund was born into a German-speaking Jewish family in ], then part of ], later ], now in the ]. He married Anna Hlounová, a non-Jewish Czech pianist and music teacher, on 13 January 1942. In 1943, they divorced in order to protect Anna and their newborn daughter Helen from anti-Jewish and anti-miscegenation legislation implemented by the ]. They remarried after the war in 1945, and Anna gave birth to a son, Peter, in 1948. Many of Freund's relatives died during the ], including his parents Heinrich and Hella, and his brother Hans. Freund was born into a German-speaking Jewish family in ], then part of ], later ], now in the ]. He married Anna Hlounová, a non-Jewish Czech pianist and music teacher, on 13 January 1942. In 1943, they divorced in order to protect Anna and their newborn daughter Helen from anti-Jewish and anti-miscegenation legislation implemented by the ]. They remarried after the war in 1945, and Anna gave birth to a son, Peter, in 1948. Many of Freund's relatives were murdered in ], including his parents Heinrich and Hella, and his brother Hans.


==Career in Europe== ==Research ==
In 1948, Freund joined the Department of Psychiatry at ] in Prague.{{sfn|Ha|2015|p=210}} Freund received his ] at ], and later a ] degree there in 1962. He carried out post-doctoral research and later both research and clinical work at Charles University's Sexological Institute. Freund fled to ] in 1968, in the wake of the ]. Freund then began plethysmography studies of male sexual orientation at the ] (then called the ]) in ], where much of the research and published data using PPG originated. The ] at that centre is named after him. {{citation needed|date=September 2021}}
Freund is best known for being the first to apply ]y (measurement of bloodflow) to the ], thus permitting the first objective measurement of sexual arousal in males. Over his career, he refined the ] as part of a broad program of research on male sexual interest. The device remains controversial, and indeed Freund published articles acknowledging its limitations. Among other concerns, sexual offenders could sometimes suppress arousal through concentration or surreptitiously causing themselves pain, similar to methods for producing false results on a ] (lie detector). However, Freund still felt that the plethysmograph remained the best measure of arousal (there was no evidence that subjects could consistently fake arousal, though they could sometimes suppress it.) Other researchers and activists dispute PPG as the best measure of orientation, pointing out that neither identity nor behavior are perfectly correlated with measured or self-reported arousal. Freund acknowledged this, and in fact demonstrated it in his studies, but maintained that orientation ''per se'' was best defined as the object of arousal.


===Homosexuality===
Freund was initially commissioned to use penile plethysmography to detect recruits attempting to evade ] by falsely claiming to be ].<ref name = wilson2006>Wilson, R. J., & Mathon, H. F. (2006, fall). Remembering Kurt Freund (1914-1996). ''ATSA Forum.'' Beaverton, OR: Association for the Treatment of Sexual Abusers.</ref> (The ] barred homosexuals from serving.) His larger research program, however, focused on detection and diagnosis of sex offenders, particularly preference ], with a view to more appropriate treatment guidelines. Freund was also involved in administering ]: "Freund made a large-scale attempt in Czechoslovakia in the 1950s to change the sexual orientation of homosexuals to a heterosexual orientation through the use of behavioral aversive therapy."<ref name="brzek">Brzek A, Hubalek S. Homosexuals in Eastern Europe: Mental Health and Psychotherapy Issues. in Psychopathology and Psychotherapy in Homosexuality, Ed. Michael W. Ross, p. 160.</ref> His empirical data also showed some of the first evidence that sexual orientation ] was generally futile. He demonstrated that even homosexually oriented men who appeared to have given up sexual relations with other men and established heterosexual marriages were still aroused by images of men rather than women. Freund also challenged contemporary psychoanalytic theories of male homosexuality that suggested it was due to a fear or aversion to women.<ref>Freund, K., & Blanchard, R. (1983.) Is the distant relationship of fathers and homosexual sons related to the sons' erotic preference for male partners, or to the sons' atypical gender identity, or to both? ''Journal of Homosexuality, 9,'' 7-25.</ref><ref>Freund, K., Langevin, R., Cibiri, S., & Zajac, Y. (1973). Heterosexual aversion in homosexual males. ''British Journal of Psychiatry, 122,'' 163-169.</ref> Freund concluded that homosexual men simply lacked erotic interest in females. Based on these studies, he advocated the decriminalization of homosexuality in Czechoslovakia (which took place in 1961) and the end of conversion therapy. These opinions also put him out of favor with the psychoanalytically dominated psychiatric establishment in Toronto, as he continued to argue that homosexuals needed understanding and acceptance rather than treatment. His efforts, along with those of German sexologist ], helped decriminalize homosexuality in ] in 1968.
Between 1950 and 1953, Freund treated 67 men for homosexual tendencies. Some of his patients voluntarily sought to change their sexual orientation, while others received remission of prosecution or legal penalties so that they could undergo the experiment. Taking a ] perspective, he attempted to reinforce heterosexual feelings while ] in order to ]. Patients were given nausea-inducing drugs while exposed to images of other men, then given testosterone injections and exposed to photographs of naked women. Freund followed up with his patients in 1956 and 1958, concluding that the experiment was not a success.{{sfn|Ha|2015|pp=210–211}} His empirical data showed some of the first evidence that sexual orientation ] was generally futile. He demonstrated that even homosexually oriented men who appeared to have given up sexual relations with other men and established heterosexual marriages were still aroused by images of men rather than women. Freund also challenged contemporary psychoanalytic theories of male homosexuality that suggested it was due to a fear or aversion to women.<ref>Freund, K., & Blanchard, R. (1983.) Is the distant relationship of fathers and homosexual sons related to the sons' erotic preference for male partners, or to the sons' atypical gender identity, or to both? ''Journal of Homosexuality, 9,'' 7-25.</ref><ref>Freund, K., Langevin, R., Cibiri, S., & Zajac, Y. (1973). Heterosexual aversion in homosexual males. ''British Journal of Psychiatry, 122,'' 163-169.</ref>


In 1957, he began to advocate for the ], which happened in Czechoslovakia in 1961 following an official recommendation signed by Freund and other psychiatrists.{{sfn|Ha|2015|p=211}} Like other researchers at the time, however, he continued to see homosexuality as a ].{{sfn|Ha|2015|pp=209, 211}} In 1977, he apologized for his attempt to change sexual orientation, writing that if his experiment "has 'helped' at all, has helped clients to enter into marriages that later became unbearable or almost unbearable" and expressing doubt that homosexuality should be considered an illness because of the chance that "reasonable social changes may virtually abolish all specific distress of homosexual persons". Freund advised his patients to make peace with their sexual orientation.{{sfn|Ha|2015|p=225}}
Freund also contributed to the idea of a genetic origin of homosexuality by including in his book a study of identical twins who have almost always the same sexual orientation (heterosexual or homosexual). This part of his contribution is not widely known in the West. (See his book ''Homosexualita u muže'', Praha 1962.)


===Penile plethysmography===
Freund received his ] at ], and later a ] degree there in 1962. He carried out post-doctoral research and later both research and clinical work at Charles University's Sexological Institute.
Around 1953, Freund began to develop a device for ] to measure blood flow to the penis, building off of earlier attempts to create such a device.{{sfn|Ha|2015|pp=211–212}} He was initially commissioned to detect recruits attempting to evade ] by falsely claiming to be homosexual.<ref name = wilson2006>Wilson, R. J., & Mathon, H. F. (2006, fall). Remembering Kurt Freund (1914-1996). ''ATSA Forum''. Beaverton, OR: Association for the Treatment of Sexual Abusers.</ref> Over his career, he refined the penile plethysmograph as part of a broad program of research on male sexual interest. Sex offenders could sometimes suppress arousal through concentration or surreptitiously causing themselves pain, similar to methods for producing false results on a ] (lie detector).{{citation needed|date=February 2020}} During one experiment, he found that 17% of heterosexuals or homosexuals were able to pretend to be the other sexual orientation during the test. Although he recognized its limitations, Freund continued to advocate for the use of the device to measure male sexual arousal, not only sexual orientation but also pedophilia.{{sfn|Ha|2015|p=214}} During the 1960s, he published several papers informing other researchers to recreate and use the device.{{sfn|Ha|2015|pp=213–214}}


⚫ There was controversy regarding potential abuses of devices to measure sexual interests, following fears that it might lead to ]. Phallometric testing has been shown, however, to be one of the most accurate, if not the single most accurate, methods of identifying the sexual offenders that are most likely to commit new sexual offenses against children.<ref>Hanson, R. K., & Bussière, M. T. (1998). Predicting relapse: A meta-analysis of sexual offender recidivism studies. ''Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66,'' 348-362.</ref><ref>Quinsey, V. L., Harris, G. T., Rice, M. E., & Cormier, C. A. (1998). ''Violent offenders: Appraising and managing risk.'' Washington, DC.: American Psychological Association.</ref><ref>Seto, M. C. (2001). The value of phallometry in the assessment of male sex offenders. ''Journal of Forensic Psychology Practice, 1,'' 65-75.</ref> On the other hand, another study concluded that "although the validity of the technique for research and clinical assessment is now established, justification for the routine use of the technique must await a proper standardization of the technique and the publication of reliable norms."<ref>Launay, G. (1999) "The phallometric assessment of sex offenders: an update," ''Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health,'' '''9''' (3) 254–274.</ref>
==Career in Canada==
]
⚫ Freund fled to ] in 1968, in the wake of the ]. Freund then began plethysmography studies of male sexual orientation at the ] (then called the ]) in ], where much of the research and published data using PPG originated. The ] at that centre is named after him. There was controversy regarding potential abuses of devices to measure sexual interests, following fears that it might lead to ]. Phallometric testing has been shown, however, to be one of the most accurate, if not the single most accurate, methods of identifying the sexual offenders that are most likely to commit new sexual offenses against children.<ref>Hanson, R. K., & Bussière, M. T. (1998). Predicting relapse: A meta-analysis of sexual offender recidivism studies. ''Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66,'' 348-362.</ref><ref>Quinsey, V. L., Harris, G. T., Rice, M. E., & Cormier, C. A. (1998). ''Violent offenders: Appraising and managing risk.'' Washington, DC.: American Psychological Association.</ref><ref>Seto, M. C. (2001). The value of phallometry in the assessment of male sex offenders. ''Journal of Forensic Psychology Practice, 1,'' 65-75.</ref> On the other hand, another study concluded that "although the validity of the technique for research and clinical assessment is now established, justification for the routine use of the technique must await a proper standardization of the technique and the publication of reliable norms."<ref>Launay, G. (1999) "The phallometric assessment of sex offenders: an update," ''Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health,'' '''9''' (3) 254–274.</ref>


===Paraphilias and sex offenders===
==Later life==

⚫ Freund was diagnosed with cancer in 1994 and was a member of Dying with Dignity.<ref name = wilson2006/> When his health deteriorated in 1996, he committed ] by taking a lethal cocktail of ], ]s and ].<ref name = wilson2006 /><ref name="apobit">{{cite news | last = Associated Press | title = Kurt Freund, 82, notable sexologist | url = http://www.s-t.com/daily/10-96/10-29-96/c06wn888.htm | date = 26 October 1996 }} {{registration required}}</ref><ref name="kubanobit">{{cite journal|last=Kuban |first=Michael |title=Sexual Science Mentor: Dr. Kurt Freund |journal=Sexual Science |volume=45 |issue=2 |url=http://sexscience.org/uploads/media/sex_sci45-2.htm |date=Summer 2004 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222215801/http://sexscience.org/uploads/media/sex_sci45-2.htm |archivedate=22 December 2010 }}</ref> Freund was ], and his ashes were scattered on the lawn across from his office at the Clarke Institute in Toronto and on the grounds of Psychiatric Hospital Bohnice in ], where he had worked for many years in Czechoslovakia.<ref name = wilson2006/>
Initially focused on homosexuality, Freund later expanded his study to ], rape, ], and ]. He developed the theory of ], explaining paraphilias such as ], ], ], ], and ] (a preference for rape) as disorders of the normal courtship process.{{sfn|Ha|2015|p=207}} He focused on detection and diagnosis of sex offenders, particularly preference ], with a view to more appropriate treatment guidelines.<ref name="brzek">Brzek A, Hubalek S. Homosexuals in Eastern Europe: Mental Health and Psychotherapy Issues. in Psychopathology and Psychotherapy in Homosexuality, Ed. Michael W. Ross, p. 160.</ref>

==Death==
⚫ Freund was diagnosed with cancer in 1994 and was a member of Dying with Dignity.<ref name = wilson2006/> When his health deteriorated in 1996, he took a lethal cocktail of ], ]s and ].<ref name = wilson2006 /><ref name="apobit">{{cite news | last = Associated Press | title = Kurt Freund, 82, notable sexologist | url = http://www.s-t.com/daily/10-96/10-29-96/c06wn888.htm | date = 26 October 1996 | access-date = 7 July 2006 | archive-date = 3 March 2006 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060303073146/http://www.s-t.com/daily/10-96/10-29-96/c06wn888.htm | url-status = live }}{{registration required}}</ref><ref name="kubanobit">{{cite journal|last=Kuban |first=Michael |title=Sexual Science Mentor: Dr. Kurt Freund |journal=Sexual Science |volume=45 |issue=2 |url=http://sexscience.org/uploads/media/sex_sci45-2.htm |date=Summer 2004 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222215801/http://sexscience.org/uploads/media/sex_sci45-2.htm |archivedate=22 December 2010 }}</ref> Freund was ], and his ashes were scattered on the lawn across from his office at the Clarke Institute in Toronto and on the grounds of Psychiatric Hospital ] in ], where he had worked for many years in Czechoslovakia.<ref name = wilson2006/>


==Selected publications== ==Selected publications==
*Freund, K., J. Diamant, and ]. 1958. "On the validity and reliability of the phalloplethysmographic (Php) diagnosis of some sexual deviations." Rev Czech Med 4:145-51. *Freund, K., J. Diamant, and ]. 1958. "On the validity and reliability of the phalloplethysmographic (Php) diagnosis of some sexual deviations." Rev Czech Med 4:145-51.
*Freund, K. 1963. "A Laboratory Method For Diagnosing Predominance Of Homo- Or Hetero-Erotic Interest In Male." Behav Res Ther 21:85-93. *Freund, K. 1963. "A Laboratory Method For Diagnosing Predominance of Homo- Or Hetero-Erotic Interest in Male." Behav Res Ther 21:85-93.
*Freund, K. 1962. ''Homosexualita u muže'' (Homosexuality in man), Praha: Státní zdravotnické nakladatelství (State Medical Publisher), 274 pp., 3000 copies. *Freund, K. 1962. ''Homosexualita u muže'' (Homosexuality in man), Praha: Státní zdravotnické nakladatelství (State Medical Publisher), 274 pp., 3000 copies.
**Freund, K. 1963. ''Die Homosexualität beim Mann'', 1st ed., Leipzig : S. Hirzel Verlag, 275 pp. **Freund, K. 1963. ''Die Homosexualität beim Mann'', 1st ed., Leipzig : S. Hirzel Verlag, 275 pp.
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*Freund, K. 1965. "A simple device for measuring volume changes of the male genital organ." Československá psychiatrie 61:164-6. *Freund, K. 1965. "A simple device for measuring volume changes of the male genital organ." Československá psychiatrie 61:164-6.
*Freund, K. 1967. "Diagnosing homo- or heterosexuality and erotic age-preference by means of a psychophysiological test." Behav Res Ther 5:209-28. *Freund, K. 1967. "Diagnosing homo- or heterosexuality and erotic age-preference by means of a psychophysiological test." Behav Res Ther 5:209-28.
*Freund, K. 1974. "Male homosexuality: an analysis of the pattern." in Understanding Homosexuality: Its biological and psychological bases, edited by J. A. Lorraine. Lancaster, England: Medican and Technical Publishing Company, Inc. *Freund, K. 1974. "Male homosexuality: an analysis of the pattern." in Understanding Homosexuality: Its biological and psychological bases, edited by J. A. Lorraine. Lancaster, England: Medical and Technical Publishing Company, Inc.
*Freund, K. 1977. "Should homosexuality arouse therapeutic concern?" J Homosex 2:235-40. *Freund, K. 1977. "Should homosexuality arouse therapeutic concern?" J Homosex 2:235-40.
*Freund, K. 1977. "Psychophysiological assessment of change in erotic preferences." Behavioral Research and Therapy 15:297-301. *Freund, K. 1977. "Psychophysiological assessment of change in erotic preferences." Behavioral Research and Therapy 15:297-301.
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*Freund, K., H. Scher, I. G. Racansky, K. Campbell, and G. Heasman. 1986. "Males disposed to commit rape." Arch Sex Behav 15:23-35. *Freund, K., H. Scher, I. G. Racansky, K. Campbell, and G. Heasman. 1986. "Males disposed to commit rape." Arch Sex Behav 15:23-35.
*Freund, K. and R. Blanchard. 1986. "The concept of courtship disorder." J Sex Marital Ther 12:79-92. *Freund, K. and R. Blanchard. 1986. "The concept of courtship disorder." J Sex Marital Ther 12:79-92.
*Freund, K., Wilson, R. & Rienzo, D. (1987). A comparison of sex offenders against male and female minors. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 13, 260-264. *Freund, K., Wilson, R. & Rienzo, D. (1987). A comparison of sex offenders against male and female minors. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 13, 260–264.
*Freund, K., Wilson, R. & Rienzo, D. (1988). Signs of feigning in the phallometric test. Behaviour Research & Therapy, 26, 105-112. *Freund, K., Wilson, R. & Rienzo, D. (1988). Signs of feigning in the phallometric test. Behaviour Research & Therapy, 26, 105–112.
*Freund, K., Wilson, R. & Rienzo, D. (1988). The value of self-reports in the study of voyeurism and exhibitionism. Annals of Sex Research, 1, 243-262. *Freund, K., Wilson, R. & Rienzo, D. (1988). The value of self-reports in the study of voyeurism and exhibitionism. Annals of Sex Research, 1, 243–262.
*Freund, K., Wilson, R. & Rienzo, D. (1989). Heterosexuality, homosexuality, and erotic age preference. The Journal of Sex Research, 26, 107-117. *Freund, K., Wilson, R. & Rienzo, D. (1989). Heterosexuality, homosexuality, and erotic age preference. The Journal of Sex Research, 26, 107–117.
*Freund, K. & Wilson, R. (1990). Mapping the boundaries of courtship disorder. Journal of Sex Research, 27, 589-606. *Freund, K. & Wilson, R. (1990). Mapping the boundaries of courtship disorder. Journal of Sex Research, 27, 589–606.
*Freund, K., Wilson, R. & Dickey, R. (1990). Does sexual abuse in childhood causes pedophilia? An exploratory study. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 19, 557-568. *Freund, K., Wilson, R. & Dickey, R. (1990). Does sexual abuse in childhood causes pedophilia? An exploratory study. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 19, 557–568.
*Freund, K. & Wilson, R. (1991). Assessment of the sensitivity and specificity of a phallometric test: An update of "Phallometric diagnosis of pedophilia". Psychological Assessment, 3, 254-260. *Freund, K. & Wilson, R. (1991). Assessment of the sensitivity and specificity of a phallometric test: An update of "Phallometric diagnosis of pedophilia". Psychological Assessment, 3, 254–260.
*Freund, K., Wilson, R., Dickey, R., & Rienzo, D. (1991). Erotic gender differentiation in pedophilia. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 20, 555-566. *Freund, K., Wilson, R., Dickey, R., & Rienzo, D. (1991). Erotic gender differentiation in pedophilia. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 20, 555–566.
*Freund, K., Wilson, R. & Dickey, R. (1991). Sex offenses against female children perpetrated by men who are not pedophiles. ], 28, 409-423. *Freund, K., Wilson, R. & Dickey, R. (1991). Sex offenses against female children perpetrated by men who are not pedophiles. ], 28, 409–423.
*Freund, K., Wilson, R., & Dickey, R. (1991). The types of heterosexual gender identity disorder. Annals of Sex Research, 4, 93-105. *Freund, K., Wilson, R., & Dickey, R. (1991). The types of heterosexual gender identity disorder. Annals of Sex Research, 4, 93–105.
*Freund, K. & Wilson, R.J. (1992). The proportions of heterosexual and ]s among sex offenders against children. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 18, 34-43. *Freund, K. & Wilson, R.J. (1992). The proportions of heterosexual and ]s among sex offenders against children. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 18, 34–43.
*Freund, K. & Wilson, R.J. (1993). Gender identity disorder and courtship disorder. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 22, 13-21. *Freund, K. & Wilson, R.J. (1993). Gender identity disorder and courtship disorder. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 22, 13–21.
*Freund, K. and M. Kuban. 1993. "Toward a testable developmental model of pedophilia: the development of erotic age preference." Child Abuse Negl 17:315-24. *Freund, K. and M. Kuban. 1993. "Toward a testable developmental model of pedophilia: the development of erotic age preference." Child Abuse Negl 17:315-24.


==References== ==References==
{{reflist}} {{reflist}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite thesis|degree=PhD |last1=Davison |first1=Katherine Maeve |title=Sex, Psychiatry and the Cold War: A Transnational History of Homosexual Aversion Therapy, 1948-1981 |date=2020 |url=https://minerva-access.unimelb.edu.au/handle/11343/242442 |language=en|institution=]}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Ha |first1=Nathan |title=Detecting and Teaching Desire: Phallometry, Freund, and Behaviorist Sexology |journal=Osiris |date=2015 |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=205–227 |doi=10.1086/683020|pmid=27066625 |s2cid=35890719 }}


==External links== ==External links==
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Latest revision as of 03:50, 24 November 2024

Czech-Canadian physician and sexologist (1914–1996)

Kurt Freund
Freund circa 1966
Born17 January 1914
Chrudim, Austrian Bohemia
Died23 October 1996(1996-10-23) (aged 82)
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
CitizenshipCzechoslovakia, Canada
Alma materCharles University in Prague
Known forPenile plethysmograph, courtship disorder
Scientific career
FieldsSexologist
InstitutionsDepartment of Psychiatry at Charles University in Prague, Clarke Institute of Psychiatry

Kurt Freund (17 January 1914 – 23 October 1996) was a Czech-Canadian physician and sexologist best known for developing the penile plethysmograph (a measurement of sexual arousal in males), research studies in pedophilia, and for the "courtship disorder" hypothesis as a taxonomy of certain paraphilias (voyeurism, exhibitionism, toucherism, frotteurism, and what he called "preferential rape"). After unsuccessful attempts to change men's sexual orientation, he advocated against conversion therapy and in favor of the decriminalization of homosexuality.

Early life

Freund was born into a German-speaking Jewish family in Chrudim, then part of Austrian Bohemia, later Czechoslovakia, now in the Czech Republic. He married Anna Hlounová, a non-Jewish Czech pianist and music teacher, on 13 January 1942. In 1943, they divorced in order to protect Anna and their newborn daughter Helen from anti-Jewish and anti-miscegenation legislation implemented by the German Nazi Occupiers. They remarried after the war in 1945, and Anna gave birth to a son, Peter, in 1948. Many of Freund's relatives were murdered in the Holocaust, including his parents Heinrich and Hella, and his brother Hans.

Research

In 1948, Freund joined the Department of Psychiatry at Charles University in Prague. Freund received his M.D. at Charles University of Prague, and later a D.Sc. degree there in 1962. He carried out post-doctoral research and later both research and clinical work at Charles University's Sexological Institute. Freund fled to Canada in 1968, in the wake of the Prague Spring. Freund then began plethysmography studies of male sexual orientation at the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health (then called the Clarke Institute of Psychiatry) in Toronto, where much of the research and published data using PPG originated. The Kurt Freund Laboratory at that centre is named after him.

Homosexuality

Between 1950 and 1953, Freund treated 67 men for homosexual tendencies. Some of his patients voluntarily sought to change their sexual orientation, while others received remission of prosecution or legal penalties so that they could undergo the experiment. Taking a behaviorist perspective, he attempted to reinforce heterosexual feelings while punishing homosexual ones in order to change sexual orientation. Patients were given nausea-inducing drugs while exposed to images of other men, then given testosterone injections and exposed to photographs of naked women. Freund followed up with his patients in 1956 and 1958, concluding that the experiment was not a success. His empirical data showed some of the first evidence that sexual orientation conversion therapy was generally futile. He demonstrated that even homosexually oriented men who appeared to have given up sexual relations with other men and established heterosexual marriages were still aroused by images of men rather than women. Freund also challenged contemporary psychoanalytic theories of male homosexuality that suggested it was due to a fear or aversion to women.

In 1957, he began to advocate for the decriminalization of homosexuality, which happened in Czechoslovakia in 1961 following an official recommendation signed by Freund and other psychiatrists. Like other researchers at the time, however, he continued to see homosexuality as a pathology. In 1977, he apologized for his attempt to change sexual orientation, writing that if his experiment "has 'helped' at all, has helped clients to enter into marriages that later became unbearable or almost unbearable" and expressing doubt that homosexuality should be considered an illness because of the chance that "reasonable social changes may virtually abolish all specific distress of homosexual persons". Freund advised his patients to make peace with their sexual orientation.

Penile plethysmography

Around 1953, Freund began to develop a device for penile plethysmography to measure blood flow to the penis, building off of earlier attempts to create such a device. He was initially commissioned to detect recruits attempting to evade military service by falsely claiming to be homosexual. Over his career, he refined the penile plethysmograph as part of a broad program of research on male sexual interest. Sex offenders could sometimes suppress arousal through concentration or surreptitiously causing themselves pain, similar to methods for producing false results on a polygraph (lie detector). During one experiment, he found that 17% of heterosexuals or homosexuals were able to pretend to be the other sexual orientation during the test. Although he recognized its limitations, Freund continued to advocate for the use of the device to measure male sexual arousal, not only sexual orientation but also pedophilia. During the 1960s, he published several papers informing other researchers to recreate and use the device.

There was controversy regarding potential abuses of devices to measure sexual interests, following fears that it might lead to discrimination against gay men. Phallometric testing has been shown, however, to be one of the most accurate, if not the single most accurate, methods of identifying the sexual offenders that are most likely to commit new sexual offenses against children. On the other hand, another study concluded that "although the validity of the technique for research and clinical assessment is now established, justification for the routine use of the technique must await a proper standardization of the technique and the publication of reliable norms."

Paraphilias and sex offenders

Initially focused on homosexuality, Freund later expanded his study to pedophilia, rape, transsexuality, and paraphilia. He developed the theory of courtship disorder, explaining paraphilias such as exhibitionism, voyeurism, telephone scatologia, frotteurism, and biastophilia (a preference for rape) as disorders of the normal courtship process. He focused on detection and diagnosis of sex offenders, particularly preference pedophiles, with a view to more appropriate treatment guidelines.

Death

Freund was diagnosed with cancer in 1994 and was a member of Dying with Dignity. When his health deteriorated in 1996, he took a lethal cocktail of muscle relaxants, sleeping pills and wine. Freund was cremated, and his ashes were scattered on the lawn across from his office at the Clarke Institute in Toronto and on the grounds of Psychiatric Hospital Bohnice in Prague, where he had worked for many years in Czechoslovakia.

Selected publications

  • Freund, K., J. Diamant, and V. Pinkava. 1958. "On the validity and reliability of the phalloplethysmographic (Php) diagnosis of some sexual deviations." Rev Czech Med 4:145-51.
  • Freund, K. 1963. "A Laboratory Method For Diagnosing Predominance of Homo- Or Hetero-Erotic Interest in Male." Behav Res Ther 21:85-93.
  • Freund, K. 1962. Homosexualita u muže (Homosexuality in man), Praha: Státní zdravotnické nakladatelství (State Medical Publisher), 274 pp., 3000 copies.
    • Freund, K. 1963. Die Homosexualität beim Mann, 1st ed., Leipzig : S. Hirzel Verlag, 275 pp.
    • Freund, K. 1965. Die Homosexualität beim Mann, 2nd, expanded ed., Leipzig : S. Hirzel Verlag, 321 pp.
  • Freund, K. 1965. "A simple device for measuring volume changes of the male genital organ." Československá psychiatrie 61:164-6.
  • Freund, K. 1967. "Diagnosing homo- or heterosexuality and erotic age-preference by means of a psychophysiological test." Behav Res Ther 5:209-28.
  • Freund, K. 1974. "Male homosexuality: an analysis of the pattern." in Understanding Homosexuality: Its biological and psychological bases, edited by J. A. Lorraine. Lancaster, England: Medical and Technical Publishing Company, Inc.
  • Freund, K. 1977. "Should homosexuality arouse therapeutic concern?" J Homosex 2:235-40.
  • Freund, K. 1977. "Psychophysiological assessment of change in erotic preferences." Behavioral Research and Therapy 15:297-301.
  • Freund, K. 1978. "A conceptual framework for the study of anomalous erotic preferences." J Sex Marital Ther 4:3-10.
  • Freund, K., S. Chan, and R. Coulthard. 1979. "Phallometric diagnosis with 'nonadmitters'." Behav Res Ther 17:451-7.
  • Freund, K., B. W. Steiner, and S. Chan. 1982. "Two types of cross-gender identity." Arch Sex Behav 11:49-63.
  • Freund, K. and R. Blanchard. 1983. "Is the distant relationship of fathers and homosexual sons related to the sons' erotic preference for male partners, or to the sons' atypical gender identity, or to both?" J Homosex 9:7-25.
  • Freund, K., H. Scher, and S. Hucker. 1983. "The courtship disorders." Arch Sex Behav 12:369-79.
  • Freund, K., H. Scher, I. G. Racansky, K. Campbell, and G. Heasman. 1986. "Males disposed to commit rape." Arch Sex Behav 15:23-35.
  • Freund, K. and R. Blanchard. 1986. "The concept of courtship disorder." J Sex Marital Ther 12:79-92.
  • Freund, K., Wilson, R. & Rienzo, D. (1987). A comparison of sex offenders against male and female minors. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 13, 260–264.
  • Freund, K., Wilson, R. & Rienzo, D. (1988). Signs of feigning in the phallometric test. Behaviour Research & Therapy, 26, 105–112.
  • Freund, K., Wilson, R. & Rienzo, D. (1988). The value of self-reports in the study of voyeurism and exhibitionism. Annals of Sex Research, 1, 243–262.
  • Freund, K., Wilson, R. & Rienzo, D. (1989). Heterosexuality, homosexuality, and erotic age preference. The Journal of Sex Research, 26, 107–117.
  • Freund, K. & Wilson, R. (1990). Mapping the boundaries of courtship disorder. Journal of Sex Research, 27, 589–606.
  • Freund, K., Wilson, R. & Dickey, R. (1990). Does sexual abuse in childhood causes pedophilia? An exploratory study. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 19, 557–568.
  • Freund, K. & Wilson, R. (1991). Assessment of the sensitivity and specificity of a phallometric test: An update of "Phallometric diagnosis of pedophilia". Psychological Assessment, 3, 254–260.
  • Freund, K., Wilson, R., Dickey, R., & Rienzo, D. (1991). Erotic gender differentiation in pedophilia. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 20, 555–566.
  • Freund, K., Wilson, R. & Dickey, R. (1991). Sex offenses against female children perpetrated by men who are not pedophiles. Journal of Sex Research, 28, 409–423.
  • Freund, K., Wilson, R., & Dickey, R. (1991). The types of heterosexual gender identity disorder. Annals of Sex Research, 4, 93–105.
  • Freund, K. & Wilson, R.J. (1992). The proportions of heterosexual and homosexual pedophiles among sex offenders against children. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 18, 34–43.
  • Freund, K. & Wilson, R.J. (1993). Gender identity disorder and courtship disorder. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 22, 13–21.
  • Freund, K. and M. Kuban. 1993. "Toward a testable developmental model of pedophilia: the development of erotic age preference." Child Abuse Negl 17:315-24.

References

  1. Ha 2015, p. 210.
  2. Ha 2015, pp. 210–211.
  3. Freund, K., & Blanchard, R. (1983.) Is the distant relationship of fathers and homosexual sons related to the sons' erotic preference for male partners, or to the sons' atypical gender identity, or to both? Journal of Homosexuality, 9, 7-25.
  4. Freund, K., Langevin, R., Cibiri, S., & Zajac, Y. (1973). Heterosexual aversion in homosexual males. British Journal of Psychiatry, 122, 163-169.
  5. Ha 2015, p. 211.
  6. Ha 2015, pp. 209, 211.
  7. Ha 2015, p. 225.
  8. Ha 2015, pp. 211–212.
  9. ^ Wilson, R. J., & Mathon, H. F. (2006, fall). Remembering Kurt Freund (1914-1996). ATSA Forum. Beaverton, OR: Association for the Treatment of Sexual Abusers.
  10. Ha 2015, p. 214.
  11. Ha 2015, pp. 213–214.
  12. Hanson, R. K., & Bussière, M. T. (1998). Predicting relapse: A meta-analysis of sexual offender recidivism studies. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 348-362.
  13. Quinsey, V. L., Harris, G. T., Rice, M. E., & Cormier, C. A. (1998). Violent offenders: Appraising and managing risk. Washington, DC.: American Psychological Association.
  14. Seto, M. C. (2001). The value of phallometry in the assessment of male sex offenders. Journal of Forensic Psychology Practice, 1, 65-75.
  15. Launay, G. (1999) "The phallometric assessment of sex offenders: an update," Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 9 (3) 254–274.
  16. Ha 2015, p. 207.
  17. Brzek A, Hubalek S. Homosexuals in Eastern Europe: Mental Health and Psychotherapy Issues. in Psychopathology and Psychotherapy in Homosexuality, Ed. Michael W. Ross, p. 160.
  18. Associated Press (26 October 1996). "Kurt Freund, 82, notable sexologist". Archived from the original on 3 March 2006. Retrieved 7 July 2006.(registration required)
  19. Kuban, Michael (Summer 2004). "Sexual Science Mentor: Dr. Kurt Freund". Sexual Science. 45 (2). Archived from the original on 22 December 2010.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)

Further reading

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