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{{Short description|Period of Japanese history from 538 CE to 710 CE}}
{{Sprotect-banneduser}}
{{Infobox country
{{History_of_Japan}}
| native_name = Wa ({{lang|ja|倭}}) to Nippon ({{lang|ja|日本}})
| conventional_long_name = ] <small>(until 701)</small> <br>Nippon <small>(from 701)</small>
| common_name = Nippon
| year_start = 538
| year_end = 710
| p1 = Kofun period
| image_map = Yamato Kingship in East Asia.svg
| map_caption = ] in Japan
| s1 = Nara Period
| event_start = ]
| event_end = ]
| event1 = ]
| date_event1 = 607
| event2 = ]
| date_event2 = 10 July 645
| event3 = ]
| date_event3 = 645
| event4 = ]
| date_event4 = 672
| event5 = ] proclaimed
| date_event5 = 689
| event6 = ] enacted
| date_event6 = 701–718
| capital = ] (until 694)<br>] (694–710)
| official_languages =
| government_type = ] ]
| title_leader = ] (])
| leader1 = ]
| year_leader1 = 539/540–571
| leader2 = ]
| year_leader2 = 707–710
|title_representative = ] (])
| representative1 = ]
| year_representative1 = 538/552–570
| representative2 = ]
| year_representative2 =626–645
| religion = ]<br>]
| common_languages = ]<br>]
| currency = Fuhonsen
}}
{{History of Japan |periods |image=Prince Shotoku with Two Princes by Kano Osanobu 1842.png|caption=] }}


The {{Nihongo|'''Asuka period'''|飛鳥時代|asuka jidai}}, was a period in the ] lasting from 538 to 710, although its beginning could be said to overlap with the preceding ]. The Yamato state evolved much during the Asuka period, which is named after the ] region, about 25 km south to the modern city of ]. Numerous imperial palaces were established in the area during this period. The {{Nihongo|'''Asuka period'''|飛鳥時代|Asuka jidai}} was a period in the ] lasting from 538 to 710, although its beginning could be said to overlap with the preceding ]. The ] polity evolved greatly during the Asuka period, which is named after the ] region, about {{convert|25|km|abbr=on}} south of the modern city of ].


The Asuka period is also known for its significant artistic, social, and political transformations, having their origins in the late Kofun period, but largely affected by the arrival of ] to Japan. The introduction of Buddhism has marked a change in Japanese society. The Asuka period is also distinguished by the change in the name of the country from {{Nihongo|]|倭}} to {{Nihongo|]|日本}}. The Asuka period is characterized by its significant ], social, and political transformations, having their origins in the late Kofun period. The introduction of Buddhism marked a change in Japanese society. The Asuka period is also distinguished by the change in the name of the country from {{Nihongo|]|倭}} to {{Nihongo|]|日本}}.

Artistically, the period can be further divided into two periods, the Asuka period (up to the ]s), where early Buddhist culture imports and infuences are seen from ] and ], and Hakuhō period (after Taika Reform), in which more ] and ] influences appears.<ref>{{cite book |author=Fred S. Kleiner, Christin J. Mamiya |title=Gardner's art through the ages |publisher=Thomson/Wadsworth |location=Belmont, CA |year=2005 |pages=222 |isbn=0-534-64095-8 |oclc= |doi=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Rowthorne | first = Chris | title = Lonely Planet Japan | publisher = Lonely Planet Publications | location = Hawthorn | year = 2003 | pages = 34 | isbn = 1740591623 }}</ref>


==Naming== ==Naming==
The term "Asuka period" was first used to describe a period in the history of Japanese fine-arts and architecture. It was proposed by fine-arts scholars {{Nihongo|]|関野貞|Sekino Tadasu}} and {{Nihongo|]|岡倉覚三|Okakura Kakuzo}} around 1900. Sekino dated the Asuka period as ending with the ] of ]. Okakura, however, saw it as ending with the transfer of the capital to the {{Nihongo|]|平城京}} of Nara. Although historians generally use Okakura's dating, many historians of art and architecture prefer Sekino's dating, and use the term "{{Nihongo|]|白鳳時代|hakuhō jidai}}" to refer to the successive period. The term "Asuka period" was first used to describe a period in the history of Japanese fine-arts and architecture. It was proposed by fine-arts scholars {{Nihongo|Sekino Tadasu|関野貞}} and ] around 1900. Sekino dated the Asuka period as ending with the ] of 646. Okakura, however, saw it as ending with the transfer of the capital to the ] of Nara. Although historians generally use Okakura's dating, many historians of art and architecture prefer Sekino's dating and use the term "{{Nihongo|]|白鳳時代}}" to refer to the successive period.


==The Yamato state== == Yamato Imperial Court ==
From the Asuka period in the 6th century, as a sub-division of the {{nihongo|] |大和時代|''Yamato-jidai''}}, is the first time in ] when the ] ruled relatively uncontested from modern-day ], then known as ].
The Yamato ], which had emerged by the late 5th century, was distinguished by powerful great clans or extended families, including their dependents. Each clan was headed by a ] who performed sacred rites for the clan's {{nihongo|'']''|神}} to ensure the long-term welfare of the clan. Clan members were the aristocracy, and the kingly line that controlled the Yamato court was at its pinnacle. The local chieftainship of Yamato arose to become the Imperial dynasty from the beginnings of Asuka period, at latest.<ref name="FRD">{{citation
| last = L. Worden
| first = Robert
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Kofun and Asuka Periods, ca. A.D. 250-710
| journal = A Country Study: Japan
| work =
| publisher = ], ]
| date = ]
| url = http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/jptoc.html
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate = 2007-04-06 }}</ref>


The second half of the Kofun period, exercised power over clans in ] and ], bestowing titles, some hereditary, on clan chieftains. The Yamato name became synonymous with all of Japan as the Yamato rulers suppressed other clans and acquired agricultural lands. Based on ] models (including the adoption of the ]), they developed a central administration and an imperial court attended by subordinate clan chieftains but with no permanent capital. By the mid-seventh century, the agricultural lands had grown to a substantial public domain, subject to central policy. The basic administrative unit of the {{Nihongo |'']''|五畿七道|extra="five cities, seven roads"}} system was the county, and society was organized into occupation groups. Most people were farmers; others were fishers, weavers, potters, artisans, armorers, and ritual specialists.<ref name="FRD">{{Cite journal | last = L. Worden | first = Robert | title = Kofun and Asuka Periods, ca. A.D. 250–710 | journal = A Country Study: Japan | publisher = ], ] | year = 1994 | url = http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/jptoc.html | access-date = 2007-04-06 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070406121546/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/jptoc.html| archive-date= 6 April 2007 | url-status= live}}</ref>
The actual start of Yamato rule is disputed. Its paramountcy in Japan presumably starts only in the end of ] or with the advent of Asuka period.


==Soga clan and Shōtoku Taishi==
The Asuka period, as a sub-division of the {{nihongo|'''Yamato period'''|大和時代|''Yamato-jidai''}}, is the first period of ] when the Japanese imperial court ruled relatively uncontested from modern-day ], then known as ].
] at the ] in Asuka, the oldest known statue of the Buddha in Japan with an exact known date of manufacture, 609 AD; the statue was made by ], son of a Korean immigrant.]]
The ] intermarried with the ], and by 587 ], the Soga chieftain, was powerful enough to install his nephew as emperor and later to assassinate him and replace him with the ] (r. 593–628). Suiko, the first of eight sovereign empresses, is sometimes considered a mere figurehead for Umako and Prince Regent ] (574–622). However she wielded power in her own right, and the role of Shōtoku Taishi is often exaggerated to the point of legend.{{citation needed|date=May 2022}}


Shōtoku, recognized as a great intellectual of this period of reform, was a devout ] and was well-read in ]. He was influenced by Confucian principles, including the ], which suggested that the sovereign ruled at the will of a supreme force. Under Shōtoku's direction, Confucian models of rank and etiquette were adopted, and his ] prescribed ways to bring harmony to a chaotic society in Confucian terms.
The ], concentrated in the Asuka region, exercised power over clans in ] and ], bestowing titles, some hereditary, on clan chieftains. The Yamato name became synonymous with all of Japan as the Yamato rulers suppressed the clans and acquired agricultural lands. Based on ] models (including the adoption of the ]), they developed a central administration and an imperial court attended by subordinate clan chieftains but with no permanent capital. By the mid-seventh century, the agricultural lands had grown to a substantial public domain, subject to central policy. The basic administrative unit of the {{nihongo|'']''|五畿七道}} system was the county, and society was organized into occupation groups. Most people were farmers; other were fishers, weavers, potters, artisans, armorers, and ritual specialists.<ref name="FRD"/>


In addition, Shōtoku adopted the ], developed a system of trade roads (the aforementioned ''Gokishichidō''), built numerous ], had court chronicles compiled, sent students to ] to study Buddhism and Confucianism, and sent ] to China as an {{nihongo|]|遣隋使|Kenzuishi}}.<ref name="FRD"/>
The Yamato court had ties to the ] of the Korean peninsula, called {{nihongo|''Mimana''|任那}} in Japanese. There is archaeological evidence from the Kofun tombs, which show similarities in form, art, and clothing of the depicted nobles. A second source is the ]. For a time, many Japanese historians{{Fact|date=February 2007}} claimed Gaya to be a colony of the Yamato state{{Fact|date=February 2007}}, a theory that is now widely rejected. More likely all these Korean and Japanese states were tributaries to the ] ] and ] dynasties to some extent.


Six official missions of envoys, priests, and students were sent to China in the seventh century. Some remained twenty years or more; many of those who returned became prominent reformers.{{Citation needed|date=March 2008}} The sending of such scholars to learn Chinese political systems showed significant change from envoys in the Kofun period, in which the ] sent envoys for the approval of their domains.
==The Soga clan and Shōtoku Taishi==
The {{nihongo|]|蘇我氏|Soga-shi}} intermarried with the ], and by ] ], the Soga chieftain, was powerful enough to install his nephew as ] and later to assassinate him and replace him with the ] (r. ]-]). ] in ], ].]] Suiko, the first of eight sovereign empresses, was merely a figurehead for Umako and Prince Regent {{nihongo|]|聖徳太子}} (]-]).


In a move greatly resented by the Chinese, Shōtoku sought equality with the Chinese emperor by sending official correspondence that was addressed, "From the ] in the Land of the Rising Sun to the Son of Heaven of the Land of the Setting Sun."
Shōtoku, recognized as a great intellectual of this period of reform, was a devout ], and well-read in ]. He was influenced by Confucian principles, including the ], which suggested that the sovereign ruled at the will of a supreme force. Under Shōtoku's direction, Confucian models of rank and etiquette were adopted, and his {{nihongo|]|憲法十七条|Kenpō jushichijō}} prescribed ways to bring ] to a society chaotic in Confucian terms.


Some would argue that Shōtoku's bold step set a precedent: Japan never again accepted a "subordinate" status in its relations with China,<ref name="FRD"/> except for ], who accepted such a relationship with China in the 15th century.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = L. Worden| first = Robert| title = Kamakura and Muromachi Periods, 1185–1573, Economic and Cultural Developments| journal = A Country Study: Japan| publisher = ], ]| year = 1994| url = http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/jptoc.html| access-date = 2007-04-06 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070406121546/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/jptoc.html| archive-date= 6 April 2007 | url-status= live}} Yoshimitsu, in 1404, accepted the "King of Japan" title in his willingness to improve relations with China and to rid Japan of the wako threat, thus establishing trade with China. This was considered as tribute by the Chinese but the Japanese saw it as profitable trade. This relationship lasted for about 50 years. (see also '']'').</ref>
In addition, Shōtoku adopted the ], developed a system of trade roads (the aforementioned ''Gokishichidō''), built numerous ], had court chronicles compiled, sent students to ] to study Buddhism and Confucianism, and sent {{nihongo|]|小野妹子|Ono-no-Imoko}} to China as an {{nihongo|]|遣隋使|Kenzuishi}}.<ref name="FRD"/>
As a result, Japan in this period received no title from Chinese dynasties, while they did send {{Nihongo|tribute|有貢無封|yūkō mufū}}. From the Chinese point of view, the class or position of Japan was demoted from previous centuries in which the kings received titles. On the other hand, Japan loosened its political relationships with China and consequently established extraordinary cultural and intellectual relationships.<ref>{{cite book |author=general editors, John W. Hall... ] |location=Cambridge, UK |year=1988 |pages=182–183 |isbn=0-521-22352-0 |display-authors=etal}}</ref><ref> {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060919070814/http://www.japanology.cn/paper/ch/14gao_mingshi.html |date=September 19, 2006 }}, japanology.cn</ref>


==Taika Reform and the ''ritsuryō'' system==
Numerous official missions of envoys, priests, and students were sent to China in the seventh century. Some remained twenty years or more; many of those who returned became prominent reformers. The sending of such scholars for learning Chinese political systems showed significant change from envoys in the Kofun period, in which {{nihongo|]|倭の五王|Wa no Go-ō}} sent envoys for approval of their domains.


===Taika Reform===
In a move greatly resented by the Chinese, Shōtoku sought equality with the Chinese emperor by sending official correspondence, which was addressed
{{Main|Taika Reform}}
::''"From the Son of Heaven in the Land of the Rising Sun to the Son of Heaven of the Land of the Setting Sun."''
{{multiple image
| align = right
| image1 = Collection pi 003.jpg
| width1 = 240
| alt1 =
| caption1 =
| image2 = Fuhonsen Asukaike end of 7th century copper and antimony.jpg
| width2 = 130
| alt2 =
| caption2 =
| footer = '''Left image''': {{nihongo|Copper ] of ]|銅製船氏王後墓誌|dōsei funashi ōgo no boshi}}, who died in 641 AD and was reburied with his wife in 668 AD. The inscription of 162 characters tells on one side about his birthplace and career and on the opposite about his age at death and the burial details.<br/>'''Right image''': ] {{nihongo|'']''|富本銭}} ] from the 7th century, Asuka period
}}


About twenty years after the deaths of Shōtoku Taishi (in 622), Soga no Umako (in 626), and Empress Suiko (in 628), court intrigues over succession led to a palace coup in 645 against the ]'s monopolized control of the government. The revolt was led by ] and ], who seized control of the court from the Soga family and introduced the ].<ref name="FRD"/> The ] corresponding to the years 645–649 was thus named {{nihongo||大化|'']''}}, meaning "great change" in reference to the Reform. The revolt leading to the Taika Reform is commonly called the ], referring to the ] year in which the coup took place, 645.
Some would argue that Shōtoku's bold step set a precedent -- Japan never again accepted a "subordinate" status in its relations with China,<ref name="FRD"/> except for ], who accepted certain relationship with China
in the 15th century.<ref>{{citation | last = L. Worden| first = Robert| authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Kamakura and Muromachi Periods, 1185-1573, Economic and Cultural Developments| journal = A Country Study: Japan| work =| publisher = ], ]| date = ]| url = http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/jptoc.html| format =| doi =| accessdate = 2007-04-06 }} Yoshimitsu, in 1404, accepted the "King of Japan" title in his willingness to improve relations with China and to rid Japan of the wako threat, thus establishing trades with China. This was considered as tribute by the Chinese but the Japanese saw it as profitable trade. This relationship lasted for about 50 years.(see also '']'').</ref>
As a result, Japan at this period was a state which received no title from Chinese dynasties while they did send tributes (有貢無封 ''yūkō-mufū''). From the Chinese point of view, the class or position of Japan was demoted from previous centuries in which the kings received titles. On the other hand, Japan loosened political relationships with China and consequently established extraordinary cultural and intellectual relationships.<ref>{{cite book |author=general editors, John W. Hall... </REF>


Although it did not constitute a legal code, the Taika Reform mandated a series of reforms that established the '']'' system of social, fiscal, and administrative mechanisms of the seventh to tenth centuries. {{Nihongo|''Ritsu''|律}} was a code of penal laws, while {{Nihongo|''ryō''|令}} was an administrative code. Combined, the two terms came to describe a system of patrimonial rule based on an elaborate legal code that emerged from the Taika Reform.<ref name="FRD"/>
==Taika Reform and ''ritsuryo'' system==
===Taika Reform===
{{main|Taika Reform}}
About twenty years after the deaths of Shōtoku Taishi (in 622), Soga no Umako (in ]), and Empress Suiko (in 628), court intrigues over succession led to a palace coup in ] against the ]'s monopolized control of the government. The revolt was led by {{nihongo|]|中大兄皇子|Naka no Ōe no Ōji}} and {{nihongo|]|中臣鎌足}} (Fujiwara no Kamatari), who seized control of the court from the Soga family and introduced the {{nihongo|]|大化の改新|Taika no Kaishin}}.<ref name="FRD"/> The ] corresponding to the years 645-649 was thus named {{nihongo|'']''|大化}}, referring to the Reform, and meaning "great change." The revolt leading to the Taika Reform is commonly called the {{nihongo|]|乙巳の変|Isshi no hen}}, referring to the ] year in which the coup took place, 645.


The ] Reform, influenced by ] practices, started with land redistribution aimed at ending the existing landholding system of the great clans and their control over domains and occupational groups. What were once called {{nihongo|"private lands and private people"|私地私民|shichi shimin}} became {{nihongo|"public lands and public people"|公地公民|kōchi kōmin}}, as the court now sought to assert its control over all of Japan and to make the people direct subjects of the throne. Land was no longer hereditary but reverted to the state at the death of the owner. Taxes were levied on harvests and on silk, cotton, cloth, thread, and other products. A ] (labor) tax was established for military conscription and building public works. The hereditary titles of clan chieftains were abolished, and three ministries were established to advise the throne:
Although it did not constitute a legal code, the Taika Reform mandated a series of reforms that established the {{nihongo|'']''|律令}} system of social, fiscal, and administrative mechanisms of the seventh to tenth centuries. {{nihongo|''Ritsu''|律}} was a code of penal laws, while {{nihongo|''ryō''|令}} was an administrative code. Combined, the two terms came to describe a system of patrimonial rule based on an elaborate legal code that emerged from the Taika Reform.<ref name="FRD"/>
* the ]

* the ]
The Taika Reform, influenced by ] practices, started with land redistribution, aimed at ending the existing landholding system of the great clans and their control over domains and occupational groups. What were once called "private lands and private people" became {{nihongo|"public lands and public people"|公地公民|Kōchi-kōmin}}, as the court now sought to assert its control over all of Japan and to make the people direct subjects of the throne. Land was no longer hereditary but reverted to the state at the death of the owner. Taxes were levied on harvests and on silk, cotton, cloth, thread, and other products. A ] (labor) tax was established for military conscription and building public works. The hereditary titles of clan chieftains were abolished, and three ministries were established to advise the throne:
* the {{nihongo|]|左大臣|Sa-daijin}} * the ]
* the {{nihongo|]|右大臣|U-daijin}}
* the {{nihongo|]|太政大臣|Daijō-daijin}}
The country was divided into provinces headed by governors appointed by the court, and the provinces were further divided into districts and villages.<ref name="FRD"/> The country was divided into provinces headed by governors appointed by the court, and the provinces were further divided into districts and villages.<ref name="FRD"/>


Naka no Ōe assumed the title of ], and Kamatari was granted a new family name—{{nihongo|]|藤原}}—in recognition of his great service to the imperial family. {{nihongo|Fujiwara no Kamatari|藤原鎌足}} became the first in a long line of court aristocrats. Another, long-lasting change was the use of the name {{nihongo|Nihon|日本}}, or sometimes Dai Nippon (Great Japan) in diplomatic documents and chronicles. In ], following the reigns of Naka no Ōe's uncle and mother, Naka no Ōe assumed the throne as {{nihongo|]|天智天皇|Tenji Tennō}}, taking the additional title {{nihongo|]|天皇|Tennō}} (heavenly sovereign). This new title was intended to improve the Yamato clan's image and to emphasize the divine origins of the imperial family in the hope of keeping it above political frays, such as those precipitated by the Soga clan. Within the imperial family, however, power struggles continued as the emperor's brother and son vied for the throne. The brother, who later reigned as ], consolidated Tenji's reforms and state power in the imperial court.<ref name="FRD"/> Naka no Ōe assumed the title of ], and Kamatari was granted a new family name—]—in recognition of his great service to the imperial family. Fujiwara no Kamatari became the first in a long line of court aristocrats. Another, long-lasting change was the use of the name {{nihongo|Nihon|日本}}, or sometimes {{Nihongo|Dai Nippon|大日本|extra="Great Japan"}} in diplomatic documents and chronicles. In 662, following the reigns of Naka no Ōe's uncle and mother, Naka no Ōe assumed the throne as ], taking the additional title ]. This new title was intended to improve the Yamato clan's image and to emphasize the divine origins of the imperial family in the hope of keeping it above political frays, such as those precipitated by the Soga clan. Within the imperial family, however, power struggles continued as the emperor's brother and son vied for the throne in the ]. The brother, who later reigned as ], consolidated Tenji's reforms and state power in the imperial court.<ref name="FRD"/>


===''Ritsuryō'' system=== ===''Ritsuryō'' system===
{{multiple image
The ''ritsuryō'' system was codified in several stages. The {{nihongo|]|近江令}}, named after the provincial site of Emperor Tenji's court, was completed in about ]. Further codification took place with the promulgation by ] in ] of the {{nihongo|]|飛鳥浄御原令}}, named for the location of the late Emperor Temmu's court. The ''ritsuryō'' system was further consolidated and codified in ] under the {{nihongo|]|大宝律令|Taihō Ritsuryō}}, which, except for a few modifications and being relegated to primarily ceremonial functions, remained in force until ].<ref name="FRD"/>
| align = right
| image1 = Hokiji09o4592.jpg
| width1 = 180
| alt1 =
| caption1 =
| image2 = Five-storied Pagoda - Hōryū-ji - Ikaruga, Nara, Japan - DSC07559.jpg
| width2 = 180
| alt2 =
| caption2 =
| footer = '''Left image''': The three-story ] of ] temple, built in 706 at the end of the Asuka period
<br/>'''Right image''':The five-storied ] of ] temple, built in the early 7th century (temple was founded in 607; carbon dating of the pagoda's wooden components proves that they were felled as far back as 594)<ref name="100years">{{cite web
| last = Web Japan
| first = sponsored by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Japan
| title = One hundred years older than supposed?: World Heritage Pagoda
| url=http://web-japan.org/trends00/honbun/tj010330.html
| access-date = 2007-04-04 }}</ref>
}}
The ''ritsuryō'' system was codified in several stages. The ], named after the provincial site of Emperor Tenji's court, was completed in about 668. Further codification took place with the promulgation by ] in 689 of the ], named for the location of the late Emperor Temmu's court. The ''ritsuryō'' system was further consolidated and codified in 701 under the ], which, except for a few modifications and being relegated to primarily ceremonial functions, remained in force until 1868.<ref name="FRD"/>


Though ''Ritsu'' of the code was adopted from the Chinese system, ''Ryō'' was arranged in a local style. Some scholars argues that the it was to certain extent based on Chinese models.<ref>William Wayne Farris, ''Sacred Texts and Buried Treasures: Issues on the Historical Archaeology of Ancient Japan'', University of Hawaii Press, 1998. . </ref> Though the ''ritsu'' of the code was adopted from the Chinese system, the ''ryō'' was arranged in a local style. Some scholars argue that it was to a certain extent based on Chinese models.<ref>William Wayne Farris, ''Sacred Texts and Buried Treasures: Issues on the Historical Archaeology of Ancient Japan'', ], 1998. .</ref>


The Taihō Code provided for Confucian-model penal provisions (light rather than harsh punishments) and Chinese-style central administration through the ''{{nihongo|]|神祇官}}'' (Department of Rites), which was devoted to ] and court rituals, and the ''{{nihongo|]|太政官}}'' (]), with its eight ministries (for central administration, ceremonies, civil affairs, the imperial household, justice, military affairs, people's affairs, and the treasury). Although the ] system was not adopted, {{nihongo|the college office|大学寮|Daigaku-Ryō}} was founded for training future bureaucrats based on the Confucian classics. Tradition circumvented the system, however, as aristocratic birth continued to be the main qualification for higher position, and titles were soon hereditary again. The Taihō Code did not address the selection of the sovereign. Several empresses reigned from the fifth to the eighth centuries, but after ] succession was restricted to males, usually from father to son, although sometimes from ruler to brother or uncle.<ref name="FRD"/> The Taihō Code provided for Confucian-model penal provisions (light rather than harsh punishments) and Chinese-style central administration through the {{Nihongo|'']''|神祇官}}, which was devoted to ] and court rituals, and the {{Nihongo|'']''|太政官}}, with its eight ministries (for central administration, ceremonies, civil affairs, the imperial household, justice, military affairs, people's affairs, and the treasury). Although the ] system was not adopted, {{nihongo|the college office|大学寮|Daigaku Ryō}} was founded for training future bureaucrats based on the Confucian classics. Tradition circumvented the system, however, as aristocratic birth continued to be the main qualification for higher position, and titles were soon hereditary again. The Taihō Code did not address the selection of the sovereign. Several empresses reigned from the fifth to the eighth centuries, but after 770 succession was restricted to males, usually from father to son, although sometimes from ruler to brother or uncle.<ref name="FRD"/>


{{nihongo|]|藤原不比等}}, son of ], was among those who produced the Taihō Ritsuryō. According to history book {{nihongo|]|日本紀}}, two of the 19 members of the committee drafting the ] were Chinese priests (Shoku-Shugen and Satsu-Koukaku).<ref>續日本紀 卷第一 文武紀一</ref><ref>『続日本紀』国史大系版 ], son of ], was among those who produced the Taihō Ritsuryō. According to history book {{Nihongo|]|日本紀}}, two of the 19 members of the committee drafting the ] were Chinese priests (Shoku Shugen and Satsu Koukaku).<ref> {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070111084211/http://applepig.idv.tw/kuon/furu/text/syokki/syokki01.htm#skk01_06 |date=January 11, 2007 }}, applepig.idv.tw</ref><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180512121540/http://www.j-texts.com/jodai/shoku1.html |date=2018-05-12 }}, j-texts.com</ref> Chinese priests also took an active part as linguistic specialists, and received rewards two times from ].
</ref> Chinese priests took an active part as a linguistic specialist, and received the reward of two times from the ].


==Foreign relations==
==Exchange with mainland Asia==
], where construction began in 665]]
Since the ], the Yamato government sent envoys directly to the ], from which it obtained a great wealth of philosophical and social structure. In addition to ethics of government, it also adopted the ] and many of China's religious practices, including ] and ]. Prince Shotoku prescribed a new constitution for Japan based on the Chinese model.
], late 7th century, Asuka period]]
] had been introduced to Japan by the ] before the ] were established. Although the missions continued, the transformation of Japan through Chinese influences declined, despite the close connections that had existed during the early Kofun period.<ref name="FRD"/> Meanwhile, the kingdoms of the Korean peninsula, often at odds with each other, frequently sent diplomatic missions with gifts to Japan, probably with the aim of securing Japanese neutrality or diplomatic/military support in their rivalries;<ref>''Early Samurai: 200–1500 AD'' by ], ] "At about this time Paekche began feeling renewed pressure from Silla and Koguryo and pleaded with the Yamato court to send help&nbsp;... During the Mimana struggles against Silla, Paekche sent many presents to Japan."(Page8)</ref> ultimately, this proved to be of the greatest benefit to ], as Japanese military support for that kingdom increased.<ref name="Sansom">Sansom, George (1958). ''A History of Japan to 1334''. Stanford, California: ]. 47–49.</ref> People, many of them artisans and skilled workers, also emigrated to Japan from the Korean peninsula, including two high priests who arrived in Japan in 595: ] from ] and ] from Baekje.<ref> "Two Korean high priests arrived in Japan in 595—Eji from the kingdom of Koryo (Koma) and Eso from the kingdom of Paekche (Kudara)."</ref> ] also came from Baekje, and was a tutor to ], counseling him politically. When Japan allied with Baekje, the Goguryeo priests left Japan.
The Yamato court, concentrated in the Asuka region, exercised power over clans in Kyushu and Honshu, bestowing titles, some hereditary, on clan chieftains. The Yamato name became synonymous with all of Japan as the Yamato rulers suppressed the clans and acquired agricultural lands. Based on Chinese models (including the adoption of the Chinese written language), they developed a central administration and an imperial court attended by subordinate clan chieftains but with no permanent capital. By the mid-seventh century, the agricultural lands had grown to a substantial public domain, subject to central policy. The basic administrative unit was the county, and society was organized into occupation groups. Most people were farmers; other were fishers, weavers, potters, artisans, armorers, and ritual specialists.


From 600 to 659, Japan sent seven emissaries to ] China. But for the next 32 years, during a period when Japan was formulating its laws based on Chinese texts, none were sent. Though Japan cut off diplomatic relations with China, Japan sent 11 emissaries to ], and Silla is also recorded in ] as sending embassies to Japan 17 times during the reigns of ] and ]. The ruling classes of ] and ] were on amicable terms, and Yamato deployed its navy to aid Baekje, in 660–663, against an invasion by ] and Tang China (see ]).
Japan had been very positive in the ], towards the introduction of ] and immigration of population. However, the Asuka period shows a marked change in the attitude: Japan started to be a national state with its own population and culture. It focused on assimilating earlier waves of immigrants into a single people.


Numerous official missions of envoys, priests, and students were sent to China in the seventh century. Some remained twenty years or more; many of those who returned became prominent reformers. In a move greatly resented by the Chinese, Shotoku sought equality with the Chinese emperor by sending official correspondence addressed "From the Son of Heaven in the Land of the Rising Sun to the Son of Heaven of the Land of the Setting Sun." Shotoku's bold step set a precedent: Japan never again accepted a subordinate status in its relations with China.
===Torai-jin===
Chinese and Korean immigrants who became naturalized in ancient Japan were called {{nihongo|]|渡来人}}. They introduced many aspects of their language, culture, and traditions to their adoptive country. Japan gave preferential treatment to these ''torai-jin'' because the Yamato Court valued their knowledge and culture.

According to the record of {{nihongo|''Shinsen-shōjiroku''|新撰姓氏録}}, an aristocratic list of names that the Yamato Imperial Court officially compiled in ], one-third of the noble families on the list had their origins in China or Korea. 163 of the 1182 listed were from China, and more than 240 were from the Korean peninsula (104 form ], 41 from ], and 9 from ]).<ref name="Beasley">{{cite book| url=http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN0520225600&id=9AivK7yMICgC&pg=PA32&lpg=PA32&dq=history+of+japan+and+korea&vq=korea&sig=V5gQx0zzYDUvUYqeYjnYRbMoCG8| title=The Japanese Experience: A Short History of Japan| first=W. G.| last=Beasley| publisher=University of California Press| id=ISBN 0-520-22560-0| year=Aug 31, 2000}}</ref>

Buddhism and the Confucianism had a huge influence on Japanese philosophy. Japan also absorbed many other elements of Chinese technology and culture, including the writing system, architecture, and methods of producing steel. In addition, many Chinese scholars (''続守言 , 薩弘恪'') were on committees that drew up legal codes, thus having a strong influence on the emerging Japanese legal system.

However, these immigrants are generally treated as lower class in '']'' systems which classifies the various clan members of the court. They are generally ranked as "Atai", "Miyatsuko", or "Fubito", while members of ruling clans such as Soga, Mononobe, and Nakatomi are ranked as "Omi" or "Muraji".

===Immigrants from China===
An example of a typical descendant clan is the Yamatonoaya clan (''東漢氏''), which is descended from ]. This clan's leader was Achi-no-Omi (''阿智使主''). He introduced many elements of Chinese culture to Japan. According to the ], during Emperor Kimmei's reign the ] (''秦氏''), descendants of ], introduced ] (silk production). The Kawachino-Fumi clan (''西文氏''), descendants of ], introduced Chinese writing to the Yamato court, according to the ''Shinsen-shōjiroku''. The Takamoku clan is a descendant of ].<ref>{{cite web| url=http://homepage1.nifty.com/k-kitagawa/data/shoji.html| title="Shinsen-shōjiroku" shizoku ichiran 『新撰姓氏録』氏族一覧|publisher=transcribed by Kazuhide Kitagawa|accessdate=2006-10-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.myj7000.jp-biz.net/clan/03/03008.htm| title=Nihon no myōji 7000 ketsu seishi ruibetsu taikan Takamuko uji 日本の苗字7000傑 姓氏類別大観 高向氏| accessdate=2006-10-16}}</ref> {{nihongo|]|高向玄理}} was a central member of the committee which wrote the ]. {{nihongo|]|止利仏師}}, also from China, was one of the most active artists in the Asuka period.

===Refugees from the Korean peninsula ===
In ], one of the three kingdoms of Korea, ], fell to ] and ]. Subsequently, quite a large number of refugees from Baekje migrated to Japan.
]|五重塔}} in ] temple is the oldest such wooden tower in the world.]]
The Yamato Imperial Court accepted the royal family and the refugees of Baekje. The royal family of Baekje received the name "]" (百済王, lit. ''kings of Baekje'') from the emperor.

The number of refugees and their significant cultural impact during this evolutionary period was downplayed during the occupation of Korea in the earlier part of the twentieth century for political reasons. Most Japanese historians now agree that, in addition to strong influences from ], immigration from Baekje also contributed major elements in the cultural flowering of the subsequent ].


==Introduction of Buddhism== ==Introduction of Buddhism==
{{multiple image
], Asuka period, ], ].]]
| align = right
The introduction of {{nihongo|]|仏教|Bukkyō}} to Japan is attributed to the ] king ] in ], exposing Japan to a new body of religious doctrine. The ], a Japanese court family that rose to prominence with the ascension of the ] about ], favored the adoption of Buddhism and of governmental and cultural models based on ] ]. But some at the Yamato court—such as the ], which was responsible for performing ] rituals at court, and the ], a military clan—were set on maintaining their prerogatives and resisted the alien religious influence of Buddhism. The Soga introduced Chinese-modeled fiscal policies, established the first national treasury, and considered the kingdoms of Korea as trade partners rather than as objects of territorial expansion. Acrimony continued between the Soga and the Nakatomi and Mononobe clans for more than a century, during which the Soga temporarily emerged ascendant. In the ], the Funeral Simplification Edict was proclaimed, and building of large ''kofun'' (]) was banned. The edict also regulated size and shape of ''kofun'' by classes.<ref name="FRD"/> As a result, later ''kofun'', though much smaller, were distinguished by elaborate frescoes. Paintings and decorations of those ''kofun'' indicate the spread of Taoism and Buddhism in this period. The ] and ] are the most famous for their wall paintings.{{Fact|date=April 2007}}
| image1 = Yakushi Nyorai Kondo Horyuji.jpg
| width1 = 175
| alt1 =
| caption1 =
| image2 = Periodo asuka, amitabha e due assitenti, VII sec.JPG
| width2 = 210
| alt2 =
| caption2 =
| footer = '''Left image''': ] (National Treasure), Kondo, Horyuji, Nara Prefecture, Japan, 7th century, Asuka period
<br/>'''Right image''': ] and two assistants, ], 7th century
}}
The introduction of ] to Japan is attributed to the ] king ] in 538, exposing Japan to a new body of religious doctrine. The ], a Japanese court family that rose to prominence with the ascension of the ] about 531, favored the adoption of Buddhism and of governmental and cultural models based on ] ]. But some at the Yamato court—such as the ], which was responsible for performing ] rituals at court, and the ], a military clan—were set on maintaining their prerogatives and resisted the alien religious influence of Buddhism. The Soga introduced Chinese-modeled fiscal policies, established the first national treasury, and considered the kingdoms of Korea as trade partners rather than as objects of territorial expansion. Acrimony continued between the Soga and the Nakatomi and Mononobe clans for more than a century, during which the Soga temporarily emerged ascendant.


In the ], the Funeral Simplification Edict was proclaimed, and the building of large ''kofun'' (]) was banned. The edict also regulated size and shape of ''kofun'' by classes.<ref name="FRD"/> As a result, later ''kofun'', though much smaller, were distinguished by elaborate frescoes. Paintings and decorations in those ''kofun'' indicate the spread of Taoism and Buddhism in this period; the ] and ] are notable for their wall paintings.{{Citation needed|date=April 2007}}
With the dawn of the Asuka period the use of elaborate ] tombs by the ] and other elite fell out of use because of prevailing new Buddhist beliefs, which put greater emphasis on the transience of human life. Commoners and the elite in outlying regions, however, continued to use kofun until the late seventh century, and simpler but distinctive tombs continued in use throughout the following period.<ref name="FRD"/>


The use of elaborate ] tombs by the ] and other elite thus fell out of use amidst the rise of prevailing new Buddhist beliefs, which put greater emphasis on the transience of human life. Commoners and the elite in outlying regions, however, continued to use kofun until the late seventh century, and simpler but distinctive tombs continued in use throughout the following period.<ref name="FRD"/>
==Foreign relations==
From ] to ], Japan sent seven emissaries to ] China. But for the next 32 years, during a period when Japan was formulating its laws based on Chinese texts, none were sent. Though Japan cut off diplomatic relations with China, Japan sent 11 emissaries to ], and Silla is also recorded in ] as sending embassies to Japan 17 times during the reigns of ] and ]. The ruling classes of Yamato and Baekje were on amicable terms, and Yamato deployed its navy to aid Baekje, in ]-], against an invasion by ] and ] (see ]).


In 675 the use of ] and the consumption of some wild animals (horse, cattle, dogs, monkeys, birds) was banned by ] due to the influence of Buddhism.<ref>Hisao Nagayama. 「たべもの江戸史」 新人物往来社, 1976. {{ISBN|4309473105}} p. 66. 『、「牛馬犬猿鶏の宍(肉)を食うことなかれ」の殺生禁断の令は有名拍車をかけたのが仏教の影響である。』</ref> This ban was renewed throughout the Asuka period, but ended with the Heian period. The pest animals, deer and ], were not affected by this ban.<ref>Kiichi Koyanagi. 「日本人の食生活 : 飢餓と豊饒の変遷史」 Tōkyō : Shibata shoten, 1971.</ref>
As an alternative to journeying to China, many priests from the ] were sent to Japan. As a result, This also created the incidental effect of Japanese military support for ].<ref name="Sansom">Sansom, George (1958). 'A History of Japan to 1334'. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. 47-49.</ref> Some well-known priests who came from the Korean peninsula were ], ], ], and ]. Eji, who came from ] was a tutor to ], and counseled him politically.<ref>Encyclopedia of World Biography on Shotoku Taishi </ref>


==Influence of Taoism== ==Influence of Taoism==
] pattern incised, ] bronze with silver, Asuka period, 7th century, former ] Temple treasures, ]]]
Taoism was also introduced during the Asuka period. In the mid-7th century, ] built a Taoist temple at ] (多武峯談山). Many stone turtles (亀石, ''kameishi''), a form common among Taoist sites, have been discovered in Asuka and are assumed to have been created during Saimei's reign. The octagonal shape of monarchs' tombs of this age and the celestial maps drawn in Kitora and Takamatsuzuka also reflect the Taoist cosmology. ''Tennō'' (Emperor), the new title of the Japanese monarch in this period, could also be argued to derive from the name of the supreme God of Taoism, ''Tenko-Taitei''(天皇大帝), the God of ]{{Fact|date=February 2007}}.
] delivering a sermon, dated 698 AD, ] Temple, Sakurai, Nara]]
Taoism was also introduced during the Asuka period. The octagonal shape of monarchs' tombs of this age and the celestial maps drawn in the Kitora and Takamatsuzuka ''kofun'' reflect the Taoist cosmology.


Taoist belief was eventually amalgamated with Shintō and Buddhism to establish new styles of rituals. ], a sort of Japanese geomancy and cosmology, is one of the fruits of those religious mixtures. While the Asuka period started with conflict of religious belief between clans, later in the period, the imported religions became syncetized with Japan's native folk beliefs. Taoist belief was eventually amalgamated with Shintō and Buddhism to establish new styles of rituals. {{Nihongo|]|陰陽道}}, a sort of Japanese ] and ], is one of the fruits of these religious mixtures. While the Asuka period started with conflicts between clans over religious beliefs, later in the period, the imported religions became syncretized with Japan's native folk beliefs.


==Art and architecture== ==Art and architecture==

=== Asuka culture === === Asuka culture ===
Some architectural structures built in the period still remain today. Wooden buildings at ], built in the seventh century, show some influence from Chinese and west Asian countries. For instance, the pillars at ] are similar to the pillars of the ] of ], as seen in their ]. The {{Nihongo|five-storied pagoda|五重の塔|go-jū no tō}} is a transformation from the Indian mound-like ] structure called a '']''. In addition, mural paintings in the Takamatsuzuka and Kitora ''kofun'' dating from the fifth century show strong influence from ] and ] wall painting.<ref>{{cite book| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dCNioYQ1HfsC&q=kofun+tumuli+korea&pg=PA95| title=Sacred Texts and Buried Treasures: Issues on the Historical Archaeology of Ancient Japan| pages=95| publisher=University of Hawaii Press| isbn=978-0-8248-2030-5| author1=Farris, William Wayne| year=1998}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1091| title=Complex of Koguryo Tombs| publisher=]}}</ref>
Korean architecture of the time was a stylistic link between classical Chinese architecture and later Japanese buildings. The construction of the original and reconstructed ] was also strongly influenced by Culture of ]. For instance, the pillar in ] is similar to the pillar of ] of ], as seen in its ]. After the tower in ] (]) had been converted by architectural technology of ], it became a five-storied pagoda (''五重の塔'') in Japan.

The early Buddhist architectures in Japan having built with the aid of immigrants from Baekje, surviving buildings provide scholars with examples of how Chinese and Korean architecture of the same era looked.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}

The unusual lateral orientation of the main hall and ] of Hōryū-ji is, however, not found in sites in China or Korea.<ref>{{cite book| pages=731| url=http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN0750622679&id=Gt1jTpXAThwC&pg=PA731&lpg=PA731&dq=history+of+japan+and+korea&vq=horyuji&sig=Se-8aUtgnkPUuhEru_R7HxYp4qE| title=Banister Fletcher's A History of Architecture}}</ref> The arrangement of buildings within the precinct of Hōryū-ji is similar to the buddhist temple style of ], Hōryū-ji style is called "Shitennōji-Garan (四天王寺伽藍)" or "Wakakusa-Garan(若草伽藍)".<ref>{{cite book| pages=236| url=http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN0521407834&id=sANORB_MSRUC&vq=paekche&dq=korea+horse+japan&lpg=PA237&pg=PA236&sig=pa8p429rTZXoAHhzOFzrw6kOKhY| title=The Archaeology of Korea| first=Sarah Milledge| last=Nelson| id=ISBN 0-521-40783-4| publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref>

Decorated tombs and painted tumuli which date from the fifth century and later found in Japan are generally accepted as Korean exports to Japan. The Takamatsuzuka tomb even features paintings of women in distinctive clothes also seen in ] wall painting.<ref>{{cite book| url=http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN0824820304&id=dCNioYQ1HfsC&dq=kofun+tumuli+korea&lpg=PA95&pg=PA95&sig=pklpAbfrrspwFUtncGBqMy1dks0| title=Sacred Texts and Buried Treasures: Issues on the Historical Archaeology of Ancient Japan| pages=95}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1091| title=Complex of Koguryo Tombs| publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref>


The Japanese Buddhist sculpture art of this period is believed to have followed the style of the Six Dynasties of China. The characteristics of the sculptures of this age is also referred to as Tori Style, taken from the name of the prominent sculptor ], grandson of Chinese immigrant ].<ref>{{cite web| url=http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9380953/Tori-style| title=Tori style| work=Britannica Concise| publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> The Japanese Buddhist sculpture art of this period is believed to have followed the style of the Six Dynasties of China. The characteristics of the sculptures of this age are also referred to as Tori Style, taken from the name of prominent sculptor ], grandson of Chinese immigrant Shiba Tatto.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia| url=http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9380953/Tori-style| title=Tori style| encyclopedia=Britannica Concise| publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Some of the characteristics of the style include marked, almond-shaped eyes, and symmetrically arranged folds in the clothing. The most striking and distinguishing feature of these sculptures is an expression of the smile that is called the "]". ] is the most prominent Buddhist sculpture from this period.
Some of the characteristics of the style include marked, almond-shaped eyes, and symmetrically arranged folds in the clothing. The most striking and distinguishing feature of these sculptures is an expression of the smile that is called ].
], the Shaka triad produced by ] for the Hōryū-ji, is one of the best Buddha arts of that time.


===Hakuhō culture=== ===Hakuhō culture===
The second stage of Buddhist art, coming after the Asuka (culture) period, is known as ](]) and is generally dated from the ] (646) until the moving of the capital to Nara in 710. During the latter half of the 8th century, a large number of songs and poems were composed and performed by various ranked people from warriors to the Emperor. The earliest collection of these poems is known as ]. It includes works by several remarkable poets such as ] (]) and ] (]). ], which literally means Japanese song, also emerged as a new form of poetry at this time. It was conceived as a term to distinguish native styles from those imported from China; within the umbrella of ''waka'' poetry, one of the more popular forms is known as ''tanka''. It consists of a total of 31 syllables divided over five lines, in the syllabic pattern 5/7/5/7/7.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/japan/asuka/asuka-period.html| first=Taku| last=Kurashige| coauthors=Rie Yamada| title=Asuka Period| year=2003}}</ref> The second stage of ], coming after the Asuka (cultural) period, is known as the {{Nihongo|]|]|Hakuhō Bunka}}, and is generally dated from the ] (646) until the moving of the capital to Nara in 710. During the latter half of the 8th century, a large number of songs and poems were composed and performed by various ranked people from warriors to the Emperor. The earliest collection of these poems is known as the {{Nihongo|'']''|万葉集|extra="collection of 10,000 leaves"}}. This includes works by several remarkable poets such as ] and ]. {{Nihongo|]|和歌|extra="Japanese song"}} also emerged as a new form of poetry at this time. This term was coined to distinguish native styles from those imported from China; within the umbrella of ''waka'' poetry, one of the more popular forms is known as {{Nihongo|''tanka''|短歌|extra="short song"}}. It consists of a total of 31 ] divided over five lines, in the syllabic pattern 5/7/5/7/7.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/japan/asuka/asuka-period.html |first=Taku |last=Kurashige |author2=Rie Yamada |title=Asuka Period |year=2003 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060206230116/http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/japan/asuka/asuka-period.html |archive-date=2006-02-06 }}</ref>


==Events== ==Events==
*538: The Korean kingdom of Baekje dispatches a delegation to introduce Buddhism to the Japanese emperor. *538: The Korean kingdom of Baekje dispatches a delegation to introduce Buddhism to the Japanese Emperor.
*592: Introduction of Buddhism to the Imperial court, according to the '']''
*593: ] is assigned as regent of ] and promotes Buddhism with Soga clan.
*593: ] is assigned as regent of ] and promotes Buddhism with the Soga clan.
*600: Yamato state sends the first official Japanese mission to China since 478.
*600: Yamato Imperial Court sends the first official Japanese mission to China since 478.
*604: Prince Shotoku issues a Chinese-style constitution (]), based on Confucian principles, which de facto inaugurated the Japanese Empire.
*604: Prince Shōtoku issues a Chinese-style constitution (]), based on Confucian principles, which ''de facto'' inaugurated the Japanese Empire.
*607: ] builds the Buddhist temple Hōryūji in Ikaruga.
*607: Prince Shōtoku builds the Buddhist temple Hōryūji in Ikaruga.
*645: Soga no Iruka and his father Emishi are killed in the ]. ] ascends to the throne and strengthens imperial power over aristocratic clans (see ]), turning their states into provinces.
*645: Soga no Iruka and his father Emishi are killed in the ].
*663: Japanese navy was defeated by Silla-Tang allies in ], failing to restore Baekje.
**] ascends to the throne and strengthens imperial power over the aristocratic clans (see ]), turning their states into provinces.
*670: First ] (Kōgo-Nenjaku) was compiled.
*663: The Japanese navy was defeated by the Silla-Tang alliance in ], failing to restore Baekje.
*672: Prince Ōama, later ] usurped the throne by winning the civil war (]) against ].
*670: {{Nihongo|The first ]|庚午年籍|Kōgo Nenjaku}} was compiled.
*689: ] was proclaimed.
*672: Prince Ōama, later ] usurped the throne by winning the {{Nihongo|]|壬申の乱}} ] against ].
*701: ] was proclaimed.
*689: The ] was proclaimed.
*694: The imperial capital is moved to ], in present-day ] city.
*701: The ] was proclaimed.
*705: The ] is founded. It survives to become the oldest known hotel business still in operation, as of 2019.
*708: {{Nihongo|The first Japanese coin|和同開珎|]}} was minted.


==References== == See also ==
* ]
* {{loc}} -


== Notes ==
<references/>
{{Reflist}}


== References ==
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Latest revision as of 20:02, 29 November 2024

Period of Japanese history from 538 CE to 710 CE
Wakoku (until 701)
Nippon (from 701)Wa (倭) to Nippon (日本)
538–710
Yamato Kingship in JapanYamato Kingship in Japan
CapitalAsuka (until 694)
Fujiwara-kyō (694–710)
Common languagesOld Japanese
Middle Chinese
Religion Shinto
Buddhism
GovernmentFeudal monarchy
Okimi (Emperor) 
• 539/540–571 Kinmei
• 707–710 Genmei
Ōomi (Soga Clan) 
• 538/552–570 Soga no Iname
• 626–645 Soga no Emishi
History 
• Introduction of Buddhism 538
• Embassy to China 607
• Isshi incident 10 July 645
• Taika Reform 645
• Jinshin War 672
• Asuka Kiyomihara Code proclaimed 689
• Taihō Code enacted 701–718
• Capital moved to Nara 710
CurrencyFuhonsen
Preceded by Succeeded by
Kofun period
Nara Period
Part of a series on the
History of Japan
Prince Shōtoku
Periods
Paleolithic35,000–14,000 BC
Jōmon14,000–1000 BC
Yayoi 1000 BC – 300 AD
Kofun 300–538 AD
Asuka 538–710
Nara 710–794
Heian 794–1185
Kamakura 1185–1333
Muromachi 1336–1573
Azuchi–Momoyama 1573–1603
Edo (Tokugawa) 1603–1868
Meiji 1868–1912
Taishō 1912–1926
Shōwa 1926–1989
Heisei 1989–2019
Reiwa 2019–present
Topics

The Asuka period (飛鳥時代, Asuka jidai) was a period in the history of Japan lasting from 538 to 710, although its beginning could be said to overlap with the preceding Kofun period. The Yamato polity evolved greatly during the Asuka period, which is named after the Asuka region, about 25 km (16 mi) south of the modern city of Nara.

The Asuka period is characterized by its significant artistic, social, and political transformations, having their origins in the late Kofun period. The introduction of Buddhism marked a change in Japanese society. The Asuka period is also distinguished by the change in the name of the country from Wa (倭) to Nippon (日本).

Naming

The term "Asuka period" was first used to describe a period in the history of Japanese fine-arts and architecture. It was proposed by fine-arts scholars Sekino Tadasu (関野貞) and Okakura Kakuzō around 1900. Sekino dated the Asuka period as ending with the Taika Reform of 646. Okakura, however, saw it as ending with the transfer of the capital to the Heijō Palace of Nara. Although historians generally use Okakura's dating, many historians of art and architecture prefer Sekino's dating and use the term "Hakuhō period (白鳳時代)" to refer to the successive period.

Yamato Imperial Court

From the Asuka period in the 6th century, as a sub-division of the Yamato period (大和時代, Yamato-jidai), is the first time in Japanese history when the Emperor of Japan ruled relatively uncontested from modern-day Nara Prefecture, then known as Yamato Province.

The second half of the Kofun period, exercised power over clans in Kyūshū and Honshū, bestowing titles, some hereditary, on clan chieftains. The Yamato name became synonymous with all of Japan as the Yamato rulers suppressed other clans and acquired agricultural lands. Based on Chinese models (including the adoption of the Chinese written language), they developed a central administration and an imperial court attended by subordinate clan chieftains but with no permanent capital. By the mid-seventh century, the agricultural lands had grown to a substantial public domain, subject to central policy. The basic administrative unit of the Gokishichidō (五畿七道, "five cities, seven roads") system was the county, and society was organized into occupation groups. Most people were farmers; others were fishers, weavers, potters, artisans, armorers, and ritual specialists.

Soga clan and Shōtoku Taishi

The Daibutsu at the Asuka-dera in Asuka, the oldest known statue of the Buddha in Japan with an exact known date of manufacture, 609 AD; the statue was made by Kuratsukuri-no-Tori, son of a Korean immigrant.

The Soga clan intermarried with the imperial family, and by 587 Soga no Umako, the Soga chieftain, was powerful enough to install his nephew as emperor and later to assassinate him and replace him with the Empress Suiko (r. 593–628). Suiko, the first of eight sovereign empresses, is sometimes considered a mere figurehead for Umako and Prince Regent Shōtoku Taishi (574–622). However she wielded power in her own right, and the role of Shōtoku Taishi is often exaggerated to the point of legend.

Shōtoku, recognized as a great intellectual of this period of reform, was a devout Buddhist and was well-read in Chinese literature. He was influenced by Confucian principles, including the Mandate of Heaven, which suggested that the sovereign ruled at the will of a supreme force. Under Shōtoku's direction, Confucian models of rank and etiquette were adopted, and his Seventeen-article constitution prescribed ways to bring harmony to a chaotic society in Confucian terms.

In addition, Shōtoku adopted the Chinese calendar, developed a system of trade roads (the aforementioned Gokishichidō), built numerous Buddhist temples, had court chronicles compiled, sent students to China to study Buddhism and Confucianism, and sent Ono no Imoko to China as an emissary (遣隋使, Kenzuishi).

Six official missions of envoys, priests, and students were sent to China in the seventh century. Some remained twenty years or more; many of those who returned became prominent reformers. The sending of such scholars to learn Chinese political systems showed significant change from envoys in the Kofun period, in which the five kings of Wa sent envoys for the approval of their domains.

In a move greatly resented by the Chinese, Shōtoku sought equality with the Chinese emperor by sending official correspondence that was addressed, "From the Son of Heaven in the Land of the Rising Sun to the Son of Heaven of the Land of the Setting Sun."

Some would argue that Shōtoku's bold step set a precedent: Japan never again accepted a "subordinate" status in its relations with China, except for Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, who accepted such a relationship with China in the 15th century. As a result, Japan in this period received no title from Chinese dynasties, while they did send tribute (有貢無封, yūkō mufū). From the Chinese point of view, the class or position of Japan was demoted from previous centuries in which the kings received titles. On the other hand, Japan loosened its political relationships with China and consequently established extraordinary cultural and intellectual relationships.

Taika Reform and the ritsuryō system

Taika Reform

Main article: Taika Reform Left image: Copper epitaph of Funashi Ōgo (銅製船氏王後墓誌, dōsei funashi ōgo no boshi), who died in 641 AD and was reburied with his wife in 668 AD. The inscription of 162 characters tells on one side about his birthplace and career and on the opposite about his age at death and the burial details.
Right image: Copper Fuhonsen (富本銭) coinage from the 7th century, Asuka period

About twenty years after the deaths of Shōtoku Taishi (in 622), Soga no Umako (in 626), and Empress Suiko (in 628), court intrigues over succession led to a palace coup in 645 against the Soga clan's monopolized control of the government. The revolt was led by Prince Naka no Ōe and Nakatomi no Kamatari, who seized control of the court from the Soga family and introduced the Taika Reform. The Japanese era corresponding to the years 645–649 was thus named Taika (大化), meaning "great change" in reference to the Reform. The revolt leading to the Taika Reform is commonly called the Isshi Incident, referring to the Chinese zodiac year in which the coup took place, 645.

Although it did not constitute a legal code, the Taika Reform mandated a series of reforms that established the ritsuryō system of social, fiscal, and administrative mechanisms of the seventh to tenth centuries. Ritsu (律) was a code of penal laws, while ryō (令) was an administrative code. Combined, the two terms came to describe a system of patrimonial rule based on an elaborate legal code that emerged from the Taika Reform.

The Taika Reform, influenced by Chinese practices, started with land redistribution aimed at ending the existing landholding system of the great clans and their control over domains and occupational groups. What were once called "private lands and private people" (私地私民, shichi shimin) became "public lands and public people" (公地公民, kōchi kōmin), as the court now sought to assert its control over all of Japan and to make the people direct subjects of the throne. Land was no longer hereditary but reverted to the state at the death of the owner. Taxes were levied on harvests and on silk, cotton, cloth, thread, and other products. A corvée (labor) tax was established for military conscription and building public works. The hereditary titles of clan chieftains were abolished, and three ministries were established to advise the throne:

The country was divided into provinces headed by governors appointed by the court, and the provinces were further divided into districts and villages.

Naka no Ōe assumed the title of Crown Prince, and Kamatari was granted a new family name—Fujiwara—in recognition of his great service to the imperial family. Fujiwara no Kamatari became the first in a long line of court aristocrats. Another, long-lasting change was the use of the name Nihon (日本), or sometimes Dai Nippon (大日本, "Great Japan") in diplomatic documents and chronicles. In 662, following the reigns of Naka no Ōe's uncle and mother, Naka no Ōe assumed the throne as Emperor Tenji, taking the additional title Emperor of Japan. This new title was intended to improve the Yamato clan's image and to emphasize the divine origins of the imperial family in the hope of keeping it above political frays, such as those precipitated by the Soga clan. Within the imperial family, however, power struggles continued as the emperor's brother and son vied for the throne in the Jinshin War. The brother, who later reigned as Emperor Tenmu, consolidated Tenji's reforms and state power in the imperial court.

Ritsuryō system

Left image: The three-story pagoda of Hokki-ji temple, built in 706 at the end of the Asuka period
Right image:The five-storied Japanese pagoda of Hōryū-ji temple, built in the early 7th century (temple was founded in 607; carbon dating of the pagoda's wooden components proves that they were felled as far back as 594)

The ritsuryō system was codified in several stages. The Ōmi Code, named after the provincial site of Emperor Tenji's court, was completed in about 668. Further codification took place with the promulgation by Empress Jitō in 689 of the Asuka Kiyomihara Code, named for the location of the late Emperor Temmu's court. The ritsuryō system was further consolidated and codified in 701 under the Taihō Code, which, except for a few modifications and being relegated to primarily ceremonial functions, remained in force until 1868.

Though the ritsu of the code was adopted from the Chinese system, the ryō was arranged in a local style. Some scholars argue that it was to a certain extent based on Chinese models.

The Taihō Code provided for Confucian-model penal provisions (light rather than harsh punishments) and Chinese-style central administration through the Jingi-kan (神祇官), which was devoted to Shinto and court rituals, and the Daijō-kan (太政官), with its eight ministries (for central administration, ceremonies, civil affairs, the imperial household, justice, military affairs, people's affairs, and the treasury). Although the Chinese-style civil service examination system was not adopted, the college office (大学寮, Daigaku Ryō) was founded for training future bureaucrats based on the Confucian classics. Tradition circumvented the system, however, as aristocratic birth continued to be the main qualification for higher position, and titles were soon hereditary again. The Taihō Code did not address the selection of the sovereign. Several empresses reigned from the fifth to the eighth centuries, but after 770 succession was restricted to males, usually from father to son, although sometimes from ruler to brother or uncle.

Fujiwara no Fuhito, son of Nakatomi no Kamatari, was among those who produced the Taihō Ritsuryō. According to history book Shoku Nihongi (続日本紀), two of the 19 members of the committee drafting the Taihō Code were Chinese priests (Shoku Shugen and Satsu Koukaku). Chinese priests also took an active part as linguistic specialists, and received rewards two times from Empress Jitō.

Foreign relations

A stone foundation section of the Mount Shioji Ōnojō Castle Ruins, where construction began in 665
A wall mural depicting ladies, from the west wall of the Takamatsuzuka Tomb, late 7th century, Asuka period

Chinese culture had been introduced to Japan by the Three Kingdoms of Korea before the imperial Japanese embassies to China were established. Although the missions continued, the transformation of Japan through Chinese influences declined, despite the close connections that had existed during the early Kofun period. Meanwhile, the kingdoms of the Korean peninsula, often at odds with each other, frequently sent diplomatic missions with gifts to Japan, probably with the aim of securing Japanese neutrality or diplomatic/military support in their rivalries; ultimately, this proved to be of the greatest benefit to Baekje, as Japanese military support for that kingdom increased. People, many of them artisans and skilled workers, also emigrated to Japan from the Korean peninsula, including two high priests who arrived in Japan in 595: Eji from Goguryeo and Esō from Baekje. Kanroku also came from Baekje, and was a tutor to Prince Shōtoku, counseling him politically. When Japan allied with Baekje, the Goguryeo priests left Japan. The Yamato court, concentrated in the Asuka region, exercised power over clans in Kyushu and Honshu, bestowing titles, some hereditary, on clan chieftains. The Yamato name became synonymous with all of Japan as the Yamato rulers suppressed the clans and acquired agricultural lands. Based on Chinese models (including the adoption of the Chinese written language), they developed a central administration and an imperial court attended by subordinate clan chieftains but with no permanent capital. By the mid-seventh century, the agricultural lands had grown to a substantial public domain, subject to central policy. The basic administrative unit was the county, and society was organized into occupation groups. Most people were farmers; other were fishers, weavers, potters, artisans, armorers, and ritual specialists.

From 600 to 659, Japan sent seven emissaries to Tang China. But for the next 32 years, during a period when Japan was formulating its laws based on Chinese texts, none were sent. Though Japan cut off diplomatic relations with China, Japan sent 11 emissaries to Silla, and Silla is also recorded in Nihon Shoki as sending embassies to Japan 17 times during the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō. The ruling classes of Yamato and Baekje were on amicable terms, and Yamato deployed its navy to aid Baekje, in 660–663, against an invasion by Silla and Tang China (see battle of Baekgang).

Numerous official missions of envoys, priests, and students were sent to China in the seventh century. Some remained twenty years or more; many of those who returned became prominent reformers. In a move greatly resented by the Chinese, Shotoku sought equality with the Chinese emperor by sending official correspondence addressed "From the Son of Heaven in the Land of the Rising Sun to the Son of Heaven of the Land of the Setting Sun." Shotoku's bold step set a precedent: Japan never again accepted a subordinate status in its relations with China.

Introduction of Buddhism

Left image: Yakushi Nyorai (National Treasure), Kondo, Horyuji, Nara Prefecture, Japan, 7th century, Asuka period
Right image: Amitabha Buddha and two assistants, gilded bronze, 7th century

The introduction of Buddhism to Japan is attributed to the Baekje king Seong in 538, exposing Japan to a new body of religious doctrine. The Soga clan, a Japanese court family that rose to prominence with the ascension of the Emperor Kinmei about 531, favored the adoption of Buddhism and of governmental and cultural models based on Chinese Confucianism. But some at the Yamato court—such as the Nakatomi family, which was responsible for performing Shinto rituals at court, and the Mononobe, a military clan—were set on maintaining their prerogatives and resisted the alien religious influence of Buddhism. The Soga introduced Chinese-modeled fiscal policies, established the first national treasury, and considered the kingdoms of Korea as trade partners rather than as objects of territorial expansion. Acrimony continued between the Soga and the Nakatomi and Mononobe clans for more than a century, during which the Soga temporarily emerged ascendant.

In the Taika Reform, the Funeral Simplification Edict was proclaimed, and the building of large kofun (tumuli) was banned. The edict also regulated size and shape of kofun by classes. As a result, later kofun, though much smaller, were distinguished by elaborate frescoes. Paintings and decorations in those kofun indicate the spread of Taoism and Buddhism in this period; the Takamatsuzuka Kofun and Kitora Kofun are notable for their wall paintings.

The use of elaborate kofun tombs by the imperial family and other elite thus fell out of use amidst the rise of prevailing new Buddhist beliefs, which put greater emphasis on the transience of human life. Commoners and the elite in outlying regions, however, continued to use kofun until the late seventh century, and simpler but distinctive tombs continued in use throughout the following period.

In 675 the use of livestock and the consumption of some wild animals (horse, cattle, dogs, monkeys, birds) was banned by Emperor Tenmu due to the influence of Buddhism. This ban was renewed throughout the Asuka period, but ended with the Heian period. The pest animals, deer and wild boar, were not affected by this ban.

Influence of Taoism

A dragon-head pitcher with Pegasus pattern incised, gilded bronze with silver, Asuka period, 7th century, former Horyu-ji Temple treasures, Tokyo National Museum
Bronze plaque depicting Shaka delivering a sermon, dated 698 AD, Hase-dera Temple, Sakurai, Nara

Taoism was also introduced during the Asuka period. The octagonal shape of monarchs' tombs of this age and the celestial maps drawn in the Kitora and Takamatsuzuka kofun reflect the Taoist cosmology.

Taoist belief was eventually amalgamated with Shintō and Buddhism to establish new styles of rituals. Onmyōdō (陰陽道), a sort of Japanese geomancy and cosmology, is one of the fruits of these religious mixtures. While the Asuka period started with conflicts between clans over religious beliefs, later in the period, the imported religions became syncretized with Japan's native folk beliefs.

Art and architecture

Asuka culture

Some architectural structures built in the period still remain today. Wooden buildings at Hōryū-ji, built in the seventh century, show some influence from Chinese and west Asian countries. For instance, the pillars at Hōryū-ji are similar to the pillars of the Parthenon of ancient Greece, as seen in their entasis. The five-storied pagoda (五重の塔, go-jū no tō) is a transformation from the Indian mound-like reliquary structure called a stupa. In addition, mural paintings in the Takamatsuzuka and Kitora kofun dating from the fifth century show strong influence from Tang dynasty and Goguryeo wall painting.

The Japanese Buddhist sculpture art of this period is believed to have followed the style of the Six Dynasties of China. The characteristics of the sculptures of this age are also referred to as Tori Style, taken from the name of prominent sculptor Kuratsukuri Tori, grandson of Chinese immigrant Shiba Tatto. Some of the characteristics of the style include marked, almond-shaped eyes, and symmetrically arranged folds in the clothing. The most striking and distinguishing feature of these sculptures is an expression of the smile that is called the "archaic smile". Kudara Kannon at Hōryū-ji is the most prominent Buddhist sculpture from this period.

Hakuhō culture

The second stage of Buddhist art, coming after the Asuka (cultural) period, is known as the Hakuhō culture (白鳳文化, Hakuhō Bunka), and is generally dated from the Taika Reform (646) until the moving of the capital to Nara in 710. During the latter half of the 8th century, a large number of songs and poems were composed and performed by various ranked people from warriors to the Emperor. The earliest collection of these poems is known as the Man'yōshū (万葉集, "collection of 10,000 leaves"). This includes works by several remarkable poets such as Princess Nukata and Kakinomoto no Hitomaro. Waka (和歌, "Japanese song") also emerged as a new form of poetry at this time. This term was coined to distinguish native styles from those imported from China; within the umbrella of waka poetry, one of the more popular forms is known as tanka (短歌, "short song"). It consists of a total of 31 Japanese syllables (morae) divided over five lines, in the syllabic pattern 5/7/5/7/7.

Events

  • 538: The Korean kingdom of Baekje dispatches a delegation to introduce Buddhism to the Japanese Emperor.
  • 592: Introduction of Buddhism to the Imperial court, according to the Nihon Shoki
  • 593: Prince Shōtoku is assigned as regent of Empress Suiko and promotes Buddhism with the Soga clan.
  • 600: Yamato Imperial Court sends the first official Japanese mission to China since 478.
  • 604: Prince Shōtoku issues a Chinese-style constitution (Seventeen-article constitution), based on Confucian principles, which de facto inaugurated the Japanese Empire.
  • 607: Prince Shōtoku builds the Buddhist temple Hōryūji in Ikaruga.
  • 645: Soga no Iruka and his father Emishi are killed in the Isshi Incident.
    • Emperor Kōtoku ascends to the throne and strengthens imperial power over the aristocratic clans (see Taika Reform), turning their states into provinces.
  • 663: The Japanese navy was defeated by the Silla-Tang alliance in Battle of Baekgang, failing to restore Baekje.
  • 670: The first family registry (庚午年籍, Kōgo Nenjaku) was compiled.
  • 672: Prince Ōama, later Emperor Tenmu usurped the throne by winning the Jinshin no Ran (壬申の乱) civil war against Emperor Kōbun.
  • 689: The Asuka Kiyomihara Code was proclaimed.
  • 694: The imperial capital is moved to Fujiwara-kyō, in present-day Kashihara city.
  • 701: The Taihō Code was proclaimed.
  • 705: The Nishiyama Onsen Keiunkan is founded. It survives to become the oldest known hotel business still in operation, as of 2019.
  • 708: The first Japanese coin (和同開珎, Wadōkaichin) was minted.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ L. Worden, Robert (1994). "Kofun and Asuka Periods, ca. A.D. 250–710". A Country Study: Japan. Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 6 April 2007. Retrieved 2007-04-06.
  2. L. Worden, Robert (1994). "Kamakura and Muromachi Periods, 1185–1573, Economic and Cultural Developments". A Country Study: Japan. Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 6 April 2007. Retrieved 2007-04-06. Yoshimitsu, in 1404, accepted the "King of Japan" title in his willingness to improve relations with China and to rid Japan of the wako threat, thus establishing trade with China. This was considered as tribute by the Chinese but the Japanese saw it as profitable trade. This relationship lasted for about 50 years. (see also Sinocentrism).
  3. general editors, John W. Hall... [; et al. (1988). The Cambridge history of Japan. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 182–183. ISBN 0-521-22352-0. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help)
  4. 隋唐使の赴倭とその儀礼問題 台湾大学歴史学系 高明士 Archived September 19, 2006, at the Wayback Machine, japanology.cn
  5. Web Japan, sponsored by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Japan. "One hundred years older than supposed?: World Heritage Pagoda". Retrieved 2007-04-04.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. William Wayne Farris, Sacred Texts and Buried Treasures: Issues on the Historical Archaeology of Ancient Japan, University of Hawaii Press, 1998. Books.Google.com.
  7. 續日本紀 卷第一 文武紀一 Archived January 11, 2007, at the Wayback Machine, applepig.idv.tw
  8. 『続日本紀』国史大系版 Archived 2018-05-12 at the Wayback Machine, j-texts.com
  9. Early Samurai: 200–1500 AD by Anthony J. Bryant, Angus McBride "At about this time Paekche began feeling renewed pressure from Silla and Koguryo and pleaded with the Yamato court to send help ... During the Mimana struggles against Silla, Paekche sent many presents to Japan."(Page8)
  10. Sansom, George (1958). A History of Japan to 1334. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. 47–49.
  11. Encyclopedia of World Biography on Shotoku Taishi "Two Korean high priests arrived in Japan in 595—Eji from the kingdom of Koryo (Koma) and Eso from the kingdom of Paekche (Kudara)."
  12. Hisao Nagayama. 「たべもの江戸史」 新人物往来社, 1976. ISBN 4309473105 p. 66. 『、「牛馬犬猿鶏の宍(肉)を食うことなかれ」の殺生禁断の令は有名拍車をかけたのが仏教の影響である。』
  13. Kiichi Koyanagi. 「日本人の食生活 : 飢餓と豊饒の変遷史」 Tōkyō : Shibata shoten, 1971.
  14. Farris, William Wayne (1998). Sacred Texts and Buried Treasures: Issues on the Historical Archaeology of Ancient Japan. University of Hawaii Press. p. 95. ISBN 978-0-8248-2030-5.
  15. "Complex of Koguryo Tombs". UNESCO World Heritage Centre.
  16. "Tori style". Britannica Concise. Encyclopædia Britannica.
  17. Kurashige, Taku; Rie Yamada (2003). "Asuka Period". Archived from the original on 2006-02-06.

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