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{{Short description|Desirable level of functional or metabolic efficiency of a living being}} {{Short description|Desirable level of functional or metabolic efficiency of a living being}}
{{About|the human condition}} {{About|the human condition}}
{{pp-semi|small=yes}} {{pp|small=yes}}


'''Health''' has a variety of definitions, which have been used for different purposes over time. In general, it refers to physical and emotional ], especially that associated with normal functioning of the ], absent of ], ] (including ]), or ].
In common usage and ], '''health''', according to the ], is "a state of complete physical, ] and social ] and not merely the absence of ] and ]".<ref name="WHO constitution">]. (2006). – ''Basic Documents'', Forty-fifth edition, Supplement, October 2006.</ref> A variety of definitions have been used for different purposes over time. Health can be promoted by encouraging healthful activities, such as regular ] and adequate sleep,<ref>{{Cite web|last=CDC|date=2021-04-05|title=Benefits of Physical Activity|url=https://www.cdc.gov/physicalactivity/basics/pa-health/index.htm|access-date=2021-09-11|website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|language=en-us}}</ref> and by reducing or avoiding unhealthful activities or situations, such as ] or excessive ]. Some factors affecting health are due to ], such as whether to engage in a high-risk behavior, while others are due to ] causes, such as whether the society is arranged in a way that makes it easier or harder for people to get necessary healthcare services. Still, other factors are beyond both individual and group choices, such as ]s.

Health can be promoted by encouraging healthful activities, such as regular ] and adequate sleep,<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 April 2021|title=Benefits of Physical Activity|url=https://www.cdc.gov/physicalactivity/basics/pa-health/index.htm|access-date=11 September 2021|website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|language=en-us}}</ref> and by reducing or avoiding unhealthful activities or situations, such as ] or excessive ]. Some factors affecting health are due to ], such as whether to engage in a high-risk behavior, while others are due to ] causes, such as whether the society is arranged in a way that makes it easier or harder for people to get necessary healthcare services. Still, other factors are beyond both individual and group choices, such as ]s.


== History == == History ==
{{Quote box
The meaning of health has evolved over time. In keeping with the ] perspective, early definitions of health focused on the theme of the body's ability to function; health was seen as a state of normal function that could be disrupted from time to time by ]. An example of such a definition of health is: "a state characterized by anatomic, physiologic, and psychological integrity; ability to perform personally valued family, work, and community roles; ability to deal with ], ], ], and ]".<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stokes|first1=J.|last2=Noren|first2=J.|last3=Shindell|first3=S.|date=1982-01-01|title=Definition of terms and concepts applicable to clinical preventive medicine|journal=Journal of Community Health|volume=8|issue=1|pages=33–41|issn=0094-5145|pmid=6764783|doi=10.1007/bf01324395|s2cid=1748896}}</ref> Then, in 1948, in a radical departure from previous definitions, the ] (WHO) proposed a definition that aimed higher, linking health to ], in terms of "physical, mental, and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease and infirmity".<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.who.int/iris/handle/10665/37089|title=The first ten years of the World Health Organization|last=World Health Organization|publisher=WHO|year=1958|location=Geneva|isbn=9789241560146|publication-date=1958}}</ref> Although this definition was welcomed by some as being innovative, it was also criticized for being vague and excessively broad and was not construed as measurable. For a long time, it was set aside as an impractical ideal, with most discussions of health returning to the practicality of the biomedical model.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://phprimer.afmc.ca/Part1-TheoryThinkingAboutHealth/ConceptsOfHealthAndIllness/DefinitionsofHealth|title=Part 1 – Theory: Thinking About Health Chapter 1 Concepts of Health and Illness|website=phprimer.afmc.ca|access-date=2016-06-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160812145405/http://phprimer.afmc.ca/Part1-TheoryThinkingAboutHealth/ConceptsOfHealthAndIllness/DefinitionsofHealth|archive-date=2016-08-12|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| title = ]'s definition
| quote = Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.
| source = Source: {{Cite web |title=Constitution |url=https://www.who.int/about/governance/constitution |access-date=25 September 2024 |website=World Health Organization}}
| width = 30%
}}
The meaning of health has evolved over time. In keeping with the ] perspective, early definitions of health focused on the theme of the body's ability to function; health was seen as a state of normal function that could be disrupted from time to time by ]. An example of such a definition of health is: "a state characterized by anatomic, physiologic, and psychological integrity; ability to perform personally valued family, work, and community roles; ability to deal with ], ], ], and ]".<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stokes|first1=J.|last2=Noren|first2=J.|last3=Shindell|first3=S.|date=1 January 1982|title=Definition of terms and concepts applicable to clinical preventive medicine|journal=Journal of Community Health|volume=8|issue=1|pages=33–41|issn=0094-5145|pmid=6764783|doi=10.1007/bf01324395|s2cid=1748896}}</ref> Then, in 1948, in a radical departure from previous definitions, the ] (WHO) proposed a definition that aimed higher, linking health to ], in terms of "physical, mental, and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease and infirmity".<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.who.int/iris/handle/10665/37089|title=The first ten years of the World Health Organization|last=World Health Organization|publisher=WHO|year=1958|location=Geneva|isbn=9789241560146|publication-date=1958}}</ref> Although this definition was welcomed by some as being innovative, it was also criticized for being vague and excessively broad and was not construed as measurable. For a long time, it was set aside as an impractical ideal, with most discussions of health returning to the practicality of the biomedical model.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://phprimer.afmc.ca/Part1-TheoryThinkingAboutHealth/ConceptsOfHealthAndIllness/DefinitionsofHealth|title=Part 1 – Theory: Thinking About Health Chapter 1 Concepts of Health and Illness|website=phprimer.afmc.ca|access-date=22 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160812145405/http://phprimer.afmc.ca/Part1-TheoryThinkingAboutHealth/ConceptsOfHealthAndIllness/DefinitionsofHealth|archive-date=12 August 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>


Just as there was a shift from viewing disease as a state to thinking of it as a process, the same shift happened in definitions of health. Again, the WHO played a leading role when it fostered the development of the health promotion movement in the 1980s. This brought in a new conception of health, not as a state, but in dynamic terms of resiliency, in other words, as "a resource for living". In 1984, WHO revised the definition of health defined it as "the extent to which an individual or group is able to realize aspirations and satisfy needs and to change or cope with the environment. Health is a resource for everyday life, not the objective of living; it is a positive concept, emphasizing social and personal resources, as well as physical capacities."<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.who.int/iris/handle/10665/107835|title=Health promotion : a discussion document on the concept and principles : summary report of the Working Group on Concept and Principles of Health Promotion, Copenhagen, 9–13 July 1984|last=World Health Organization. Regional Office for Europe|publisher=WHO Regional Office for Europe|year=1984|location=Copenhagen|type=ICP/HSR 602(m01)5 p}}</ref> Thus, health referred to the ability to maintain ] and recover from adverse events. Mental, intellectual, emotional and social health referred to a person's ability to handle stress, to acquire skills, to maintain relationships, all of which form resources for resiliency and ].<ref name=":0" /> This opens up many possibilities for health to be taught, strengthened and learned. Just as there was a shift from viewing disease as a state to thinking of it as a process, the same shift happened in definitions of health. Again, the WHO played a leading role when it fostered the development of the health promotion movement in the 1980s. This brought in a new conception of health, not as a state, but in dynamic terms of resiliency, in other words, as "a resource for living". In 1984, WHO revised the definition of health defined it as "the extent to which an individual or group is able to realize aspirations and satisfy needs and to change or cope with the environment. Health is a resource for everyday life, not the objective of living; it is a positive concept, emphasizing social and personal resources, as well as physical capacities."<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.who.int/iris/handle/10665/107835|title=Health promotion : a discussion document on the concept and principles : summary report of the Working Group on Concept and Principles of Health Promotion, Copenhagen, 9–13 July 1984|last=World Health Organization. Regional Office for Europe|publisher=WHO Regional Office for Europe|year=1984|location=Copenhagen|type=ICP/HSR 602(m01)5 p}}</ref> Thus, health referred to the ability to maintain ] and recover from adverse events. Mental, intellectual, emotional and social health referred to a person's ability to handle stress, to acquire skills, to maintain relationships, all of which form resources for resiliency and ].<ref name=":0" /> This opens up many possibilities for health to be taught, strengthened and learned.


Since the late 1970s, the federal ] Program has been a visible component of the United States' approach to improving population health.<ref>{{multiref2
Since the late 1970s, the federal ] Program has been a visible component of the United States' approach to improving population health.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160615184241/https://www.healthypeople.gov/2020/tools-and-resources/Federal-Prevention-Initiatives |date=2016-06-15 }}. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | pmid = 23358287| year = 2013| last1 = Benz| first1 = J| title = The healthy people initiative: Understanding the user's perspective| journal = Journal of Public Health Management and Practice| volume = 19| issue = 2| pages = 103–09| last2 = Blakey| first2 = C| last3 = Oppenheimer| first3 = C.C| last4 = Scherer| first4 = H| last5 = Robinson| first5 = W.T| doi = 10.1097/PHH.0b013e318254cc31}}</ref> In each decade, a new version of Healthy People is issued,<ref>. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services</ref> featuring updated goals and identifying topic areas and quantifiable objectives for health improvement during the succeeding ten years, with assessment at that point of progress or lack thereof. Progress has been limited to many objectives, leading to concerns about the effectiveness of Healthy People in shaping outcomes in the context of a decentralized and uncoordinated US health system. Healthy People 2020 gives more prominence to health promotion and preventive approaches and adds a substantive focus on the importance of addressing social determinants of health. A new expanded digital interface facilitates use and dissemination rather than bulky printed books as produced in the past. The impact of these changes to Healthy People will be determined in the coming years.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jonathan |first1=E. Fielding |last2=Shiriki |first2=Kumanyika |last3=Ronald |first3=W. Manderscheid |date=2013 |title=A Perspective on the Development of the Healthy People 2020 Framework for Improving U.S. Population Health |url=http://www.publichealthreviews.eu/upload/pdf_files/13/00_Fielding.pdf |journal=Public Health Reviews |volume=35 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140402220801/http://www.publichealthreviews.eu/upload/pdf_files/13/00_Fielding.pdf |archive-date=2014-04-02 }}</ref>
|1= {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160615184241/https://www.healthypeople.gov/2020/tools-and-resources/Federal-Prevention-Initiatives |date=15 June 2016 }}. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
|2={{Cite journal | pmid = 23358287| year = 2013| last1 = Benz| first1 = J| title = The healthy people initiative: Understanding the user's perspective| journal = Journal of Public Health Management and Practice| volume = 19| issue = 2| pages = 103–09| last2 = Blakey| first2 = C| last3 = Oppenheimer| first3 = C.C| last4 = Scherer| first4 = H| last5 = Robinson| first5 = W.T| doi = 10.1097/PHH.0b013e318254cc31 | issn = 1078-4659}}
}}</ref> In each decade, a new version of Healthy People is issued,<ref>. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services</ref> featuring updated goals and identifying topic areas and quantifiable objectives for health improvement during the succeeding ten years, with assessment at that point of progress or lack thereof. Progress has been limited to many objectives, leading to concerns about the effectiveness of Healthy People in shaping outcomes in the context of a decentralized and uncoordinated US health system. Healthy People 2020 gives more prominence to health promotion and preventive approaches and adds a substantive focus on the importance of addressing social determinants of health. A new expanded digital interface facilitates use and dissemination rather than bulky printed books as produced in the past. The impact of these changes to Healthy People will be determined in the coming years.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jonathan |first1=E. Fielding |last2=Shiriki |first2=Kumanyika |last3=Ronald |first3=W. Manderscheid |date=2013 |title=A Perspective on the Development of the Healthy People 2020 Framework for Improving U.S. Population Health |url=http://www.publichealthreviews.eu/upload/pdf_files/13/00_Fielding.pdf |journal=Public Health Reviews |volume=35 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140402220801/http://www.publichealthreviews.eu/upload/pdf_files/13/00_Fielding.pdf |archive-date=2 April 2014 }}</ref>


Systematic activities to prevent or cure health problems and promote good health in humans are undertaken by ]s. Applications with regard to animal health are covered by the ]. The term "healthy" is also widely used in the context of many types of non-living organizations and their impacts for the benefit of humans, such as in the sense of ], ] or ]s. In addition to ] interventions and a person's surroundings, a number of other factors are known to influence the health status of individuals. These are referred to as the "determinants of health", which include the individual's background, lifestyle, economic status, social conditions and spirituality; Studies have shown that high levels of stress can affect human health.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-24756311 |title= How stressed are you? |publisher=BBC |date=2013-11-06 |access-date=2014-03-01}}</ref> Systematic activities to prevent or cure health problems and promote good health in humans are undertaken by ]s. Applications with regard to animal health are covered by the ]. The term "healthy" is also widely used in the context of many types of non-living organizations and their impacts for the benefit of humans, such as in the sense of ], ] or ]s. In addition to ] interventions and a person's surroundings, a number of other factors are known to influence the health status of individuals. These are referred to as the "determinants of health", which include the individual's background, lifestyle, economic status, social conditions and spirituality; Studies have shown that high levels of stress can affect human health.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-24756311 |title= How stressed are you? |work=BBC News |date=6 November 2013 |access-date=1 March 2014}}</ref>


In the first decade of the 21st century, the conceptualization of health as an ability opened the door for self-assessments to become the main indicators to judge the performance of efforts aimed at improving human health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jadad|first=Alejandro R.|date=2016-11-01|title=Creating a pandemic of health: What is the role of digital technologies?|journal=Journal of Public Health Policy|language=en|volume=37|issue=2|pages=260–68|doi=10.1057/s41271-016-0016-1|pmid=27899800|issn=0197-5897|doi-access=free}}</ref> It also created the opportunity for every person to feel healthy, even in the presence of ] or a terminal condition, and for the re-examination of determinants of health (away from the traditional approach that focuses on the reduction of the prevalence of diseases).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://harvardpublichealthreview.org/creating-a-pandemic-of-health-opportunities-and-lessons-for-a-university-initiative-at-the-intersection-of-health-equity-and-innovation/|title=Creating a Pandemic of Health: Opportunities and Lessons for a University Initiative at the Intersection of Health, Equity, and Innovation {{!}} Harvard Public Health Review: A Student Publication|website=harvardpublichealthreview.org|language=en|access-date=2018-01-20}}</ref> In the first decade of the 21st century, the conceptualization of health as an ability opened the door for self-assessments to become the main indicators to judge the performance of efforts aimed at improving human health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jadad|first=Alejandro R.|date=1 November 2016|title=Creating a pandemic of health: What is the role of digital technologies?|journal=Journal of Public Health Policy|language=en|volume=37|issue=2|pages=260–68|doi=10.1057/s41271-016-0016-1|pmid=27899800|issn=0197-5897|doi-access=free}}</ref> It also created the opportunity for every person to feel healthy, even in the presence of ] or a terminal condition, and for the re-examination of determinants of health (away from the traditional approach that focuses on the reduction of the prevalence of diseases).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://harvardpublichealthreview.org/creating-a-pandemic-of-health-opportunities-and-lessons-for-a-university-initiative-at-the-intersection-of-health-equity-and-innovation/|title=Creating a Pandemic of Health: Opportunities and Lessons for a University Initiative at the Intersection of Health, Equity, and Innovation {{!}} Harvard Public Health Review: A Student Publication|website=harvardpublichealthreview.org|language=en|access-date=20 January 2018|archive-date=7 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190307123430/http://harvardpublichealthreview.org/creating-a-pandemic-of-health-opportunities-and-lessons-for-a-university-initiative-at-the-intersection-of-health-equity-and-innovation/|url-status=dead}}</ref>


==Determinants== ==Determinants==
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In general, the context in which an individual lives is of great importance for both his health status and quality of life. It is increasingly recognized that health is maintained and improved not only through the advancement and application of ], but also through the efforts and intelligent ] choices of the individual and society. According to the ], the main determinants of health include the social and ] environment, the physical environment, and the person's individual characteristics and behaviors.<ref name="The determinants of health">World Health Organization. Geneva. Accessed 12 May 2011.</ref> In general, the context in which an individual lives is of great importance for both his health status and quality of life. It is increasingly recognized that health is maintained and improved not only through the advancement and application of ], but also through the efforts and intelligent ] choices of the individual and society. According to the ], the main determinants of health include the social and ] environment, the physical environment, and the person's individual characteristics and behaviors.<ref name="The determinants of health">World Health Organization. Geneva. Accessed 12 May 2011.</ref>


More specifically, key factors that have been found to influence whether people are healthy or unhealthy include the following:<ref name="The determinants of health"/><ref>Public Health Agency of Canada. Ottawa. Accessed 12 May 2011.</ref><ref name="Lalonde">Lalonde, Marc (1974). Ottawa: Minister of Supply and Services. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141028163043/http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/ph-sp/pdf/perspect-eng.pdf |date=2014-10-28 }}</ref> More specifically, key factors that have been found to influence whether people are healthy or unhealthy include the following:<ref name="The determinants of health"/><ref>Public Health Agency of Canada. Ottawa. Accessed 12 May 2011.</ref><ref name="Lalonde">Lalonde, Marc (1974). Ottawa: Minister of Supply and Services. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141028163043/http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/ph-sp/pdf/perspect-eng.pdf |date=28 October 2014 }}</ref>
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{{col-end}} {{col-end}}
] as part of the CDC's ] eradication team in 1966]] ] as part of the CDC's ] eradication team in 1966]]
An increasing number of studies and reports from different organizations and contexts examine the linkages between health and different factors, including lifestyles, environments, ] and ], one specific health policy brought into many countries in recent years was the introduction of the ]. Beverage taxes came into light with increasing concerns about obesity, particularly among youth. Sugar-sweetened beverages have become a target of anti-obesity initiatives with increasing evidence of their link to obesity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Andreyeva|first1=Tatiana|last2=Chaloupka|first2=Frank J.|last3=Brownell|first3=Kelly D.|title=Estimating the potential of taxes on sugar-sweetened beverages to reduce consumption and generate revenue|journal=Preventive Medicine|volume=52|issue=6|pages=413–16|doi=10.1016/j.ypmed.2011.03.013|pmid=21443899|year=2011}}</ref>– such as the 1974 ] from Canada;<ref name="Lalonde"/> the ] in California;<ref name="Housman & Dorman 2005">{{cite journal|last1=Housman|first1=Jeff|last2=Dorman|first2=Steve|title=The Alameda County Study: A Systematic, Chronological Review|journal=American Journal of Health Education|date=September–October 2005|volume=36|issue=5|pages=302–08|url=http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=EJ792845|access-date=27 December 2011|format=PDF|issn=1055-6699|id=ERIC document number EJ792845|doi=10.1080/19325037.2005.10608200|s2cid=39133965}}</ref> and the series of ]s of the World Health Organization, which focuses on ] issues including access to health care and improving ] outcomes, especially in ].<ref>World Health Organization. . Geneva.</ref> An increasing number of studies and reports from different organizations and contexts examine the linkages between health and different factors, including lifestyles, environments, ] and ], one specific health policy brought into many countries in recent years was the introduction of the ]. Beverage taxes came into light with increasing concerns about obesity, particularly among youth. Sugar-sweetened beverages have become a target of anti-obesity initiatives with increasing evidence of their link to obesity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Andreyeva|first1=Tatiana|last2=Chaloupka|first2=Frank J.|last3=Brownell|first3=Kelly D.|title=Estimating the potential of taxes on sugar-sweetened beverages to reduce consumption and generate revenue|journal=Preventive Medicine|volume=52|issue=6|pages=413–16|doi=10.1016/j.ypmed.2011.03.013|pmid=21443899|year=2011}}</ref>—such as the 1974 ] from Canada;<ref name="Lalonde"/> the ] in California;<ref name="Housman & Dorman 2005">{{cite journal|last1=Housman|first1=Jeff|last2=Dorman|first2=Steve|title=The Alameda County Study: A Systematic, Chronological Review|journal=American Journal of Health Education|date=September–October 2005|volume=36|issue=5|pages=302–08|url=http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=EJ792845|access-date=27 December 2011|format=PDF|issn=1055-6699|id=ERIC document number EJ792845|doi=10.1080/19325037.2005.10608200|s2cid=39133965}}</ref> and the series of ]s of the World Health Organization, which focuses on ] issues including access to health care and improving ] outcomes, especially in ].<ref>World Health Organization. . Geneva.</ref>


The concept of the "''health field,''" as distinct from ], emerged from the Lalonde report from Canada. The report identified three interdependent fields as key determinants of an individual's health. These are:<ref name="Lalonde"/> The concept of the "''health field,''" as distinct from ], emerged from the Lalonde report from Canada. The report identified three interdependent fields as key determinants of an individual's health. These are:<ref name="Lalonde"/>
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* Lifestyle: the aggregation of personal decisions (i.e., over which the individual has control) that can be said to contribute to, or cause, illness or death; * Lifestyle: the aggregation of personal decisions (i.e., over which the individual has control) that can be said to contribute to, or cause, illness or death;


The maintenance and promotion of health is achieved through different combination of physical, ], and social well-being—a combination sometimes referred to as the ''"health triangle."''<ref>Georgia State University. 1998. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190811212138/http://www2.gsu.edu/~wwwche/ |date=2019-08-11 }}.</ref><ref>Nutter S. (2003) ''The Health Triangle''. Anchor Points, Inc., {{ISBN|0-9748760-0-3}}.</ref> The WHO's 1986 '']'' further stated that health is not just a state, but also "a resource for everyday life, not the objective of living. Health is a positive concept emphasizing social and personal resources, as well as physical capacities."<ref>World Health Organization. Adopted at the First International Conference on Health Promotion, Ottawa, 21 November 1986 – WHO/HPR/HEP/95.1.</ref> The maintenance and promotion of health is achieved through different combination of physical, ], and social well-being—a combination sometimes referred to as the ''"health triangle."''<ref>{{multiref2
|1=Georgia State University. 1998. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190811212138/http://www2.gsu.edu/~wwwche/ |date=11 August 2019 }}
|2=Nutter S. (2003) ''The Health Triangle''. Anchor Points, Inc., {{ISBN|0-9748760-0-3}}
}}</ref> The WHO's 1986 '']'' further stated that health is not just a state, but also "a resource for everyday life, not the objective of living. Health is a positive concept emphasizing social and personal resources, as well as physical capacities."<ref>World Health Organization. Adopted at the First International Conference on Health Promotion, Ottawa, 21 November 1986 – WHO/HPR/HEP/95.1.</ref>


Focusing more on lifestyle issues and their relationships with functional health, data from the ] suggested that people can improve their health via ], enough ], spending time in nature, maintaining a healthy ], limiting ] use, and avoiding ].<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Housman|Dorman|2005|pp=303–04}}. "The linear model supported previous findings, including regular exercise, limited alcohol consumption, abstinence from smoking, sleeping 7–8 hours a night, and maintenance of a healthy weight play an important role in promoting longevity and delaying illness and death." Citing {{cite journal |vauthors=Wingard DL, Berkman LF, Brand RJ | title = A multivariate analysis of health-related practices: a nine-year mortality follow-up of the Alameda County Study | journal = Am J Epidemiol | volume = 116 | issue = 5 | pages = 765–75 | year = 1982 | pmid = 7148802 | doi = 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a113466 }}</ref> Health and ] can co-exist, as even people with multiple chronic diseases or terminal illnesses can consider themselves healthy.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Jadad, A.R. | year = 2013 | title = On Living a Long, Healthy, and Happy Life, Full of Love, and with no Regrets, until Our Last Breath | journal = Verhaltenstherapie | volume = 23 | issue = 4| pages = 287–89 | doi=10.1159/000357490|url=http://www.karger.com/Article/Abstract/357490| doi-access = free }}</ref> Focusing more on lifestyle issues and their relationships with functional health, data from the ] suggested that people can improve their health via ], enough ], spending time in nature, maintaining a healthy ], limiting ] use, and avoiding ].<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Housman|Dorman|2005|pp=303–04}}. "The linear model supported previous findings, including regular exercise, limited alcohol consumption, abstinence from smoking, sleeping 7–8 hours a night, and maintenance of a healthy weight play an important role in promoting longevity and delaying illness and death." Citing {{cite journal |vauthors=Wingard DL, Berkman LF, Brand RJ | title = A multivariate analysis of health-related practices: a nine-year mortality follow-up of the Alameda County Study | journal = Am J Epidemiol | volume = 116 | issue = 5 | pages = 765–75 | year = 1982 | pmid = 7148802 | doi = 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a113466 }}</ref> Health and ] can co-exist, as even people with multiple chronic diseases or terminal illnesses can consider themselves healthy.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Jadad, A.R. | year = 2013 | title = On Living a Long, Healthy, and Happy Life, Full of Love, and with no Regrets, until Our Last Breath | journal = Verhaltenstherapie | volume = 23 | issue = 4| pages = 287–89 | doi=10.1159/000357490|url=http://www.karger.com/Article/Abstract/357490| doi-access = free }}</ref>


{{rquote|right|''If you want to learn about the health of a population, look at the air they breathe, the water they drink, and the places where they live.''<ref>{{cite web | url=https://kids.niehs.nih.gov/topics/environment-health | title=Environment & Health - Kids Environment Kids Health NIEHS}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.gsi.ie/en-ie/geoscience-topics/environmental-health/Pages/default.aspx | title= Environmental Health - Geological Survey Ireland}}</ref>|Hippocrates, the Father of Medicine, 5th Century BC}} {{rquote|right|''If you want to learn about the health of a population, look at the air they breathe, the water they drink, and the places where they live.''<ref>{{cite web | url=https://kids.niehs.nih.gov/topics/environment-health | title=Environment & Health Kids Environment Kids Health NIEHS}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.gsi.ie/en-ie/geoscience-topics/environmental-health/Pages/default.aspx | title= Environmental Health Geological Survey Ireland}}</ref>|Hippocrates, the Father of Medicine, 5th century BC}}
The environment is often cited as an important factor influencing the health status of individuals. This includes characteristics of the ], the ] and the ]. Factors such as clean ] and ], adequate ], and safe communities and ] all have been found to contribute to good health, especially to the health of infants and children.<ref name="The determinants of health"/><ref>UNESCO. Accessed 12 May 2011.</ref> Some studies have shown that a lack of ] recreational spaces including natural environment leads to lower levels of personal satisfaction and higher levels of ], linked to lower overall health and well-being.<ref name="Fanny Price">{{cite journal |vauthors=Björk J, Albin M, Grahn P, Jacobsson H, Ardö J, Wadbro J, Ostergren PO | title = Recreational Values of the Natural Environment in Relation to Neighborhood Satisfaction, Physical Activity, Obesity and Well being | journal = Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health | volume = 62 | issue = 4 | pages = e2 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18365329 | doi = 10.1136/jech.2007.062414 | s2cid = 13859588 | url = http://lup.lub.lu.se/search/ws/files/5178417/1056501.pdf }}</ref> It has been demonstrated that increased time spent in natural environments is associated with improved self-reported health,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=White|first1=Mathew P.|last2=Alcock|first2=Ian|last3=Grellier|first3=James|last4=Wheeler|first4=Benedict W.|last5=Hartig|first5=Terry|last6=Warber|first6=Sara L.|last7=Depledge|first7=Michael H.|last8=Fleming|first8=Lora E.|date=2019-06-13|title=Spending at least 120 minutes a week in nature is associated with good health and wellbeing|journal=Scientific Reports|language=en|volume=9|issue=1|pages=7730|doi=10.1038/s41598-019-44097-3|pmid=31197192|pmc=6565732|bibcode=2019NatSR...9.7730W|issn=2045-2322|url=http://uu.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1325155/FULLTEXT01|doi-access=free}}</ref> suggesting that the positive health benefits of natural space in urban neighborhoods should be taken into account in ] and land use. The environment is often cited as an important factor influencing the health status of individuals. This includes characteristics of the ], the ] and the ]. Factors such as clean ] and ], adequate ], and safe communities and ] all have been found to contribute to good health, especially to the health of infants and children.<ref name="The determinants of health"/><ref>UNESCO. Accessed 12 May 2011.</ref> Some studies have shown that a lack of ] recreational spaces including natural environment leads to lower levels of personal satisfaction and higher levels of ], linked to lower overall health and well-being.<ref name="Fanny Price">{{cite journal |vauthors=Björk J, Albin M, Grahn P, Jacobsson H, Ardö J, Wadbro J, Ostergren PO | title = Recreational Values of the Natural Environment in Relation to Neighborhood Satisfaction, Physical Activity, Obesity and Well being | journal = Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health | volume = 62 | issue = 4 | pages = e2 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18365329 | doi = 10.1136/jech.2007.062414 | s2cid = 13859588 | url = http://lup.lub.lu.se/search/ws/files/5178417/1056501.pdf }}</ref> It has been demonstrated that increased time spent in natural environments is associated with improved self-reported health,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=White|first1=Mathew P.|last2=Alcock|first2=Ian|last3=Grellier|first3=James|last4=Wheeler|first4=Benedict W.|last5=Hartig|first5=Terry|last6=Warber|first6=Sara L.|last7=Depledge|first7=Michael H.|last8=Fleming|first8=Lora E.|date=13 June 2019|title=Spending at least 120 minutes a week in nature is associated with good health and wellbeing|journal=Scientific Reports|language=en|volume=9|issue=1|pages=7730|doi=10.1038/s41598-019-44097-3|pmid=31197192|pmc=6565732|bibcode=2019NatSR...9.7730W|issn=2045-2322|url=http://uu.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1325155/FULLTEXT01|doi-access=free}}</ref> suggesting that the positive health benefits of natural space in urban neighborhoods should be taken into account in ] and land use.


], or inherited traits from parents, also play a role in determining the health status of individuals and populations. This can encompass both the ] to certain diseases and health conditions, as well as the habits and behaviors individuals develop through the lifestyle of their ]. For example, genetics may play a role in the manner in which people cope with ], either mental, emotional or physical. For example, ] is a significant problem in the ] that contributes to poor mental health and causes stress in the lives of many people.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter=|volume = 498|language=en-gb|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-42070-7|series = Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing|year = 2017|isbn = 978-3-319-42069-1|last1 = Kantola|first1 = Jussi Ilari|last2 = Barath|first2 = Tibor|last3 = Nazir|first3 = Salman|last4 = Andre|first4 = Terence| title=Advances in Human Factors, Business Management, Training and Education }}</ref> One difficulty is the issue raised by the ] over the relative strengths of genetics and other factors; interactions between genetics and environment may be of particular importance. ], or inherited traits from parents, also play a role in determining the health status of individuals and populations. This can encompass both the ] to certain diseases and health conditions, as well as the habits and behaviors individuals develop through the lifestyle of their ]. For example, genetics may play a role in the manner in which people cope with ], either mental, emotional or physical. For example, ] is a significant problem in the ] that contributes to poor mental health and causes stress in the lives of many people.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter=|volume = 498|language=en-gb|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-42070-7|series = Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing|year = 2017|isbn = 978-3-319-42069-1|last1 = Kantola|first1 = Jussi Ilari|last2 = Barath|first2 = Tibor|last3 = Nazir|first3 = Salman|last4 = Andre|first4 = Terence| title=Advances in Human Factors, Business Management, Training and Education }}</ref> One difficulty is the issue raised by the ] over the relative strengths of genetics and other factors; interactions between genetics and environment may be of particular importance.
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Bodily injuries are also a common health issue worldwide. These injuries, including ]s and ]s, can reduce a person's quality of life or can cause fatalities including ]s that resulted from the injury (or the severity injury in general).<ref name=":1">Shah, Anup (5 January 2014). ''Global Issues''.</ref> Bodily injuries are also a common health issue worldwide. These injuries, including ]s and ]s, can reduce a person's quality of life or can cause fatalities including ]s that resulted from the injury (or the severity injury in general).<ref name=":1">Shah, Anup (5 January 2014). ''Global Issues''.</ref>


Lifestyle choices are contributing factors to poor health in many cases. These include smoking cigarettes, and can also include a poor diet, whether it is overeating or an overly constrictive diet. Inactivity can also contribute to health issues and also a lack of sleep, excessive alcohol consumption, and neglect of oral hygiene.{{CN|date=June 2023}} There are also genetic disorders that are inherited by the person and can vary in how much they affect the person (and when they surface).{{CN|date=June 2023}} Lifestyle choices are contributing factors to poor health in many cases. These include smoking cigarettes, and can also include a poor diet, whether it is overeating or an overly constrictive diet. Inactivity can also contribute to health issues and also a lack of sleep, excessive alcohol consumption, and neglect of oral hygiene.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}} There are also genetic disorders that are inherited by the person and can vary in how much they affect the person (and when they surface).<ref>{{Cite web |title=What are the different ways a genetic condition can be inherited?: MedlinePlus Genetics |url=https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/understanding/inheritance/inheritancepatterns/ |access-date=2024-07-17 |website=medlineplus.gov |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=August 20, 2021 |title=Genetic Disorders |url=https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/21751-genetic-disorders |access-date=July 17, 2024 |website=Cleveland Clinic}}</ref>


Although the majority of these health issues are preventable, a major contributor to global ill health is the fact that approximately 1&nbsp;billion people lack access to health care systems.<ref name=":1" /> Arguably, the most common and harmful health issue is that a great many people do not have access to quality remedies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.un.org/en/globalissues/health/ |title=United Nations Global Issues |publisher=Un.org |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160608150700/http://www.un.org/en/globalissues/health/ |archive-date=2016-06-08 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.intrahealth.org/page/the-top-10-global-health-issues-to-watch-in-2013 |title=The Top 10 Global Health Issues to Watch in 2013 |date=15 January 2013 |publisher=Intrahealth.org |access-date=2014-03-01}}</ref> Although the majority of these health issues are preventable, a major contributor to global ill health is the fact that approximately 1&nbsp;billion people lack access to health care systems.<ref name=":1" /> Arguably, the most common and harmful health issue is that a great many people do not have access to quality remedies.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite web|url=http://www.un.org/en/globalissues/health/ |title=United Nations Global Issues |publisher=Un.org |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160608150700/http://www.un.org/en/globalissues/health/ |archive-date=8 June 2016 }}
|2={{cite web|url=http://www.intrahealth.org/page/the-top-10-global-health-issues-to-watch-in-2013 |title=The Top 10 Global Health Issues to Watch in 2013 |date=15 January 2013 |publisher=Intrahealth.org |access-date=1 March 2014}}
}}</ref>


== Mental health == == Mental health ==
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The ] describes mental health as "a state of ] in which the individual realizes his or her own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to his or her community".<ref>World Health Organization (2005). Promoting Mental Health: Concepts, Emerging evidence, Practice: A report of the World Health Organization, Department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse in collaboration with the Victorian Health Promotion Foundation and the University of Melbourne. World Health Organization. Geneva.</ref> Mental health is not just the absence of mental illness.<ref name= Bos>{{cite journal |author1=Bos, E.H.|author2=Snippe, E.|author3=de Jonge, P.|author4=Jeronimus, B.F.| year = 2016 | title = Preserving Subjective Wellbeing in the Face of Psychopathology: Buffering Effects of Personal Strengths and Resources | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 11| issue = 3| pages = e0150867 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0150867 |pmid=26963923|pmc=4786317|bibcode=2016PLoSO..1150867B|doi-access=free}}</ref> The ] describes mental health as "a state of ] in which the individual realizes his or her own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to his or her community".<ref>World Health Organization (2005). Promoting Mental Health: Concepts, Emerging evidence, Practice: A report of the World Health Organization, Department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse in collaboration with the Victorian Health Promotion Foundation and the University of Melbourne. World Health Organization. Geneva.</ref> Mental health is not just the absence of mental illness.<ref name= Bos>{{cite journal |author1=Bos, E.H.|author2=Snippe, E.|author3=de Jonge, P.|author4=Jeronimus, B.F.| year = 2016 | title = Preserving Subjective Wellbeing in the Face of Psychopathology: Buffering Effects of Personal Strengths and Resources | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 11| issue = 3| pages = e0150867 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0150867 |pmid=26963923|pmc=4786317|bibcode=2016PLoSO..1150867B|doi-access=free}}</ref>


Mental illness is described as 'the spectrum of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral conditions that interfere with social and emotional well-being and the lives and productivity of people. Having a mental illness can seriously impair, temporarily or permanently, the mental functioning of a person. Other terms include: 'mental health problem', 'illness', 'disorder', 'dysfunction'.<ref>Long, Steven W. . niu.edu.tw</ref> Mental illness is described as 'the spectrum of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral conditions that interfere with social and emotional well-being and the lives and productivity of people.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mental disorders |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mental-disorders |access-date=30 January 2024 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}</ref> Having a mental illness can seriously impair, temporarily or permanently, the mental functioning of a person. Other terms include: 'mental health problem', 'illness', 'disorder', 'dysfunction'.<ref>Long, Steven W. . niu.edu.tw</ref>


Approximately twenty percent of all adults in the US are considered diagnosable with a mental illness. Mental illnesses are the leading cause of disability in the United States and Canada. Examples of these illnesses include ], ], ], ], ], ] and ].<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140728102548/http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/the-numbers-count-mental-disorders-in-america/index.shtml |date=2014-07-28 }}. nih.gov</ref> Approximately twenty percent of all adults in the US are considered diagnosable with a mental disorder. Mental disorders are the leading cause of disability in the United States and Canada. Examples of these disorders include ], ], ], ], ], ] and ].<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140728102548/http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/the-numbers-count-mental-disorders-in-america/index.shtml |date=28 July 2014 }}. nih.gov</ref>


&nbsp;Many factors contribute to mental health problems, including:<ref> (5 April 2019). ''MentalHealth.gov''. Retrieved 16 November 2019.</ref> &nbsp;Many factors contribute to mental health problems, including:<ref> (5 April 2019). ''MentalHealth.gov''. Retrieved 16 November 2019.</ref>
* Biological factors, such as genes or brain chemistry * Biological factors, such as genes or brain chemistry
* Family history of mental health problems * Family history of mental health problems
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{{Main|Healthy diet | Human nutrition}} {{Main|Healthy diet | Human nutrition}}
{{See also|List of nutrition guides}} {{See also|List of nutrition guides}}
] ]


] ]
An important way to maintain one's personal health is to have a healthy diet. A healthy diet includes a variety of plant-based and animal-based foods that provide ] to the body. Such nutrients provide the body with energy and keep it running. Nutrients help build and strengthen bones, muscles, and tendons and also regulate body processes (i.e., ]). Water is essential for growth, reproduction and good health. ] are consumed in relatively large quantities and include proteins, carbohydrates, and fats and fatty acids. Micronutrients – vitamins and minerals – are consumed in relatively smaller quantities, but are essential to body processes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/elena/nutrient/en/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110926205812/http://www.who.int/elena/nutrient/en/|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 26, 2011|title=WHO {{!}} Nutrients|website=WHO|access-date=2019-09-24}}</ref> The ] is a pyramid-shaped guide of healthy foods divided into sections. Each section shows the recommended intake for each food group (i.e., protein, fat, carbohydrates and sugars). Making healthy food choices can lower one's risk of heart disease and the risk of developing some types of ], and can help one maintain their weight within a healthy range.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.livelifewell.nsw.gov.au/healthyeating/ |title=Healthy Eating: Why should I make healthy food choices? |publisher=Livelifewell.nsw.gov.au |access-date=2014-03-01 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227194359/http://www.livelifewell.nsw.gov.au/healthyeating/ |archive-date=2014-02-27 }}</ref> An important way to maintain one's personal health is to have a healthy diet. A healthy diet includes a variety of plant-based and animal-based foods that provide ] to the body.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Healthy diet |url=https://www.who.int/initiatives/behealthy/healthy-diet |access-date=30 January 2024 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}</ref> Such nutrients provide the body with energy and keep it running. Nutrients help build and strengthen bones, muscles, and tendons and also regulate body processes (i.e., ]). Water is essential for growth, reproduction and good health. ] are consumed in relatively large quantities and include proteins, carbohydrates, and fats and fatty acids.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Alexander |first=Heather |title=What are macronutrients? |url=https://www.mdanderson.org/publications/focused-on-health/what-are-macronutrients-.h15-1593780.html |access-date=30 January 2024 |website=MD Anderson Cancer Center |language=en}}</ref> Micronutrients – vitamins and minerals – are consumed in relatively smaller quantities, but are essential to body processes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/elena/nutrient/en/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110926205812/http://www.who.int/elena/nutrient/en/|url-status=dead|archive-date=26 September 2011|title=Nutrients|website=WHO|access-date=24 September 2019}}</ref> The ] is a pyramid-shaped guide of healthy foods divided into sections. Each section shows the recommended intake for each food group (i.e., protein, fat, carbohydrates and sugars). Making healthy food choices can lower one's risk of heart disease and the risk of developing some types of ], and can help one maintain their weight within a healthy range.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.livelifewell.nsw.gov.au/healthyeating/ |title=Healthy Eating: Why should I make healthy food choices? |publisher=Livelifewell.nsw.gov.au |access-date=1 March 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227194359/http://www.livelifewell.nsw.gov.au/healthyeating/ |archive-date=27 February 2014 }}</ref>


The ] is commonly associated with health-promoting effects. This is sometimes attributed to the inclusion of bioactive compounds such as ]s, ]s and ]s.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Garrido M |author2=González-Flores D |author3=Marchena AM |author4=Propr E |author5=García-Parra J |author6=Barriga C |author7=Rodríguez A.B. |title=A lycopene-enriched virgin olive oil enhances antioxidant status in humans |journal=Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture |volume=93 |issue=8 |pages=1820–26 |pmid=23225211 |year=2013 |doi=10.1002/jsfa.5972 |bibcode=2013JSFA...93.1820G }}</ref> The ] is commonly associated with health-promoting effects. This is sometimes attributed to the inclusion of bioactive compounds such as ]s, ]s and ]s.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Garrido M |author2=González-Flores D |author3=Marchena AM |author4=Propr E |author5=García-Parra J |author6=Barriga C |author7=Rodríguez A.B. |title=A lycopene-enriched virgin olive oil enhances antioxidant status in humans |journal=Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture |volume=93 |issue=8 |pages=1820–26 |pmid=23225211 |year=2013 |doi=10.1002/jsfa.5972 |bibcode=2013JSFA...93.1820G }}</ref>
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===Exercise=== ===Exercise===
{{Main | Exercise}} {{Main | Exercise}}
] enhances or maintains ] and overall health and wellness. It strengthens one's bones and muscles and improves the ]. According to the ], there are four types of exercise: ], ], ], and ].<ref>{{cite web|title=4 Types of Exercise|url=https://go4life.nia.nih.gov/4-types-exercise|publisher=Go4Life, National Institute on Aging, US National Institutes of Health|language=en|date=15 May 2014|access-date=7 October 2017|archive-date=1 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180701094658/https://go4life.nia.nih.gov/4-types-exercise|url-status=dead}}</ref> The CDC states that physical exercise can reduce the risks of heart disease, cancer, type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure, obesity, depression, and anxiety.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-04-21|title=CDC {{!}} Physical Activity {{!}} Facts {{!}} Healthy Schools|url=https://www.cdc.gov/healthyschools/physicalactivity/facts.htm|access-date=2021-05-30|website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|language=en-us}}</ref> For the purpose of counteracting possible risks, it is often recommended to start physical exercise gradually as one goes. Participating in any exercising, whether it is housework, yardwork, walking or standing up when talking on the phone, is often thought to be better than none when it comes to health.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Health Risks of an Inactive Lifestyle|url=https://medlineplus.gov/healthrisksofaninactivelifestyle.html|access-date=2021-05-30|website=medlineplus.gov}}</ref> ] enhances or maintains ] and overall health and wellness. It strengthens one's bones and muscles and improves the ]. According to the ], there are four types of exercise: ], ], ], and ].<ref>{{cite web|title=4 Types of Exercise|url=https://go4life.nia.nih.gov/4-types-exercise|publisher=Go4Life, National Institute on Aging, US National Institutes of Health|language=en|date=15 May 2014|access-date=7 October 2017|archive-date=1 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180701094658/https://go4life.nia.nih.gov/4-types-exercise|url-status=dead}}</ref> The CDC states that physical exercise can reduce the risks of heart disease, cancer, type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure, obesity, depression, and anxiety.<ref>{{Cite web|date=21 April 2020|title=Physical Activity Facts|url=https://www.cdc.gov/healthyschools/physicalactivity/facts.htm|access-date=30 May 2021|website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|language=en-us}}</ref> For the purpose of counteracting possible risks, it is often recommended to start physical exercise gradually as one goes. Participating in any exercising, whether it is housework, yardwork, walking or standing up when talking on the phone, is often thought to be better than none when it comes to health.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Health Risks of an Inactive Lifestyle|url=https://medlineplus.gov/healthrisksofaninactivelifestyle.html|access-date=30 May 2021|website=medlineplus.gov}}</ref>


===Sleep=== ===Sleep===
{{Main | Sleep | Sleep deprivation}} {{Main | Sleep | Sleep deprivation}}
Sleep is an essential component to maintaining health. In children, sleep is also vital for growth and development. Ongoing ] has been linked to an increased risk for some chronic health problems. In addition, sleep deprivation has been shown to correlate with both increased susceptibility to illness and slower recovery times from illness.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pilkington |first=Stephanie |date=August 7, 2013 |title=Causes and consequences of sleep deprivation in hospitalized patients |journal=Nursing Standard |volume=27 |issue=49 |pages=35–42 |doi=10.7748/ns2013.08.27.49.35.e7649|pmid=23924135 }}</ref> In one study, people with chronic insufficient sleep, set as six hours of sleep a night or less, were found to be four times more likely to catch a cold compared to those who reported sleeping for seven hours or more a night.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cmu.edu/news/stories/archives/2015/august/sleep-and-sickness.html |title=New Research Confirms Lack of Sleep Connected to Getting Sick |publisher=cmu.edu |author=Shilo Rea |date=2015-08-31|access-date=2015-11-25}}</ref> Due to the role of sleep in regulating ], insufficient sleep may also play a role in ] or, conversely, in impeding ].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Patel |first1=Sanjay R. |last2=Hu |first2=Frank B. |date=January 17, 2008 |title=Short sleep duration and weight gain: a systematic review |journal=Obesity (Silver Spring) |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=643–53 |doi=10.1038/oby.2007.118 |pmid=18239586 |pmc=2723045}}</ref> Additionally, in 2007, the ], which is the cancer research agency for the ], declared that "shiftwork that involves ] disruption is probably ]ic to humans", speaking to the dangers of long-term nighttime work due to its intrusion on sleep.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/pr/2007/pr180.html |title=IARC Monographs Programme finds cancer hazards associated with shiftwork, painting and firefighting |publisher=International Agency for Research on Cancer |date=December 5, 2007 |access-date=November 25, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721001355/http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/pr/2007/pr180.html |archive-date=July 21, 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2015, the National Sleep Foundation released updated recommendations for sleep duration requirements based on age, and concluded that "Individuals who habitually sleep outside the normal range may be exhibiting signs or symptoms of serious health problems or, if done volitionally, may be compromising their health and well-being."<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Hirshkowitz, Max |author2=Whiton, Kaitlyn | title=National Sleep Foundation's sleep time duration recommendations: methodology and results summary | journal= Sleep Health |url= http://www.sleephealthjournal.org/article/S2352-7218(15)00015-7/fulltext |date=14 January 2015 | pmid = 29073412| doi= 10.1016/j.sleh.2014.12.010 |access-date=25 November 2015 |display-authors=etal | volume=1 |issue=1 | pages=40–43}}</ref> Sleep is an essential component to maintaining health. In children, sleep is also vital for growth and development. Ongoing ] has been linked to an increased risk for some chronic health problems. In addition, sleep deprivation has been shown to correlate with both increased susceptibility to illness and slower recovery times from illness.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pilkington |first=Stephanie |date=7 August 2013 |title=Causes and consequences of sleep deprivation in hospitalized patients |journal=Nursing Standard |volume=27 |issue=49 |pages=35–42 |doi=10.7748/ns2013.08.27.49.35.e7649|pmid=23924135 }}</ref> In one study, people with chronic insufficient sleep, set as six hours of sleep a night or less, were found to be four times more likely to catch a cold compared to those who reported sleeping for seven hours or more a night.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cmu.edu/news/stories/archives/2015/august/sleep-and-sickness.html |title=New Research Confirms Lack of Sleep Connected to Getting Sick |publisher=cmu.edu |author=Shilo Rea |date=31 August 2015|access-date=25 November 2015}}</ref> Due to the role of sleep in regulating ], insufficient sleep may also play a role in ] or, conversely, in impeding ].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Patel |first1=Sanjay R. |last2=Hu |first2=Frank B. |date=17 January 2008 |title=Short sleep duration and weight gain: a systematic review |journal=Obesity (Silver Spring) |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=643–53 |doi=10.1038/oby.2007.118 |pmid=18239586 |pmc=2723045}}</ref> Additionally, in 2007, the ], which is the cancer research agency for the ], declared that "shiftwork that involves ] disruption is probably ]ic to humans", speaking to the dangers of long-term nighttime work due to its intrusion on sleep.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/pr/2007/pr180.html |title=IARC Monographs Programme finds cancer hazards associated with shiftwork, painting and firefighting |publisher=International Agency for Research on Cancer |date=5 December 2007 |access-date=25 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721001355/http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/pr/2007/pr180.html |archive-date=21 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2015, the National Sleep Foundation released updated recommendations for sleep duration requirements based on age, and concluded that "Individuals who habitually sleep outside the normal range may be exhibiting signs or symptoms of serious health problems or, if done volitionally, may be compromising their health and well-being."<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Hirshkowitz, Max |author2=Whiton, Kaitlyn | title=National Sleep Foundation's sleep time duration recommendations: methodology and results summary | journal= Sleep Health |url= http://www.sleephealthjournal.org/article/S2352-7218(15)00015-7/fulltext |date=14 January 2015 | pmid = 29073412| doi= 10.1016/j.sleh.2014.12.010 |access-date=25 November 2015 |display-authors=etal | volume=1 |issue=1 | pages=40–43|s2cid=205190733 }}</ref>


{| class="wikitable sortable" {| class="wikitable sortable"
Line 106: Line 123:
|- |-
! Age and condition ! Age and condition
! Sleep Needs ! Sleep needs
|- |-
| Newborns (0–3 months) | Newborns (0–3 months)
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|- |-
| School-age children (6–13 years)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; | School-age children (6–13 years)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
| &nbsp; 9 to 11 hours | 9 to 11 hours
|- |-
| Teenagers (14–17 years) | Teenagers (14–17 years)
| &nbsp; 8 to 10 hours | 8 to 10 hours
|- |-
| Adults (18–64 years) | Adults (18–64 years)
| &nbsp; 7 to 9 hours | 7 to 9 hours
|- |-
| Older Adults (65 years and over) | Older Adults (65 years and over)
| &nbsp; 7 to 8 hours | 7 to 8 hours
|} |}


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{{Main|Health science|Health care}} {{Main|Health science|Health care}}
], May 1946.]] ], May 1946.]]
] is the branch of science focused on health. There are two main approaches to health science: the study and ] of the ] and health-related issues to understand how humans (and animals) function, and the application of that knowledge to improve health and to prevent and cure diseases and other physical and mental impairments. The science builds on many sub-fields, including ], ], ], ], ], ]. Applied health sciences endeavor to better understand and improve human health through applications in areas such as ], ], ] and ]. ] is the branch of science focused on health. There are two main approaches to health science: the study and ] of the ] and health-related issues to understand how humans (and animals) function, and the application of that knowledge to improve health and to prevent and cure diseases and other physical and mental impairments. The science builds on many sub-fields, including ], ], ], ], ], ]. Applied health sciences endeavor to better understand and improve human health through applications in areas such as ], ], ] and ].{{Citation needed|date=January 2024}}


Organized interventions to improve health based on the principles and procedures developed through the health sciences are provided by practitioners trained in ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and other ]. Clinical practitioners focus mainly on the health of individuals, while public health practitioners consider the overall health of communities and populations. ] programs are increasingly being adopted by companies for their value in improving the health and well-being of their employees, as are ] to improve the health and well-being of children. Organized interventions to improve health based on the principles and procedures developed through the health sciences are provided by practitioners trained in ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and other ]. Clinical practitioners focus mainly on the health of individuals, while public health practitioners consider the overall health of communities and populations. ] programs are increasingly being adopted by companies for their value in improving the health and well-being of their employees, as are ] to improve the health and well-being of children.{{Citation needed|date=January 2024}}


===Role of medicine and medical science=== ===Role of medicine and medical science===
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Contemporary medicine is in general conducted within ]s. Legal, ]ing and financing frameworks are established by individual governments, augmented on occasion by international organizations, such as churches. The characteristics of any given health care system have significant impact on the way medical care is provided. Contemporary medicine is in general conducted within ]s. Legal, ]ing and financing frameworks are established by individual governments, augmented on occasion by international organizations, such as churches. The characteristics of any given health care system have significant impact on the way medical care is provided.


From ancient times, Christian emphasis on practical charity gave rise to the development of systematic nursing and hospitals and the ] today remains the largest non-government provider of medical services in the world.<ref>{{cite book | last = Blainey | first = Geoffrey | name-list-style = vanc |year=2011 |title=A Short History of Christianity |publisher=Penguin Viking |oclc=793902685 |title-link=A Short History of Christianity }}{{page needed|date=June 2014}}</ref> Advanced industrial countries (with the exception of the ])<ref name="IOM">{{cite web|url=http://www.iom.edu/Reports/2004/Insuring-Americas-Health-Principles-and-Recommendations.aspx |title=Insuring America's Health: Principles and Recommendations |publisher=Institute of Medicine at the National Academies of Science |date=14 Jan 2004 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091019103757/http://www.iom.edu/Reports/2004/Insuring-Americas-Health-Principles-and-Recommendations.aspx |archive-date=19 October 2009 }}</ref><ref name="ccuhc">{{cite web |url=http://cthealth.server101.com/the_case_for_universal_health_care_in_the_united_states.htm |title=The Case For Single Payer, Universal Health Care for the United States |publisher=Cthealth.server101.com |access-date=4 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180423105127/http://cthealth.server101.com/the_case_for_universal_health_care_in_the_united_states.htm |archive-date=23 April 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and many ] provide medical services through a system of ] that aims to guarantee care for all through a ] system, or compulsory private or co-operative ]. This is intended to ensure that the entire population has access to medical care on the basis of need rather than ability to pay. Delivery may be via private medical practices or by state-owned hospitals and clinics, or by charities, most commonly by a combination of all three. From ancient times, Christian emphasis on practical charity gave rise to the development of systematic nursing and hospitals and the ] today remains the largest non-government provider of medical services in the world.<ref>{{cite book | last = Blainey | first = Geoffrey | name-list-style = vanc |year=2011 |title=A Short History of Christianity |publisher=Penguin Viking |oclc=793902685 |title-link=A Short History of Christianity }}{{page needed|date=June 2014}}</ref> Advanced industrial countries (with the exception of the ])<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite web|url=http://www.iom.edu/Reports/2004/Insuring-Americas-Health-Principles-and-Recommendations.aspx |title=Insuring America's Health: Principles and Recommendations |publisher=Institute of Medicine at the National Academies of Science |date=14 January 2004 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091019103757/http://www.iom.edu/Reports/2004/Insuring-Americas-Health-Principles-and-Recommendations.aspx |archive-date=19 October 2009 }}
|2={{cite web |url=http://cthealth.server101.com/the_case_for_universal_health_care_in_the_united_states.htm |title=The Case For Single Payer, Universal Health Care for the United States |publisher=Cthealth.server101.com |access-date=4 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180423105127/http://cthealth.server101.com/the_case_for_universal_health_care_in_the_united_states.htm |archive-date=23 April 2018 |url-status=dead}}
}}</ref> and many ] provide medical services through a system of ] that aims to guarantee care for all through a ] system, or compulsory private or co-operative ]. This is intended to ensure that the entire population has access to medical care on the basis of need rather than ability to pay. Delivery may be via private medical practices or by state-owned hospitals and clinics, or by charities, most commonly by a combination of all three.


Most ] societies provide no guarantee of healthcare for the population as a whole. In such societies, healthcare is available to those that can afford to pay for it or have self-insured it (either directly or as part of an employment contract) or who may be covered by care financed by the government or tribe directly. Most ] societies provide no guarantee of healthcare for the population as a whole.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sonowal |first=C.J. |date=April 2010 |title=Factors Affecting the Nutritional Health of Tribal Children in Maharashtra |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09735070.2010.11886359 |journal=Studies on Ethno-Medicine |language=en |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=21–36 |doi=10.1080/09735070.2010.11886359 |issn=0973-5070}}</ref> In such societies, healthcare is available to those that can afford to pay for it or have self-insured it (either directly or as part of an employment contract) or who may be covered by care financed by the government or tribe directly.


]s]] ]s]]
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Modern medical care also depends on information – still delivered in many health care settings on paper records, but increasingly nowadays by ]. Modern medical care also depends on information – still delivered in many health care settings on paper records, but increasingly nowadays by ].


In low-income countries, modern healthcare is often too expensive for the average person. International healthcare policy researchers have advocated that "user fees" be removed in these areas to ensure access, although even after removal, significant costs and barriers remain.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Laokri S, Weil O, Drabo KM, Dembelé SM, Kafando B, Dujardin B | title = Removal of user fees no guarantee of universal health coverage: observations from Burkina Faso | journal = Bulletin of the World Health Organization | volume = 91 | issue = 4 | pages = 277–82 | date = April 2013 | pmid = 23599551 | pmc = 3629451 | doi = 10.2471/BLT.12.110015 }}</ref> In low-income countries, modern healthcare is often too expensive for the average person. International healthcare policy researchers have advocated that "user fees" be removed in these areas to ensure access, although even after removal, significant costs and barriers remain.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Laokri S, Weil O, Drabo KM, Dembelé SM, Kafando B, Dujardin B | title = Removal of user fees no guarantee of universal health coverage: observations from Burkina Faso | journal = Bulletin of the World Health Organization | volume = 91 | issue = 4 | pages = 277–82 | date = April 2013 | pmid = 23599551 | pmc = 3629451 | doi = 10.2471/BLT.12.110015 | doi-broken-date = 5 December 2024 }}</ref>


] is a practice in medicine and pharmacy in which the ] who provides a ] is independent from the ] who provides the ]. In the ] there are centuries of tradition for separating pharmacists from physicians. In Asian countries, it is traditional for physicians to also provide drugs.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Chou YJ, Yip WC, Lee CH, Huang N, Sun YP, Chang HJ | title = Impact of separating drug prescribing and dispensing on provider behaviour: Taiwan's experience | journal = Health Policy and Planning | volume = 18 | issue = 3 | pages = 316–29 | date = September 2003 | pmid = 12917273 | doi = 10.1093/heapol/czg038 | doi-access = free }}</ref> ] is a practice in medicine and pharmacy in which the ] who provides a ] is independent from the ] who provides the ]. In the ] there are centuries of tradition for separating pharmacists from physicians. In Asian countries, it is traditional for physicians to also provide drugs.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Chou YJ, Yip WC, Lee CH, Huang N, Sun YP, Chang HJ | title = Impact of separating drug prescribing and dispensing on provider behaviour: Taiwan's experience | journal = Health Policy and Planning | volume = 18 | issue = 3 | pages = 316–29 | date = September 2003 | pmid = 12917273 | doi = 10.1093/heapol/czg038 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
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Public health has been described as "the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through the organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and individuals."<ref>{{cite journal | author = Winslow CE | title = The Untilled Fields of Public Health | journal = Science | volume = 51 | issue = 1306 | pages = 23–33 | year = 1920 | pmid = 17838891 | doi = 10.1126/science.51.1306.23 | bibcode = 1920Sci....51...23W | url = https://archive.org/details/cihm_90880 }}</ref> It is concerned with threats to the overall health of a community based on ] analysis. The population in question can be as small as a handful of people or as large as all the inhabitants of several continents (for instance, in the case of a ]). Public health has many sub-fields, but typically includes the interdisciplinary categories of ], ] and ]. ], ], ], and ] are also important areas of public health. Public health has been described as "the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through the organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and individuals."<ref>{{cite journal | author = Winslow CE | title = The Untilled Fields of Public Health | journal = Science | volume = 51 | issue = 1306 | pages = 23–33 | year = 1920 | pmid = 17838891 | doi = 10.1126/science.51.1306.23 | bibcode = 1920Sci....51...23W | url = https://archive.org/details/cihm_90880 }}</ref> It is concerned with threats to the overall health of a community based on ] analysis. The population in question can be as small as a handful of people or as large as all the inhabitants of several continents (for instance, in the case of a ]). Public health has many sub-fields, but typically includes the interdisciplinary categories of ], ] and ]. ], ], ], and ] are also important areas of public health.


The focus of public health interventions is to prevent and manage diseases, injuries and other health conditions through surveillance of cases and the ], ], and (in aspects relevant to human health) ]. Its aim is to prevent health problems from happening or re-occurring by implementing ], developing ], administering services and conducting ].<ref>Association of Schools of Public Health. Retrieved 2010-06-24</ref> In many cases, treating a disease or controlling a ] can be vital to preventing it in others, such as during an ]. ] programs and distribution of ]s to prevent the spread of ]s are examples of common preventive public health measures, as are educational campaigns to promote vaccination and the use of condoms (including overcoming resistance to such). The focus of public health interventions is to prevent and manage diseases, injuries and other health conditions through surveillance of cases and the ], ], and (in aspects relevant to human health) ]. Its aim is to prevent health problems from happening or re-occurring by implementing ], developing ], administering services and conducting ].<ref>Association of Schools of Public Health. Retrieved 24 June 2010</ref> In many cases, treating a disease or controlling a ] can be vital to preventing it in others, such as during an ]. ] programs and distribution of ]s to prevent the spread of ]s are examples of common preventive public health measures, as are educational campaigns to promote vaccination and the use of condoms (including overcoming resistance to such).


] also takes various actions to limit the health disparities between different areas of the ] and, in some cases, the ] or ]. One issue is the access of individuals and communities to health care in terms of financial, geographical or socio-cultural constraints.<ref>Hispanics and the Future of America. </ref> Applications of the public ] include the areas of ] and child health, health services administration, emergency response, and prevention and control of ] and ]s. ] also takes various actions to limit the health disparities between different areas of the ] and, in some cases, the ] or ]. One issue is the access of individuals and communities to health care in terms of financial, geographical or socio-cultural constraints.<ref>Hispanics and the Future of America. </ref> Applications of the public ] include the areas of ] and child health, health services administration, emergency response, and prevention and control of ] and ]s.


The great positive impact of public health programs is widely acknowledged. Due in part to the policies and actions developed through public health, the 20th century registered a decrease in the mortality rates for ] and ]ren and a continual increase in ] in most parts of the world. For example, it is estimated that life expectancy has increased for Americans by thirty years since 1900,<ref>Association of Schools of Public Health. Retrieved 2010-6-24.</ref> and worldwide by six years since 1990.<ref>World Health Organization. , accessed 20 April 2011.</ref> The great positive impact of public health programs is widely acknowledged. Due in part to the policies and actions developed through public health, the 20th century registered a decrease in the mortality rates for ] and ]ren and a continual increase in ] in most parts of the world. For example, it is estimated that life expectancy has increased for Americans by thirty years since 1900,<ref>Association of Schools of Public Health. Retrieved 24 June 2010.</ref> and worldwide by six years since 1990.<ref>World Health Organization. , accessed 20 April 2011.</ref>


===Self-care strategies=== ===Self-care strategies===
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Personal health depends partially on the active, passive, and assisted cues people observe and adopt about their own health. These include personal actions for preventing or minimizing the effects of a disease, usually a chronic condition, through ]. They also include personal ] practices to prevent infection and illness, such as ] and ] with soap; ]; storing, preparing and handling ]; and many others. The information gleaned from personal ]&nbsp;– such as about sleep patterns, exercise behavior, nutritional intake and environmental features&nbsp;– may be used to inform personal decisions and actions (''e.g.'', "I feel tired in the morning so I am going to try sleeping on a different pillow"), as well as clinical decisions and treatment plans (''e.g.'', a patient who notices his or her shoes are tighter than usual may be having exacerbation of left-sided heart failure, and may require diuretic medication to reduce fluid overload).<ref name="e-primer3">]. (2008). </ref> Personal health depends partially on the active, passive, and assisted cues people observe and adopt about their own health. These include personal actions for preventing or minimizing the effects of a disease, usually a chronic condition, through ]. They also include personal ] practices to prevent infection and illness, such as ] and ] with soap; ]; storing, preparing and handling ]; and many others. The information gleaned from personal ]&nbsp;– such as about sleep patterns, exercise behavior, nutritional intake and environmental features&nbsp;– may be used to inform personal decisions and actions (''e.g.'', "I feel tired in the morning so I am going to try sleeping on a different pillow"), as well as clinical decisions and treatment plans (''e.g.'', a patient who notices his or her shoes are tighter than usual may be having exacerbation of left-sided heart failure, and may require diuretic medication to reduce fluid overload).<ref name="e-primer3">]. (2008). </ref>


Personal health also depends partially on the social structure of a person's life. The maintenance of strong ]ships, ], and other social activities have been linked to positive mental health and also increased longevity. One American study among ] over age 70, found that frequent volunteering was associated with reduced risk of dying compared with older persons who did not volunteer, regardless of physical health status.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Harris AH, Thoresen CE | title = Volunteering is Associated with Delayed Mortality in Older People: Analysis of the Longitudinal Study of Aging | journal = Journal of Health Psychology | volume = 10 | issue = 6 | pages = 739–52 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16176953 | doi = 10.1177/1359105305057310 | s2cid = 23314208 | url = http://www.chce.research.va.gov/docs/pdfs/pi_publications/Harris/2005_Harris_Thoresen_JHS.pdf | url-status=dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110722153152/http://www.chce.research.va.gov/docs/pdfs/pi_publications/Harris/2005_Harris_Thoresen_JHS.pdf | archive-date = 2011-07-22 }}</ref> Another study from Singapore reported that volunteering retirees had significantly better ] scores, fewer ], and better mental well-being and ] than non-volunteering retirees.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Schwingel A, Niti MM, Tang C, Ng TP | title = Continued work employment and volunteerism and mental well-being of older adults: Singapore longitudinal ageing studies | journal = Age and Ageing | volume = 38 | issue = 5 | pages = 531–37 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19474036 | doi = 10.1093/ageing/afp089 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Personal health also depends partially on the social structure of a person's life. The maintenance of strong ]ships, ], and other social activities have been linked to positive mental health and also increased longevity. One American study among ] over age 70, found that frequent volunteering was associated with reduced risk of dying compared with older persons who did not volunteer, regardless of physical health status.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Harris AH, Thoresen CE | title = Volunteering is Associated with Delayed Mortality in Older People: Analysis of the Longitudinal Study of Aging | journal = Journal of Health Psychology | volume = 10 | issue = 6 | pages = 739–52 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16176953 | doi = 10.1177/1359105305057310 | s2cid = 23314208 | url = http://www.chce.research.va.gov/docs/pdfs/pi_publications/Harris/2005_Harris_Thoresen_JHS.pdf | url-status=dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110722153152/http://www.chce.research.va.gov/docs/pdfs/pi_publications/Harris/2005_Harris_Thoresen_JHS.pdf | archive-date = 22 July 2011 }}</ref> Another study from Singapore reported that volunteering retirees had significantly better ] scores, fewer ], and better mental well-being and ] than non-volunteering retirees.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Schwingel A, Niti MM, Tang C, Ng TP | title = Continued work employment and volunteerism and mental well-being of older adults: Singapore longitudinal ageing studies | journal = Age and Ageing | volume = 38 | issue = 5 | pages = 531–37 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19474036 | doi = 10.1093/ageing/afp089 | doi-access = free }}</ref>


Prolonged ] may negatively impact health, and has been cited as a factor in ] with aging, depressive illness, and expression of disease.<ref>{{cite journal | author = McEwen BS | title = Protective and damaging effects of stress mediators: central role of the brain | journal = Dialogues Clin Neurosci | volume = 8 | issue = 4 | pages = 367–81 | year = 2006 | doi = 10.31887/DCNS.2006.8.4/bmcewen | pmid = 17290796 | pmc = 3181832 }} {{open access}}</ref> ] is the application of methods to either reduce stress or increase tolerance to stress. ]s are physical methods used to relieve stress. Psychological methods include ], ], and ], which work by reducing response to stress. Improving relevant skills, such as ] and ] skills, reduces uncertainty and builds confidence, which also reduces the reaction to stress-causing situations where those skills are applicable. Prolonged ] may negatively impact health, and has been cited as a factor in ] with aging, depressive illness, and expression of disease.<ref>{{cite journal | author = McEwen BS | title = Protective and damaging effects of stress mediators: central role of the brain | journal = Dialogues Clin Neurosci | volume = 8 | issue = 4 | pages = 367–81 | year = 2006 | doi = 10.31887/DCNS.2006.8.4/bmcewen | pmid = 17290796 | pmc = 3181832 }} {{open access}}</ref> ] is the application of methods to either reduce stress or increase tolerance to stress. ]s are physical methods used to relieve stress. Psychological methods include ], ], and ], which work by reducing response to stress. Improving relevant skills, such as ] and ] skills, reduces uncertainty and builds confidence, which also reduces the reaction to stress-causing situations where those skills are applicable.
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==Occupational== ==Occupational==
{{Main|Occupational safety and health}} {{Main|Occupational safety and health}}
In addition to ] risks, many jobs also present risks of disease, illness and other long-term health problems. Among the most common ] are various forms of ], including ] and ]. ] is another ] that many workers are vulnerable to. Workers may also be vulnerable to skin diseases, including ], ], ], ], and ].<ref name=hse> Retrieved on June 20, 2009</ref><ref name="niosh-skin">{{cite web|title=Skin Exposure & Effects|url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/skin/|website=NIOSH Topics|publisher=National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health|access-date=7 August 2012}}</ref> Other occupational diseases of concern include ] and ]. In addition to ] risks, many jobs also present risks of disease, illness and other long-term health problems. Among the most common ] are various forms of ], including ] and ]. ] is another ] that many workers are vulnerable to. Workers may also be vulnerable to skin diseases, including ], ], ], ], and ].<ref>{{multiref2
|1= Retrieved on 20 June 2009
|2={{cite web|title=Skin Exposure & Effects|url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/skin/|website=NIOSH Topics|publisher=National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health|access-date=7 August 2012}}
}}</ref> Other occupational diseases of concern include ] and ].


As the number of ] jobs has risen in developed countries, more and more jobs have become ], presenting a different array of health problems than those associated with ] and the ]. Contemporary problems, such as the growing rate of ] and issues relating to ] and ] in many countries, have further complicated the interaction between work and health. As the number of ] jobs has risen in developed countries, more and more jobs have become ], presenting a different array of health problems than those associated with ] and the ]. Contemporary problems, such as the growing rate of ] and issues relating to ] and ] in many countries, have further complicated the interaction between work and health.


Many governments view occupational health as a social challenge and have formed public organizations to ensure the health and safety of workers. Examples of these include the British ] and in the ], the ], which conducts research on occupational health and safety, and the ], which handles regulation and policy relating to worker safety and health.<ref name="niosh-site">{{cite web|title=The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health|url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|access-date=7 August 2012}}</ref><ref name="osha-site">{{cite web|title=Occupational Safety and Health Administration|url=https://www.osha.gov/|publisher=U.S. Department of Labor|access-date=7 August 2012}}</ref><ref name="hse-site">{{cite web|title=Health and Safety Executive|url=http://www.hse.gov.uk/|publisher=U.K. Health and Safety Executive|access-date=7 August 2012}}</ref> Many governments view occupational health as a social challenge and have formed public organizations to ensure the health and safety of workers. Examples of these include the British ] and in the ], the ], which conducts research on occupational health and safety, and the ], which handles regulation and policy relating to worker safety and health.<ref>{{multiref2
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|2={{cite web|title=Occupational Safety and Health Administration|url=https://www.osha.gov/|publisher=U.S. Department of Labor|access-date=7 August 2012}}
|3={{cite web|title=Health and Safety Executive|url=http://www.hse.gov.uk/|publisher=U.K. Health and Safety Executive|access-date=7 August 2012}}
}}</ref>


==See also== ==See also==

Latest revision as of 16:17, 5 December 2024

Desirable level of functional or metabolic efficiency of a living being This article is about the human condition. For other uses, see Health (disambiguation).

Health has a variety of definitions, which have been used for different purposes over time. In general, it refers to physical and emotional well-being, especially that associated with normal functioning of the human body, absent of disease, pain (including mental pain), or injury.

Health can be promoted by encouraging healthful activities, such as regular physical exercise and adequate sleep, and by reducing or avoiding unhealthful activities or situations, such as smoking or excessive stress. Some factors affecting health are due to individual choices, such as whether to engage in a high-risk behavior, while others are due to structural causes, such as whether the society is arranged in a way that makes it easier or harder for people to get necessary healthcare services. Still, other factors are beyond both individual and group choices, such as genetic disorders.

History

World Health Organization's definition

Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.

Source: "Constitution". World Health Organization. Retrieved 25 September 2024.

The meaning of health has evolved over time. In keeping with the biomedical perspective, early definitions of health focused on the theme of the body's ability to function; health was seen as a state of normal function that could be disrupted from time to time by disease. An example of such a definition of health is: "a state characterized by anatomic, physiologic, and psychological integrity; ability to perform personally valued family, work, and community roles; ability to deal with physical, biological, psychological, and social stress". Then, in 1948, in a radical departure from previous definitions, the World Health Organization (WHO) proposed a definition that aimed higher, linking health to well-being, in terms of "physical, mental, and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease and infirmity". Although this definition was welcomed by some as being innovative, it was also criticized for being vague and excessively broad and was not construed as measurable. For a long time, it was set aside as an impractical ideal, with most discussions of health returning to the practicality of the biomedical model.

Just as there was a shift from viewing disease as a state to thinking of it as a process, the same shift happened in definitions of health. Again, the WHO played a leading role when it fostered the development of the health promotion movement in the 1980s. This brought in a new conception of health, not as a state, but in dynamic terms of resiliency, in other words, as "a resource for living". In 1984, WHO revised the definition of health defined it as "the extent to which an individual or group is able to realize aspirations and satisfy needs and to change or cope with the environment. Health is a resource for everyday life, not the objective of living; it is a positive concept, emphasizing social and personal resources, as well as physical capacities." Thus, health referred to the ability to maintain homeostasis and recover from adverse events. Mental, intellectual, emotional and social health referred to a person's ability to handle stress, to acquire skills, to maintain relationships, all of which form resources for resiliency and independent living. This opens up many possibilities for health to be taught, strengthened and learned.

Since the late 1970s, the federal Healthy People Program has been a visible component of the United States' approach to improving population health. In each decade, a new version of Healthy People is issued, featuring updated goals and identifying topic areas and quantifiable objectives for health improvement during the succeeding ten years, with assessment at that point of progress or lack thereof. Progress has been limited to many objectives, leading to concerns about the effectiveness of Healthy People in shaping outcomes in the context of a decentralized and uncoordinated US health system. Healthy People 2020 gives more prominence to health promotion and preventive approaches and adds a substantive focus on the importance of addressing social determinants of health. A new expanded digital interface facilitates use and dissemination rather than bulky printed books as produced in the past. The impact of these changes to Healthy People will be determined in the coming years.

Systematic activities to prevent or cure health problems and promote good health in humans are undertaken by health care providers. Applications with regard to animal health are covered by the veterinary sciences. The term "healthy" is also widely used in the context of many types of non-living organizations and their impacts for the benefit of humans, such as in the sense of healthy communities, healthy cities or healthy environments. In addition to health care interventions and a person's surroundings, a number of other factors are known to influence the health status of individuals. These are referred to as the "determinants of health", which include the individual's background, lifestyle, economic status, social conditions and spirituality; Studies have shown that high levels of stress can affect human health.

In the first decade of the 21st century, the conceptualization of health as an ability opened the door for self-assessments to become the main indicators to judge the performance of efforts aimed at improving human health. It also created the opportunity for every person to feel healthy, even in the presence of multiple chronic diseases or a terminal condition, and for the re-examination of determinants of health (away from the traditional approach that focuses on the reduction of the prevalence of diseases).

Determinants

See also: Social determinants of health and Risk factor

In general, the context in which an individual lives is of great importance for both his health status and quality of life. It is increasingly recognized that health is maintained and improved not only through the advancement and application of health science, but also through the efforts and intelligent lifestyle choices of the individual and society. According to the World Health Organization, the main determinants of health include the social and economic environment, the physical environment, and the person's individual characteristics and behaviors.

More specifically, key factors that have been found to influence whether people are healthy or unhealthy include the following:

Donald Henderson as part of the CDC's smallpox eradication team in 1966

An increasing number of studies and reports from different organizations and contexts examine the linkages between health and different factors, including lifestyles, environments, health care organization and health policy, one specific health policy brought into many countries in recent years was the introduction of the sugar tax. Beverage taxes came into light with increasing concerns about obesity, particularly among youth. Sugar-sweetened beverages have become a target of anti-obesity initiatives with increasing evidence of their link to obesity.—such as the 1974 Lalonde report from Canada; the Alameda County Study in California; and the series of World Health Reports of the World Health Organization, which focuses on global health issues including access to health care and improving public health outcomes, especially in developing countries.

The concept of the "health field," as distinct from medical care, emerged from the Lalonde report from Canada. The report identified three interdependent fields as key determinants of an individual's health. These are:

  • Biomedical: all aspects of health, physical and mental, developed within the human body as influenced by genetic make-up.
  • Environmental: all matters related to health external to the human body and over which the individual has little or no control;
  • Lifestyle: the aggregation of personal decisions (i.e., over which the individual has control) that can be said to contribute to, or cause, illness or death;

The maintenance and promotion of health is achieved through different combination of physical, mental, and social well-being—a combination sometimes referred to as the "health triangle." The WHO's 1986 Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion further stated that health is not just a state, but also "a resource for everyday life, not the objective of living. Health is a positive concept emphasizing social and personal resources, as well as physical capacities."

Focusing more on lifestyle issues and their relationships with functional health, data from the Alameda County Study suggested that people can improve their health via exercise, enough sleep, spending time in nature, maintaining a healthy body weight, limiting alcohol use, and avoiding smoking. Health and illness can co-exist, as even people with multiple chronic diseases or terminal illnesses can consider themselves healthy.

If you want to learn about the health of a population, look at the air they breathe, the water they drink, and the places where they live.

— Hippocrates, the Father of Medicine, 5th century BC

The environment is often cited as an important factor influencing the health status of individuals. This includes characteristics of the natural environment, the built environment and the social environment. Factors such as clean water and air, adequate housing, and safe communities and roads all have been found to contribute to good health, especially to the health of infants and children. Some studies have shown that a lack of neighborhood recreational spaces including natural environment leads to lower levels of personal satisfaction and higher levels of obesity, linked to lower overall health and well-being. It has been demonstrated that increased time spent in natural environments is associated with improved self-reported health, suggesting that the positive health benefits of natural space in urban neighborhoods should be taken into account in public policy and land use.

Genetics, or inherited traits from parents, also play a role in determining the health status of individuals and populations. This can encompass both the predisposition to certain diseases and health conditions, as well as the habits and behaviors individuals develop through the lifestyle of their families. For example, genetics may play a role in the manner in which people cope with stress, either mental, emotional or physical. For example, obesity is a significant problem in the United States that contributes to poor mental health and causes stress in the lives of many people. One difficulty is the issue raised by the debate over the relative strengths of genetics and other factors; interactions between genetics and environment may be of particular importance.

Potential issues

A number of health issues are common around the globe. Disease is one of the most common. According to GlobalIssues.org, approximately 36 million people die each year from non-communicable (i.e., not contagious) diseases, including cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes and chronic lung disease.

Among communicable diseases, both viral and bacterial, AIDS/HIV, tuberculosis, and malaria are the most common, causing millions of deaths every year.

Another health issue that causes death or contributes to other health problems is malnutrition, especially among children. One of the groups malnutrition affects most is young children. Approximately 7.5 million children under the age of 5 die from malnutrition, usually brought on by not having the money to find or make food.

Bodily injuries are also a common health issue worldwide. These injuries, including bone fractures and burns, can reduce a person's quality of life or can cause fatalities including infections that resulted from the injury (or the severity injury in general).

Lifestyle choices are contributing factors to poor health in many cases. These include smoking cigarettes, and can also include a poor diet, whether it is overeating or an overly constrictive diet. Inactivity can also contribute to health issues and also a lack of sleep, excessive alcohol consumption, and neglect of oral hygiene. There are also genetic disorders that are inherited by the person and can vary in how much they affect the person (and when they surface).

Although the majority of these health issues are preventable, a major contributor to global ill health is the fact that approximately 1 billion people lack access to health care systems. Arguably, the most common and harmful health issue is that a great many people do not have access to quality remedies.

Mental health

Main article: Mental health

The World Health Organization describes mental health as "a state of well-being in which the individual realizes his or her own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to his or her community". Mental health is not just the absence of mental illness.

Mental illness is described as 'the spectrum of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral conditions that interfere with social and emotional well-being and the lives and productivity of people. Having a mental illness can seriously impair, temporarily or permanently, the mental functioning of a person. Other terms include: 'mental health problem', 'illness', 'disorder', 'dysfunction'.

Approximately twenty percent of all adults in the US are considered diagnosable with a mental disorder. Mental disorders are the leading cause of disability in the United States and Canada. Examples of these disorders include schizophrenia, ADHD, major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, anxiety disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder and autism.

 Many factors contribute to mental health problems, including:

  • Biological factors, such as genes or brain chemistry
  • Family history of mental health problems
  • Life experiences, such as trauma or abuse

Maintaining

Achieving and maintaining health is an ongoing process, shaped by both the evolution of health care knowledge and practices as well as personal strategies and organized interventions for staying healthy.

Diet

Main articles: Healthy diet and Human nutrition See also: List of nutrition guides
Percentage of overweight or obese population in 2010. Data source: OECD's iLibrary.
Percentage of obese population in 2010. Data source: OECD's iLibrary.

An important way to maintain one's personal health is to have a healthy diet. A healthy diet includes a variety of plant-based and animal-based foods that provide nutrients to the body. Such nutrients provide the body with energy and keep it running. Nutrients help build and strengthen bones, muscles, and tendons and also regulate body processes (i.e., blood pressure). Water is essential for growth, reproduction and good health. Macronutrients are consumed in relatively large quantities and include proteins, carbohydrates, and fats and fatty acids. Micronutrients – vitamins and minerals – are consumed in relatively smaller quantities, but are essential to body processes. The food guide pyramid is a pyramid-shaped guide of healthy foods divided into sections. Each section shows the recommended intake for each food group (i.e., protein, fat, carbohydrates and sugars). Making healthy food choices can lower one's risk of heart disease and the risk of developing some types of cancer, and can help one maintain their weight within a healthy range.

The Mediterranean diet is commonly associated with health-promoting effects. This is sometimes attributed to the inclusion of bioactive compounds such as phenolic compounds, isoprenoids and alkaloids.

Exercise

Main article: Exercise

Physical exercise enhances or maintains physical fitness and overall health and wellness. It strengthens one's bones and muscles and improves the cardiovascular system. According to the National Institutes of Health, there are four types of exercise: endurance, strength, flexibility, and balance. The CDC states that physical exercise can reduce the risks of heart disease, cancer, type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure, obesity, depression, and anxiety. For the purpose of counteracting possible risks, it is often recommended to start physical exercise gradually as one goes. Participating in any exercising, whether it is housework, yardwork, walking or standing up when talking on the phone, is often thought to be better than none when it comes to health.

Sleep

Main articles: Sleep and Sleep deprivation

Sleep is an essential component to maintaining health. In children, sleep is also vital for growth and development. Ongoing sleep deprivation has been linked to an increased risk for some chronic health problems. In addition, sleep deprivation has been shown to correlate with both increased susceptibility to illness and slower recovery times from illness. In one study, people with chronic insufficient sleep, set as six hours of sleep a night or less, were found to be four times more likely to catch a cold compared to those who reported sleeping for seven hours or more a night. Due to the role of sleep in regulating metabolism, insufficient sleep may also play a role in weight gain or, conversely, in impeding weight loss. Additionally, in 2007, the International Agency for Research on Cancer, which is the cancer research agency for the World Health Organization, declared that "shiftwork that involves circadian disruption is probably carcinogenic to humans", speaking to the dangers of long-term nighttime work due to its intrusion on sleep. In 2015, the National Sleep Foundation released updated recommendations for sleep duration requirements based on age, and concluded that "Individuals who habitually sleep outside the normal range may be exhibiting signs or symptoms of serious health problems or, if done volitionally, may be compromising their health and well-being."

Age and condition Sleep needs
Newborns (0–3 months) 14 to 17 hours
Infants (4–11 months) 12 to 15 hours
Toddlers (1–2 years) 11 to 14 hours
Preschoolers (3–5 years) 10 to 13 hours
School-age children (6–13 years)     9 to 11 hours
Teenagers (14–17 years) 8 to 10 hours
Adults (18–64 years) 7 to 9 hours
Older Adults (65 years and over) 7 to 8 hours

Role of science

Main articles: Health science and Health care
The Dutch Public Health Service provides medical care for the natives of the Dutch East Indies, May 1946.

Health science is the branch of science focused on health. There are two main approaches to health science: the study and research of the body and health-related issues to understand how humans (and animals) function, and the application of that knowledge to improve health and to prevent and cure diseases and other physical and mental impairments. The science builds on many sub-fields, including biology, biochemistry, physics, epidemiology, pharmacology, medical sociology. Applied health sciences endeavor to better understand and improve human health through applications in areas such as health education, biomedical engineering, biotechnology and public health.

Organized interventions to improve health based on the principles and procedures developed through the health sciences are provided by practitioners trained in medicine, nursing, nutrition, pharmacy, social work, psychology, occupational therapy, physical therapy and other health care professions. Clinical practitioners focus mainly on the health of individuals, while public health practitioners consider the overall health of communities and populations. Workplace wellness programs are increasingly being adopted by companies for their value in improving the health and well-being of their employees, as are school health services to improve the health and well-being of children.

Role of medicine and medical science

Main article: Medicine

Contemporary medicine is in general conducted within health care systems. Legal, credentialing and financing frameworks are established by individual governments, augmented on occasion by international organizations, such as churches. The characteristics of any given health care system have significant impact on the way medical care is provided.

From ancient times, Christian emphasis on practical charity gave rise to the development of systematic nursing and hospitals and the Catholic Church today remains the largest non-government provider of medical services in the world. Advanced industrial countries (with the exception of the United States) and many developing countries provide medical services through a system of universal health care that aims to guarantee care for all through a single-payer health care system, or compulsory private or co-operative health insurance. This is intended to ensure that the entire population has access to medical care on the basis of need rather than ability to pay. Delivery may be via private medical practices or by state-owned hospitals and clinics, or by charities, most commonly by a combination of all three.

Most tribal societies provide no guarantee of healthcare for the population as a whole. In such societies, healthcare is available to those that can afford to pay for it or have self-insured it (either directly or as part of an employment contract) or who may be covered by care financed by the government or tribe directly.

collection of glass bottles of different sizes
Modern drug ampoules

Transparency of information is another factor defining a delivery system. Access to information on conditions, treatments, quality, and pricing greatly affects the choice by patients/consumers and, therefore, the incentives of medical professionals. While the US healthcare system has come under fire for lack of openness, new legislation may encourage greater openness. There is a perceived tension between the need for transparency on the one hand and such issues as patient confidentiality and the possible exploitation of information for commercial gain on the other.

Delivery

See also: Health care, clinic, hospital, and hospice

Provision of medical care is classified into primary, secondary, and tertiary care categories.

photograph of three nurses
Nurses in Kokopo, East New Britain, Papua New Guinea

Primary care medical services are provided by physicians, physician assistants, nurse practitioners, or other health professionals who have first contact with a patient seeking medical treatment or care. These occur in physician offices, clinics, nursing homes, schools, home visits, and other places close to patients. About 90% of medical visits can be treated by the primary care provider. These include treatment of acute and chronic illnesses, preventive care and health education for all ages and both sexes.

Secondary care medical services are provided by medical specialists in their offices or clinics or at local community hospitals for a patient referred by a primary care provider who first diagnosed or treated the patient. Referrals are made for those patients who required the expertise or procedures performed by specialists. These include both ambulatory care and inpatient services, Emergency departments, intensive care medicine, surgery services, physical therapy, labor and delivery, endoscopy units, diagnostic laboratory and medical imaging services, hospice centers, etc. Some primary care providers may also take care of hospitalized patients and deliver babies in a secondary care setting.

Tertiary care medical services are provided by specialist hospitals or regional centers equipped with diagnostic and treatment facilities not generally available at local hospitals. These include trauma centers, burn treatment centers, advanced neonatology unit services, organ transplants, high-risk pregnancy, radiation oncology, etc.

Modern medical care also depends on information – still delivered in many health care settings on paper records, but increasingly nowadays by electronic means.

In low-income countries, modern healthcare is often too expensive for the average person. International healthcare policy researchers have advocated that "user fees" be removed in these areas to ensure access, although even after removal, significant costs and barriers remain.

Separation of prescribing and dispensing is a practice in medicine and pharmacy in which the physician who provides a medical prescription is independent from the pharmacist who provides the prescription drug. In the Western world there are centuries of tradition for separating pharmacists from physicians. In Asian countries, it is traditional for physicians to also provide drugs.

Role of public health

Main article: Public health See also: Global health
Postage stamp, New Zealand, 1933. Public health has been promoted – and depicted – in a wide variety of ways.

Public health has been described as "the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through the organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and individuals." It is concerned with threats to the overall health of a community based on population health analysis. The population in question can be as small as a handful of people or as large as all the inhabitants of several continents (for instance, in the case of a pandemic). Public health has many sub-fields, but typically includes the interdisciplinary categories of epidemiology, biostatistics and health services. environmental health, community health, behavioral health, and occupational health are also important areas of public health.

The focus of public health interventions is to prevent and manage diseases, injuries and other health conditions through surveillance of cases and the promotion of healthy behavior, communities, and (in aspects relevant to human health) environments. Its aim is to prevent health problems from happening or re-occurring by implementing educational programs, developing policies, administering services and conducting research. In many cases, treating a disease or controlling a pathogen can be vital to preventing it in others, such as during an outbreak. Vaccination programs and distribution of condoms to prevent the spread of communicable diseases are examples of common preventive public health measures, as are educational campaigns to promote vaccination and the use of condoms (including overcoming resistance to such).

Public health also takes various actions to limit the health disparities between different areas of the country and, in some cases, the continent or world. One issue is the access of individuals and communities to health care in terms of financial, geographical or socio-cultural constraints. Applications of the public health system include the areas of maternal and child health, health services administration, emergency response, and prevention and control of infectious and chronic diseases.

The great positive impact of public health programs is widely acknowledged. Due in part to the policies and actions developed through public health, the 20th century registered a decrease in the mortality rates for infants and children and a continual increase in life expectancy in most parts of the world. For example, it is estimated that life expectancy has increased for Americans by thirty years since 1900, and worldwide by six years since 1990.

Self-care strategies

Main article: Self care See also: Chronic care management, Social relation, and Stress management
A lady washing her hands c. 1655

Personal health depends partially on the active, passive, and assisted cues people observe and adopt about their own health. These include personal actions for preventing or minimizing the effects of a disease, usually a chronic condition, through integrative care. They also include personal hygiene practices to prevent infection and illness, such as bathing and washing hands with soap; brushing and flossing teeth; storing, preparing and handling food safely; and many others. The information gleaned from personal observations of daily living – such as about sleep patterns, exercise behavior, nutritional intake and environmental features – may be used to inform personal decisions and actions (e.g., "I feel tired in the morning so I am going to try sleeping on a different pillow"), as well as clinical decisions and treatment plans (e.g., a patient who notices his or her shoes are tighter than usual may be having exacerbation of left-sided heart failure, and may require diuretic medication to reduce fluid overload).

Personal health also depends partially on the social structure of a person's life. The maintenance of strong social relationships, volunteering, and other social activities have been linked to positive mental health and also increased longevity. One American study among seniors over age 70, found that frequent volunteering was associated with reduced risk of dying compared with older persons who did not volunteer, regardless of physical health status. Another study from Singapore reported that volunteering retirees had significantly better cognitive performance scores, fewer depressive symptoms, and better mental well-being and life satisfaction than non-volunteering retirees.

Prolonged psychological stress may negatively impact health, and has been cited as a factor in cognitive impairment with aging, depressive illness, and expression of disease. Stress management is the application of methods to either reduce stress or increase tolerance to stress. Relaxation techniques are physical methods used to relieve stress. Psychological methods include cognitive therapy, meditation, and positive thinking, which work by reducing response to stress. Improving relevant skills, such as problem solving and time management skills, reduces uncertainty and builds confidence, which also reduces the reaction to stress-causing situations where those skills are applicable.

Occupational

Main article: Occupational safety and health

In addition to safety risks, many jobs also present risks of disease, illness and other long-term health problems. Among the most common occupational diseases are various forms of pneumoconiosis, including silicosis and coal worker's pneumoconiosis (black lung disease). Asthma is another respiratory illness that many workers are vulnerable to. Workers may also be vulnerable to skin diseases, including eczema, dermatitis, urticaria, sunburn, and skin cancer. Other occupational diseases of concern include carpal tunnel syndrome and lead poisoning.

As the number of service sector jobs has risen in developed countries, more and more jobs have become sedentary, presenting a different array of health problems than those associated with manufacturing and the primary sector. Contemporary problems, such as the growing rate of obesity and issues relating to stress and overwork in many countries, have further complicated the interaction between work and health.

Many governments view occupational health as a social challenge and have formed public organizations to ensure the health and safety of workers. Examples of these include the British Health and Safety Executive and in the United States, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, which conducts research on occupational health and safety, and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration, which handles regulation and policy relating to worker safety and health.

See also

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