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{{Short description|Bengali guerrilla movement in East Pakistan}}
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The '''Mukti Bahini''' ({{lang-bn|মুক্তি বাহিনী}}<ref name= "Jahan 1973">{{cite journal|last=Jahan|first=Rounaq|title=Bangladesh in 1972: Nation Building in a New State|journal=Asian Survey|date=1 February 1973|volume=13|issue=2|pages=31|doi=10.2307/2642736|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/2642736}}</ref> meaning '''Liberation Army''')<ref name="Benvenisti2012">{{cite book|author=Eyal Benvenisti|title=The International Law of Occupation|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=f19hVb54_s8C&pg=PA189|accessdate=20 December 2012|date=23 February 2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-163957-9|pages=189–}}</ref> is a term which refers to all ] resistance forces that fought against the ] during the ] in 1971.<ref name=jacob-1>{{cite news|title=Mukti Bahini must be given due credit for liberating Bangladesh: Gen Jacob|url=http://in.news.yahoo.com/mukti-bahini-must-given-due-credit-liberating-bangladesh-112253521.html|accessdate=30 March 2013|newspaper=]|date=19 October 2012}}</ref> The ] launched ] against Bengali civilians, students, ], and armed personnel after sundown on March 25, 1971. In response, ] and Bengali military and paramilitary personnel, as well as civilians, started spontaneous resistance against the aggression. This was the formation of the Mukti Bahini. Later in April, ] was formed formally with Col. ] as the commander-in-chief, Lt. Col. Abdur Rob as the chief-of-staff and Capt. A. K. Khandaker as the deputy chief-of-staff. The armed forces as well as the paramilitary and civilian forces who fought alongside them for the liberation of ] are referred to as the Mukti Bahini.
{{Infobox war faction
| name = Mukti Bahini
| native_name = মুক্তিবাহিনী (Freedom Fighters)
| native_name_lang = bn
| war = ]
| image = Flag of the Mukti Bahini-DeFacto.svg
| caption = Mukti Bahini Flag
| active = March–December 1971
| motives = ]
| ideology = ]<br />]
| position =
| clans = ] <br />&nbsp;∟ ]<br />&nbsp;∟ ]<br />&nbsp;∟ ]<br /> ]<br /> ]<br /> ]<br />]<br />]<br />
Special Guerrilla Forces <br />&nbsp;∟ ]<br />&nbsp;∟ ]<br />&nbsp;∟ ]<br />&nbsp;∟ ]<br />&nbsp;∟ ]<br />]
| leaders = ], Commander-in-Chief<br /> ], Chief of Staff<br /> ], Deputy Chief of Staff
| headquarters =
| area = ]
| partof = ]<ref>{{cite book |last=Lal |first=PC |author-link=Pratap Chandra Lal |title=My Years with the IAF |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eBszCSguEscC&pg=PT168 |year=1986 |publisher=Lancer International |page=153 |isbn=978-1-935501-75-6}}</ref>
| size = 105,000<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://1971indiasfinesthour.com/the-mukti-bahini-guerrilla-warfare/|title=Mukti Bahini: Guerilla Warfare|access-date=29 August 2024|archive-url=https://1971indiasfinesthour.com/home/|archive-date=1 September 2024|url-status=live}}</ref>
| successor = ]
| allies = {{flagcountry|India}}<br />{{flagcountry|Soviet Union}}
| opponents = {{flag|Pakistan}}
| battles = ]<br />]<br />]<br />]<br />]<br />]<br />]<br />]<br />]<br />]<br />]<br />] <small>(Conducted via ])</small>
| identification_symbol_label = Ceremonial flag
| identification_symbol_2 = ]
| identification_symbol_2_label = {{nowrap|]}}
}}
{{Campaignbox Bangladesh Liberation War}}
The '''Mukti Bahini''' ({{langx|bn|মুক্তি বাহিনী|Mukti Bahinee}}), also known as the '''Bangladesh Forces''', was the guerrilla ] consisting of the Bangladeshi military, paramilitary and civilians during the ] that transformed ] into ] in 1971.<ref name="Alagappa2001p212">{{cite book |editor-last1=Alagappa |editor-first1=Muthiah |year=2001 |title=Coercion and governance : the declining political role of the military in Asia |publisher=Stanford University Press |pages=212 |isbn=0-8047-4227-8}}</ref> They were initially called the '''Mukti Fauj'''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ahmed |first=Helal Uddin |year=2012 |chapter=Mukti Bahini |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Mukti_Bahini |editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=Sirajul |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=Ahmed A. |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |edition=Second |publisher=] |access-date=4 December 2015 |archive-date=3 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150703125630/http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Mukti_Bahini |url-status=live }}</ref>


On 7 March 1971, ] issued a call to the people of East Pakistan to prepare themselves for an all-out struggle.<ref name=BanglapediaOS>{{citation |author=Abu Md. Delwar Hossain |chapter=Operation Searchlight |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Operation_Searchlight |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |editor=Sirajul Islam and Ahmed A. Jamal |publisher=] |year=2012 |edition=Second |access-date=22 April 2016 |archive-date=5 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211005144506/https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Operation_Searchlight |url-status=live }}</ref> Later that evening resistance demonstrations began,<ref name="BanglapediaOS" /> and the ] military began a full-scale retaliation with ] in the early hours of 26 March 1971, which continued through May 1971.<ref name=BanglapediaOS/><ref>{{cite book |last=Benvenisti |first=Eyal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f19hVb54_s8C&pg=PA189 |title=The International Law of Occupation |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-19-163957-9 |edition=2nd |page=189 |quote=Although India portrayed itself at that time as neutral, the Indian government in fact nurtured the Bangladeshi Mukti Bahini (liberation army) guerrillas and the Awami League. ] supplied them with arms, ammunition, and logistical support, and permitted them to recruit and train volunteers, most of the refugees, on Indian soil. |author-link=Eyal Benvenisti |orig-year=First published 1992}}</ref><ref name="Jahan1973">{{cite journal |last=Jahan |first=Rounaq |author-link=Rounaq Jahan |date=February 1973 |title=Bangladesh in 1972: Nation Building in a New State |journal=Asian Survey |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=199–210 |doi=10.2307/2642736 |jstor=2642736}}</ref>
==Background==
{{Main|Bangladesh Liberation War}}
In August 1947, the ] gave rise to two new states;<ref>{{cite news |title=Britain Proposes Indian Partition |agency=BUP |publisher=The Leader-Post |location=Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada |date=2 June 1947 |url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=78xTAAAAIBAJ&sjid=6DgNAAAAIBAJ&pg=1738,3655&dq=india+partition&hl=en }}</ref> the ] and the ], the latter intended to be a homeland for the Muslims of the Indian sub-continent. The Dominion of Pakistan comprised two geographically and culturally separate areas to the east and the west of ].<ref>{{cite news |title=India Partition Will Present Many Problems |first=Preston |last=Grover |agency=Associated Press |date=8 June 1947 |publisher=Herald-Tribune, via Google News |location=Sarasota, Florida, USA |url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=VbYqAAAAIBAJ&sjid=mGQEAAAAIBAJ&pg=1342,6305096&dq=india+partition&hl=en }}</ref> The western zone was popularly (and for a period of time, also officially) termed West Pakistan and the eastern zone (now Bangladesh) was initially termed ] and later, East Pakistan. Although the population of the two zones was close to equal, political power was concentrated in West Pakistan and it was widely perceived that East Pakistan was being exploited economically, leading to many grievances. Administration of two discontinuous territories was also seen as a challenge.<ref>{{cite news |title=Problems of Partition |work=The Sydney Morning Herald |location=Sydney, Australia |date=14 June 1947 |url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=WPdUAAAAIBAJ&sjid=GZMDAAAAIBAJ&pg=7167,1795176&dq=india+partition&hl=en }}</ref>
On 25 March 1971, rising political discontent and ] in East Pakistan was met by brutal<ref name="genwatch">{{cite web|url=http://www.gendercide.org/case_bangladesh.html |title=''Genocide in Bangladesh, 1971.'' Gendercide Watch |publisher=Gendercide.org |accessdate=23 June 2011| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110726090509/http://www.gendercide.org/case_bangladesh.html| archivedate= 26 July 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> suppressive force from the ruling elite of the West Pakistan establishment,<ref name="rule">{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/21.htm |title=''Emerging Discontent, 1966–70.'' Country Studies Bangladesh |publisher=Countrystudies.us |accessdate=23 June 2011| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110622211513/http://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/21.htm| archivedate= 22 June 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> in what came to be termed ].<ref>''{{dead link|date=June 2012}}''</ref>


A formal military leadership of the resistance was created in April 1971 under the ]. The military council was headed by General ]<ref>''Unconventional Warfare in South Asia: Shadow Warriors and Counterinsurgency'', Gates and Roy, Routledge, 2016</ref> and eleven ].<ref name="Tripathi2016">''The Colonel Who Would Not Repent: The Bangladesh War and Its Unquiet Legacy'', ], Yale University Press, 2016, p. 146.</ref> The ] were established on 4 April 1971. The most prominent divisions of the Mukti Bahini were the ] led by Major ], the ] led by Major ] and the ] led by Major ]. ] student leaders formed militia units, including the ], the ] and ].<ref name="Tripathi2016"/> The ], led by Comrade ], and activists from the ] also operated several guerrilla battalions.<ref>''Communist and Marxist parties of the world'', Charles Hobday, Longman, 1986, p. 228</ref>
The events of the nine-month conflict of the ] are widely viewed as ]; the Pakistan Army and collaborators targeted ] communities, intellectuals and members of the political opposition for attacks.<ref name="D'Costa2">
{{cite book|last=D'Costa|first=Bina|title=Nationbuilding, Gender and War Crimes in South Asia|year=2011|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0415565660|page=144|date=November 2011}}
</ref> Historians have estimated that, during the conflict, between two hundred thousand<ref name="Saikia Sexual Violence">{{cite book | last = Saikia | first = Yasmin | title = Sexual Violence in Conflict Zones: From the Ancient World to the Era of Human Rights | year = 2011 | publisher = University of Pennsylvania Press | isbn = 978-0-8122-4318-5 | page = 157 | editor = Elizabeth D. Heineman}}</ref> and four hundred thousand<ref name="Riedel p10">{{cite book | last = Riedel | first = Bruce O. | title = Deadly embrace: Pakistan, America, and the future of the global jihad | year = 2011 | publisher = Brookings Institution | isbn = 978-0-8157-0557-4 | page = 10}}</ref> women and children<ref name="Ghadbian">{{cite book|last=Ghadbian|first=Najib|title=Violence and politics: globalization's paradox|year=2002|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0415931113|pages=111|editor=Kent Worcester, Sally A. Bermanzohn, Mark Ungar}}</ref> were ] leading to an estimated 25,000 ] being born.<ref name="D'Costa3">
{{cite book|last=D'Costa|first=Bina|title=Nationbuilding, Gender and War Crimes in South Asia|year=2010|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0415565660|page=132|date=November 2011}}
</ref> Estimates of persons killed during the conflict range from between 269,000<ref name="Obermeyer">{{cite journal|last1=Obermeyer|first1=Ziad|first2=Christopher J. L.|last2=Murray|first3=Emmanuela|last3=Gakidou|title=Fifty years of violent war deaths from Vietnam to Bosnia: analysis of data from the world health survey programme|journal=British Medical Journal|date=26 June 2008|volume=BMJ 2008|doi=10.1136/bmj.a137|issue=7659|pages=1482–6|pmid=18566045|pmc=2440905}}</ref> to one<ref name=DeGroot>{{cite book|last=DeGroot|first=Gerard|title=The Seventies Unplugged: A Kaleidoscopic Look at a Violent Decade|year=2011|publisher=Pan Macmillan|isbn=978-0330455787|page=64}}</ref> to three million.<ref name="Totten">{{cite book|last1=Totten|first1=Samuel|title=Dictionary of Genocide: A-L|publisher=Greenwood|location=Volume 1|isbn=978-0-313-32967-8|first2=Paul Robert|last2=Bartrop|first3=Steven L.|last3=Jacobs|page=34}}</ref> An estimated ten million refugees entered India, a situation which contributed to its government's decision to intervene militarily in the civil war. Thirty million people were displaced.<ref name="Totten" /> ] documented that girls from the age of eight to grandmothers of seventy-five suffered rapes during the war.<ref name="Debnath1">{{cite book|last=Debnath|first=Angela|title=Plight and fate of women during and following genocide|year=2009|publisher=Transaction|isbn=978-1412808279|pages=49|edition=7th|editor=Samuel Totten}}</ref>


Using ] tactics, the Mukti Bahini secured control over large parts of the Bengali countryside. It conducted successful "] and ]" campaigns,<ref name="cdrb.org">{{cite journal |last=Jamal |first=Ahmed Abdullah |date=October–December 2008 |title=Mukti Bahini and the Liberation War of Bangladesh: A Review of Conflicting Views |url=http://www.cdrb.org/journal/2008/4/1.pdf |journal=Asian Affairs |publisher=Centre for Development Research, Bangladesh |volume=30 |issue=4 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103014904/http://www.cdrb.org/journal/2008/4/1.pdf |archive-date=3 January 2015}}</ref> and included the nascent ] and the ]. The Mukti Bahini received training and weapons from ],<ref name="Time Photo Gallery"/> where people in ] shared a common Bengali ethnic and linguistic heritage with East Pakistan.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fraser |first=Bashabi |author1-link=Bashabi Fraser |year=2008 |title=Bengal Partition Stories: An Unclosed Chapter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zW30rV_UAskC |publisher=Anthem Press |page=7 |isbn=978-184331-299-4}}</ref>
==Involvement in War==
Mukti Bahini fought against Pakistan army in various battlegrounds throughout the country and also performed guerrilla operations in different army camps and establishments. Most of them did not have any professional military training nor they had any time for it. They were trained during the war.{{citation needed|date=April 2013}} Sector commanders directed the guerrilla attacks and also trained the Mukti Bahini. The training camps were mostly situated near border areas with the direct assistance of India.


During the ], the Mukti Bahini became part of the ].<ref name="Stanton2012">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GtCL2OYsH6wC|title=Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia|last=Stanton|first=Andrea L.|year=2012|publisher=Sage|isbn=9781412981767|page=170|language=en|access-date=22 April 2016|archive-date=7 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307201327/https://books.google.com/books?id=GtCL2OYsH6wC|url-status=live}}</ref> It was instrumental in securing the ] and the liberation of ] and other cities in December 1971.<ref name="Stanton2012" /><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thedailystar.net/news/the-battle-for-bangladesh|title=The battle for Bangladesh|work=The Daily Star|access-date=22 April 2016|date=16 December 2013|archive-date=10 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510123039/http://www.thedailystar.net/news/the-battle-for-bangladesh|url-status=live}}</ref>
===Formation===
The Mukti Bahini consisted of Bengali members of Pakistan armed forces and civilians from East Pakistan, in response to the ] on March 25, 1971, a violent military operation carried out by the Pakistan Army to curb the Bengali nationalist movement through selective genocide of Bengali people.


==History==
Mukti Bahini used ] tactics to fight against the Pakistan Army. India provided economic, military and diplomatic support to the Mukti Bahini, leading West Pakistan to launch Operation Chengiz Khan, a preemptive attack on the western border of India which started the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971.The operation also precipitated the ] and caused roughly 10 million refugees to flee to India. Essentially Bengali intelligentsia, academics and Hindus were targeted for the harshest treatment, with significant indiscriminate killing taking place. These systematic killings enraged the Bengalis, who declared independence from Pakistan, to achieve the new state of Bangladesh.


===Organization=== ===Background===


] ] against the usage of ] as the sole ] of ]. The ] had won the majority in the ]. ], as the leader of the Awami League, was prevented from forming a government.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Jasbir |title=Combat diary |year=2010 |publisher=Lancer |location=New Delhi |isbn=9781935501183 |pages=225}}</ref> ] was the only language in Pakistan not written in the ]. The ] of the provinces of ] into one administrative "unit" caused great suspicion in East Pakistan.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Shafqat |first1=Sahar |editor1-last=DeRouen |editor1-first=Karl Jr |editor2-last=Heo |editor2-first=Uk |year=2007 |chapter=Pakistan (1971) |title=Civil wars of the world : major conflicts since World War II |volume=II |publisher=ABC-CLIO |page=594 |isbn=978-1-85109-919-1}}</ref> Pakistan's unwillingness to give autonomy to ] and Bengali nationalism are both cited as reasons for the separation.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Shafqat |first1=Sahar |editor1-last=DeRouen |editor1-first=Karl Jr |editor2-last=Heo |editor2-first=Uk |year=2007 |chapter=Pakistan (1971) |title=Civil wars of the world : major conflicts since World War II |volume=II |publisher=ABC-CLIO |page=597 |isbn=978-1-85109-919-1}}</ref> The ] had caused the death of at least 200,000 and possibly as many as 500,000 people while the infrastructure, transport and other services were severely damaged. The central government of Pakistan was blamed for a slow relief response, which created resentment in the population of East Pakistan. The resentment helped the Awami League to win 167 of the 169 parliamentary seats allocated to East Pakistan which made the Awami League the majority party in the 313 seat parliament of Pakistan.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jalal |first1=Ayesha |author1-link=Ayesha Jalal |title=The struggle for Pakistan: a Muslim homeland and global politics |year=2014 |publisher=Belknap Press of Harvard Univ. Press |isbn=978-0-674-73585-9 |pages=140–141}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Datta |first1=Antara |title=Refugees and borders in South Asia : the great exodus of 1971 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NwIrQbgWigwC&pg=PA6 |access-date=13 February 2016 |year=2012 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-52472-8 |page=6}}</ref> After the 1970 elections, Yahya Khan hoped for a power sharing agreement between Mujib and Bhutto, though talks between them did not result in a solution. Mujib wanted full autonomy, Bhutto advised Yahya to break off talks. On 1 March 1971, General Yahya Khan suspended the ]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Oborne |first1=Peter |author1-link=Peter Oborne |title=Wounded Tiger: A History of Cricket in Pakistan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EXXGBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA207 |access-date=10 January 2016 |year=2014 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |page=207 |isbn=978-0-85720-075-4 |language=en |archive-date=16 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231116041206/https://books.google.com/books?id=EXXGBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA207 |url-status=live }}</ref> which was scheduled to be held on 3 March 1971.
When the Pakistan Army started the ] on the Bengali population, they did not expect a prolonged resistance.<ref>Pakistan Defence Journal, 1977, Vol 2, p2-3</ref> But a large number of Bengali members of the ]s (EBR), East Pakistan Rifles (EPR, later ], ]), police, other paramilitary forces, students and other civilians started resistance against the Pakistan Army. With the formation of ] on 17 April 1971, ] (later General) was appointed as the Commander-in-Chief of all ]. The members of EBR, EPR, police and other paramilitary forces were later called "regular force" or "niomito bahini".


On 7 March 1971, Sheikh Mujib made his now famous speech in Ramna Race course (]) where he declared "The struggle this time is for our freedom. The struggle this time is for our independence".<ref>{{cite news |last1=Qasmi |first1=Ali Usman |title=1971 war: Witness to history |url=http://herald.dawn.com/news/1153304 |work=Dawn |location=Pakistan |access-date=9 January 2016 |date=16 December 2015 |archive-date=24 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160124221240/http://herald.dawn.com/news/1153304 |url-status=live }}</ref> East Pakistan television broadcasters started broadcasting ] songs, a taboo in Pakistan, while reducing the air-time of shows from West Pakistan. Civilian interaction with the Pakistan Army were decreased and they were increasingly seen as an occupying force, while local contractors stopped providing supplies to the Pakistan Army.<ref name="Gates2014">{{cite book |last1=Gates |first1=Scott |last2=Roy |first2=Kaushik |title=Unconventional warfare in South Asia : shadow warriors and counterinsurgency |year=2014 |publisher=Ashgate |location=Farnham |isbn=9781409437062 |pages=116}}</ref> The Pakistan Army also tried to disarm and dismiss personnel of ] origin in the ], the police and the regular army. The Bengali officers ] against the Pakistan Army, and attacked officers from West Pakistan.<ref>{{cite book |last1=KrishnaRao |first1=K.V. |title=Prepare or perish : a study of national security |year=1991 |publisher=Lancer Publ. |location=New Delhi |isbn=9788172120016 |pages=168}}</ref> The Pakistan Army's crackdown on the civilian population contributed to the revolt of East Pakistani soldiers, who escaped to ] and formed the main body of the Mukti Bahini.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=K. Kuldip |title=Indian Military Thought Kurushetra to Kargil and Future Perspectives |year=2013 |publisher=Lancer Publishers LLC |page=440 |isbn=978-1-935501-93-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rTG8AQAAQBAJ&q=Mukti+Bahini&pg=PT434 |access-date=9 January 2016 |language=en}}</ref> Sheikh Mujib on 26 March 1971 declared the independence of Bangladesh, while Pakistan's president Yahya Khan declared Mujib a traitor during a national broadcast on the same day.<ref>{{cite news |title=East Pakistan Secedes, Civil war breaks out |url=http://www.thedailystar.net/freedom-in-the-air/stories/58422 |work=Boston Globe |access-date=9 January 2016 |via=The Daily Star |archive-date=23 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223072652/http://www.thedailystar.net/freedom-in-the-air/stories/58422 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Civil war flares in East-Pakistan |url=http://www.thedailystar.net/freedom-in-the-air/stories/59515 |work=The Deseret News |access-date=9 January 2016 |via=The Daily Star |archive-date=23 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223072541/http://www.thedailystar.net/freedom-in-the-air/stories/59515 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Pakistan Army moved infantry and armoured units to East Pakistan in preparation for the coming conflicts.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sharaf |first1=Samson Simon |title=1971: The plight of the viceroys |url=http://nation.com.pk/columns/09-Jan-2016/1971-the-plight-of-the-viceroys |work=The Nation |access-date=9 January 2016 |date=9 January 2016 |archive-date=9 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160109130102/http://nation.com.pk/columns/09-Jan-2016/1971-the-plight-of-the-viceroys |url-status=live }}</ref>
During a conference of sector commanders held from 11 to 17 July 1971 held at ], the forces were further organized and the command was set up with Col. Abdullah as the commander-in-chief (C-in-C) with the status of a cabinet minister, Lt. Col., Mubariz Ali(ex-SSG Commando Pakistan Army) as the Chief of Staff (COS), Group Captain A K Khandker as the Deputy Chief of Staff (DCOS) and Major A R Chowdhury as the Assistant Chief of Staff (ACOS). Bangladesh was divided into ].<ref>Islam, Major Rafiqul, A Tale of Millions,pp226&nbsp;– pp231</ref> Sector commanders were in charge of conducting guerrilla operations and training fighters. The 10th Sector was under the command of C-in-C Osmany and included the Naval Commandos and C-in-C's special force.<ref>, Liberation War Museum, Bangladesh.</ref>


===Early resistance===
During this conference some major initiatives were taken to organize the Mukti Bahini. This meeting was focused to discuss different problems and future course of action. In this conference Lt. Col. M A Rabb was appointed the Chief-of-staff and Group Captain A K Khandaker was appointed the Deputy Chief-of-staff. The important issues that were discussed during this conference are:<ref name=lokkho>{{cite book|last=Islam|first=Rafikul|title=লক্ষ প্রাণের বিনিময়ে / Lokkho praner binimoye|year=1981|publisher=মনিরুল হক, অনন্যা/Anannya<!--|isbn=9844120030 THIS IS NOT A GOOD ISBN-->}}</ref><ref name=dolil>{{cite book|last=Rahman|first=Hasan Hafizur|title=বাংলাদেশের স্বাধীনতা যুদ্ধ, দলিলপত্রঃ দশম খণ্ড / HISTORY OF BANGLADESH WAR OF INDEPENDENCE DOCUMENTS, VOL-10|year=1984|publisher=Hakkani Publishers|isbn=984-433-091-2|pages=1–3}}</ref>
] in 1971, used during the ].]]
On 25 March, ] was declared, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was arrested and ] started in East Pakistan. Foreign journalists were expelled and the Awami League was banned. Members of the Awami league, the East Pakistan Rifles, the ] and others thought to be disloyal to Pakistan were attacked by the Pakistan army. The survivors of the attack would form the backbone of the Mukti Bahini.<ref name="McDermott2014">{{cite book |last1=McDermott |first1=Rachel Fell |last2=Gordon |first2=Leonard A. |author2-link=Leonard A. Gordon |last3=T. Embree |first3=Ainslie |author3-link=Ainslie Embree |last4=Pritchett |first4=Frances W. |last5=Dalton |first5=Dennis |author5-link=Dennis Dalton |year=2014 |title=Sources of Indian Tradition: Modern India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w8qJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA851 |edition=Third |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-231-51092-9 |page=851}}</ref> When the Pakistan Army started the military crackdown on the Bengali population, they did not expect prolonged resistance.<ref>Pakistan Defence Journal, 1977, Vol 2, p2-3</ref> Five battalions of the East Bengal Regiment mutinied and initiated the war for liberation of Bangladesh.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y85KOHHVT5oC|title=War and Secession: Pakistan, India, and the Creation of Bangladesh|last1=Sisson|first1=Richard|last2=Rose|first2=Leo E.|year=1991|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=9780520076655|page=182|language=en}}</ref>


On 27 March, on behalf of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, ] declared Bangladesh's independence from Pakistan and fought his way out of Chittagong City with his unit of Bengali soldiers.<ref name="Gates2014"/> In ], West Pakistani forces began the ] with the ]. Civilians took control of arms depots in various cities and began resisting Pakistani forces with the acquired weapons supply. ] experienced heavy fighting between rebel Bengali military units and Pakistani forces.{{citation needed|date=October 2023}} The ] was broadcast from ] Radio Station in Chittagong by Major Rahman on behalf of Sheikh Rahman.<ref name="McDermott2014"/>
# Define the boundary of different sectors
# Organize guerrilla warfare by the following ways:
#* A group of 5-10 trained fighters would be sent inside Bangladesh with specific instructions
#* Guerrilla fighters will be classified as:
#* Guerrilla base: each base would provide food, medicine and accommodation of the guerrilla fighters.
#** Action group: members of this group would take part in frontal attacks, 50~100% of them would carry arms
#** Intelligence: members of this group would gather enemy information, they would not take part in frontal attacks, 30% of them would carry arms
# The regular force would be immediately organized as battalion force and sector troops.
# Military attacks against the enemy would be carried out by the following ways:
#* A large number of guerrilla fighters would be sent inside Bangladesh to carry out raid and ambush at every convenient places
#* Industries would be shut down by disrupting electric supply
#* Pakistanis would not be allowed to export any raw materials or manufactured goods and the warehouse would be destroyed
#* The railways and boats used to carry enemy soldiers and enemy military instruments would be destroyed
#* The war strategy should be to force the enemy to disperse
#* After dispersing the enemy the smaller groups would be attacked by the guerrilla fighters<ref name=lokkho>{{cite book}}</ref><ref name="lokkho">{{cite book}}</ref>


Bengali forces took control of numerous districts in the initial months of the war, including ], ], ], ], ] and ] among others. With the support of the local population, many towns remained under the control of Bengali forces until April and May 1971. Notable engagements during this period included the ], the ] and the ] in the Chittagong Hill Tracts.<ref name="dt17Dec2013">{{cite news |date=17 December 2013 |title=Notable battles in the 11 Sectors |url=http://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2013/dec/17/notable-battles-11-sectors |newspaper=Dhaka Tribune |access-date=27 August 2015 |archive-date=23 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923214612/http://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2013/dec/17/notable-battles-11-sectors |url-status=live }}</ref>
Besides the eleven sectors, the combatants were also divided and reorganized into several groups:
* Regular army battalion ("niomito bahini", নিয়মিত বাহিনী)
* Sector troops
* Irregular force or freedom fighters ("oniomito bahini", অনিয়মিত বাহিনী)<ref name=lokkho>{{cite book}}</ref>


On 18 April, the Deputy High Commission of Pakistan in ] defected and hoisted the ].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Badrul Ahsan |first1=Syed |author-link=Syed Badrul Ahsan |date=20 April 2011 |title=Diplomats carrying the torch in 1971 |work=] |url=http://archive.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details.php?nid=182294 |access-date=10 January 2016 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304102911/http://archive.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details.php?nid=182294 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 17 April, the ] was formed.<ref>{{cite news|title=Govt formed in Mujibnagar was not temporary|url=http://www.thedailystar.net/city/govt-formed-mujibnagar-was-not-temporary-78023|work=]|access-date=13 February 2016|date=19 April 2015|archive-date=15 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160215234609/http://www.thedailystar.net/city/govt-formed-mujibnagar-was-not-temporary-78023|url-status=live}}</ref>
In addition, some independent forces fought in various regions of Bangladesh. These included the ],<ref name= "Jahan 1973"/> organized by Major General Oban of the ] and Student League leaders Serajul Alam Khan, ], Kazi Arif Ahmed, ], ], ], Shahjahan Siraj, Nur E Alam Siddiqi, and Abdul Quddus Makhon and the ] under ] of Tangail. Kaderia Bahini also created a volunteer group to help his Bahini.<ref>{{cite book|last=Siddiki|first=Kader|title=Shadhinota '71|year=2004|publisher=Anannya / অনন্যা|isbn=984412039X|pages=550–552}}</ref> Some other groups of freedom fighters were controlled by the Leftist parties and groups including the NAP and Communist Parties. A strong guerrilla force led by ] fought several battles with the Pakistani soldiers in Payarabagan, Barisal. Three brigades were created by ], ] and ] by the name of Z-force, K-force and S-force. A young guerrilla group named "Crack Platoon" did some courageous guerrilla attacks in the Dhaka city that attracted several international media at that time.<ref>{{cite book|last=Alam|first=Habibul|title=Brave of heart|year=2010|publisher=APPL / এপিপিএল|isbn=9840802011}}</ref>


During May, Foreign Minister ] asked ] to hand over power in West Pakistan to his party. Khan refused on the grounds that doing so would support the view of Mukti Bahini and the Provisional Government of Bangladesh that East Pakistan was a colony of West Pakistan. Tensions were raised when Bhutto told his followers that "by November would either be in power or in jail".<ref>{{cite news |title=Military Junta Dogs Pakistan |url=http://www.thedailystar.net/freedom-in-the-air/stories/58668 |work=The Daily Star |access-date=10 January 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201200133/http://www.thedailystar.net/freedom-in-the-air/stories/58668 |archive-date=1 February 2016 }}</ref>
===List of Sectors and Subsectors===
{{main|List of sectors in Bangladesh Liberation War}}


On 9 June, Mukti Bahini members hijacked a car and launched a grenade attack on Dhaka Intercontinental Hotel, the office of the Pro-Junta Morning Post and the house of ].<ref name="ds6Dec2014">{{cite news |last=Alam |first=Habibul |title=Operation Hotel Intercontinental: "HIT & RUN" |url=http://www.thedailystar.net/operation-hotel-intercontinental-hit-run-53723 |work=The Daily Star |date=6 December 2014 |access-date=23 August 2016 |archive-date=26 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826112250/http://www.thedailystar.net/operation-hotel-intercontinental-hit-run-53723 |url-status=live }}</ref>
During the ], Bangladesh was geographically divided into eleven areas known as sectors. Each sector had sector commander who coordinated the military operations through sub-sector commanders. The sector commanders were officers of Pakistan army who joined Mukti Bahini. Table below lists all the sectors and sector commanders with their sub-commanders and geographical locations.


===July–November===
{| class="wikitable" style="background:none"
! colspan="4" style="background:tan;" | Sectors of ]<ref></ref><ref name=sector_list-1>{{cite book|title=List of Liberation War Sectors and Sector Commanders of Bangladesh (Gazette Notification No.8/25/D-1/72-1378)|date=December 15, 1973|publisher=Ministry of Defence, Government of Bangladesh}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Documents of the War of Independence (Vol 01–16)|publisher=Government of Bangladesh}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=M. Hamidullah Khan|title=Bangladesh, Ekatture Uttar Ronangaon (1971 Northern Front), - Factual War Accounts (in Bangla)|publisher=Barnatoru|location=Sector Commander 11, War of Independence<!--|isbn=984-626-47-2-->}}</ref>
|-
|style="background-color: #ffdab9;" align="center" | '''Sector '''
|style="background-color: #ffdab9;" align="center" width="200pt" | '''Area'''
|style="background-color: #ffdab9;" align="center" width="200pt" | '''Sector Commander'''
|style="background-color: #ffdab9;" align="center" | '''Sub Sectors (Commanders)'''
|-valign="top"
| '''1'''
|width="200pt"|], ], and the entire eastern area of the ] on the banks of the river ]. The headquarters of the sector was at Harina.
|width="120pt"|• Major ] (April 10, 1971&nbsp;– June 25, 1971)<br> • Captain Rafiqul Islam (June 28, 1971&nbsp;– February 14, 1972)
|
# Rishimukh (Captain Shamsul Islam);
# Sreenagar (Captain Matiur Rahman, Captain Mahfuzur Rahman);
# Manughat (Captain Mahfuzur Rahman);
# Tabalchhari (Sergeant Ali Hossain); and
# Dimagiri (Army Sergeant, name unknown to date).
|-valign="top"
| '''2'''
|width="200pt"|Districts of ], ], and ], and part of ].
|width="120pt"|• Major ] (April 10, 1971&nbsp;– September 22, 1971)<br> • Major ] (Sector Commander September 22, 1971&nbsp;– February 14, 1972)
|
# Gangasagar, Akhaura and Kasba (Mahbub, Lieutenant Farooq, and Lieutenant Humayun Kabir);
# Mandabhav (Captain Abdul hamid);
# Shalda-nadi (Mahmud Hasan);
# Matinagar (Lieutenant Didarul Alam);
# Nirbhoypur (Captain Akbar, Lieutenant Mahbub); and
# Rajnagar (Captain Jafar Imam, Captain Shahid, and Lieutenant Imamuzzaman)
|-valign="top"
| '''3'''
|width="200pt"|Area between Churaman Kathi (near Sreemangal) and ] in the north and Singerbil of ] in the south.
|width="120pt"|• Major K. M. Shafiullah (April 10, 1971&nbsp;– July 21, 1971)<br> • Captain ] (July 23, 1971&nbsp;– February 14, 1972)
|
# Asrambari (Captain Aziz, Captain Ejaz);
# Baghaibari (Captain Aziz, Captain Ejaz);
# Hatkata (Captain Matiur Rahman);
# Simla (Captain Matin);
# Panchabati (Captain Nasim);
# Mantala (Captain MSA Bhuyan);
# Vijoynagar (Captain MSA Bhuyan);
# Kalachhora (Lieutenant Majumdar);
# Kalkalia (Lieutenant Golam Helal Morshed); and
# Bamutia (Lieutenant Sayeed)
|-valign="top"
| '''4'''
|width="200pt"|Area from ] on the north to Kanaighat Police Station on the south along the 100 mile long border with ]. The headquarters of the sector was initially at Karimganj and later at Masimpur.
|width="120pt"|• Major ] (April 10, 1971&nbsp;– February 14, 1972)<br> • Captain A Rab
|
# Jalalpur (Mahbubur Rob Sadi);
# Barapunji (Captain A Rab & Lieutenant Amirul Haque Chowdhury);
# Amlasid (Lieutenant Zahir);
# Kukital (Flight Lieutenant Kader, Captain Shariful Haq);
# Kailas Shahar (Lieutenant Wakiuzzaman); and Fazlul Haque Chowdhury EX EPR(from April'71 - August '71)
# Kamalpur (Captain Enam)
|-valign="top"
| '''5'''
|width="200pt"|Area from Durgapur to Dawki (Tamabil) of ] and the entire area up to the eastern borders of the ]. The headquarters of the sector was at Banshtala.
|width="120pt"|• Major ] (April 10, 1971&nbsp;– February 14, 1972)
|
# Muktapur (Captain Qazi Faruq Ahmed, Subsector Commander, 16 June 1971 till 1 February 1972; Subedar Mujibur Rahman, Second in Command; Nayeb Subedar Nazir Hussain, Admin in charge(non-combatant))
# Dawki (Subedar Major BR Chowdhury, (non-combatant));
# Shela (Captain Helal);
# Bholaganj (Lieutenant Taheruddin Akhunji);
# Balat (Sergeant Ghani, Captain Salahuddin and Enamul Haq Chowdhury); and
# Barachhara (Captain Muslim Uddin).
# Captain Abdul Mutalib was in charge of Sangram Punji (Jaflong) until 10 May 1971
|-valign="top"
| '''6'''
|width="200pt"|] and part of ]. The headquarters of the sector was at Burimari near Patgram.
|width="120pt"|• Wing Commander ] (April 1971&nbsp;– February 14, 1972)
|
# Bhajanpur (Captain Nazrul, Flight Lieutenant Sadruddin and Captain Shahriyar);
# Patgram (initially divided between junior commissioned officers of the EPR and later taken hold by Captain Matiur Rahman);
# Sahebganj (Captain Nawazesh Uddin);
# Phulbari, Kurigram (Captain Abul Hossain)
# Mogalhat (Captain Delwar); and
# Chilahati (Flight Lieutenant Iqbal)
|-valign="top"
| ''7'''
|width="200pt"|], ], ] and part of ]. The headquarters of the sector was at Taranngapur.
|width="120pt"|• Major ] (April 10&nbsp;– August 20, 1971)<br> • Major ] (August 21&nbsp;– February 14, 1972)<br> • Subedar Major A Rab
|
# Malan (initially divided between junior commissioned officers and later taken hold by Captain Mohiuddin Jahangir);
# Tapan (Major ], also commanded by commanding officers of the ]);
# Mehdipur (Subedar Iliyas, Captain Mahiuddin Jahangir);
# Hamzapur (Captain Idris);
# Anginabad (unnamed freedom fighter);
# Sheikhpara (Captain Rashid);
# Thokrabari (Subedar Muazzam); and
# Lalgola (Captain Gheyasuddin Chowdhury).
|-valign="top"
| '''8'''
|width="200pt"|In April 1971, the operational area of the sector comprised the districts of ], ], ], ], ] and ]. At the end of May the sector was reconstituted and comprised the districts of Kuhstia, Jessore, Khulna, ] and the northern part of Faridpur district. The headquarters of the sector was at ].
|width="120pt"|• Major ] (April 10&nbsp;– July 17, 1971)<br> • Major ] (August 14, 1971&nbsp;– February 14, 1972)
|
# Boyra (Captain Khondakar Nazmul Huda);
# Hakimpur (Captain Shafiq Ullah);
# Bhomra (Captain Salahuddin, Captain Shahabuddin);
# Lalbazar (Captain AR Azam Chowdhury);
# Banpur (Captain Mostafizur Rahman);
# Benapole (Captain Abdul Halim, Captain ]); and
# Shikarpur (Captain Tawfiq-e-Elahi Chowdhury, Lieutenant Jahangir).
|-valign="top"
| '''9'''
|width="200pt"|], ], and parts of the district of ] and ].
|width="120pt"|• Major ] (July 17&nbsp;– December 24, 1971)<br> • Major MA Manzur<br> • Major Joynal Abedin
|
# Taki;
# Hingalganj; and
# Shamshernagar.
|-valign="top"
| '''10'''
|width="200pt"|This sector was constituted with the naval commandos.
|width="120pt"|• Commander ] (December 3–16, 1971)
|None.
|-valign="top"
| '''11'''
|width="200pt"|] and ] along with parts of ] - ], ], Kamalpur and ]. The headquarters of the sector was at Teldhala until October 10, then transferred to Mahendraganj.
|width="120pt"|• Major ] (June 26, 1971&nbsp;– October 10, 1971;<br> • Major ] (October 10, 1971&nbsp;– November 2, 1971;<br> • Squadron Leader ]) (November 2, 1971&nbsp;– February 14, 1972)
From October 10 until November 2, 1971, Major Abu Taher was temporarily appointed to this Sector as Major Zia was abruptly ordered to move with his Brigade to Sylhet Region. Due to accidental injury he suffered in his leg, he was transferred to Pune, India for treatment)
|
# Mankarchar (Squadron Leader ]);
# Mahendraganj (Major ]; Lieutenant Mannan);
# Purakhasia (Lieutenant Hashem);
# Dhalu (Lieutenant Taher; Lieutenant Kamal);
# Rangra (Matiur Rahman)
# Shivabari (divided between junior commissioned officers of the EPR);
# Bagmara (divided between junior commissioned officers of the EPR); and
# Maheshkhola (a member of the EPR).
|}


====July====
==Awards given to Mukti Bahini sepoys==
]
{{Main|Bir Sreshtho|Bir Uttom|Bir Bikrom|Bir Protik}}
The Mukti Bahini divided the war zone into ]. The war strategy included a huge guerrilla force operating inside Bangladesh that targeted Pakistani installations through raids, ]es and ] West Pakistani-controlled shipping ports, power plants, industries, railways and warehouses. The wide dispersion of West Pakistani forces allowed Bengali guerrillas to target smaller groups of enemy soldiers. Groups ranging in size from five to ten guerrillas were assigned specific missions. Bridges, ]s, fuel depots and ships were destroyed to decrease the mobility of the Pakistan Army.<ref name="Rahman1984p1"/>
However, the Mukti Bahini failed in its Monsoon Offensive after Pakistani reinforcements successfully countered Bengali engagements. Attacks on border outposts in Sylhet, Comilla and Mymensingh had limited success. The training period slowed the momentum of the Bangladesh Forces, which began to pick up after August.<ref>{{cite book |last=Roy |first=Mihir K. |year=1995 |title=War in the Indian Ocean |location=New Delhi |publisher=Lancer Publishers |page=154 |isbn=978-1-897829-11-0}}</ref> After the ], the Mukti Bahini became more effective while the Indian army created a number of bases inside East Pakistan for the Mukti Bahini.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Weisburd|first1=A. Mark|title=Use of force : the practice of states since World War II|year=1997|publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press|location=University Park, Pa.|isbn=978-0-271-01679-5}}</ref> The railways in East Pakistan were almost completely shut down due to the Mukti Bahini's sabotage. The provincial capital, Dhaka, had become a ghost town with gun-fire and explosions heard throughout the day.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hossain|first1=Mokerrom|title=From Protest to Freedom : The Birth of Bangladesh A Book for the New Generation|year=2010|publisher=Shahitya Prakash|isbn=9780615486956|pages=246}}</ref>


====August====
The '''Bir Sreshtho''' ({{lang-bn|বীরশ্রেষ্ঠ}}) (The Most Valiant Hero), is the highest award given to those who show utmost bravery and die in action for their nation. It was awarded to seven Mukti Bahini fighters. They were:
{{relevance inline|date=August 2016}}
# ]
# ]
# ]
# ]
# ]
# ]
# ]


After a visit to East Pakistan refugee camps in India in August 1971, US Senator ] believed that Pakistan was committing a genocide.<ref name="smh18Aug1971"/> ] called for Pakistan to attack India and to ] ] in retaliation for India providing help to the Mukti Bahini.<ref name="smh18Aug1971" /> Azam accused India of shelling East Pakistani border areas on a daily basis. ] predicted the deaths of over one hundred thousand children in refugee camps and that more could die from food shortages in East Pakistan because of the conflict.<ref name="smh18Aug1971">{{cite news |url=http://www.thedailystar.net/pakistan-guilty-of-genocide-54148 |title=Pakistan 'Guilty of Genocide' |work=The Sydney Morning Herald |date=18 August 1971 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180224112926/http://www.thedailystar.net/pakistan-guilty-of-genocide-54148 |archive-date=24 February 2018 |access-date=10 January 2016 |via=The Daily Star}}</ref>
The other three gallantry awards are, in decreasing order of importance, ], ] and ]. All of these awards were introduced immediately after the ] in 1971.<ref>The Bangladesh Gazette, 15 December 1973.</ref>


==Dissolution== ====September====
Regular Mukti Bahini battalions were formed in September 1971,<ref>{{cite news|last1=Mazumder|first1=Shahzaman|title=Songs of Freedom|url=http://www.thedailystar.net/literature/songs-freedom-185875|work=The Daily Star|access-date=9 January 2016|date=12 December 2015|archive-date=25 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151225130410/http://www.thedailystar.net/literature/songs-freedom-185875|url-status=live}}</ref> increasing the effectiveness of the Mukti Bahini. Sabotage and ambush missions continued to be carried out, demoralising the Pakistan army.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hiranandani|first1=G.M.|title=Transition to triumph : history of the Indian Navy, 1965–1975|year=2000|publisher=Lancer Publishers|location=New Delhi|isbn=9781897829721|pages=129}}</ref>
On 16 December 1971, the allied forces of the Mukti Bahini and the Indian army defeated the ] deployed in the East. The resulting surrender was the largest in number of prisoners of war since World War II. Mukti Bahini was succeeded by the ].

====October====
In October, conventional Bangladesh Forces mounted various successful offensives, capturing 90 of the 300 border outposts. The Mukti Bahini intensified ] inside Bangladesh while Pakistan increased reprisals on Bengali civilians,<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,878969-4,00.html |title=The World: Bangladesh: Out of War, a Nation Is Born |date=20 December 1971 |magazine=Time |url-access=subscription |access-date=27 August 2015 |archive-date=11 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151211023815/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,878969-4,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> though the movement of Mukti Bahini into, out of, and inside East Pakistan became easier and more common.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Zeitlin|first1=Arnold|title=East Pakistan Rebels Unafraid of Being Caught Or Identified|url=http://www.thedailystar.net/freedom-in-the-air/stories/59359|work=The Daily Star|access-date=10 January 2016|archive-date=23 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223072521/http://www.thedailystar.net/freedom-in-the-air/stories/59359|url-status=live}}</ref>

====November====
In November, Indian involvement increased, with the Indian ] and ] providing direct cover for the Mukti Bahini in some offensives.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sission|first1=Richard|last2=Rose|first2=Leo E.|title=War and secession : Pakistan, India, and the creation of Bangladesh|year=1991|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|isbn=9780520076655|pages=212}}</ref> Attacks on infrastructure and the increase in the reach of the provisional government weakened the control of the Pakistan government.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Islam|first1=Asif|title=God was with me. But so were a lot of people|url=http://www.dhakatribune.com/feature/2014/dec/16/%E2%80%98god-was-me-so-were-lot-people%E2%80%99|work=Dhaka Tribune|access-date=9 January 2016|archive-date=6 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160106175419/http://www.dhakatribune.com/feature/2014/dec/16/%E2%80%98god-was-me-so-were-lot-people%E2%80%99|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Air operations===

The ] (BAF) was established on 28 September 1971 under the command of ] ]. It initially operated from a jungle airstrip near ] in Nagaland, India. When taking over liberated territories, the Bangladesh Forces gained control of World War II airstrips in ], Shalutikar, ] and ] in November and December. The BAF launched "]" under the command of Squadron Leader Sultan Mahmud on 3 December 1971. ]s by Otter DHC-3 aircraft destroyed Pakistani fuel supplies in Narayanganj and Chittagong where targets included the Burmah Oil Refinery, numerous ships and oil depots.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.londoni.co/index.php/history-of-bangladesh?id=161|title=Muktijuddho (Bangladesh Liberation War 1971) part 37 – Bangladesh Biman Bahini (Bangladesh Air Force or BAF) – History of Bangladesh|work=Londoni|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151123093710/http://www.londoni.co/index.php/history-of-bangladesh?id=161|archive-date=23 November 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

===Naval operations===
The Bangladesh naval forces took shape in July. ] was launched by the Bangladesh Forces on 15 August 1971. ] commandos sank vessels of the ] in ], Chittagong, ] and ].<ref>{{cite book |last=Hossain |first=Abu Md. Delwar |year=2012 |chapter=Operation Jackpot |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Operation_Jackpot |editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=Sirajul |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=Ahmed A. |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |edition=Second |publisher=] |access-date=20 August 2015 |archive-date=23 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151123082200/http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Operation_Jackpot |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Naval Commandos in Operation Jackpot|url=http://www.thedailystar.net/supplements/independence-day-special-2015/submariners-heroism-and-the-first-military-response-france|work=The Daily Star|access-date=17 January 2016|date=26 March 2015|archive-date=27 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150327073557/http://www.thedailystar.net/supplements/independence-day-special-2015/submariners-heroism-and-the-first-military-response-france|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Zaman|first1=Imamuz|title=Bangladesh war of liberation|publisher=Columbia Prokashani|asin=B002G9R2YU|pages=102|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Jacob|first1=J. F. R.|title=An Odyssey in War and Peace|publisher=Roli Books Private Limited|isbn=9788174369338|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=99BbBAAAQBAJ&q=Operation+Jackpot+bangladesh+naval+commandoes&pg=PT101|language=en|date=2012|access-date=19 October 2020|archive-date=15 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231015182227/https://books.google.com/books?id=99BbBAAAQBAJ&q=Operation+Jackpot+bangladesh+naval+commandoes&pg=PT101|url-status=live}}</ref> The operation was a major propaganda success for Bangladeshi forces, as it exposed to the international community the fragile hold of the West Pakistani occupation.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Yusuf|first1=Mostafa|title=Operation Jackpot, a glorious chapter of the 1971 Liberation War|url=http://bdnews24.com/bangladesh/2015/12/16/operation-jackpot-a-glorious-chapter-of-the-1971-liberation-war|work=bdnews24.com|access-date=9 January 2016|archive-date=28 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160128032614/http://bdnews24.com/bangladesh/2015/12/16/operation-jackpot-a-glorious-chapter-of-the-1971-liberation-war|url-status=live}}</ref> The Bangladesh Navy commandos targeted patrol craft and ships carrying ammunition and commodities. With Indian aid, the Mukti Bahini acquired two vessels, the Padma and Palash, which were retrofitted into gunboats with ]-laying capabilities. The boat crews extensively mined the Passur River in the Sundarbans, reducing the ability of Pakistani forces to operate from the ] but were mistakenly bombed by Indian Air Force troops that resulted in the loss of both vessels and some of the lives of the Mukti Bahini and Indian personnel on board.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Khan|first1=Tamanna|title=Indian war veterans relive '71 glory days|url=http://www.thedailystar.net/backpage/indian-war-veterans-relive-71-glory-days-189028|work=The Daily Star|access-date=9 January 2016|date=18 December 2015|archive-date=25 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160125230937/http://www.thedailystar.net/backpage/indian-war-veterans-relive-71-glory-days-189028|url-status=live}}</ref> The developing Bangladesh Navy carried out attacks on ships and used ] to prevent ]s from docking in East Pakistani ports. ] were deployed to damage and sabotage ships.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Roy|first1=Mihir K.|title=War in the Indian Ocean|year=1995|publisher=Lancer Publishers|location=New Delhi|isbn=9781897829110|pages=169}}</ref>

===Bangladesh-India Allied Forces===
] signing the ] in ] on 16 December 1971, in the presence of India's ]. Standing behind them are various officers from India's Army, Navy and Air Force.]]

The launch of ] by West Pakistan on ] finally drew India into the Bangladesh conflict and a joint ] was established between the Bangladeshi and Indian forces. Three ] of the Indian Armed Forces were supported by three ]s of the Mukti Bahini and the Bengali guerrilla army. The Mukti Bahini and its supporters guided the Indian army and provided them with information about Pakistani troop movements.<ref>{{cite magazine|last1=Sachar|first1=Rajindar|title=Letting Bygones Be Bygones|url=http://www.outlookindia.com/article/letting-bygones-be-bygones/296302|magazine=Outlook India|access-date=9 January 2016|archive-date=6 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160106100730/http://www.outlookindia.com/article/letting-bygones-be-bygones/296302|url-status=live}}</ref> The Indian and Mukti Bahini greatly outnumbered the three Pakistani army divisions of East Pakistan. The ], the ], the ], the ] and the ] were major joint engagements for the Bangladeshi and Indian forces, who swiftly captured surrounding land by selectively engaging or bypassing heavily defended strongholds. For example, the ] airlifted Bangladeshi and Indian forces from ] to ] over Pakistani defences in ]. The cities of ], ], ], ], ] and ] quickly fell to the Mukti Bahini-Indian joint forces. In Dhaka, the Pakistan Army and its supporting militias began the ] and professionals in a final attempt to eliminate the Bengali ].{{citation needed|date=June 2019}} Historian ] writes that the Pakistani Army, and pro-Pakistani militias looted, raped, and killed civilians in East Pakistan.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Saikia|first1=Yasmin|year=2011|title=Women, War, and the Making of Bangladesh: Remembering 1971|publisher=Duke University Press|page=3|isbn=978-0-8223-5038-5}}</ref>
The Mukti Bahini liberated most of the ] by mid-December. In Western Pakistan, Indian forces advanced deep into Pakistani territory as the ] was subjected to a ] by the Indian Navy. Pakistani generals ] to the Mukti Bahini-Indian forces in Dhaka on 16 December 1971.<ref>{{cite book |last=Jacob |first=JFR |year=2000 |title=Surrender at Dacca: Birth of a Nation |location=Dhaka |publisher=University Press Ltd |isbn=984-05-1395-8}}</ref>

==Gafur Bahini==

''Gafur Bahini'' {{Efn|{{langx|bn|গফুর বাহিনী}}, romanized: Gaphura bāhinī}}<ref name="pa2Dec2021">{{Cite news |date=2 December 2021 |script-title=bn:গফুর বাহিনী |trans-title=Gafur Bahini |url=https://1971.prothomalo.com/sector-force/others-bahini/%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%80 |access-date=14 July 2024 |work=] |language=bn}}</ref><ref>{{Cite Banglapedia|article=War of Liberation, The}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.observerbd.com/news.php?id=251517|title=Crack Platoon of FF exchange fire with Pak army in Jinjira|last=Begum|first=Shahnaj|date=29 March 2020|language=en|access-date=3 October 2024|work=]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Khokon |first=Salek |script-title=bn:সেপ্টেম্বর ১৯৭১ |url=https://www.dw.com/bn/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A7%A7%E0%A7%AF%E0%A7%AD%E0%A7%A7-%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%9E%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95-%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%80-%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%80-%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A3-%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B7-%E0%A6%93-%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7/a-66956806 |work=] |date=29 March 2023 |language=bn}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sengupta |first=Nitish |title=Land of two rivers: a history of Bengal from the Mahabharata to Mujib |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kVSh_TyJ0YoC |year=2011 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-14-341678-4 |page=564 |quote=There were also several irregular forces ...; Latif Mirza Bahini of Sirajganj; Hemayat Bahini of Faridpur; Gafur Bahini of Barisal; and Aftab Bahini of Mymensingh. Taken together, these forces constituted the Mukti Fauj under the overall command of Colonel Osmani. They were later renamed 'Mukti Bahini'.}}</ref> was a militia that was formed in the beginning of the ]. Abdul Gafur, Mohiuddin Manik and Benilal Das Gupta took an initiative to create a force, that would fight Pakistani troops in ], It later on merged with the Force of Captain Shahjahan.<ref name="ds26Mar2019" /><ref name="pa2Dec2021" /> Initially, this force was intended to resist Pakistani rule in southern Barisal. Later on, the militia became known as the ''Gafur Bahini''. The group's weapons and ammunition support was given by Abul Hasnat Abdullah and help from commanders of the Kodaldoa Camp which was situated in ], Barisal.<ref name="ds26Mar2019" />

Gafur Bahini conducted successful guerilla operations in ], ], ], Swarupkathi and other various areas in Barisal. Gafur Bahini had coordination with the Mujib Bahini and conducted several operations with the Mujib Bahini.<ref name="pa2Dec2021" /><ref name="ds26Mar2019">{{Cite news |last=Hossain |first=Major General Md Sarwar |date=26 March 2019 |title=The irregular forces of Bangladesh Liberation War |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/supplements/independence-day-special-2019/news/the-irregular-forces-bangladesh-liberation-war-1719757 |access-date=14 July 2024 |work=] |language=en}}</ref> According to ''The Daily Star'', when Captain Shahjahan established his sub-sector in the southwestern area of Bangladesh, Gafur Bahini merged with his force. After the war, Abdul Gafur and Mohiuddin Manik were awarded ] for their contribution.<ref name="ds26Mar2019" />

==Organization==
{{See also|List of sectors in the Bangladesh Liberation War}}
]
The "Mukti Bahini" was divided into two groups; the "Niomito Bahini" {{endash}} or "regular forces" {{endash}} who came from the paramilitary, military and police forces of ], and the Gonnobahini {{endash}} or "people's forces" {{endash}} who were civilians. These names were given and defined by the ]. The Indians referred to the Niomito Bahini as "Mukti Fauj", and the Gonnobahini were called "freedom fighters".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Islam|first1=M. Rafiqul|title=A Tale of Millions: Bangladesh Liberation War, 1971|year=1981|publisher=Bangladesh Books International|pages=82}}</ref><ref name="cdrb.org" />

], a ] ] of the ] forces in ] and the Pakistan army, established the ] on 4 April 1971. The ] placed all Bangladeshi forces under the command of Osmani, who was appointed as the ] with the rank of ] as a ]. Osmani designated the composition of the Mukti Bahini into several divisions. It included the regular armed forces which covered the Army, Navy and Air Forces; as well as special brigades including the ]. Paramilitary forces, including the East Pakistan Rifles and police, were designated as the ''Niyomito Bahini'' (Regular Forces). They were divided between forward battalions and sector troops. Another civilian force was raised and known as the ''Gonobahini'' (People's Forces) consisting of lightly trained civilian brigades under military command; the Gonobahini also consisted of battalions created by political activists from the pro-Western ], the pro-Chinese and socialist ], led by ], and the pro-Soviet ].<ref name="Rahman1984p1">{{cite book |last=Rahman |first=Hasan Hafizur |year=1984 |script-title=bn:বাংলাদেশের স্বাধীনতা যুদ্ধ, দলিলপত্রঃ দশম খণ্ড |trans-title=History of Bangladesh War of Independence Documents, Vol-10 |publisher=Hakkani Publishers |pages=1–3 |language=bn |isbn=984-433-091-2}}</ref>

The guerrilla movement was composed of three wings: well-armed Action Groups which took part in frontal attacks; ] units; and guerrilla bases. The first conference of sector commanders was held during July 1971, starting on 11 July and ending 17 July. Prominent sector commanders included ] officers and soldiers from the Pakistan Armed Forces, including Major Ziaur Rahman, Major ], Major ], Captain ], Major ], Wing Commander ], Major ], Major ], Major ], Major ], Major ], Major ] and Squadron Leader ].<ref>List of Liberation War Sectors and Sector Commanders of Bangladesh (Gazette Notification No.8/25/D-1/72-1378), Ministry of Defence, Government of Bangladesh, 15 December 1973</ref> The ] was led by Awami League youth leaders ], ], ] and ]. An Australian war veteran, ], organised guerrilla warfare in Dacca and provided vital intelligence to the Bangladesh Forces. He was awarded the ] for his actions by the government of Bangladesh.<ref>{{cite news|title=William AS Ouderland Bir Protik remembered|url=http://archive.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details.php?nid=260236|work=The Daily Star|access-date=17 January 2016|date=7 December 2012|archive-date=5 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205162147/http://archive.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details.php?nid=260236|url-status=live}}</ref> Left-wing politicians ], ] and ] created several guerrilla units. Kader Siddique operated in the ].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Nair|first1=P. Sukumaran|title=Indo-Bangladesh Relations|publisher=APH Publishing|isbn=9788131304082|pages=93|language=en|year=2008}}</ref> Hemayet was a former soldier in East Pakistan and his Bahini was raised almost entirely on local supplies.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Zaman|first1=Imamuz|title=Bangladesh war of liberation|publisher=Columbia Prokashani|asin=B002G9R2YU|pages=90|language=en}}</ref>

The ] was one of the cultural wings of the Mukti Bahini. The Mukti Bahini operated ]s, wireless stations, training camps and prisons.{{citation needed|date=September 2016}}

==Equipment==
]s used by the ];<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thedailystar.net/news-detail-190997|title=Cannons used by Mujib Battery arrive|work=The Daily Star|access-date=22 April 2016|date=22 June 2011|archive-date=27 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170727122738/http://www.thedailystar.net/news-detail-190997|url-status=live}}</ref> now preserved at the Bangladesh Military Museum.]]
The Mukti Bahini benefited from the early control of Pakistani arms depots, which were overtaken by Bengali forces during March and April 1971. The Mukti Bahini purchased large quantities of military-grade equipment through the arms market in Calcutta, including Italian ], ] helicopters, ] aircraft and ] fighter planes.<ref>{{cite news|date=29 December 2017 |title=Arms for freedom|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/backpage/bangladesh-liberation-war-1971-muktijuddho-guerrilla-fighter-arms-freedom-1511812|work=The Daily Star|access-date=2019-08-31|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180407144902/http://www.thedailystar.net/backpage/bangladesh-liberation-war-1971-muktijuddho-guerrilla-fighter-arms-freedom-1511812|archive-date= April 7, 2018}}</ref> The Mukti Bahini also received a limited supply of equipment from the Indian military, as New Delhi allowed the Bangladeshi forces to operate an independent weapons supply through ].<ref name="Raghavan2013">{{cite book |last=Raghavan |first=Srinath |year=2013 |title=1971: A Global History of the Creation of Bangladesh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2S-wAQAAQBAJ |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-73127-1}}</ref> The Mukti Bahini used ]s, ] rifles and Indian-made ].<ref name="ds6Dec2014" /> Some of the arms and equipment used by Mukti Bahini are given below:
* ] Revolver
* ] rifle
* British ] rifle (Mostly obtained from India)
* ]
* ] Chinese assault rifle
* ] .303 Rifle
* British ] sub-machine gun
* ] Grenade
* ] Machinegun
* ] Mountain Howitzer
* ] gun
* British ]
* ]
* ] Czechoslovakian machine gun
* ]
* ]
* ] recoilless rifle
* ]
* ]
* Tula ] Pistol,
* Italian 9mm 3842 ] Sub-machine gun
* ]

==International reactions==
The ] caused widespread international outrage against West Pakistan.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Dummett|first1=Mark|title=Bangladesh war: The article that changed history|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-16207201|access-date=17 January 2016|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|date=16 December 2011|archive-date=8 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190508091712/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-16207201|url-status=live}}</ref> In the United States, ] senator ] led a chorus of strong domestic criticism against the ] for ignoring the genocide of Bengalis in East Pakistan.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Ahmed|first1=Saeed|title=In Bangladesh, Ted Kennedy revered|url=http://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/08/27/bangladesh.kennedy.impact/|publisher=CNN|access-date=17 January 2016|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304063305/http://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/08/27/bangladesh.kennedy.impact/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=J. Bass|first1=Gary|title=What a senator can do|url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/opinion/2013/11/29/what-senator-can/dehi8mBCmm0iu4lGmxzKAL/story.html|work=The Boston Globe|type=Opinion|access-date=17 January 2016|archive-date=10 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221210033006/https://www.bostonglobe.com/opinion/2013/11/29/what-senator-can/dehi8mBCmm0iu4lGmxzKAL/story.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

The Mukti Bahini enjoyed significant international public support. The Bangladeshi provisional government considered setting up an "International Brigade" with European and North American students.<ref name="Raghavan2013"/> French Minister of Cultural Affairs ] vowed to fight on the battlefield alongside the Bangladesh Forces.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/04/28/bernard-henri-levy-andre-malraux-s-bangladesh-before-the-radicals.html |title=Bernard-Henri Levy: Andre Malraux's Bangladesh, Before the Radicals |newspaper=The Daily Beast |date=28 April 2014 |last1=Lévy |first1=Bernard-Henri |access-date=27 August 2015 |archive-date=7 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407100546/http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/04/28/bernard-henri-levy-andre-malraux-s-bangladesh-before-the-radicals.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

The ] threw its weight behind the Bangladesh Forces and India after being convinced of Pakistan's unwillingness for a political solution.<ref name="Raghavan2013" /> Separately, US efforts to woo China through Pakistan led to India signing a ] with Moscow in August 1971. India increased support to Mukti Bahini after the signing of the treaty.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Jillani|first1=Shahzeb|title=Scars of Bangladesh independence war 40 years on|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-16111843|work=BBC News|access-date=15 February 2016|date=13 December 2011|archive-date=25 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160225225006/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-16111843|url-status=live}}</ref> For India, the treaty was an important insurance policy against a possible Chinese intervention on the side of Pakistan. China had fought a brief war with India in 1962. Both the US and China, however, ultimately failed to mobilise adequate support for Pakistan.<ref name="ds16Dec2012"/><ref name="ds15Dec2014"/>

===India===
Ten million Bengali refugees fled into neighbouring India because of famine and ravages of the Pakistan army,<ref name="Time Photo Gallery">{{Cite magazine|url=https://content.time.com/time/photogallery/0,29307,1844754,00.html|title=Bangladesh and Pakistan: The Forgotten War – Photo Essays|magazine=Time|access-date=31 March 2016|archive-date=1 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160401211942/http://content.time.com/time/photogallery/0,29307,1844754,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> where the regions of ], Tripura and the ] shared strong ], ] and ] links with East Pakistan. The war sparked an unprecedented level of unity in the Bengali-speaking world. There was strong support for Bengalis and Mukti Bahini from the Indian media and public.<ref name="Datta2012p28">{{cite book |last1=Datta |first1=Antara |year=2012 |title=Refugees and borders in South Asia : the great exodus of 1971 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |pages=28 |isbn=978-0-415-52472-8}}</ref> India feared that if the movement for Bangladesh came to be dominated by communists then it would adversely affect its own fight with the left-wing ]. It also did not want the millions of refugees to be permanently stranded in India.<ref name="Datta2012p28" />

Indian Prime Minister, ], authorised diplomatic, economic and military support to the Bangladesh Forces in April 1971.<ref>{{cite news |script-title=bn:বাংলাদেশের মুক্তিযুদ্ধে নিজেকে ওতপ্রোতভাবে জড়িয়ে ছিল ভারত, জেনে নিন ইতিহাস |url=https://thebengalichronicle.com/india-took-part-in-bangladesh-muktijuddho-by-leadership-of-indira-gandhi-prb/ |access-date=28 July 2022 |work=The Bengali Chronicle |date=16 December 2022 |archive-date=28 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220728110823/https://thebengalichronicle.com/india-took-part-in-bangladesh-muktijuddho-by-leadership-of-indira-gandhi-prb/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="dt17Dec2013"/> The Provisional Government of Bangladesh established its secretariat in exile in ]. The ] provided substantial training and the use of its bases for the Bangladesh Forces. The Bangladesh liberation guerrillas operated training camps in the Indian states of ], Arunachal Pradesh, ], Nagaland, ], Meghalaya, Tripura and West Bengal.<ref name="ds16Dec2012">{{cite news |last=Shelley |first=Mizanur Rahman |date=16 December 2012 |url=http://archive.thedailystar.net/suppliments/victory_day/2012/pg4.htm |title=Victory Day Special 2012 |work=The Daily Star |access-date=27 August 2015 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304101848/http://archive.thedailystar.net/suppliments/victory_day/2012/pg4.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="ds15Dec2014">{{cite news |last=Feroze |first=Shahriar |date=15 December 2014 |title=1971 – A Global History of the Creation of Bangladesh |url=http://www.thedailystar.net/1971-a-global-history-of-the-creation-of-bangladesh-55388 |newspaper=The Daily Star |access-date=27 August 2015 |archive-date=20 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151020213518/http://www.thedailystar.net/1971-a-global-history-of-the-creation-of-bangladesh-55388 |url-status=live }}</ref> Mukti Bahini were allowed by India to cross the border at will.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sagar|first1=Krishna Chandra|title=The war of the twins|year=1997|publisher=Northern Book Centre|location=New Delhi|isbn=9788172110826|pages=244}}</ref>

Some Mukti Bahini, especially those who served in the security services of Pakistan, were suspicious of Indian involvement and wished to minimise its role. They also resented the formation of the ] by India which was composed of ]-loyalists but was not under the command of Mukti Bahini or the provisional government of Bangladesh.<ref name="Alagappa2001p212" />

On 6 December 1971, India officially recognised Bangladesh as an independent country only hours after Bhutan did the same.<ref>{{cite news|title=Bhutan, not India, was first to recognize Bangladesh|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/south-asia/Bhutan-not-India-was-first-to-recognize-Bangladesh/articleshow/45434808.cms|work=The Times of India|agency=Press Trust of India|access-date=14 January 2016|archive-date=22 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180822045725/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/south-asia/Bhutan-not-India-was-first-to-recognize-Bangladesh/articleshow/45434808.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Women==
Women had served in the Mukti Bahini during the ]. The Mukti Bahini trained several female battalions for guerrilla warfare. ] is one of the two female wars heroes of the Bangladesh Liberation War. Captain ] is noted for setting up field hospitals for injured Mukti Bahini fighters.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://mukto-mona.com/Special_Event_/16December/courage161206.htm |title=The women in our liberation war: Tales of Endurance and Courage |last1=Amin |first1=Aasha Mehreen |last2=Ahmed |first2=Lavina Ambreen |last3=Ahsan |first3=Shamim |date=16 December 2006 |work=mukto-mona.com |access-date=27 August 2015 |archive-date=29 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150929121924/https://mukto-mona.com/Special_Event_/16December/courage161206.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Professor Nazma Shaheen, University of Dhaka, and her sister were female members in the Mukti Bahini.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gupta |first1=Jayanta |title=Women Mukti Joddhas recall guerrilla days |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/Women-Mukti-Joddhas-recall-guerrilla-days/articleshow/50212002.cms |work=The Times of India |date=17 December 2015 |access-date=10 January 2016 |archive-date=22 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222013028/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/Women-Mukti-Joddhas-recall-guerrilla-days/articleshow/50212002.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Post-war==
]
The Mukti Bahini was succeeded by the Bangladesh Armed Forces, the ] and the ]. Civilian fighters were provided with numerous privileges, including reservations in government jobs and universities.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bangladesh reducing age limit for freedom fighters to below 13 |url=http://news.asiaone.com/news/asia/bangladesh-reducing-age-limit-freedom-fighters-below-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160217045242/http://news.asiaone.com/news/asia/bangladesh-reducing-age-limit-freedom-fighters-below-13 |url-status=dead |archive-date=17 February 2016 |website=AsiaOne |date=21 December 2015 |access-date=17 January 2016}}</ref> The Bangladesh Freedom Fighters Assembly was formed to represent former guerrillas. ] is responsible for looking after the welfare of Mukti Bahini members.<ref>{{cite news |title=No extension on freedom fighters' retirement age |url=http://www.thedailystar.net/country/freedom-fighters%E2%80%99-retirement-age-raised-60-203566 |work=The Daily Star |date=18 January 2016 |access-date=18 January 2016 |archive-date=20 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160120221046/http://www.thedailystar.net/country/freedom-fighters%E2%80%99-retirement-age-raised-60-203566 |url-status=live }}</ref> The widespread availability of arms created serious law and order concerns for the Bangladesh government after the war. A few militia units are alleged to have taken part in reprisal attacks against the Urdu-speaking population following the Pakistani surrender.<ref name="tni17May2016">{{cite news|last1=Zia|first1=Kamran|title=Politics of genocide in Bangladesh|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/120457-Politics-of-genocide-in-Bangladesh|access-date=28 September 2016|work=The News International|date=17 May 2016|archive-date=27 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160927063538/https://www.thenews.com.pk//print/120457-Politics-of-genocide-in-Bangladesh|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Indemnity===
On 28 February 1973 the ] enacted the National Liberation Struggle (Indemnity) Order to provide indemnity "to those persons in respect of acts done in connection with the national liberation struggle, the maintenance or restoration of order" which was to be enforced retrospectively from 26 March 1972.<ref name="tni17May2016" />

==Criticism==

=== Human rights violations ===
The Mukti Bahini has been accused of human rights violations by historians on ] and ].<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite news |last=Khan |first=Engr Imtiaz Alam |date=2019-12-15 |title=History: The Fall of Dhaka from Biharai Eyes |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1522385 |access-date=2022-03-20 |work=Dawn |language=en |archive-date=2 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230102052156/https://www.dawn.com/news/1522385 |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 27 March 1971, members of the Mukti Bahini were alleged to have ] 15000 ] in the town of ] in the district of ]<ref>{{Cite news |date=2017-12-15 |title=Fall of Dhaka: How Mukti Bahini 'cleansed' Santahar town of non-Bengalis |url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/1585095/1-mukti-bahini-cleansed-santahar-non-bengalis |access-date=2022-02-27 |work=The Express Tribune |language=en |archive-date=28 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220228044551/https://tribune.com.pk/story/1585095/1-mukti-bahini-cleansed-santahar-non-bengalis |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mukul |first=M.R. Akhtar |title=Ami Bijoy Dekhechi' (I have seen victory) |location=Dhaka}}</ref> They are also accused of raping ] women during the war.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=The Untold Stories of the Independence War in Bangladesh |url=https://jacobinmag.com/2021/04/independence-war-bangladesh-pakistan-india |access-date=2022-03-20 |website=jacobinmag.com |language=en-US |archive-date=27 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220527065621/https://jacobinmag.com/2021/04/independence-war-bangladesh-pakistan-india |url-status=live }}</ref>

Mukti Bahini, the Bengali resistance force, backed by Indian government, from East Pakistan, killed non-Bengalis (primarily West Pakistanis and Biharis) in the aftermath of the Bangladesh Liberation War.<ref>]</ref>{{circular reference|date=October 2023}}

==Legacy==
===Cultural===
] in Bangladesh]]
{{See also|Artistic depictions of the Bangladesh Liberation War}}
The Mukti Bahini has been the subject of numerous ], literature, films and television productions.

===Honours===
] (The Most Valiant Hero) is the highest military honour in Bangladesh and was awarded to seven Mukti Bahini fighters. They were ], ], ], ], ], ] and ].<ref>{{cite news|title=War heroes honoured|url=http://archive.thedailystar.net/newDesign/story.php?nid=115066|work=The Daily Star|agency=UNB|access-date=17 January 2016|date=21 November 2009|archive-date=18 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150618131138/http://archive.thedailystar.net/newDesign/story.php?nid=115066|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The other three gallantry awards in decreasing order of importance are ], ] and ].<ref>The Bangladesh Gazette, 15 December 1973.</ref>

In the Section 2(11) of the ''] Act, 2018 (Act No. 51 of 2018)'' everyone participated in the liberation war is defined as '''Bir Muktijoddha''' (]: বীর মুক্তিযোদ্ধা).<ref>{{Cite web |script-title=bn:বাংলাদেশ মুক্তিযোদ্ধা কল্যাণ ট্রাস্ট আইন, ২০১৮ {{!}} ২। সংজ্ঞা |url=http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-1266/section-47807.html |access-date=2022-09-08 |website=bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd |archive-date=8 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220908202612/http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-1266/section-47807.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The government issued an order by gazette notification on 29 October 2020 saying that the word Bir (heroic) will have to be added to the term freedom fighter.<ref>{{Cite news |script-title=bn:মুক্তিযোদ্ধাদের নামের আগে 'বীর' লেখার বিধান করে গেজেট প্রকাশ |url=https://www.banglatribune.com/national/650058/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%87-%E2%80%98%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%B0%E2%80%99-%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%96%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8-%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%87 |access-date=2022-09-08 |work=Bangla Tribune |language=bn |archive-date=8 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220908202613/https://www.banglatribune.com/national/650058/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%87-%E2%80%98%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%B0%E2%80%99-%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%96%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8-%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%87 |url-status=live }}</ref> To compulsorily comply with the law, in the 13th meeting of the Standing Committee, the ] of the ] issued another order by gazette notification on 18 December 2021 stating that the word Bir (heroic) must be used as an honorific prefix before the names of freedom fighters and the English synonym for Bir Muktijoddha will be '''Heroic Freedom Fighter'''.<ref>{{Cite news |script-title=bn:'বীর মুক্তিযোদ্ধা'র ইংরেজি প্রতিশব্দ নির্ধারণ করে গেজেট |url=https://www.jagonews24.com/national/news/724472 |access-date=2022-09-08 |work=jagonews24.com |language=bn |archive-date=8 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220908202610/https://www.jagonews24.com/national/news/724472 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==See also==
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}


==References== ==References==
{{reflist|2}} {{Reflist|30em}}


== Further reading == == Further reading ==
* {{cite book|author=Helal Uddin Ahmed|chapter=Mukti Bahini|url=http://www.banglapedia.org/HT/M_0380.HTM|title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh|editor=Sirajul Islam|publisher=]|year=}} * {{cite book |last=Ahmed |first=Helal Uddin |year=2012 |chapter=Mukti Bahini |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Mukti_Bahini |editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=Sirajul |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=Ahmed A. |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |edition=Second |publisher=]}}
* {{cite book |last=Ayub |first=Muhammad |title=An Army, its Role and Rule: A History of the Pakistan Army from Independence to Kargil, 1947–1999 |location=Pittsburgh, PA |publisher=RoseDog Books |year=2005 |isbn=0-8059-9594-3}}

{{Bangladesh Liberation War}}


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Latest revision as of 17:41, 6 December 2024

Bengali guerrilla movement in East Pakistan

Mukti Bahini
মুক্তিবাহিনী (Freedom Fighters)
Mukti Bahini Flag
LeadersM. A. G. Osmani, Commander-in-Chief
M. A. Rab, Chief of Staff
A K Khandker, Deputy Chief of Staff
Dates of operationMarch–December 1971
Group(s)Bangladesh Army
 ∟ K Force
 ∟ S Force
 ∟ Z Force
Bangladesh Navy
Bangladesh Air Force
Bangladesh Rifles
Bangladesh Ansar
Bangladesh Police
Special Guerrilla Forces
 ∟ Gono Bahini
 ∟ Mujib Bahini
 ∟ Kader Bahini
 ∟ Hemayet Bahini
 ∟ Afsar Bahini
Crack Platoon
MotivesIndependence of Bangladesh
Active regionsEast Pakistan
IdeologyBengali nationalism
Republicanism
Size105,000
Part ofProvisional Government of Bangladesh
Allies India
 Soviet Union
Opponents Pakistan
Battles and warsBattle of Gazipur
Battle of Goalhati
Battle of Garibpur
Battle of Kamalpur
Battle of Dhalai
Battle of Rangamati
Battle of Kushtia
Battle of Daruin
Operation Barisal
Operation Jackpot
Battles of Belonia Bulge
Operation Hotel Intercontinental (Conducted via Crack Platoon)
War flag
Succeeded by
Bangladesh Armed Forces
Bangladesh Liberation War
CPB-NAP-BSU resistance
Mukti Bahini resistance
Indian intervention

Bangladesh genocide

Systematic events


§ indicates events in the internal resistance movement linked to the Indo-Pakistani War.
indicates events in the Indo-Pakistani War linked to the internal resistance movement in Bangladesh.

The Mukti Bahini (Bengali: মুক্তি বাহিনী, romanizedMukti Bahinee), also known as the Bangladesh Forces, was the guerrilla resistance movement consisting of the Bangladeshi military, paramilitary and civilians during the Bangladesh Liberation War that transformed East Pakistan into Bangladesh in 1971. They were initially called the Mukti Fauj.

On 7 March 1971, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman issued a call to the people of East Pakistan to prepare themselves for an all-out struggle. Later that evening resistance demonstrations began, and the West Pakistani military began a full-scale retaliation with Operation Searchlight in the early hours of 26 March 1971, which continued through May 1971.

A formal military leadership of the resistance was created in April 1971 under the Provisional Government of Bangladesh. The military council was headed by General M. A. G. Osmani and eleven sector commanders. The Bangladesh Armed Forces were established on 4 April 1971. The most prominent divisions of the Mukti Bahini were the Z Force led by Major Ziaur Rahman, the K Force led by Major Khaled Mosharraf and the S Force led by Major K M Shafiullah. Awami League student leaders formed militia units, including the Mujib Bahini, the Kader Bahini and Hemayet Bahini. The Communist Party of Bangladesh, led by Comrade Moni Singh, and activists from the National Awami Party also operated several guerrilla battalions.

Using guerrilla warfare tactics, the Mukti Bahini secured control over large parts of the Bengali countryside. It conducted successful "ambush and sabotage" campaigns, and included the nascent Bangladesh Air Force and the Bangladesh Navy. The Mukti Bahini received training and weapons from India, where people in West Bengal shared a common Bengali ethnic and linguistic heritage with East Pakistan.

During the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, the Mukti Bahini became part of the Bangladesh-India Allied Forces. It was instrumental in securing the Surrender of Pakistan and the liberation of Dhaka and other cities in December 1971.

History

Background

East Pakistan campaigned against the usage of Urdu as the sole official language of Pakistan. The Awami League had won the majority in the 1970 Pakistani general election. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, as the leader of the Awami League, was prevented from forming a government. Bengali was the only language in Pakistan not written in the Persian-Arabic script. The merger of the provinces of West Pakistan into one administrative "unit" caused great suspicion in East Pakistan. Pakistan's unwillingness to give autonomy to East Bengal and Bengali nationalism are both cited as reasons for the separation. The 1970 Bhola Cyclone had caused the death of at least 200,000 and possibly as many as 500,000 people while the infrastructure, transport and other services were severely damaged. The central government of Pakistan was blamed for a slow relief response, which created resentment in the population of East Pakistan. The resentment helped the Awami League to win 167 of the 169 parliamentary seats allocated to East Pakistan which made the Awami League the majority party in the 313 seat parliament of Pakistan. After the 1970 elections, Yahya Khan hoped for a power sharing agreement between Mujib and Bhutto, though talks between them did not result in a solution. Mujib wanted full autonomy, Bhutto advised Yahya to break off talks. On 1 March 1971, General Yahya Khan suspended the National Assembly of Pakistan which was scheduled to be held on 3 March 1971.

On 7 March 1971, Sheikh Mujib made his now famous speech in Ramna Race course (Suhrawardy Udyan) where he declared "The struggle this time is for our freedom. The struggle this time is for our independence". East Pakistan television broadcasters started broadcasting Rabindranath songs, a taboo in Pakistan, while reducing the air-time of shows from West Pakistan. Civilian interaction with the Pakistan Army were decreased and they were increasingly seen as an occupying force, while local contractors stopped providing supplies to the Pakistan Army. The Pakistan Army also tried to disarm and dismiss personnel of Bengali origin in the East Pakistan Rifles, the police and the regular army. The Bengali officers mutinied against the Pakistan Army, and attacked officers from West Pakistan. The Pakistan Army's crackdown on the civilian population contributed to the revolt of East Pakistani soldiers, who escaped to India and formed the main body of the Mukti Bahini. Sheikh Mujib on 26 March 1971 declared the independence of Bangladesh, while Pakistan's president Yahya Khan declared Mujib a traitor during a national broadcast on the same day. The Pakistan Army moved infantry and armoured units to East Pakistan in preparation for the coming conflicts.

Early resistance

Flag of Bangladesh in 1971, used during the Bangladesh Liberation War.

On 25 March, martial law was declared, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was arrested and Operation Searchlight started in East Pakistan. Foreign journalists were expelled and the Awami League was banned. Members of the Awami league, the East Pakistan Rifles, the East Bengal Regiment and others thought to be disloyal to Pakistan were attacked by the Pakistan army. The survivors of the attack would form the backbone of the Mukti Bahini. When the Pakistan Army started the military crackdown on the Bengali population, they did not expect prolonged resistance. Five battalions of the East Bengal Regiment mutinied and initiated the war for liberation of Bangladesh.

On 27 March, on behalf of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, Major Ziaur Rahman declared Bangladesh's independence from Pakistan and fought his way out of Chittagong City with his unit of Bengali soldiers. In Dhaka, West Pakistani forces began the 1971 Bangladesh genocide with the massacre at Dhaka University. Civilians took control of arms depots in various cities and began resisting Pakistani forces with the acquired weapons supply. Chittagong experienced heavy fighting between rebel Bengali military units and Pakistani forces. The Bangladeshi Declaration of Independence was broadcast from Kalurghat Radio Station in Chittagong by Major Rahman on behalf of Sheikh Rahman.

Bengali forces took control of numerous districts in the initial months of the war, including Brahmanbaria, Faridpur, Barisal, Mymensingh, Comilla and Kushtia among others. With the support of the local population, many towns remained under the control of Bengali forces until April and May 1971. Notable engagements during this period included the Battle of Kamalpur, the Battle of Daruin and the Battle of Rangamati-Mahalchari waterway in the Chittagong Hill Tracts.

On 18 April, the Deputy High Commission of Pakistan in Kolkata defected and hoisted the flag of Bangladesh. On 17 April, the Mujibnagar Government was formed.

During May, Foreign Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto asked General Yahya Khan to hand over power in West Pakistan to his party. Khan refused on the grounds that doing so would support the view of Mukti Bahini and the Provisional Government of Bangladesh that East Pakistan was a colony of West Pakistan. Tensions were raised when Bhutto told his followers that "by November would either be in power or in jail".

On 9 June, Mukti Bahini members hijacked a car and launched a grenade attack on Dhaka Intercontinental Hotel, the office of the Pro-Junta Morning Post and the house of Golam Azam.

July–November

July

Location of West Pakistani (marked green) and rebel Bangladeshi (marked red) military units in March 1971.

The Mukti Bahini divided the war zone into eleven sectors. The war strategy included a huge guerrilla force operating inside Bangladesh that targeted Pakistani installations through raids, ambushes and sabotaging West Pakistani-controlled shipping ports, power plants, industries, railways and warehouses. The wide dispersion of West Pakistani forces allowed Bengali guerrillas to target smaller groups of enemy soldiers. Groups ranging in size from five to ten guerrillas were assigned specific missions. Bridges, culverts, fuel depots and ships were destroyed to decrease the mobility of the Pakistan Army. However, the Mukti Bahini failed in its Monsoon Offensive after Pakistani reinforcements successfully countered Bengali engagements. Attacks on border outposts in Sylhet, Comilla and Mymensingh had limited success. The training period slowed the momentum of the Bangladesh Forces, which began to pick up after August. After the monsoon, the Mukti Bahini became more effective while the Indian army created a number of bases inside East Pakistan for the Mukti Bahini. The railways in East Pakistan were almost completely shut down due to the Mukti Bahini's sabotage. The provincial capital, Dhaka, had become a ghost town with gun-fire and explosions heard throughout the day.

August

After a visit to East Pakistan refugee camps in India in August 1971, US Senator Ted Kennedy believed that Pakistan was committing a genocide. Golam Azam called for Pakistan to attack India and to annexe Assam in retaliation for India providing help to the Mukti Bahini. Azam accused India of shelling East Pakistani border areas on a daily basis. Oxfam predicted the deaths of over one hundred thousand children in refugee camps and that more could die from food shortages in East Pakistan because of the conflict.

September

Regular Mukti Bahini battalions were formed in September 1971, increasing the effectiveness of the Mukti Bahini. Sabotage and ambush missions continued to be carried out, demoralising the Pakistan army.

October

In October, conventional Bangladesh Forces mounted various successful offensives, capturing 90 of the 300 border outposts. The Mukti Bahini intensified guerrilla attacks inside Bangladesh while Pakistan increased reprisals on Bengali civilians, though the movement of Mukti Bahini into, out of, and inside East Pakistan became easier and more common.

November

In November, Indian involvement increased, with the Indian artillery and Indian Air force providing direct cover for the Mukti Bahini in some offensives. Attacks on infrastructure and the increase in the reach of the provisional government weakened the control of the Pakistan government.

Air operations

The Bangladesh Air Force (BAF) was established on 28 September 1971 under the command of Air Commodore A. K. Khandker. It initially operated from a jungle airstrip near Dimapur in Nagaland, India. When taking over liberated territories, the Bangladesh Forces gained control of World War II airstrips in Lalmonirhat, Shalutikar, Sylhet and Comilla in November and December. The BAF launched "Kilo Flights" under the command of Squadron Leader Sultan Mahmud on 3 December 1971. Sorties by Otter DHC-3 aircraft destroyed Pakistani fuel supplies in Narayanganj and Chittagong where targets included the Burmah Oil Refinery, numerous ships and oil depots.

Naval operations

The Bangladesh naval forces took shape in July. Operation Jackpot was launched by the Bangladesh Forces on 15 August 1971. Bangladesh Navy commandos sank vessels of the Pakistan Navy in Mongla, Chittagong, Chandpur and Narayanganj. The operation was a major propaganda success for Bangladeshi forces, as it exposed to the international community the fragile hold of the West Pakistani occupation. The Bangladesh Navy commandos targeted patrol craft and ships carrying ammunition and commodities. With Indian aid, the Mukti Bahini acquired two vessels, the Padma and Palash, which were retrofitted into gunboats with mine-laying capabilities. The boat crews extensively mined the Passur River in the Sundarbans, reducing the ability of Pakistani forces to operate from the Port of Mongla but were mistakenly bombed by Indian Air Force troops that resulted in the loss of both vessels and some of the lives of the Mukti Bahini and Indian personnel on board. The developing Bangladesh Navy carried out attacks on ships and used sea mines to prevent supply ships from docking in East Pakistani ports. Frogmen were deployed to damage and sabotage ships.

Bangladesh-India Allied Forces

Pakistan's Lt. Gen. A. A. K. Niazi signing the Pakistani Instrument of Surrender in Dhaka on 16 December 1971, in the presence of India's Lt. Gen. Aurora. Standing behind them are various officers from India's Army, Navy and Air Force.

The launch of Operation Chengiz Khan by West Pakistan on North India finally drew India into the Bangladesh conflict and a joint command structure was established between the Bangladeshi and Indian forces. Three corps of the Indian Armed Forces were supported by three brigades of the Mukti Bahini and the Bengali guerrilla army. The Mukti Bahini and its supporters guided the Indian army and provided them with information about Pakistani troop movements. The Indian and Mukti Bahini greatly outnumbered the three Pakistani army divisions of East Pakistan. The Battle of Sylhet, the Battle of Garibpur, the Battle of Boyra, the Battle of Hilli and the Battle of Kushtia were major joint engagements for the Bangladeshi and Indian forces, who swiftly captured surrounding land by selectively engaging or bypassing heavily defended strongholds. For example, the Meghna Heli Bridge airlifted Bangladeshi and Indian forces from Brahmanbaria to Narsingdi over Pakistani defences in Ashuganj. The cities of Jessore, Mymensingh, Sylhet, Kushtia, Noakhali and Moulvibazar quickly fell to the Mukti Bahini-Indian joint forces. In Dhaka, the Pakistan Army and its supporting militias began the mass murder of Bengali intellectuals and professionals in a final attempt to eliminate the Bengali intelligentsia. Historian Yasmin Saikia writes that the Pakistani Army, and pro-Pakistani militias looted, raped, and killed civilians in East Pakistan. The Mukti Bahini liberated most of the Dhaka District by mid-December. In Western Pakistan, Indian forces advanced deep into Pakistani territory as the Port of Karachi was subjected to a naval blockade by the Indian Navy. Pakistani generals surrendered to the Mukti Bahini-Indian forces in Dhaka on 16 December 1971.

Gafur Bahini

Gafur Bahini was a militia that was formed in the beginning of the Bangladesh War of Independence. Abdul Gafur, Mohiuddin Manik and Benilal Das Gupta took an initiative to create a force, that would fight Pakistani troops in Barisal, It later on merged with the Force of Captain Shahjahan. Initially, this force was intended to resist Pakistani rule in southern Barisal. Later on, the militia became known as the Gafur Bahini. The group's weapons and ammunition support was given by Abul Hasnat Abdullah and help from commanders of the Kodaldoa Camp which was situated in Agailjhara, Barisal.

Gafur Bahini conducted successful guerilla operations in Banaripara, Jhalakathi, Pirojpur, Swarupkathi and other various areas in Barisal. Gafur Bahini had coordination with the Mujib Bahini and conducted several operations with the Mujib Bahini. According to The Daily Star, when Captain Shahjahan established his sub-sector in the southwestern area of Bangladesh, Gafur Bahini merged with his force. After the war, Abdul Gafur and Mohiuddin Manik were awarded Bir Protik for their contribution.

Organization

See also: List of sectors in the Bangladesh Liberation War
Mukti Bahini propaganda posters, one referencing Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's 7 March speech and calling all Bengali Muslims, Christians, Buddhists and Hindus to unite as one nation.

The "Mukti Bahini" was divided into two groups; the "Niomito Bahini" – or "regular forces" – who came from the paramilitary, military and police forces of East Pakistan, and the Gonnobahini – or "people's forces" – who were civilians. These names were given and defined by the government of Bangladesh. The Indians referred to the Niomito Bahini as "Mukti Fauj", and the Gonnobahini were called "freedom fighters".

M. A. G. Osmani, a Bengali veteran of the British Raj forces in World War II and the Pakistan army, established the Bangladesh Armed Forces on 4 April 1971. The Provisional Government of Bangladesh placed all Bangladeshi forces under the command of Osmani, who was appointed as the defence minister with the rank of Commander-in-Chief as a four star general. Osmani designated the composition of the Mukti Bahini into several divisions. It included the regular armed forces which covered the Army, Navy and Air Forces; as well as special brigades including the Z Force. Paramilitary forces, including the East Pakistan Rifles and police, were designated as the Niyomito Bahini (Regular Forces). They were divided between forward battalions and sector troops. Another civilian force was raised and known as the Gonobahini (People's Forces) consisting of lightly trained civilian brigades under military command; the Gonobahini also consisted of battalions created by political activists from the pro-Western Awami League, the pro-Chinese and socialist National Awami Party, led by Maulana Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani, and the pro-Soviet Communist Party of East Pakistan.

The guerrilla movement was composed of three wings: well-armed Action Groups which took part in frontal attacks; military intelligence units; and guerrilla bases. The first conference of sector commanders was held during July 1971, starting on 11 July and ending 17 July. Prominent sector commanders included defector officers and soldiers from the Pakistan Armed Forces, including Major Ziaur Rahman, Major Khaled Mosharraf, Major K M Shafiullah, Captain A. N. M. Nuruzzaman, Major Chitta Ranjan Dutta, Wing Commander M Khademul Bashar, Major Nazmul Huq, Major Quazi Nuruzzaman, Major Abu Osman Chowdhury, Major Abul Manzoor, Major M. A. Jalil, Major Abu Taher and Squadron Leader M. Hamidullah Khan. The Mujib Bahini was led by Awami League youth leaders Serajul Alam Khan, Sheikh Fazlul Huq Moni, Tofael Ahmed and Abdur Razzak. An Australian war veteran, William A. S. Ouderland, organised guerrilla warfare in Dacca and provided vital intelligence to the Bangladesh Forces. He was awarded the Bir Protik for his actions by the government of Bangladesh. Left-wing politicians Kader Siddique, Hemayet Uddin and Moni Singh created several guerrilla units. Kader Siddique operated in the Tangail District. Hemayet was a former soldier in East Pakistan and his Bahini was raised almost entirely on local supplies.

The Independent Bangladesh Radio Station was one of the cultural wings of the Mukti Bahini. The Mukti Bahini operated field hospitals, wireless stations, training camps and prisons.

Equipment

Italian howitzers used by the Mujib Battery; now preserved at the Bangladesh Military Museum.

The Mukti Bahini benefited from the early control of Pakistani arms depots, which were overtaken by Bengali forces during March and April 1971. The Mukti Bahini purchased large quantities of military-grade equipment through the arms market in Calcutta, including Italian howitzers, Alouette III helicopters, "Dakota" DC-3 aircraft and "Otter" DHC-3 fighter planes. The Mukti Bahini also received a limited supply of equipment from the Indian military, as New Delhi allowed the Bangladeshi forces to operate an independent weapons supply through Calcutta Port. The Mukti Bahini used Sten Guns, Lee–Enfield rifles and Indian-made hand grenades. Some of the arms and equipment used by Mukti Bahini are given below:

International reactions

The genocide by Pakistani forces caused widespread international outrage against West Pakistan. In the United States, Democratic senator Ted Kennedy led a chorus of strong domestic criticism against the Nixon administration for ignoring the genocide of Bengalis in East Pakistan.

The Mukti Bahini enjoyed significant international public support. The Bangladeshi provisional government considered setting up an "International Brigade" with European and North American students. French Minister of Cultural Affairs André Malraux vowed to fight on the battlefield alongside the Bangladesh Forces.

The Soviet Union threw its weight behind the Bangladesh Forces and India after being convinced of Pakistan's unwillingness for a political solution. Separately, US efforts to woo China through Pakistan led to India signing a friendship treaty with Moscow in August 1971. India increased support to Mukti Bahini after the signing of the treaty. For India, the treaty was an important insurance policy against a possible Chinese intervention on the side of Pakistan. China had fought a brief war with India in 1962. Both the US and China, however, ultimately failed to mobilise adequate support for Pakistan.

India

Ten million Bengali refugees fled into neighbouring India because of famine and ravages of the Pakistan army, where the regions of West Bengal, Tripura and the Barak Valley shared strong ethnic, linguistic and cultural links with East Pakistan. The war sparked an unprecedented level of unity in the Bengali-speaking world. There was strong support for Bengalis and Mukti Bahini from the Indian media and public. India feared that if the movement for Bangladesh came to be dominated by communists then it would adversely affect its own fight with the left-wing Naxalites. It also did not want the millions of refugees to be permanently stranded in India.

Indian Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi, authorised diplomatic, economic and military support to the Bangladesh Forces in April 1971. The Provisional Government of Bangladesh established its secretariat in exile in Calcutta. The Indian Armed Forces provided substantial training and the use of its bases for the Bangladesh Forces. The Bangladesh liberation guerrillas operated training camps in the Indian states of Bihar, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Nagaland, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Tripura and West Bengal. Mukti Bahini were allowed by India to cross the border at will.

Some Mukti Bahini, especially those who served in the security services of Pakistan, were suspicious of Indian involvement and wished to minimise its role. They also resented the formation of the Mujib Bahini by India which was composed of Sheikh Mujib-loyalists but was not under the command of Mukti Bahini or the provisional government of Bangladesh.

On 6 December 1971, India officially recognised Bangladesh as an independent country only hours after Bhutan did the same.

Women

Women had served in the Mukti Bahini during the Bangladesh Liberation War. The Mukti Bahini trained several female battalions for guerrilla warfare. Taramon Bibi is one of the two female wars heroes of the Bangladesh Liberation War. Captain Sitara Begum is noted for setting up field hospitals for injured Mukti Bahini fighters. Professor Nazma Shaheen, University of Dhaka, and her sister were female members in the Mukti Bahini.

Post-war

Aparajeyo Bangla (Invincible Bengal) was finished on 16 December 1978 by Syed Abdullah Khalid at University of Dhaka Campus, is a Monument to Mukti Bahini.

The Mukti Bahini was succeeded by the Bangladesh Armed Forces, the Bangladesh Rifles and the Bangladesh Police. Civilian fighters were provided with numerous privileges, including reservations in government jobs and universities. The Bangladesh Freedom Fighters Assembly was formed to represent former guerrillas. Bangladesh Liberation War ministry is responsible for looking after the welfare of Mukti Bahini members. The widespread availability of arms created serious law and order concerns for the Bangladesh government after the war. A few militia units are alleged to have taken part in reprisal attacks against the Urdu-speaking population following the Pakistani surrender.

Indemnity

On 28 February 1973 the government of Bangladesh enacted the National Liberation Struggle (Indemnity) Order to provide indemnity "to those persons in respect of acts done in connection with the national liberation struggle, the maintenance or restoration of order" which was to be enforced retrospectively from 26 March 1972.

Criticism

Human rights violations

The Mukti Bahini has been accused of human rights violations by historians on West Pakistanis and Biharis.

On 27 March 1971, members of the Mukti Bahini were alleged to have massacred 15000 Biharis in the town of Santahar in the district of Naogaon. They are also accused of raping Bihari women during the war.

Mukti Bahini, the Bengali resistance force, backed by Indian government, from East Pakistan, killed non-Bengalis (primarily West Pakistanis and Biharis) in the aftermath of the Bangladesh Liberation War.

Legacy

Cultural

The National Martyrs' Memorial in Bangladesh
See also: Artistic depictions of the Bangladesh Liberation War

The Mukti Bahini has been the subject of numerous artwork, literature, films and television productions.

Honours

Bir Sreshtho (The Most Valiant Hero) is the highest military honour in Bangladesh and was awarded to seven Mukti Bahini fighters. They were Ruhul Amin, Mohiuddin Jahangir, Mostafa Kamal, Hamidur Rahman, Munshi Abdur Rouf, Nur Mohammad Sheikh and Matiur Rahman.

The other three gallantry awards in decreasing order of importance are Bir Uttom, Bir Bikrom and Bir Protik.

In the Section 2(11) of the Bangladesh Freedom Fighters Welfare Trust Act, 2018 (Act No. 51 of 2018) everyone participated in the liberation war is defined as Bir Muktijoddha (Bengali: বীর মুক্তিযোদ্ধা). The government issued an order by gazette notification on 29 October 2020 saying that the word Bir (heroic) will have to be added to the term freedom fighter. To compulsorily comply with the law, in the 13th meeting of the Standing Committee, the Ministry of Liberation War Affairs of the 11th National Parliament issued another order by gazette notification on 18 December 2021 stating that the word Bir (heroic) must be used as an honorific prefix before the names of freedom fighters and the English synonym for Bir Muktijoddha will be Heroic Freedom Fighter.

See also

Notes

  1. Bengali: গফুর বাহিনী, romanized: Gaphura bāhinī

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