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{{Short description|none}} |
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] had 4 illegitimate children and made his illegitimate son ] the first ].]] |
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] had 4 illegitimate children and made his illegitimate son ] the first ].]] |
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This is a '''list of sexually active popes''', ] ] who were not celibate before they became pope, and those who were legally married before becoming pope. Some candidates were allegedly ] before their election as ], and others were accused of being sexually active during their papacies. A number of them had offspring. |
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This is a '''list of sexually active popes''', ] ] who were not ] before they became ], and those who were legally married before becoming pope. Some candidates were allegedly ] before their election as ], and others were thought to have been sexually active during their papacies. A number of them had children. |
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There are various classifications for those who were sexually active during their lives. Allegations of sexual activities are of varying levels of reliability, with several having been made by political opponents and being contested by modern historians. |
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There are various classifications for those who were sexually active during their lives. Allegations of sexual activities are of varying levels of reliability, with several having been made by contemporary political or religious opponents. Some claims are generally accepted by modern historians, while other remain more contested. |
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== Background == |
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== Background == |
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For many years of the Church's history, celibacy was considered optional. Based on the customs of the times, it is assumed{{By whom|date=June 2021}} by many that most of the ] were married and had families. The ] (Mark 1:29–31;<ref>{{bibleverse|Mark|1:29–31}}</ref> Matthew 8:14–15;<ref>{{bibleverse|Matthew|8:14–15}}</ref> Luke 4:38–39;<ref>{{bibleverse|Luke|4:38–39}}</ref> 1 Timothy 3:2, 12;<ref>{{bibleverse|1 Timothy|3:2–12}}</ref> Titus 1:6)<ref>{{bibleverse|Titus|1:6}}</ref> depicts at least Peter as being married, and ], ] and ] of the ] were often married as well. In epigraphy, the testimony of the ], synodal legislation, and papal decretals in the following centuries, a married clergy, in greater or lesser numbers, was a feature of the life of the Church. Celibacy was not required for those ordained and was accepted in the early Church, particularly by those in the monastic life. |
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For many years of the Church's history, celibacy was considered optional. Based on the customs of the times, it is assumed{{By whom|date=June 2021}} by many that most of the ] were married and had families. The ] (Mark 1:29–31;<ref>{{bibleverse|Mark|1:29–31}}</ref> Matthew 8:14–15;<ref>{{bibleverse|Matthew|8:14–15}}</ref> Luke 4:38–39;<ref>{{bibleverse|Luke|4:38–39}}</ref> 1 Timothy 3:2, 12;<ref>{{bibleverse|1 Timothy|3:2–12}}</ref> Titus 1:6)<ref>{{bibleverse|Titus|1:6}}</ref> depicts at least Peter as being married, and ], ] and ] of the ] were often married as well. In epigraphy, the testimony of the ], synodal legislation, and papal decretals in the following centuries, a married clergy, in greater or lesser numbers, was a feature of the life of the Church. Celibacy was not required for those ordained and was accepted in the early Church, particularly by those in the monastic life. |
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Although various local Church councils had demanded celibacy of the clergy in a particular area,<ref>{{cite CE1913|wstitle=Celibacy of the Clergy}}</ref> the ] (1139) made the promise to remain ] a prerequisite to ordination, abolishing the married priesthood in the ]. Subsequently sexual relationships were generally undertaken outside the bond of ] and each sexual act thus committed considered a ]. |
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Although various local Church councils had demanded celibacy of the clergy in a particular episcopal jurisdiction,<ref>{{cite CE1913|wstitle=Celibacy of the Clergy}}</ref> it was not until the ] (1139) that official made the promise to remain ] a prerequisite to ordination within the ] (and effectively ended any practice of a married priesthood). Subsequently sexual relationships were generally undertaken outside the bonds of ], and each sexual act thus committed would have been considered a ]. |
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== Popes who were legally married == |
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== Popes who were legally married == |
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|Mother-in-law (Greek πενθερά, ''penthera'') is mentioned in the ] verses {{bibleverse||Matthew|8:14–15|KJV}}, {{bibleverse||Luke|4:38|KJV}}, {{bibleverse||Mark|1:29–31|KJV}}, and who ] at her home in ]. {{Bibleref2|1 Cor.|9:5}} asks whether others have the right to be accompanied by Christian wives as does "]" (Peter). ] wrote: "When the blessed Peter saw his own wife led out to die, he rejoiced because of her summons and her return home, and called to her very encouragingly and comfortingly, addressing her by name, and saying, 'Remember the Lord.' Such was the marriage of the blessed, and their perfect disposition toward those dearest to them."<ref>Cited by Eusebius, ''Church History'', . Full text at .</ref> |
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|Mother-in-law (Greek πενθερά, ''penthera'') is mentioned in the ] verses {{bibleverse||Matthew|8:14–15|KJV}}, {{bibleverse||Luke|4:38|KJV}}, {{bibleverse||Mark|1:29–31|KJV}}, and who ] at her home in ]. {{Bibleref2|1 Cor.|9:5}} asks whether others have the right to be accompanied by Christian wives as does "]" (Peter). ] wrote: "When the blessed Peter saw his own wife led out to die, he rejoiced because of her summons and her return home, and called to her very encouragingly and comfortingly, addressing her by name, and saying, 'Remember the Lord.' Such was the marriage of the blessed, and their perfect disposition toward those dearest to them."<ref>Cited by Eusebius, ''Church History'', . Full text at .</ref> |
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|Yes<ref>] wrote: "For Peter and Philip begat children" in {{cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250103.htm|title=Clements, Stromata (book VII) / Eusebius, Church History (Book III)|publisher=Newadvent.org|access-date=2012-11-28}}</ref> |
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|Yes<ref>] wrote: "For Peter and Philip begat children" in {{cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250103.htm|title=Clements, Stromata (book VII) / Eusebius, Church History (Book III)|publisher=Newadvent.org|access-date=2012-11-28}}</ref> |
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|Later legends, dating from the 6th century onwards, suggested that Peter had a daughter – identified as ]. This is likely to be a result of the similarity of their names.<ref>{{Cite CE1913 |wstitle=St. Petronilla}}.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.saintpetersbasilica.org/Altars/StPetronilla/StPetronilla.htm |title=St. Peter's – Altar of St Petronilla |publisher=Saintpetersbasilica.org |access-date=2011-10-18}}</ref> |
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|Later legends, dating from the 6th century onwards, suggested that Peter had a daughter – identified as ]. This connection is likely to be a result of the similarity of their names.<ref>{{Cite CE1913 |wstitle=St. Petronilla}}.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.saintpetersbasilica.org/Altars/StPetronilla/StPetronilla.htm |title=St. Peter's – Altar of St Petronilla |publisher=Saintpetersbasilica.org |access-date=2011-10-18}}</ref> |
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|Widowed before his election as pope |
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|Widowed before his election as pope |
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|Yes |
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|Yes |
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|Himself the son of a priest, he fathered two children, one of whom was the mother of Pope ].<ref>R.A. Markus, Gregory the Great and his world (Cambridge: University Press, 1997), p.8</ref> |
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|Himself the son of a priest, Felix fathered two children, one of whom was subsequently the mother of Pope ] (making the latter his grandson).<ref>R.A. Markus, Gregory the Great and his world (Cambridge: University Press, 1997), p.8</ref> |
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|867–872 |
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|867–872 |
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|Married to ] before he took holy orders,<ref>{{cite CE1913|first=James Francis |last=Loughlin |wstitle=Pope Adrian II |volume=1}}</ref> she was still living when he was elected pope and resided with him in the ] |
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|Married to ] before he took holy orders,<ref>{{cite CE1913|first=James Francis |last=Loughlin |wstitle=Pope Adrian II |volume=1}}</ref> she was still living when he was elected pope and resided with him in the ]. |
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|Yes (a daughter) |
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|Yes (a daughter) |
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|His wife and daughter both resided with him until they were murdered by Eleutherius, brother of ], the Church's chief librarian.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dopierała |first=K. |title=Księga Papieży |publisher=Pallotinum |location=Poznań |year=1996 |page=106}}</ref> |
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|His wife and daughter both resided with him until they were murdered by Eleutherius, brother of ], the Church's chief librarian.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dopierała |first=K. |title=Księga Papieży |publisher=Pallotinum |location=Poznań |year=1996 |page=106}}</ref> |
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|1265–1268 |
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|1265–1268 |
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|Married before taking holy orders |
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|Widowed before taking holy orders |
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|Yes (two daughters) |
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|Yes (two daughters) |
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|Both children entered a ]<ref>{{cite CE1913 |volume=4 |first=James Francis |last=Loughlin |wstitle=Pope Clement IV}}</ref> |
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|Both children entered a ]<ref>{{cite CE1913 |volume=4 |first=James Francis |last=Loughlin |wstitle=Pope Clement IV}}</ref> |
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|Yes (at least one) |
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|Yes (at least one) |
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|Accused of being the illegitimate father of ] by ], the fifteen year old daughter of ] and ].<ref>{{cite CE1913 |volume=13 |
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|Accused of being the illegitimate father of ] by ], the fifteen year old daughter of ] and ].<ref>{{cite CE1913 |volume=13 |
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|first=Horace Kinder |last=Mann |wstitle=Pope Sergius III}}</ref><ref>George Williams, ''Papal Genealogy: The family and descendants of the Popes'', McFarland, 1998</ref> Such accusations lay in ]'s ''Antapodosis''<ref name="fmg.ac">{{cite book|url=http://fmg.ac/FMG/Popes.pdf |first=Lindsay |last=Brook |title=Popes and pornocrats: Rome in the Early Middle Ages |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080413210922/http://fmg.ac/FMG/Popes.pdf |archive-date=2008-04-13 }}</ref> and the ].<ref>Liber Pontificalis (first ed., 500s; it has papal biographies up to Pius II, d. 1464)</ref><ref>Reverend Horace K. Mann, ''The Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages, Volumes 1–13'' quote: "Was John XI the son of Pope Sergius by the abandoned Marozia? Liutprand says he was, and so does the author of the anonymous catalogue in the ''Liber Pontificalis'' in his one-line notice of John XI." (1928)</ref><ref>Anura Gurugé, ''The Next Pope: After Pope Benedict XVI'', page 37: "John XI (#126) would also appear to have been born out of wedlock. His mother, Marozia, from the then powerful Theophylacet family, was around sixteen years old at the time. ''Liber Pontificalis'', among others, claim that Sergius III (#120), during his tenure as pope, was the father." (WOWNH LLC, 2010). {{ISBN|978-0-615-35372-2}}</ref> The accusations have discrepancies with another early source, the annalist ] (c. 894–966): John XI was the brother of ], the latter being the offspring of Marozia and her husband ], so John too may have been the son of Marozia and Alberic I.{{fact|date=October 2023}} Fauvarque emphasizes that contemporary sources are dubious, Liutprand being "prone to exaggeration" while other mentions of this fatherhood appear in satires written by supporters of ].<ref>Fauvarque, Bertrand (2003). "De la tutelle de l'aristocratie italienne à celle des empereurs germaniques". In Y.-M. Hilaire (Ed.), ''Histoire de la papauté, 2000 ans de missions et de tribulations''. Paris:Tallandier. {{ISBN|2-02-059006-9}}, p. 163.</ref> |
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|first=Horace Kinder |last=Mann |wstitle=Pope Sergius III}}</ref><ref name="auto">George Williams, ''Papal Genealogy: The family and descendants of the Popes'', McFarland, 1998</ref> Such accusations lay in ]'s ''Antapodosis''<ref name="fmg.ac">{{cite journal | last=Brook | first=Lindsay Leonard | date=January 2003 | title=Popes and pornocrats: Rome in the early middle ages | journal=Foundations | volume=1 | number=1 | pages=5–21 | publication-place=Hereford, UK | publisher=Foundation for Medieval Genealogy | issn=1479-5078 | url=http://fmg.ac/phocadownload/userupload/foundations1/issue1/05Popes.pdf}}</ref> and the ].<ref>Liber Pontificalis (first ed., 500s; it has papal biographies up to Pius II, d. 1464)</ref><ref>Reverend Horace K. Mann, ''The Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages, Volumes 1–13'' quote: "Was John XI the son of Pope Sergius by the abandoned Marozia? Liutprand says he was, and so does the author of the anonymous catalogue in the ''Liber Pontificalis'' in his one-line notice of John XI." (1928)</ref><ref>Anura Gurugé, ''The Next Pope: After Pope Benedict XVI'', page 37: "John XI (#126) would also appear to have been born out of wedlock. His mother, Marozia, from the then powerful Theophylacet family, was around sixteen years old at the time. ''Liber Pontificalis'', among others, claim that Sergius III (#120), during his tenure as pope, was the father." (WOWNH LLC, 2010). {{ISBN|978-0-615-35372-2}}</ref> The accusations have discrepancies with another early source, the annalist ] (c. 894–966): John XI was the brother of ], the latter being the offspring of Marozia and her husband ], so John too may have been the son of Marozia and Alberic I.{{fact|date=October 2023}} Fauvarque emphasizes that contemporary sources are dubious, Liutprand being "prone to exaggeration" while other mentions of this fatherhood appear in satires written by supporters of ].<ref>Fauvarque, Bertrand (2003). "De la tutelle de l'aristocratie italienne à celle des empereurs germaniques". In Y.-M. Hilaire (Ed.), ''Histoire de la papauté, 2000 ans de missions et de tribulations''. Paris:Tallandier. {{ISBN|2-02-059006-9}}, p. 163.</ref> |
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|]{{efn|name=alleged|This allegation is disputed by some modern historians.}} |
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|]{{efn|name=alleged|This allegation is disputed by some modern historians.}} |
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|Not married. Affairs with Theodora and Marozia. |
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|Not married. Affairs with Theodora and Marozia. |
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|No |
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|Had romantic affairs with both ] and her daughter Marozia, according to ] in his ''Antapodosis''.<ref>George Williams, ''Papal Genealogy: The family and descendants of the Popes'', McFarland, 1998</ref><ref>], ''Crises in The history of The Papacy: A Study of Twenty Famous Popes whose Careers and whose Influence were important in the Development of The Church and in The History of The World'', page 130 (New York; London: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1916)</ref> However, Monsignor ] (ecclesiastical historian and Catholic priest) wrote, "This statement is, however, generally and rightly rejected as a calumny. Liutprand wrote his history some fifty years later, and constantly slandered the Romans, whom he hated."<ref name="Kirsch"> Vol. 8. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1910. 23 September 2017</ref> |
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|Had romantic affairs with both ] and her daughter Marozia, according to ] in his ''Antapodosis''.<ref name="auto"/><ref>], ''Crises in The history of The Papacy: A Study of Twenty Famous Popes whose Careers and whose Influence were important in the Development of The Church and in The History of The World'', page 130 (New York; London: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1916)</ref> However, Monsignor ] (ecclesiastical historian and Catholic priest) wrote, "This statement is, however, generally and rightly rejected as a calumny. Liutprand wrote his history some fifty years later, and constantly slandered the Romans, whom he hated."<ref name="Kirsch"> Vol. 8. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1910. 23 September 2017</ref> |
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|Accused by adversaries of ] and ].<ref name="CE1913, Pope John XII">{{cite CE1913 |volume=8 |
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|Accused by adversaries of ] and ].<ref name="CE1913, Pope John XII">{{cite CE1913 |volume=8 |
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|first=Johann Peter |last=Kirsch |wstitle=Pope John XII}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Martin |first=Malachi |title=Decline and Fall of the Roman Church |location=New York |publisher=Bantam Books |year=1981 |isbn=0-553-22944-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/declinefalloft00mala }} p. 105</ref> ] noted that he had "a collection of women". According to ],<ref name="fmg.ac" /> "they testified about his adultery, which they did not see with their own eyes, but nonetheless knew with certainty: he had fornicated with the widow of Rainier, with Stephana his father's concubine, with the widow Anna, and with his own niece, and he made the sacred palace into a whorehouse". According to Chamberlin, John was "a Christian Caligula whose crimes were rendered particularly horrific by the office he held".<ref>The Bad Popes by E. R. Chamberlin</ref> Some sources report that he died eight days after being stricken by paralysis while in the act of adultery,<ref name="CE1913, Pope John XII" /> others that he was killed by the jealous husband while in the act of committing adultery.<ref>Peter de Rosa, ''Vicars of Christ: The Dark Side of the Papacy'', Poolbeg Press, Dublin 1988/2000, pages 211–215.</ref><ref>Hans Kung, ''The Catholic Church: A Short History'' (translated by John Bowden), Modern Library, New York. 2001/2003. page 79</ref><ref>''The Popes' Rights & Wrongs'', published by Truber & Co., 1860</ref><ref>Dr. Angelo S. Rappaport, ''The Love Affairs of the Vatican'', 1912</ref> |
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|first=Johann Peter |last=Kirsch |wstitle=Pope John XII}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Martin |first=Malachi |title=Decline and Fall of the Roman Church |location=New York |publisher=] |year=1981 |isbn=0-553-22944-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/declinefalloft00mala }} p. 105</ref> ] noted that he had "a collection of women". According to ],<ref name="fmg.ac" /> "they testified about his adultery, which they did not see with their own eyes, but nonetheless knew with certainty: he had fornicated with the widow of Rainier, with Stephana his father's concubine, with the widow Anna, and with his own niece, and he made the sacred palace into a whorehouse". According to Chamberlin, John was "a Christian Caligula whose crimes were rendered particularly horrific by the office he held".<ref>The Bad Popes by E. R. Chamberlin</ref> Some sources report that he died eight days after being stricken by paralysis while in the act of adultery,<ref name="CE1913, Pope John XII" /> others that he was killed by the jealous husband while in the act of committing adultery.<ref>Peter de Rosa, ''Vicars of Christ: The Dark Side of the Papacy'', Poolbeg Press, Dublin 1988/2000, pages 211–215.</ref><ref>Hans Kung, ''The Catholic Church: A Short History'' (translated by John Bowden), Modern Library, New York. 2001/2003. page 79</ref><ref>''The Popes' Rights & Wrongs'', published by Truber & Co., 1860</ref><ref>Dr. Angelo S. Rappaport, ''The Love Affairs of the Vatican'', 1912</ref> |
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|Not married. Relationships with Vanozza dei Catanei and Giulia Farnese. |
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|Not married. Relationships with Vanozza dei Catanei and Giulia Farnese. |
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|Possibly |
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|Possibly |
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| Had a long affair with ] while still a priest, and before he became pope; and by her had his illegitimate children ], ], ], and ].<ref>George Williams, ''Papal Genealogy: The family and descendants of the Popes'', McFarland, 1998</ref>] has argued that the birth dates of the four in comparison with Alexander's known whereabouts actually preclude him having fathered any of them.<ref name="Meyer">{{cite book |author=] |title=] |publisher=Bantam |year=2014 |isbn=978-0345526922 |pages=239–247 |chapter=Background: The paternity question: An apology}}</ref> A later mistress, ], was the sister of ], giving birth to a daughter Laura while Alexander was in his 60s and reigning as pope.<ref>Eamon Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners: A history of the popes'', ], 2006</ref> |
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| Had a long affair with ] while still a priest, and before he became pope; and by her had his illegitimate children ], ], ], and ].<ref name="auto"/> A later mistress, ], was the sister of ], giving birth to a daughter Laura while Alexander was in his 60s and reigning as pope.<ref>Eamon Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners: A history of the popes'', ], 2006</ref> |
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|1471–1484 |
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|1471–1484 |
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|Not married |
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|Not married |
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|According to ], Sixtus was a "lover of boys and ]" – awarding benefices and bishoprics in return for sexual favours, and nominating a number of young men as cardinals, some of whom were celebrated for their good looks.<ref name="books.google.com">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BM6DAz1tefoC |title=Studies in the psychology of sex — Havelock Ellis — Google Boeken |date=2007-07-30 |access-date=2013-06-23|last1=Ellis |first1=Havelock }}</ref><ref name="NC">{{cite book |last=Cawthorne |first=Nigel |title=Sex Lives of the Popes |publisher=Prion |year=1996 |page=160|id={{ASIN|185375546X|country=uk}} }}</ref><ref>Stefano Infessura, ''Diario della città di Roma (1303–1494)'', Ist. St. italiano, Tip. Forzani, Roma 1890, pp. 155–156</ref> Infessura had partisan allegiances to the ] family and so is not considered to be always reliable or impartial.<ref>Egmont Lee, ''Sixtus IV and Men of Letters'', Rome, 1978</ref> |
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|According to ], Sixtus was a "lover of boys and ]" – awarding benefices and bishoprics in return for sexual favours, and nominating a number of young men as cardinals, some of whom were celebrated for their good looks.<ref name="books.google.com">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BM6DAz1tefoC |title=Studies in the psychology of sex — Havelock Ellis — Google Boeken |date=2007-07-30 |access-date=2013-06-23|last1=Ellis |first1=Havelock }}</ref><ref name="NC">{{cite book |last=Cawthorne |first=Nigel |title=Sex Lives of the Popes |publisher=Prion |year=1996 |page=160|id={{ASIN|185375546X|country=uk}} }}</ref><ref>Stefano Infessura, ''Diario della città di Roma (1303–1494)'', Ist. St. italiano, Tip. Forzani, Roma 1890, pp. 155–156</ref> Infessura had partisan allegiances to the ] family and so is not considered to be always reliable or impartial.<ref>Egmont Lee, ''Sixtus IV and Men of Letters'', Rome, 1978</ref> |
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|1550–1555 |
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|1550 - 1555 |
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|Not married. Alleged affair with enobled cardinal |
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|Not married. Alleged affair with ennobled cardinal |
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|Accusations of his homosexuality spread across Europe during his reign due to the favouritism shown to ], who rose from beggar to cardinal under Julius' patronage.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cromptom |first=Louis |date=2007-10-11 |title=Julius III |url=http://www.glbtq.com/social-sciences/julius_III.html |access-date=2023-09-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011091614/http://www.glbtq.com/social-sciences/julius_III.html |archive-date=2007-10-11 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Johnson |first=E. Joe |title=Idealized Male Friendship in French Narrative from the Middle Ages to the Enlightenment |publisher=Summa Publications |year=2003 |isbn=1883479428 |edition=1st |location=USA |pages=69 |language=English}}</ref> |
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|Accusations of his homosexuality spread across Europe during his reign due to the favouritism shown to ], who rose from beggar to cardinal under Julius' patronage.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cromptom |first=Louis |date=2007-10-11 |title=Julius III |url=http://www.glbtq.com/social-sciences/julius_III.html |access-date=2023-09-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011091614/http://www.glbtq.com/social-sciences/julius_III.html |archive-date=2007-10-11 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Johnson |first=E. Joe |title=Idealized Male Friendship in French Narrative from the Middle Ages to the Enlightenment |publisher=Summa Publications |year=2003 |isbn=1883479428 |edition=1st |location=USA |pages=69 |language=English}}</ref> |
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copia from the hit swedish rock band ghost claps cheeks tbh |
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There are various classifications for those who were sexually active during their lives. Allegations of sexual activities are of varying levels of reliability, with several having been made by contemporary political or religious opponents. Some claims are generally accepted by modern historians, while other remain more contested.
For many years of the Church's history, celibacy was considered optional. Based on the customs of the times, it is assumed by many that most of the Twelve Apostles were married and had families. The New Testament (Mark 1:29–31; Matthew 8:14–15; Luke 4:38–39; 1 Timothy 3:2, 12; Titus 1:6) depicts at least Peter as being married, and bishops, priests and deacons of the Early Church were often married as well. In epigraphy, the testimony of the Church Fathers, synodal legislation, and papal decretals in the following centuries, a married clergy, in greater or lesser numbers, was a feature of the life of the Church. Celibacy was not required for those ordained and was accepted in the early Church, particularly by those in the monastic life.
Although various local Church councils had demanded celibacy of the clergy in a particular episcopal jurisdiction, it was not until the Second Lateran Council (1139) that official made the promise to remain celibate a prerequisite to ordination within the Latin Church (and effectively ended any practice of a married priesthood). Subsequently sexual relationships were generally undertaken outside the bonds of marriage, and each sexual act thus committed would have been considered a mortal sin.
A majority of the allegations made in this section are disputed by modern historians.
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