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{{Short description|Self-governing countries of the British Empire}}
:''This is a page about Dominions of the British Empire/Commonwealth. For other meanings, please see ].''
{{about|the self-governing countries of the British Empire}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2016}}
{{Basic Forms of government}}


A '''Dominion''' was any of several largely ] countries of the ], once known collectively as the ''British Commonwealth of Nations''.<ref>Amy McKeever, , ''National Geographic'', 12 September 2022.</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=<!--not stated--> |date=1939-10-31 |title=t the Court at Buckingham Palace, the 27th day of October, 1939. PRESENT, The KING's Most Excellent Majesty in Council. |page=7265 |url=https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/34721/page/7265 |work=London Gazette |location=London |access-date=2024-08-29 |quote=The High Contracting Parties agree that His Majesty The King and Emperor may accede to the present Convention in respect of any other Member of the British Commonwealth of Nations}} </ref> Progressing from colonies, their degrees of ] increased unevenly over the late 19th century through the 1930s. Vestiges of empire lasted in some dominions well into the late 20th century. With the evolution of the British Empire following the 1945 conclusion of the ] into the modern ] (after which the former Dominions were often referred to as the ''Old Commonwealth''),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/resources/commonwealth-migration-since-1945 |title=
A '''Dominion''' is a wholly self-governing or virtually self-governing ] of the ] or ], particularly one which reached that stage of constitutional development in the late ] and early ] centuries such as ] and ]. Prior to attaining Dominion status these states had always been ], under direct rule from ] and/or a ], or they have been formed from groups of such colonies. (Note however, that the phrase ''Her Majesty's dominions'' (small ''d'') is a legal and constitutional term used to refer to all the realms and territories of the Sovereign, whether independent or not.)
Commonwealth migration since 1945: What was the context and impact of migration in modern Britain? |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=<!--Not stated--> |website=National Archives |publisher=Government of the united Kingdom |access-date=2024-08-29 |quote=There was a significant demand for labour which came not only from the Caribbean but also from mainland Europe, Ireland, India, and Pakistan. However, it was opposition to Commonwealth and empire immigration that stood out, with a reluctance for example to accept skilled Caribbean labour. While wanting to allow entry to white people from the old Commonwealth, the government did not want to appear racist in any plans to restrict immigration from elsewhere in the empire and Commonwealth as governments of the newly emerging black Commonwealth took offence at moves to restrict movement to Britain from their respective countries while not applying the same rules to those from the white Commonwealth.}}</ref>{{not verified in body|date=August 2024}} finalised in 1949, the dominions became independent states, either as ]s or ]s.


In 1925, the ] created the ] from the ], although for the next five years they shared the same secretary in charge of both offices. "Dominion status" was first accorded to ], ], ], ], ], and the ] at the ] through the ], recognising Great Britain and the Dominions as "autonomous {{not a typo|communities}} within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a common allegiance to the Crown and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/resources/transcripts/cth11_doc_1926.pdf|title=Balfour Declaration, Clause II|access-date=25 June 2022|archive-date=16 July 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050716164959/https://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/resources/transcripts/cth11_doc_1926.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Their full legislative independence was subsequently confirmed in the 1931 ]. In the 1920s and 1930s, they began to represent themselves in international bodies, in treaty making, and in foreign capitals. Later ], ], and ] (now ]) also became dominions for short periods.
In the early 20th century, the main differences between a Dominion and a self-governing colony were that a Dominion had attained the status of "nationhood", if not unambiguous political independence, from the United Kingdom. By comparison, a self-governing colony controlled its internal affairs, but did not control ], ] or ]. Initially, Dominions conducted their own trade policy, some limited foreign relations and had autonomous ], although the British government claimed and exercised the exclusive power to declare wars. However the independence of the Dominions in foreign policy, including war, was made clear by the passing and ratification of the ] in ].


With the transition of the British Empire into the ] after World War II, it was decided that the term ''Commonwealth country'' should formally replace ''dominion'' for official Commonwealth usage.<ref name="Parsons2014">{{cite book |first=T. H. |last=Parsons |date=2014 |title=The Second British Empire: In the Crucible of the Twentieth Century |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |place=Lanham |page=128 |isbn=978-1-4422-3529-8 |oclc=870098208}}</ref> This decision was made during the ] when ] was intending to become a ], so that both types of governments could become and remain full members of the Commonwealth, and this term hence refers to the realms and republics.
The term "Dominion" is now mostly used only in a historical sense. Many of the distinctive characteristics which once pertained only to Dominions are now shared by other states in the Commonwealth, whether they are ], self-governing colonies or Crown colonies. Even in a historical sense the differences between self-governing colonies and Dominions have often been formal rather than substantial. Nonetheless Dominion remains a correct term for an independent country where the British monarch is represented by a ] as head of state.

After this the term ''dominion'', without its legal dimension, stayed in use thirty more years for those Commonwealth countries which had the crown as head of state. Gradually, particularly after 1953, the term was replaced by the term ''realm'', as equal realms of the crown of the Commonwealth.

==Definition==

] at the end of the nineteenth century. "Dominions" refers to all territories belonging to ].]]

The term {{wikt-lang|en|dominion}} means "that which is mastered or ruled". It was used by the British to describe their colonies or territorial possessions.<ref name="marsh">{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Forsey |first1=E. A. |last2=Hayday |first2=M. |encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia |title=Dominion of Canada |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/dominion |access-date=18 May 2023 |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408220412/https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/dominion |url-status=live }}</ref>

Use of ''Dominion'' to refer to a particular territory within the British Empire dates back to the 16th century and was sometimes used to describe ] from 1535 to around 1800: for instance, the '']'' applies to "the Dominion, Principality and Country of Wales".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1934/nov/05/wales-title-of-dominion |title=Parliamentary questions |work=] |date=5 November 1934 |access-date=11 June 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090713164727/http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1934/nov/05/wales-title-of-dominion |archive-date=13 July 2009 }}</ref> ''Dominion'', as an official title, was conferred on the ] about 1660 and on the ] in 1686.

Under the '']'', the partially ] of ] were united into the Dominion of Canada. The new federal and provincial governments split considerable local powers, but Britain retained overall legislative supremacy.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.sfu.ca/~aheard/324/Independence.html | title = Canadian independence | last = Heard | first = Andrew | date = 1990 | access-date = 2021-02-12 | quote = When the Dominion of Canada was created in 1867 it was granted powers of self-government to deal with all internal matters, but Britain still retained overall legislative supremacy. | archive-date = 21 February 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090221150147/http://www.sfu.ca/~aheard/324/Independence.html | url-status = live }}</ref> At the ], the self-governing polities of Canada and the Commonwealth of Australia were referred to collectively as ''Dominions'' for the first time.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=J. M. |title=The Penguin History of the World |date=1995 |publisher=Penguin Books |location=London |isbn=978-0-14-015495-5 |oclc=33134439 |ol=18674652M |page=777 |edition=3rd |url=https://archive.org/details/penguinhistoryof00robe_0/page/776/mode/2up |url-access=registration}}</ref> Two other ]—] and ]—were granted the status of Dominion in the same year. These were followed by the ] in 1910. The ] annexing the island of ] in 1914 declared that, from 5 November 1914, the island "shall be annexed to and form part of His Majesty's dominions".<ref>''Cyprus (Annexation) Order in Council, 1914'', dated 5 November 1914.</ref><ref>Order quoted in ''The American Journal of International Law'', "Annexation of Cyprus by Great Britain"</ref>

] (front, centre) and his Prime Ministers at the 1926 Imperial Conference]]
''Dominion status'' was formally accorded to Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Newfoundland, South Africa, and the Irish Free State at the ] to designate "autonomous communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a common allegiance to the Crown and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations".<ref name="encbrit_dominion">{{cite web
| url = https://www.britannica.com/topic/dominion-British-Commonwealth
| title = Dominion
| date = 2011-12-07
| publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica
| access-date = 2021-02-13
| quote = Although there was no formal definition of dominion status, a pronouncement by the Imperial Conference of 1926 described Great Britain and the dominions as "autonomous communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a common allegiance to the Crown and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations."
| archive-date = 26 January 2021
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210126113915/https://www.britannica.com/topic/dominion-British-Commonwealth
| url-status = live
}}</ref>

The British government of ] had emphasised the use of the capital "D" when referring to the ] in the ] to assure it the same constitutional status in order to avoid confusion with the wider term "His Majesty's dominions", which referred to the British Empire as a whole.<ref name="Mohr2013">{{cite journal |last=Mohr |first=T. |year=2013 |title=The Statute of Westminster, 1931: An Irish Perspective |journal=Law and History Review |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=749–791 |issn=0738-2480 |doi=10.1017/S073824801300045X |hdl=10197/7515 |s2cid=145071117 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> At the time of the founding of the ] in 1924, the League Covenant made provision for the admission of any "fully self-governing state, Dominion, or Colony",<ref>{{Cite web | year=1924| title=The Covenant of the League of Nations |at=Article 1 |website=The Avalon Project at Yale Law School| url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/leagcov.asp| access-date=20 April 2009| url-status=live| archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20110724150012/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/leagcov.asp| archive-date=24 July 2011}}</ref> the implication being that "Dominion status was something between that of a ] and a state".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Crawford |first1=J. |title=The Creation of States in International Law |date=1979 |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-825347-1 |oclc=4593287 |ol=4739437M |page=243 |url=https://archive.org/details/creationofstates0000craw/page/242/mode/2up |url-access=registration}}</ref>

With the adoption of the '']'', Britain and the Dominions (except Newfoundland) formed the ].<ref>{{cite web
| url = https://www.britannica.com/topic/Commonwealth-association-of-states
| title = Commonwealth association of states
| date = 2020-08-11
| publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica
| access-date = 2021-02-13
| quote =
| archive-date = 7 November 2020
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201107233935/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Commonwealth-association-of-states
| url-status = live
}}</ref>

Dominions asserted full legislative independence, with direct access to the Monarch as Head of State previously reserved only for British governments. It also recognised autonomy in foreign affairs, including participation as autonomous countries in the ] with full power over appointing ambassadors to other countries.<ref name="encbrit_dominion" />

Following the ], the changes in the constitutional relationship between the countries that continued to share a common sovereign with the United Kingdom led to the upper case term ''Dominion'' falling out of use.<ref name="McIntyre 1999 pp. 193–212">{{cite journal |last=McIntyre |first=W. D. |title=The Strange Death of Dominion Status |journal=The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History |volume=27 |issue=2 |year=1999 |issn=0308-6534 |doi=10.1080/03086539908583064 |pages=193–212}}</ref> The Dominions Office was formally changed to the ] in 1947.

==={{Anchor|His Majesty's dominions}}{{Anchor|Her Majesty's dominions}}{{Anchor|King's dominions}}{{Anchor|Queen's dominions}}"His/Her Majesty's dominions"===

The status of "Dominion" established by the Statute of Westminster in 1931 was capitalised to distinguish it from the more general sense of "within the crown's dominions".<ref name="Mohr2013" />

The phrase ''the crown's dominions'' or ''His/Her Majesty's dominions'' is a legal and constitutional phrase that refers to all the realms and territories of the British sovereign, whether independent or not. These territories include the United Kingdom and its colonies, including those that had become Dominions. Dependent territories that had never been ] and were not ], were notionally foreign territory and not "within the crown's dominions".<ref name="auto1">{{cite book |last1=Fransman |first1=L. |title=Fransman's British Nationality Law |date=2011 |publisher=Bloomsbury Professional |location=Haywards Heath |isbn=978-1-84592-095-1 |oclc=731354182 |edition=3rd |url=https://www.bloomsburyprofessionalonline.com/view/fransman/fransman.xml |url-access=subscription |access-date=14 April 2022 |archive-date=14 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220414092803/https://www.bloomsburyprofessionalonline.com/view/fransman/fransman.xml |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Page needed|date=May 2023}} When these territories—including ]s and protected states (a status with greater powers of self-government), as well as ]s (which later became ])—were granted independence and at the same time recognised the British monarch as head of state, the United Kingdom act granting independence declared that such and such a territory "shall form part of Her Majesty's dominions", and so become part of the territory in which the Queen exercises ], not merely ].

Under ], the status of "Dominion" ceased to exist on January 1, 1949, when it was decided that each Dominion would enact laws pertaining to its own citizenship.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/historical-background-information-on-nationality-nationality-guidance|title=Historical background information on nationality (nationality guidance)|website=GOV.UK|date=22 May 2023|access-date=14 April 2022|archive-date=14 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220414092330/https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/historical-background-information-on-nationality-nationality-guidance|url-status=live}}</ref> However, "Dominion status" itself never ceased to exist within the greater scope of British law, because acts pertaining to "Dominion status", such as the ''Statute of Westminster 1931'', have not been repealed in both the United Kingdom and historic Dominions such as Canada. The term "within the crown's dominions" continues to apply in British law to those territories in which the British monarch remains head of state, and the term "self-governing dominion" is used in some legislation.<ref name="auto1" />{{Page needed|date=May 2023}} When a territory ceases to recognise the monarch as head of state, this status is changed by statute. Thus, for example, the British '']'', recognised that the Republic of Ireland had "ceased to be part of His Majesty's dominions".


==Historical development== ==Historical development==
The short-lived ] (]&ndash;]) was not a Dominion in the later, generally-accepted sense of the word. It had an unpopular and ] ], appointed by London, Sir ]. The Dominion of New England did not have the independence from Britain that the later Dominions were given.


===Responsible government: precursor to Dominion status===
All the colonies of ] became ] between ] and ], except the colony of Vancouver Island. ] was the first colony to achieve ] in January-February ] through the efforts of ], followed by the ] later that year. They were followed by ] in ], ] in ], ] and the ] in ], and ] in ] under ]. However, none of these colonies was referred to as a dominion.


{{main|Responsible government|Self-governing colony}}
The modern usage of the term ''Dominion'' first occurs in connection with the creation of the ], a term preferred by the ] instead of the term "kingdom" favoured by some ]. ] was called a "Dominion" upon the ] of the ], ] and ] in ]. Some Canadians wanted to call their ] the ] of Canada. However, Americans, especially the ] in ], railed against the idea of a ] in North America. Since the ] had recently demonstrated its military prowess in the ] and still harboured resentment at what it perceived to be British favouritism towards the Southern cause, the British took these complaints very seriously. To calm the Americans, the British government successfully resorted to a diplomatic ruse. It explained to Americans that their fears had no foundation because Canada was to become a ''dominion'' rather than a ''kingdom''. It then told the Canadians that ''Dominion'' meant the same as ''kingdom'' (''see: ], ]'').


The foundation of "Dominion" status followed the achievement of internal self-rule in British Colonies, in the specific form of full ] (as distinct from "]"). Colonial responsible government began to emerge during the mid-19th century. The ]s of Colonies with responsible government were able to make laws in all matters other than foreign affairs, defence and international trade, these being powers which remained with the ].
Canada was the first and archetypical Dominion of the Empire; all additional colonies that achieved this status were also eventually called dominions.


] soon followed by the ] (which included modern southern ] and southern ]) were the first colonies to achieve responsible government, in 1848. ] followed in 1851, and ] and ] in 1855. All except for Newfoundland and Prince Edward Island agreed to form a new ] named Canada from 1867. This was instituted by the British Parliament in the ] (see also ])''.'' Section 3 of the Act referred to the new entity as a "Dominion", the first such entity to be created. From 1870 the Dominion included two vast neighbouring British territories without self-government: ] and the ]; together these became over time the current provinces of ], ], and ], and the three current territories, the ], ] and ]. In 1871, the ] of ] became a Canadian province, as did Prince Edward Island in 1873. ], having become a Dominion itself in 1907, was ] in 1934, finally joining Canada in 1949 after ].
Although the term dominion has rarely been used in ], it achieved Dominion status with the ] of its six self-governing colonies as the Commonwealth of Australia, in ]. ], which chose not to take part in Australian Federation, first became a Dominion on ] ]; the newly-created Union of ] in ]; and the ] (later the ]) in ], after the bitter ]. All retained the British monarch as ], represented locally by a ] appointed in consultation with the Dominion government. The Irish Free State, led by ] was the first Dominion to appoint a non-British, non-aristocratic Governor-General, when ] took the position in ]. Dominion status was never popular in ], where people saw it as a face-saving measure for a ] unable to countenance a ] in what had previously been the ]. This compromise was a direct cause of the ]. Successive Irish governments undermined the constitutional links with Britain, until they were severed completely in 1949. In ], the Australian PM, ], reinforced the right of the overseas Dominions to appoint native-born Governors-General, when he appointed Sir ], against the wishes of the opposition and officials in London.


The conditions under which the four separate Australian colonies—], ], ], ]—and New Zealand could gain full responsible government were set out by the British government in the '']''.<ref>Link to the '''Australian Constitutions Act 1850''' on the website of the National Archives of Australia: {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071203085321/http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item.asp?dID=76 |date=3 December 2007 }}</ref> The Act also separated the ] (in 1851) from New South Wales. During 1856, responsible government was achieved by New South Wales,<ref>Link to the '''New South Wales Constitution Act 1855''', on the Web site of the ]: {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071203085059/http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item.asp?dID=45 |date=3 December 2007 }}</ref> Victoria,<ref>Link to the '''Victoria Constitution Act 1855''', on the Web site of the National Archives of Australia: {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071203085356/http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item.asp?dID=83 |date=3 December 2007 }}</ref> South Australia,<ref>Link to the '''Constitution Act 1855 (SA)''', on the Web site of the National Archives of Australia: {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071203085215/http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item.asp?dID=6 |date=3 December 2007 }}</ref> and Tasmania,<ref>Link to the '''Constitution Act 185 (Tasmania)''', on the Web site of the National Archives of Australia: {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071203085326/http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item.asp?dID=77 |date=3 December 2007 }}</ref> and New Zealand. The remainder of New South Wales was divided in three in 1859, a change that established most of the present borders of NSW; the ], with its own responsible self-government,<ref>Link to the Order in Council of 6 June 1859, which established the Colony of Queensland, on the Web site of the National Archives of Australia.{{cite web |url=http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item.asp?dID=60 |title=Documenting Democracy |access-date=2009-02-01 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090101080841/http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item.asp?dID=60 |archive-date=1 January 2009 }}</ref> and the ] (which was not granted self-government prior to ] of the Australian Colonies).<ref>The "Northern Territory of New South Wales" was physically separated from the main part of NSW. In 1863, the bulk of it was transferred to South Australia, except for a small area that became part of Queensland. See: {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110601183454/http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item.asp?dID=49 |date=1 June 2011 }}. In 1911, the Commonwealth of Australia agreed to assume responsibility for administration of the Northern Territory, which was regarded by the government of South Australia as a financial burden. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060831094018/http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item.asp?dID=52 |date=31 August 2006 }}. The NT did not receive responsible government until 1978.</ref> ] did not receive self-government until 1891, mainly because of its continuing financial dependence on the UK Government.<ref>Link to the '''Constitution Act 1890''', which established self-government in Western Australia: {{dead link|date=December 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> After protracted negotiations (that initially included New Zealand), six Australian colonies with responsible government (and their dependent territories) agreed to federate, along Canadian lines, becoming the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901.
] became a self-governing dominion on ], ] (same day as New Zealand) by royal proclamation. Until 1931, it was referred to as a colony of the United Kingdom, as for example, in the 1927 reference to the ] to delineate the Quebec-Labrador boundary. Full autonomy was granted by the ] Parliament with the ] in December ]. However, the government of Newfoundland "requested the United Kingdom not to have sections 2 to 6 confirming Dominion status apply automatically to it until the Newfoundland Legislature first approved the Statute, approval which the Legislature subsequently never gave." In any event, Newfoundland's ] of ] suspended self-government and instituted a "]", which continued until Newfoundland became a ] in ]. It is the view of some constitutional lawyers that &mdash; although Newfoundland chose not to exercise all of the functions of a dominion like Canada &mdash; its status as a dominion was "suspended" in 1934, rather than "revoked" or "abolished".


In South Africa, the ] became the first British self-governing colony, in 1872. (Until 1893, the Cape Colony also controlled the separate ].) Following the ] (1899–1902), the British Empire assumed direct control of the ], but transferred limited self-government to ] in 1906, and the ] in 1907.
Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Newfoundland and South Africa (prior to becoming a republic and leaving the Commonwealth in ]), with their large populations of European descent, were sometimes collectively referred to as the "White Dominions". Today Canada, Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom are sometimes referred to collectively as the ].


]'' (1907) shows ] ] as a pretentious dwarf beneath a massive "Dominion" top hat. The caption reads:
Later members of the Commonwealth gained independence, not under the Statute of Westminster but by their own respective independence acts. When British decolonization in Africa began it was hoped the dominion model would again be followed. ], the first new nation was created as a Dominion in ], but declared itself a republic three years later. The other British possessions in Africa also agitated for republic status, and upon independence they seldom remained Dominions. ] became a Dominion in ] and a republic in ], ] a Dominion in ] and a republic in ], ] a Dominion in ] and republic in ], ] a Dominion in ] and a republic in ], ] a Dominion in ] and republic in ]. Only ] (five years), ] (ten years), and ] (24 years) stayed Dominions longer than three years.
''The Surprise Packet:''<br/>
Canada: "Rather large for him, is it not?"<br/>
Australia: "Oh, his head is swelling rapidly. The hat will soon fit."]]


The Commonwealth of Australia was recognised as a Dominion in 1901, and the ] and the ] were officially given Dominion status in 1907, followed by the ] in 1910.
The United Kingdom and its component parts never aspired to the title of ''Dominion'', remaining anomalies within the network of free and independent equal members of the Empire and Commonwealth. However the idea has on occasions been floated by some in ] as an alternative to a ] if they felt uncomfortable within the United Kingdom.


===Canadian Confederation and evolution of the term ''Dominion''===
==Foreign relations==
Initially the Foreign Office of the ] conducted the foreign relations of the Dominions. A Dominions section was created within the Colonial Office for this purpose in ]. Canada set up its own Department of External Affairs in June ], but diplomatic relations with other governments continued to operate through the governors-general, through Dominion high commissioners in London (first appointed by Canada in ]; Australia followed only in ]) and through British legations abroad. Britain deemed her declaration of war against ] in August ] to extend without the need for consultation to all territories of the Empire, occasioning some displeasure in Canadian official circles and contributing to a brief anti-British insurrection by ] militants in South Africa later that year. A Canadian War Mission in ], dealt with supply matters from February ] to March ].


In connection with proposals for the future government of British North America, use of the term "Dominion" was suggested by ] at the ] discussing the ] of the ] (subsequently becoming the provinces of ] and ]), ] and ] into "One Dominion under the Name of Canada", the first federation internal to the British Empire.<ref name="Alan Rayburn">{{cite book |last1=Rayburn |first1=A. |title=Naming Canada: Stories about Canadian Place Names |date=2001 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-0-8020-4725-0 |edition=Revised and expanded |url=https://archive.org/details/namingcanadastor0000rayb/mode/2up |url-access=registration |oclc=44943692 |ol=3966721M |pages=17–21}}</ref> Tilley's suggestion was taken from the ], verse eight, "He shall have ''dominion'' also from sea to sea, and from the river unto the ends of the earth", which is echoed in the national motto, "]".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lac-bac.gc.ca/confederation/023001-2085-e.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20061122121516/http://www.lac-bac.gc.ca/confederation/023001-2085-e.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 November 2006 |title=The London Conference December 1866 – March 1867 |publisher=www.collectionscanada.gc.ca |access-date=11 June 2010 }}</ref> The new government of Canada under the ] began to use the phrase "Dominion of Canada" to designate the new, larger country. However, neither the Confederation nor the adoption of the title of "Dominion" granted extra autonomy or new powers to this new federal level of government.<ref name="Heard"/>{{sfn|Forsey|2005|p=3}} Senator ] wrote that the powers acquired since the 1840s that established the system of ] in Canada would simply be transferred to the new Dominion government:
Although the Dominions had had no formal voice in declaring war, each became a separate signatory of the June ] peace ], which had been negotiated by a British-led united Empire delegation. In September ] Dominion reluctance to support British military action against ] influenced Britain's decision to seek a compromise settlement. Diplomatic autonomy soon followed, with the U.S.-Canadian Halibut Fisheries Agreement (March ]) marking the first international treaty negotiated and concluded entirely independently by a Dominion. The Dominions section of the ] was upgraded in June ] to a separate Dominions Office. However, initially the same person was appointed as the ].
{{Blockquote|By the time of Confederation in 1867, this system had been operating in most of what is now central and eastern Canada for almost 20 years. The Fathers of Confederation simply continued the system they knew, the system that was already working, and working well.{{sfn|Forsey|2005|p=3}}}}


The constitutional scholar Andrew Heard argues that Confederation did not legally change Canada's colonial status to anything approaching its later status of a Dominion.
The principle of Dominion equality with Britain and independence in foreign relations was formally recognized by the ] adopted at the ] of November ]. Canada's first permanent diplomatic mission to a foreign country opened in ] in ]. In ] Canada obtained the appointment of a British ] in Ottawa, separating the administrative and diplomatic functions of the governor-general and ending the latter's anomalous role as the representative of the British government in relations between the two countries. The Dominions Office was given a separate secretary of state in June ], though this was entirely for domestic political reasons given the need to relieve the burden on one ill minister whilst moving another away from unemployment policy. The Balfour Declaration was enshrined in the ] when it was adopted by the British Parliament and subsequently ratified by the Dominion legislatures.
{{Blockquote|At its inception in 1867, Canada's colonial status was marked by political and legal subjugation to British Imperial supremacy in all aspects of government—legislative, judicial, and executive. The Imperial Parliament at Westminster could legislate on any matter to do with Canada and could override any local legislation, the final court of appeal for Canadian litigation lay with the ] in London, the ] had a substantive role as a representative of the British government, and ultimate executive power was vested in the ] — who was advised only by British ministers in its exercise. Canada's independence came about as each of these sub-ordinations was eventually removed.<ref name="Heard">{{cite web |title = Canadian Independence |first = Andrew |last = Heard |url = https://www.sfu.ca/~aheard/324/Independence.html |date = 1990 |access-date = 5 February 2008 |url-status = live |archive-url = http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20090506191142/https://www.sfu.ca/~aheard/324/Independence.html |archive-date = 6 May 2009 }}</ref>}}


{{Blockquote|When the Dominion of Canada was created in 1867, it was granted powers of self-government to deal with all internal matters, but Britain still retained overall legislative supremacy. This Imperial supremacy could be exercised through several statutory measures. In the first place, the ] provided in Section 55 that the Governor General may reserve any legislation passed by the two Houses of Parliament for "the signification of Her Majesty's pleasure", which is determined according to Section 57 by the ] in Council. Secondly, Section 56 provides that the Governor General must forward to "one of Her Majesty's Principal Secretaries of State" in London a copy of any Federal legislation that has been assented to. Then, within two years after the receipt of this copy, the (British) Monarch in Council could ] an Act. Thirdly, at least four pieces of Imperial legislation constrained the Canadian legislatures. The ] provided that no colonial law could validly conflict with, amend, or repeal Imperial legislation that either explicitly, or by necessary implication, applied directly to that colony. The Merchant Shipping Act of 1894, as well as the ] required reservation of Dominion legislation on those topics for approval by the British Government. Also, the ] provided for the disallowance of any Dominion legislation the British government felt would harm British stockholders of Dominion trustee securities. Most importantly, however, the British Parliament could exercise the legal right of supremacy that it possessed over common law to pass any legislation on any matter affecting the colonies.<ref name="Heard"/>}}
Britain's declaration of hostilities against Germany in September ] tested the issue. Most took the view that the declaration did not commit the Dominions. Ireland chose to remain neutral. At the other extreme, the conservative Australian government of the day, led by ], took the view that it was legally bound by the UK declaration of war &mdash; which had also been the view at the outbreak of World War I &mdash; although this was contentious within Australia. Between these two extremes, New Zealand declared that as Britain was or would be at war, so it was too. Canada issued its own declaration of war after a recall of Parliament, as did South Africa after a delay of several weeks. Ireland, which had negotiated the removal of British forces from its territory the year before, chose to remain neutral throughout the war. There were soon signs of growing independence from the other Dominions: Australia opened a diplomatic mission in the US in 1940 and Canada's mission in Washington gained ] status in ]).


For decades, the Dominions did not have their own ] or ]s in foreign countries. International travel and commerce were transacted through British embassies and consulates. For example, matters concerning ]s and lost or stolen ]s of Dominion citizens were carried out at British diplomatic offices. In the late 1930s and early 1940s, Dominion governments established their own embassies, the first two of which were established by ] and ] in ], in the United States.
==From Dominions to Commonwealth realms==
], which fatally undermined Britain's already weakened commercial and financial leadership and heightened the importance of the ] as a source of military assistance, further loosened the political ties between Britain and the Dominions. Australian Prime Minister ]'s unprecedented action (February ]) in successfully demanding the recall for home service of Australian troops earmarked for the defence of British-held ] demonstrated that Dominion governments might no longer subordinate their own national interests to British strategic perspectives. To ensure that Australia had full legal power to act independently, particularly in relation to defence, Australia formally adopted the Statute of Westminster in October 1942 and backdated the adoption to the start of the war in September ].


Until 1948 any resident of a British colony or Dominion had the status of ]. In 1935, the '']'' created a separate status of ''Irish national'', but stopped short of creating a full citizenship. Canada was the first to create its own citizenship with the '']'', following which the '']'' created ]ship and the Dominions subsequently created their own citizenships.
The Dominions Office merged with the India Office as the ] upon the independence of ] and ] in August ], and the term ''Dominion'' fell out of general use as India's adoption of republican status in January, ] signalled the end of the former dependencies' common constitutional connection to the British crown (although Ireland had already dropped its oath of allegiance in ]): henceforth continuing willing members of what was subsequently styled ] agreed to accept the British monarch as head of that association of independent states. Ireland had formally ceased to be a member seven months on the declaration that it was to be described officially as the ].


As Heard later explained, the British government seldom invoked its powers over Canadian legislation. British legislative powers over Canadian domestic policy were largely theoretical and their exercise was increasingly unacceptable in the 1870s and 1880s. The rise to the status of a Dominion and then full independence for Canada and other possessions of the British Empire did not occur by the granting of titles or similar recognition by the British Parliament but by initiatives taken by the new governments of certain former British dependencies to assert their independence and to establish constitutional precedents.
Recently, when referring to a nation that has the British Monarch as its ] the term '']'' has come into common usage instead of ''Dominion'' to differentiate the Commonwealth nations that continue to recognize the Crown (Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Jamaica, etc.) from those which do not (India, Pakistan, South Africa, etc.). The term Dominion is still to be found in the ] where the term is mentioned four times, most notably ''the Provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick shall form and be One Dominion under the Name of Canada''. However, the Canadian government does not use it. The term "realm" does not appear in the Canadian constitution. Present-day usage prefers the term ''realm'' because it includes the United Kingdom as well, emphasising that they are equal to and not subordinate to the United Kingdom.
{{Blockquote|What is remarkable about this whole process is that it was achieved with a minimum of legislative amendments. Much of Canada's independence arose from the development of new political arrangements, many of which have been absorbed into judicial decisions interpreting the constitution—with or without explicit recognition. Canada's passage from being an integral part of the British Empire to being an independent member of the Commonwealth richly illustrates the way in which fundamental constitutional rules have evolved through the interaction of constitutional convention, international law, and municipal statute and case law.<ref name="Heard"/>}}


What was significant about the creation of the Canadian and Australian federations was not that they were instantly granted wide new powers by the Imperial centre at the time of their creation; but that they, because of their greater size and prestige, were better able to exercise their existing powers and lobby for new ones than the various colonies they incorporated could have done separately. They provided a new model which politicians in New Zealand, Newfoundland, South Africa, Ireland, India, Malaysia could point to for their own relationship with Britain. Ultimately, " example of a peaceful accession to independence with a Westminster system of government came to be followed by 50 countries with a combined population of more than 2-billion people."<ref>{{Cite news|last=Buckley|first=F.H.|author-link=F.H. Buckley|date=2014-05-15|title=F.H. Buckley: How Canada's creation changed the world|work=]|publisher=]|url=http://fullcomment.nationalpost.com/2014/05/15/f-h-buckley-how-canadas-creation-changed-the-world/|archive-url=https://archive.today/20140515130729/http://fullcomment.nationalpost.com/2014/05/15/f-h-buckley-how-canadas-creation-changed-the-world/#selection-517.0-517.53|archive-date=2014-05-15}}</ref>
For example, in a move that emphasised the independence of the separate realms, after the accession of Queen ] in ], she was proclaimed not just as Queen of the U.K., but also ], ], ], and of all her other "realms and territories" etc.


===1907 Imperial Conference===
The Queen now functions as the independent monarch of sixteen different countries, and any changes to the laws governing the succession to the Crown must be approved by all of these nations' parliaments.


{{main|1907 Imperial Conference}}
===Canada===


Issues of colonial self-government spilled into foreign affairs with the ] (1899–1902). The self-governing colonies contributed significantly to British efforts to stem the insurrection, but ensured that they set the conditions for participation in these wars. Colonial governments repeatedly acted to ensure that they determined the extent of their participation in imperial wars in the military build-up to the ].
:''See also: ]''


The assertiveness of the self-governing countries was recognised in the Imperial Conference of 1907 which, on the motions of the Prime Ministers of Canada and Australia, introduced the idea of the Dominions as self-governing countries by referring to Canada and Australia as Dominions. It also retired the name "Colonial Conference" and mandated that meetings take place regularly to consult the Dominions in running the foreign affairs of the empire.
''Dominion'' is the legal title conferred on ] in the ], namely the ] (]), and describes the resulting political union. Specifically, the indicates:


The ], which chose not to take part in Australian federation, became the ] on 26 September 1907; ] became a Dominion on the same day. The ] was referred to as a Dominion upon its creation on 31 May 1910.
:''Whereas the Provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick have expressed their Desire to be federally united into One Dominion under the Crown of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, with a Constitution similar in Principle to that of the United Kingdom...''


===First World War and Treaty of Versailles===
and, furthermore, sections 3 and 4 indicate that the provinces:


] poster. Designed by ], the poster urges men from the Dominions of the British Empire to enlist in the war effort.]]
:''... shall form and be One Dominion under the Name of Canada; and on and after that Day those Three Provinces shall form and be One Dominion under that Name accordingly.''<br>
:''Unless it is otherwise expressed or implied, the Name Canada shall be taken to mean Canada as constituted under this Act.''


The initiatives and contributions of British colonies to the British war effort in the First World War were recognised by Britain with the creation of the ] in 1917, which gave them a say in the running of the war. Dominion status as self-governing states, as opposed to symbolic titles granted various British colonies, waited until 1919, when the self-governing Dominions signed the ] independently of the British government and became individual members of the League of Nations. This ended the purely colonial status of the Dominions.<ref>{{cite journal|title = The End of Dominion Status|author = F. R. Scott|journal = The American Journal of International Law|volume = 38|date = January 1944|pages = 34–49|doi = 10.2307/2192530|issue = 1|publisher = American Society of International Law|jstor = 2192530| s2cid=147122057 }}</ref>
Usage of the term ''Dominion of Canada'' was sanctioned as the country's formal political name, and some still read the BNA Act passage as specifying this phrase – rather than ''Canada'' alone – as the name.


===Irish Free State===
References to the ''Dominion of Canada'' in later acts, such as the ], do not clarify the point because all ]s were formerly ] in British legislative style. Indeed, in the original text of the BNA Act, "One" and "Name" were also capitalized.


The ], set up in 1922 after the ], was the third Dominion to appoint a non-UK born, non-aristocratic Governor-General when ], following the tenures of Sir ] in Canada and of Sir ] and Sir ] in Newfoundland, took the position in 1922. Dominion status was never popular in the Irish Free State where people saw it as a face-saving measure for a ] unable to countenance a ] in what had previously been the ]. Successive Irish governments undermined the constitutional links with the United Kingdom. In 1937, Ireland, as it renamed itself, adopted a new ] that included powers for a ]. At the same time, a ] delegating functions to the King, not as King in Ireland but as the symbol of the co-operation amongst Commonwealth countries with which Ireland associated itself, continued to apply in external relations. The last statutory functions of the King with respect to Ireland were ].
Starting in the ], the federal government began to phase out the use of ''dominion'', which had been used largely as a synonym of "federal" or "national" such as "Dominion building" for a post office, "Dominion-provincial relations", and so on. The last major change was renaming the national holiday from ] to ] in ], itself brought about by the earlier ] (which mentions ''Canada'' and is ambivalent regarding the title). Official ] also contributed to disuse of ''dominion'', as it has no acceptable equivalent in ].


===Balfour Declaration of 1926 and Statute of Westminster===
While the term may be found in older official documents, and the still tolls at ], it is rarely used anymore to distinguish the federal government from the provinces or (historically) Canada before and after 1867.


The ], and the subsequent ], 1931, restricted Britain's ability to pass or affect laws outside of its own jurisdiction.
Defenders of the title ''dominion'' – including ] who see signs of creeping ] in Canada – take comfort in the fact that the ] does not remove the title (by not mentioning it), and contend that a constitutional amendment is required to change it.

Until 1931, Newfoundland was referred to as a colony of the United Kingdom, as for example, in the 1927 reference to the ] to delineate the Quebec-Labrador boundary.<ref>, UKPC 25 (PC).</ref> Full autonomy was granted by the United Kingdom parliament with the ] in December 1931.

By the request of Australia and New Zealand, the Statute of Westminster was not applied automatically to those two Dominions until their own parliaments confirmed it. Being economically close to Britain and dependent on it for defence, they did not do so until ] and ].

In 1934, following Newfoundland's economic collapse, and with the approval of its own legislature, Britain suspended self-government in Newfoundland and instituted a "]", which continued until Newfoundland became a ] in 1949.

====White Dominions====

{{See also|CANZUK}}

Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Irish Free State, Newfoundland and South Africa (prior to becoming a republic and temporarily leaving the Commonwealth in 1961), with their large populations of European descent, were sometimes collectively referred to as the "'''White Dominions'''".<ref name="merriman">{{cite encyclopedia |title=British Empire |encyclopedia=Europe since 1914: Encyclopedia of the Age of War and Reconstruction |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |location=Detroit |date=2006 |editor1-last=Merriman |editor1-first=J. |volume=1 |pages=45 |isbn=978-0-684-31366-5 |oclc=68221208 |editor2-last=Winter |editor2-first=J.}}</ref>

==Dominions==

===List of Dominions===

{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"
! scope="col" | Country
! scope="col" | From
! scope="col" | To{{refn|There was no single constitutional or legislative change that abolished the status of "dominions". The ] of 1952 referred to "realms", and the '']s'' of 1953 changed references to "dominions" in the monarch's titles in the various Dominions to "realms", after which the term ''dominion'' generally fell into disuse, and the countries sharing the same monarch as the United Kingdom came to be referred to as ''realms'' (with the ]; see also ]).|group=‡|name=Realms}}
! scope="col" class="unsortable" |Status
|-
! scope="row" | ]
| 1867
|
| Continues as a Commonwealth realm. ''Dominion'' was conferred as the country's title in the ], as a substitute for the title of "kingdom".<ref name="Alan Rayburn" /><ref name="hodgetts">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Hodgetts |first=J. E. |editor-last=Hallowell |editor-first=G. |encyclopedia=The Oxford Companion to Canadian History |title=Dominion |url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195415599.001.0001/acref-9780195415599-e-471 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150317211340/http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195415599.001.0001/acref-9780195415599-e-471 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2015-03-17 <!--Deny Citation Bot--> |date=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Don Mills, Ontario |isbn=978-0-19-541559-9 |oclc=54971866 |page=183 |quote="Ironically, defenders of the title ''dominion'' who see signs of creeping republicanism in such changes can take comfort in the knowledge that the Constitution Act, 1982, retains the title and requires a constitutional amendment to alter it."}}</ref><ref name="marsh" /><ref name="cdngovflag">{{cite web |url=http://www.pch.gc.ca/special/flag-drapeau/defi-challenge/reponses-answers_e.cfm |publisher=Department of Canadian Heritage, Government of Canada |title=National Flag of Canada Day: How Did You Do? |quote=The issue of our country's legal title was one of the few points on which our constitution is not entirely homemade. The Fathers of Confederation wanted to call the country "the Kingdom of Canada". However the British government was afraid of offending the Americans so it insisted on the Fathers finding another title. The term "Dominion" was drawn from ]. In the realms of political terminology, the term dominion can be directly attributed to the Fathers of Confederation and it is one of the very few, distinctively Canadian contributions in this area. It remains our country's official title. |access-date=7 February 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070713185837/http://www.pch.gc.ca/special/flag-drapeau/defi-challenge/reponses-answers_e.cfm |archive-date=13 July 2007}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | ]
| 1901
|
| Continues as a Commonwealth realm.
|-
! scope="row" | ]
| 1907
|
| Continues as a Commonwealth realm.
|-
! scope="row" | ]
| 1907
| 1949
| The colony of ] enjoyed responsible government from 1855 to 1907 when it became a Dominion.<ref>The Statesman's Year Book, p. 302</ref> Following the recommendations of a Royal Commission, and at the request of the Legislative Assembly and Legislative Council of Newfoundland, parliamentary government was suspended in 1934, due to severe financial difficulties resulting from the depression and a series of riots against the Newfoundland government in 1932.<ref>The Statesman's Year Book, p. 303</ref> In 1934, Newfoundland reverted to direct British rule, governed by an unelected ] appointed by the British government.<ref>, 24 Geo. 5 (UK), c. 2.</ref> In 1949, it joined Canada and the ] was restored after 16 years of ] by Britain.<ref>The Statesman's Year Book</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | ]
| 1910
| 1961
| Continued as a monarchy until it became a republic in 1961 under the ''Republic of South Africa Constitution Act 1961'', passed by the Parliament of South Africa, long title "To constitute the Republic of South Africa and to provide for matters incidental thereto", assented to 24 April 1961 to come into operation on 31 May 1961.<ref>{{cite book |title=Statutes of the Union of South Africa, 1961 |publisher=Government Printer |location=Pretoria |pages=346–424 |chapter=Republic of South Africa Constitution Act |chapter-url=https://en.wikisource.org/Republic_of_South_Africa_Constitution_Act,_1961 |access-date=18 May 2023 |archive-date=25 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230325210720/https://en.wikisource.org/Republic_of_South_Africa_Constitution_Act,_1961 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | ] {{small|(1922–1937)}}<br />] {{small|(1937–1949)}}{{refn|The Irish Free State was renamed ] in ] or Ireland in English in 1937. In 1937–1949, the Dominion was referred to as "Eire" by the British government. See also ].|group=‡|name=Ireland}}
| 1922
| 1949
| The ] ceased with the passage of the '']'', which came into force on 18 April 1949 and declared that the state was a republic.
|-
! scope="row" | ]
| 1947
| 1950
| The Union of India (with the addition of ] from 1975) became a federal republic after its ] came into effect on 26 January 1950. India became the first ].
|-
! scope="row" | ] (incl. ], but excl. ])
| 1947
| 1956
| Continued as a monarchy until 23 March 1956 when it became a republic under the name "The Islamic Republic of Pakistan": Constitution of 1956.<ref>{{cite web |work=Republic of Rumi |url=http://therepublicofrumi.com/archives/56_01.htm |title=Archives |access-date=12 July 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130614204312/http://www.therepublicofrumi.com/archives/56_01.htm |archive-date=14 June 2013 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | ]
| 1948
| 1972
| Continued as a monarchy until 1972 when it became a republic under the name of Sri Lanka.
|}

{{reflist|group="‡"}}

===Australia===

Four colonies of Australia had enjoyed responsible government since 1856: New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Hunter |editor1-first=B. |title=The Statesman's Year-Book: A Statistical, Political, and Economic Account of the States of the World |date=1996 |publisher=the Macmillan Press |location=London |isbn=978-0-333-65573-3 |oclc=60311041 |pages=130–156 |edition=1996–1997, 133rd |url=https://archive.org/details/statesmansyearbo0000hunt/page/130/mode/2up |url-access=registration |ol=32144166M}}</ref> Queensland had responsible government soon after its founding in 1859.<ref>{{cite web |title=Order-in-Council establishing Representative Government in Queensland 6 June 1859 (UK) |url=http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item.asp?sdID=48 |website=Documenting a Democracy: Australia's Story |publisher=National Archives of Australia |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080722144933/http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item.asp?sdID=48 |archive-date=22 July 2008 |location=Canberra |url-status=dead}}</ref> Because of ongoing financial dependence on Britain, Western Australia became the last Australian colony to attain self-government in 1890.<ref>'''Constitution Act 1890''' (UK), which came into effect as the Constitution of Western Australia when proclaimed in WA on 21 October 1890, and establishing responsible government in WA from that date; Australian Government's "Documenting a Democracy" website: {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080722212926/http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item.asp?sdID=12 |date=22 July 2008 }}</ref> During the 1890s, the colonies voted to unite and in 1901 they were federated under the British Crown as the ] by the '']''. The ] had been drafted in Australia and approved by popular consent. Thus Australia is one of the few countries established by a popular vote.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=D. |title=Head of State: the Governor-General, the Monarchy, the Republic and the Dismissal |date=2005 |publisher=Macleay Press |location=Paddington, New South Wales |isbn=978-1-876492-15-1 |oclc=64449961 |page=18}}</ref> Under the ], the federal government was regarded as coequal with (and not subordinate to) the British and other Dominion governments, and this was given formal legal recognition in 1942 (when the '']'' was ] to the commencement of the Second World War in 1939). In 1930, the Australian prime minister, ], reinforced the right of the overseas Dominions to appoint native-born governors-general, when he advised King ] to appoint Sir ] as his representative in Australia, against the wishes of the opposition and officials in London. The governments of the states (colonies before 1901) remained under the Commonwealth but retained links to the UK until the passage of the '']''.

===Canada===<!-- This section is linked from ] -->

], 1898]]

{{See also|Name of Canada#Use of Dominion}}

The term ''Dominion'' is employed in the '']'' (originally the ]), and describes the resulting political union. Specifically, the preamble of the act states: "Whereas the Provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick have expressed their Desire to be federally united into One Dominion under the Crown of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, with a Constitution similar in Principle to that of the United Kingdom{{nbsp}}..." Furthermore, Sections 3 and 4 indicate that the provinces "shall form and be One Dominion under the Name of Canada; and on and after that Day those Three Provinces shall form and be One Dominion under that Name accordingly".

According to the ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (1999), "The word came to be applied to the federal government and Parliament, and under the Constitution Act, 1982, 'Dominion' remains Canada's official title."<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Forsey |first=E. A. |editor-last=Marsh |editor-first=J. H. |encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia |title=Dominion |url=https://archive.org/details/canadianencyclop0000unse_w0a4/page/680/mode/2up |url-access=registration |edition=Year 2000 |date=1999 |publisher=McClelland & Stewart |place=Toronto |isbn=978-0-7710-2099-5 |oclc=44803114 |page=680}}</ref>

Usage of the phrase ''Dominion of Canada'' was employed as the country's name after 1867, predating the general use of the term ''Dominion'' as applied to the other autonomous regions of the ] after 1907. The phrase ''Dominion of Canada'' does not appear in the 1867 act nor in the '']'', but does appear in the '']'', other contemporaneous texts, and subsequent bills. References to the ''Dominion of Canada'' in later acts, such as the ], do not clarify the point because all nouns were formally ] in British legislative style.

] theorised that Canada's status as a Dominion ended when ] declared war on Germany on 9 September 1939, separately and distinctly from the United Kingdom's declaration of war six days earlier.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Scott |first=F. R. |title=The End of Dominion Status |journal=The American Journal of International Law |volume=38 |issue=1 |date=January 1944 |pages=34–49 |doi=10.2307/2192530 |jstor=2192530|s2cid=147122057}}</ref> By the 1950s, the term Dominion of Canada was no longer used by the United Kingdom, which considered Canada a "Realm of the Commonwealth".<ref name="Morra2016">{{Cite book |last=Morra |first=Irene |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=enJ1DQAAQBAJ&pg=PT49 |title=The New Elizabethan Age: Culture, Society and National Identity after World War II |publisher=I.B.Tauris |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-85772-867-8 |page=49}}</ref> The government of ] ended the practice of using ''Dominion'' in the statutes of Canada in 1951.<ref>{{Cite web |title=November 8, 1951 (21st Parliament, 5th Session) |url=https://www.lipad.ca/full/permalink/1661272/ |access-date=April 9, 2019 |website=Canadian Hansard Dataset |archive-date=9 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309051848/https://www.lipad.ca/full/permalink/1661272/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bowden |first=J.W.J. |year=2015 |title='Dominion': A Lament |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319533946 |journal=The Dorchester Review |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=58–64}}</ref> This began the phasing out of the use of ''Dominion'', which had been used largely as a synonym of "federal" or "national" such as "Dominion building" for a post office, "Dominion-provincial relations", and so on. The last major change was renaming the national holiday from ] to ] in 1982. Official ] laws also contributed to the disuse of ''Dominion'', as it has no acceptable equivalent in French.

While the term may be found in older official documents, and the Dominion Carillonneur still tolls at ], it is now hardly used to distinguish the federal government from the provinces or (historically) Canada before and after 1867. Nonetheless, the federal government continues to produce publications and educational materials that specify the currency of these official titles.<ref name="cdngovflag" /><ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.canadianheritage.gc.ca/special/royalvisit/royal-quiz-answers.htm
|title = The Prince of Wales 2001 Royal Visit: April 25 - April 30; Test Your Royal Skills
|publisher = Department of Canadian Heritage
|year = 2001
|quote = As dictated by the British North America Act, 1867, the title is Dominion of Canada. The term is a uniquely Canadian one, implying independence and not colonial status, and was developed as a tribute to the Monarchical principle at the time of Confederation.
|access-date = 7 February 2008
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060711130159/http://www.canadianheritage.gc.ca/special/royalvisit/royal-quiz-answers.htm
|archive-date = 11 July 2006
}}</ref>{{sfn|Forsey|2005|p=8|loc="The two small points on which our constitution is not entirely homemade are, first, the legal title of our country, 'Dominion', and, second, the provisions for breaking a deadlock between the Senate and the House of Commons"}} The '']'' does not mention and does not remove the title, and therefore a constitutional amendment may be required to change it.<ref name="hodgetts" />

The word ''Dominion'' has been used with other agencies, laws, and roles:

* ] (1867–1982): holiday marking Canada's national day; now called ]
* ] (1867–1920): merged to form the ] (RCMP)
* '']'' (1872): federal lands act; repealed in 1930
* ] (1905–1970): weather observatory in ]; now used as Office of Energy Efficiency, Energy Branch, ]
* Dominion Carillonneur: official responsible for playing the carillons at the ] since 1916
* ] (1918–1971): superseded by ]
* ] (1918–present); now part of the ] ]
* ] (1960–present); now part of the ] ]

Notable Canadian corporations and organisations (not affiliated with government) that have used Dominion as a part of their name have included:

* ] founded in 1868 and incorporated by an Act of Parliament in 1890
* The ], opened 1871
** The ], its successor since a 1955 merger with the ]; as of 2016 one of the country's major banks
* The ], founded in 1887; bought out by ] in 2013
* The ], in Nova Scotia, formed by the 1894 merger of two railways; controlled by the ] after 1911, shut down in 1994
* ], a supermarket chain founded in 1927; following a series of acquisitions the last Dominion stores were renamed as ] stores in 2008
* The Dominion Institute, created in 1997 to promote awareness of Canadian history and national identity
** The Historica-Dominion Institute, its successor following a 2009 merger with the Historica Foundation; renamed ] in 2013

===Ceylon===

], which, as a Crown colony, was originally promised "fully responsible status within the British Commonwealth of Nations", was formally granted independence as a ] in 1948. In 1972, it adopted a republican constitution to become the Free, Sovereign and Independent Republic of ]. By a new constitution in 1978, it became the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka.

===India and Pakistan===

] acquired a partially representative government ], and the first Parliament was introduced by the '']''.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Kulke |first1=Hermann |last2=Rothermund |first2=Dietmar |year=2004 |title=A History of India |publisher=Routledge |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TPVq3ykHyH4C |edition=Fourth |pages=279–281|isbn=9780415329194 }}</ref> Discussions on the further devolution of power, and granting of Dominion status, continued through the 1920s, with the Commonwealth of India Bill 1925,<ref>{{cite web|title=The Commonwealth of India Bill 1925|url=https://cadindia.clpr.org.in/historical_constitutions/the_commonwealth_of_india_bill__national_convention__india__1925__1st%20January%201925|website=Constituent assembly debates & India|access-date=30 May 2018|archive-date=19 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719045409/http://cadindia.clpr.org.in/historical_constitutions/the_commonwealth_of_india_bill__national_convention__india__1925__1st%20January%201925|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Tripathi|first1=Suresh Mani|title=Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles in India|date=2016|publisher=Anchor Academic Publishing|isbn=9783960670032|pages=39–40|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dXzpDAAAQBAJ&q=The+Commonwealth+of+India+Bill+1925&pg=PA39|access-date=30 May 2018}}</ref> ] 1927–1930, and ] 1928 being often cited proposals. Further powers were eventually devolved, following the 1930–1932 ], to the locally elected legislatures, via the '']''. The ] of 1942 proposed the further devolution of powers, within Dominion status, to the political leadership of British India. Cripps's plan was rejected and full independence was sought.<ref>{{cite book|author=William Roger Louis|title=Ends of British Imperialism: The Scramble for Empire, Suez, and Decolonization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NQnpQNKeKKAC&pg=PA387|year=2006|publisher=I.B.Tauris|pages=387–400|isbn=9781845113476}}</ref> ] (including Muslim-majority ] forming ]) seceded from India at the point of Indian Independence with the passage of the '']'' and ensuing ], resulting in two dominions.<ref>Indian Independence Act 1947, "An Act to make provision for the setting up in India of two independent Dominions, to substitute other provisions for certain provisions of the Government of India Act 1935, which apply outside those Dominions, and to provide for other matters consequential on or connected with the setting up of those Dominions" passed by the U.K. parliament 18 July 1947.{{cite web |url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Geo6/10-11/30 |title=Indian Independence Act 1947 |access-date=2012-07-17 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120630080036/http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Geo6/10-11/30 |archive-date=30 June 2012 }}</ref> For ], dominion status was transitory until its new ] was drafted and promulgated in 1950.<ref name="The Statesman's Year Book, p.635">The Statesman's Year Book, p. 635</ref> Pakistan remained a dominion until it became an Islamic republic under its ].<ref>The Statesman's Year Book, p. 1002</ref> East Pakistan ] from Pakistan through ], as ], in 1971.

===Irish Free State / Ireland===

The ] (Ireland from 1937) was a British Dominion between 1922 and 1949. As established by the '']'' of the ] on 6 December 1922 the new state—which had Dominion status in the likeness of that enjoyed by Canada within the British ]—comprised the whole of Ireland. However, provision was made in the Act for the ] to opt out of inclusion in the Irish Free State, which — as had been widely expected at the time — it duly did one day after the creation of the new state, on 7 December 1922.<ref>On 7 December 1922 (the day after the establishment of the Irish Free State) the ] resolved to make the following address to the ] so as to ''opt out'' of the Irish Free State: "MOST GRACIOUS SOVEREIGN, We, your Majesty's most dutiful and loyal subjects, the Senators and Commons of Northern Ireland in Parliament assembled, having learnt of the passing of the Irish Free State Constitution Act, 1922, being the Act of Parliament for the ratification of the Articles of Agreement for a Treaty between Great Britain and Ireland, do, by this humble Address, pray your Majesty that the powers of the Parliament and Government of the Irish Free State shall no longer extend to Northern Ireland". Source: {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090319082024/http://stormontpapers.ahds.ac.uk/stormontpapers/pageview.html?volumeno=2&pageno=1145 |date=19 March 2009 }} and {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171108213900/http://www.nationalarchives.ie/topics/anglo_irish/dfaexhib2.html |date=8 November 2017 }}.</ref>

Following a plebiscite of the people of the Irish Free State held on 1 July 1937, a ] came into force on 29 December of that year, establishing a ] with the name of "Ireland" which ceased to participate in Commonwealth conferences and events. Nevertheless, the United Kingdom and other member states of the Commonwealth continued to regard Ireland as a Dominion owing to the ] under the ] of 1936. Ultimately, however, Ireland's ] passed '']'', which came into force on 18 April 1949 and unequivocally ended Ireland's links with the British Monarch and the Commonwealth. This Act was recognised by the United Kingdom in the '']''.

===Newfoundland===

In 1934, after a series of financial difficulties (owing in part to Newfoundland's railway debt from the 1890s, and its debt from the ], both of which were exacerbated by the collapse of fish prices during the ]) and a riot against the elected government, Newfoundland voluntarily relinquished its ] and autonomy, becoming a dependent territory of the British Empire until 1949. During these 15 years, Newfoundland was ruled by the ], an unelected body of civil servants who were directly subordinate to the ] in ], under the authority of a British statute, the ''Newfoundland Act, 1933''.<ref>''Newfoundland Act, 1933'', 24 & 25 Geo. V (UK), c. 2.</ref> Despite the suspension of its legislature, and its de facto loss of Dominion status, Newfoundland continued to be regarded during these 15 years as a de jure Dominion<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Commission of Government, 1934-1949 |url=https://www.heritage.nf.ca/articles/politics/commission-government.php#:~:text=newfoundland%20remained%20a%20dominion%20in%20name |access-date=2022-10-23 |website=www.heritage.nf.ca |archive-date=23 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221023192350/https://www.heritage.nf.ca/articles/politics/commission-government.php#:~:text=newfoundland%20remained%20a%20dominion%20in%20name |url-status=live }}</ref>—evidently shown by the fact that Newfoundland continued to be a responsibility of the ] in London—the intention of its commission of government not only to deal with Newfoundland's affairs, and dire economic situation, but to prepare the populace for the day that the legislature would be reconvened, and nationhood thus resumed.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Commission of Government, 1934-1949 |url=https://www.heritage.nf.ca/articles/politics/commission-government.php#:~:text=preparing%20the%20people%20of%20newfoundland%20and%20labrador%20for%20the%20day%20that%20responsible%20government%20would%20be%20resumed |access-date=2022-10-23 |website=www.heritage.nf.ca |archive-date=23 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221023192350/https://www.heritage.nf.ca/articles/politics/commission-government.php#:~:text=preparing%20the%20people%20of%20newfoundland%20and%20labrador%20for%20the%20day%20that%20responsible%20government%20would%20be%20resumed |url-status=live }}</ref> After ], Newfoundlanders rejected both the continuance of the Newfoundland Commission of Government and return to responsible government, voting instead to join Canada as its 10th province. This was achieved under the ''British North America Act, 1949'' (now known as the '']''), which was passed in the ] on 23 March 1949,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1949/22/pdfs/ukpga_19490022_en.pdf|title=''British North America Act, 1949''|access-date=14 October 2022|archive-date=17 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220617010243/https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1949/22/pdfs/ukpga_19490022_en.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> prior to the ] of 28 April 1949.

===New Zealand===

The '']'' gave New Zealand its own ] (General Assembly) and home rule in 1852.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/1966/H/HistoryConstitutional/TheLegislativeAuthorityOfTheNewZealand/en |title=History, Constitutional - The Legislative Authority of the New Zealand Parliament - 1966 Encyclopaedia of New Zealand |publisher=www.teara.govt.nz |date=22 April 2009 |access-date=11 June 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090428044925/http://www.teara.govt.nz/1966/H/HistoryConstitutional/TheLegislativeAuthorityOfTheNewZealand/en |archive-date=28 April 2009 }}</ref> In 1907 New Zealand was proclaimed the ].<ref name="nzhistory1">{{cite web |url=http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/politics/dominion-status |title=Dominion status |publisher=NZHistory |access-date=11 June 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100603194654/http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/politics/dominion-status |archive-date=3 June 2010 }}</ref> New Zealand, Canada, and Newfoundland used the word Dominion in the official title of the state, whereas Australia used ], and South Africa used ]. New Zealand adopted the ]<ref name="nzhistory1"/> and in the same year legislation passed in London gave New Zealand full powers to amend its own constitution. In 1986, the New Zealand parliament passed the '']'', which repealed the Constitution Act of 1852 and the last constitutional links with the United Kingdom, formally ending its Dominion status.<ref>{{cite web |title=Constitution Act 1986 |url=https://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1986/0114/latest/whole.html#DLM94204 |website=New Zealand Legislation |publisher=Parliamentary Counsel Office, Government of New Zealand |access-date=18 May 2023 |location=Wellington |archive-date=18 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230518025534/https://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1986/0114/latest/whole.html#DLM94204 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===South Africa===

The ] was formed in 1910 from the four self-governing colonies of the ], ], the ], and the ] (the last two were former ] republics).<ref>The Stateman's Year Book p. 1156</ref> The '']'' provided for a ] consisting of a ] and a ]. The provinces had their own legislatures. In 1961, the Union of South Africa adopted a new constitution, became a republic, left the Commonwealth (and re-joined following end of apartheid rule on 1 June 1994), and became the present-day Republic of ].<ref>]</ref>

===Southern Rhodesia===

] (Zimbabwe since 1980), coloured red on a map of Africa|alt=A map. See description]]

] (renamed Zimbabwe in 1980) was a special case in the ]. Although it was never a Dominion de jure, it was treated as a Dominion in many respects, and came to be regarded as a de facto Dominion.<ref>{{Cite periodical |last=Roiron|first=Virginie|date=2013|title=Challenged Commonwealth? The Decolonisation of Rhodesia|url=http://www.cercles.com/n28/roiron.pdf|periodical=Cercles |number=28|page=171}}</ref> Southern Rhodesia was formed in 1923 out of ] of the ] and established as a self-governing colony with substantial autonomy on the model of the Dominions. The imperial authorities in London retained direct powers over foreign affairs, constitutional alterations, native administration and bills regarding mining revenues, railways and the governor's salary.<ref name=rowland245251/>

Southern Rhodesia was not one of the territories that were mentioned in the 1931 ] although relations with Southern Rhodesia were administered in London through the ], not the ]. When the Dominions were first treated as foreign countries by London for the purposes of diplomatic immunity in 1952, Southern Rhodesia was included in the list of territories concerned. This semi-Dominion status continued in Southern Rhodesia between 1953 and 1963, when it joined ] and ] in the ], with the latter two territories continuing to be British protectorates. When Northern Rhodesia was given independence in 1964 it adopted the new name of ], prompting Southern Rhodesia to shorten its name to ], but Britain did not recognise this latter change.<ref name=rowland245251>{{cite book
|contribution=Constitutional History of Rhodesia: An outline
|contributor-last=Rowland
|contributor-first=J. Reid
|pages=245–251
|title=The Quiet Man: A Biography of the Hon. Ian Douglas Smith
|last=Berlyn
|first=Phillippa
|location=Salisbury
|publisher=M. O. Collins
|date=April 1978
|oclc=4282978
}}</ref>

Rhodesia ] from Britain in 1965 as a result of the British government's insistence on ] (NIBMAR). London regarded this declaration as illegal, and applied sanctions and expelled Rhodesia from the ].<ref>{{cite book
|title=A matter of weeks rather than months: The Impasse between Harold Wilson and Ian Smith: Sanctions, Aborted Settlements and War 1965–1969
|last=Wood
|first=J. R. T.
|date=2008
|location=Victoria, British Columbia
|publisher=Trafford Publishing
|isbn=978-1-42514-807-2
|page=5
|oclc=234239848}}</ref> Rhodesia continued with its Dominion-style constitution until 1970, and continued to issue British passports to its citizens. The Rhodesian government continued to profess its loyalty to the Queen, despite being in a state of rebellion against Her Majesty's Government in London, until 1970, when it adopted a republican constitution following a ] the previous year.<ref>{{cite journal
|title = The Rhodesian Referendum: June 20th, 1969
|last = Harris
|first = P. B.
|date = September 1969
|volume = 23
|issue = 1969sep
|pages = 72–80
|journal = ]
|publisher = ]
|doi = 10.1093/parlij/23.1969sep.72
}}</ref> This endured until the state's reconstitution as ] in 1979 under the terms of the ]; this lasted until the ] of December 1979, which put it under interim British rule while fresh elections were held. The country achieved independence deemed legal by the international community in April 1980, when Britain granted independence under the name Zimbabwe.<ref>{{cite book
|title=Collective Responses to Illegal Acts in International Law: United Nations action in the question of Southern Rhodesia
|last=Gowlland-Debbas
|first=V.
|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers
|location=Dordrecht
|year=1990
|isbn=978-0-7923-0811-9
|oclc=21600467
|hdl=2027/mdp.39015034328206
|page=73}}</ref>

==From Dominions to Commonwealth realms==

]. Left to right: ] (Canada); ] (South Africa); ] (UK); ] (New Zealand); ] (Australia)]]

Initially, the Dominions conducted their own trade policy, some limited foreign relations and had autonomous ], although the British government claimed and exercised the exclusive power to declare wars. However, after the passage of the ] the language of dependency on the Crown of the United Kingdom ceased, where the Crown itself was no longer referred to as the Crown of any place in particular but simply as "the Crown". ], in Speeches and Documents on the British Dominions 1918–1931, stated that "the Dominions are sovereign international States in the sense that the King in respect of each of His Dominions (Newfoundland excepted) is such a State in the eyes of international law".<ref name="Keith1948">{{cite book | editor = Arthur Berriedale Keith | date = 1948 | title = Speeches and Documents on the British Dominions, 1918-1931: From Self-government to National Sovereignty | publisher = Oxford University Press | pages = | oclc = 1006211868 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=bxgQAQAAMAAJ}}</ref> After then, those countries that were previously referred to as "Dominions" became ]s where the sovereign reigns no longer as the British monarch, but as monarch of each country in its own right, and are considered equal to the UK and one another.<ref name="McIntyre 1999 pp. 193–212" />

The ], which fatally undermined Britain's already weakened commercial and financial leadership, further loosened the political ties between Britain and the Dominions. Australian Prime Minister ]'s unprecedented action (February 1942) in successfully countermanding an order from British Prime Minister ] that Australian troops be diverted to defend British-held ] (the ] was then en route from the Middle East to Australia to defend against an ]) demonstrated that Dominion governments might no longer subordinate their own national interests to British strategic perspectives. To ensure that Australia had full legal power to act independently, particularly in relation to foreign affairs, defence industry and military operations, and to validate its past independent action in these areas, Australia formally adopted the Statute of Westminster in October 1942<ref>''Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942'' (Act no. 56 of 1942). The long title for the Act was "To remove Doubts as to the Validity of certain Commonwealth Legislation, to obviate Delays occurring in its Passage, and to effect certain related purposes, by adopting certain Sections of the Statute of Westminster, 1931, as from the Commencement of the War between His Majesty the King and Germany." Link: {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050716075624/http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item.asp?sdID=96 |date=16 July 2005 }}.</ref> and backdated the adoption to the start of the war in September 1939.

The ] merged with the ] as the ] upon the independence of India and ] in August 1947.<ref name="Evatt2013">{{cite book |contributor-last=Cowen |contributor-first=Z. |contribution=Introduction to the Second Edition |first=H. V. |last=Evatt |date=1967 |title=The King and His Dominion Governors: A Study of the Reserve Powers of the Crown in Great Britain and the Dominions |publisher=Frank Cass & Company |place=London |edition=2nd |page=xvii |url=https://archive.org/details/kinghisdominiong0000evat/page/n19/mode/2up |url-access=registration |oclc=955739 |ol=5575065M}}</ref> The last country officially made a Dominion was ] in 1948.<ref name="KingKilson1999">{{cite book | editor1 = Robert D. King | editor2 = Robin W. Kilson | date = 1999 | title = The Statecraft of British Imperialism: Essays in Honour of Wm. Roger Louis | publisher = Taylor & Francis | pages = 199– | isbn = 978-0-7146-4378-6 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=E6I65FlSeDAC&pg=PA199}}</ref>

When the '']'' entered into force on 1 January 1949, the former Dominions became fully independent, and adopted their own legislation governing nationality. In ], the Dominions were then referred to as "independent Commonwealth countries"; other former British dependencies that joined the Commonwealth were added to the list of "independent Commonwealth Countries" as they gained independence.<ref name="auto"/>

] ceased to be a member of the Commonwealth on 18 April 1949, upon the coming into force of the '']''. This formally signalled the end of the former dependencies' common constitutional connection to the British Crown. India also adopted a republican constitution in January 1950. Unlike many dependencies that became republics, Ireland never re-joined the Commonwealth, which agreed to accept the British monarch as head of that association of independent states (although most of the individual countries had become republics).

The independence of the separate realms was emphasised after the accession of Queen ] in 1952, when she was proclaimed not just as ], but also ], ], ], ], and of all her other "realms and territories" etc. This also reflected the change from ''Dominion'' to ''realm''; in the proclamation of Queen Elizabeth II's ], the phrase "of her other Realms and Territories" replaced "Dominion" with another mediaeval French word with the same connotation, "realm" (from ''royaume'').<ref name="MorraGossedge2016">{{cite book | editor1 = Irene Morra | editor2 = Rob Gossedge | date = 30 September 2016 | title = The New Elizabethan Age: Culture, Society and National Identity after World War II | publisher = Bloomsbury Publishing | pages = 53– | isbn = 978-0-85772-834-0 | oclc = 1058198728 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ehKMDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA53}}</ref> Thus, recently, when referring to one of those fifteen countries within the Commonwealth of Nations that share the same monarch, the phrase '']'' has come into common usage instead of ''Dominion'' to differentiate the Commonwealth nations that continue to share the ] as ] (Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Jamaica, etc.) from those that do not (India, Pakistan, South Africa, etc.).<ref name="Geographer1968">{{cite book | author = United States. Department of State. Office of the Geographer | date = 1968 | title = Commonwealth of Nations, Volume 2 | publisher = U.S. Government Printing Office | pages = 3– | oclc = 11366 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=iq1IQ2yDsiYC&pg=PA3}}</ref> The term "Dominion" is still found in the ] where it appears numerous times, but it is largely a vestige of the past, as the Canadian government does not actively use it (''see ] section''). The term "realm" does not appear in the Canadian constitution.

The practice of designating a diplomatic representative named "]" (instead of "ambassador") for communication between the government of a Dominion and the British government in London continues in respect of members of the Commonwealth, including those that were never Dominions and those that have become republics.

===Newly independent territories sometimes referred to as Dominions===

The term "Dominion" remained in informal use for some years when relating to newly independent territories and was sometimes used to refer to the status of former British territories during an immediate post-independence period while the British monarch remained head of state, and the form of government a Westminster-style parliamentary democracy. The legal status of Dominion in British nationality law had ceased to exist on 1 January 1949. However, leaders of the independence movements sometimes called for Dominion status as one stage in the negotiations for independence (for example, ] of ]).<ref name="McIntyre 1999 pp. 193–212" /> Moreover, while these independent states retained the British monarch as head of state, they remained "within the Crown's dominions" in British law, leading to the confusion of terminology.<ref name="auto1"/>{{Page needed|date=May 2023}} These constitutions were typically replaced by republican constitutions within a few years.

{{blockquote|After World War II, Britain attempted to repeat the Dominion model in decolonising the Caribbean. ... Though several colonies, such as ] and ], maintained their formal allegiance to the British monarch, they soon revised their status to become republics. Britain also attempted to establish a Dominion model in decolonising Africa, but it, too, was unsuccessful. ... ], the first former colony declared a Dominion in 1957, soon demanded recognition as a republic. Other African nations followed a similar pattern throughout the 1960s: ], ], ], ], and Malawi. In fact, only ], ], and ] retained their Dominion status for more than three years.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Jernigan |first=B. |editor1-last=Juang |editor1-first=R. M. |editor2-last=Morrissette |editor2-first=N. |encyclopedia=Africa and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History |title=British Empire |url=https://archive.org/details/africaamericascu0000unse/page/204/mode/2up |url-access=registration |date=2008 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |volume=1 |location=Santa Barbara, California |isbn=978-1-85109-441-7 |oclc=168716701 |ol=11949316M |page=204}}</ref>}}

As the above quote indicates, the term Dominion was sometimes applied in Africa to Ghana (formerly the ]) during the period from 1957 until 1960, when it became the ]; Nigeria from 1960 until 1963, when it became the ];<ref>"For the first three years of its independence, Nigeria was a dominion. As a result, its head of state was Elizabeth II{{nbsp}}..." {{cite book
|title=Nigeria Since Independence: Forever Fragile?
|last=Hill
|first=J.N.C.
|date=2012
|location=London
|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan
|isbn=978-1-349-33471-1
|page=146, note 22}}</ref> ] from 1962 to 1963;<ref>{{cite book
|title=Heads of State and Government
|last=Da Graça
|first=John V.
|date=2000
|location=London and Oxford
|publisher=Macmillan
|edition=2nd
|isbn=978-0-333-78615-4
|page=937}}</ref> ], from 1963 to 1964;<ref>Mr. K.N. Gichoya, bringing a motion on 11 June 1964 in the Kenyan House of Representatives that Kenya be made a Republic: "I should make it clear to those who must know our status today, we are actually a dominion of the United Kingdom in the same way as ... Canada, Australia and New Zealand." ''Kenya National Assembly Official Record (Hansard)'', 1st Parliament, 2nd Session, Vol. 3 (Part 1), Column 135.</ref> ] from 1961 to 1962, after which it became a republic and then merged with the former British protectorate of Zanzibar to become ];<ref>{{cite book
|title=Heads of State and Government
|last=Da Graça
|first=John V.
|date=2000
|location=London and Oxford
|publisher=Macmillan
|edition=2nd
|isbn=978-0-333-78615-4
|page=917}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
|title=Tanzania Revisited: Political Stability, Aid Dependency, and Development Constraints
|editor-last=Engel
|editor-first=Ulf |display-editors=etal
|date=2000
|location=Hamburg
|publisher=Institute of African Affairs
|isbn=3-928049-69-0
|page=115}}</ref> ] from 1965 until 1970;<ref>{{cite book
|title=Heads of State and Government
|last=Da Graça
|first=John V.
|date=2000
|location=London and Oxford
|publisher=Macmillan
|edition=2nd
|isbn=978-0-333-78615-4
|page=355}}</ref> ] from 1961 to 1971;<ref>"In 1971 Siaka Stevens embarked on the process to transform Sierra Leone from a Dominion to a Republic." {{cite book
|title=A New Perspective on Governance, Leadership, Conflict and Nation Building in Sierra Leone
|last=Berewa
|first=Solomon E.
|date=2011
|location=Bloomington, Indiana
|publisher=AuthorHouse
|isbn=978-1-4678-8886-8
|page=66}}</ref> and ] from 1968 to 1992.<ref>"Prime Minister Jugnauth proposed to amend the constitution to change Mauritius from a dominion to a republic. It was passed unanimously and on 12 March 1992, Mauritius acceded to a republic state." {{cite book
|title=CultureShock! Mauritius: A Survival Guide to Customs and Etiquette
|last=NgCheong-Lum
|first=Roseline
|date=2009
|location=Tarrytown, New York
|publisher=Marshall Cavendish
|isbn=978-07614-5668-1
|page=37}}</ref> Malta also retained the Queen as head of state from 1964 to 1974 under the name of ].<ref>{{cite book
|title=Heads of State and Government
|last=Da Graça
|first=John V.
|date=2000
|location=London and Oxford
|publisher=Macmillan
|edition=2nd
|isbn=978-0-333-78615-4
|page=565}}</ref> The term was also applied to ] upon independence. Similar occasional references to Barbados (which retained the Queen as head of state from 1966 to 2021) as a "dominion" can be found in publications as late as the 1970s.<ref>{{cite book
|title=Manorama Year Book
|volume=10
|date=1975
|place=India
|page=181}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-59470843
|title=Barbados becomes a republic and parts ways with the Queen
|work=BBC News
|date=30 November 2020
|accessdate=11 May 2022
|archive-date=30 November 2021
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211130120934/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-59470843
|url-status=live
}}</ref>


==See also== ==See also==
*]
*]
*]
*]


* ]
==Sources==
* ]
* Choudry, Sujit. 2001(?). (based on looseleaf by ]). ''''. University of Alberta, Centre for Constitutional Studies: Edmonton.
* ]
* Holland, R.F., ''Britain and the Commonwealth Alliance 1918-1939'', MacMillan, 1981

* ] 2005. , 6th ed. (ISBN 0-662-39689-8) Canada: Ottawa.
==Notes and references==
* Hallowell, Gerald, ed. 2004. ''The Oxford Companion to Canadian History.'' (ISBN 0-19-541559-0) Oxford University Press: Toronto; p. 183-4.
{{Reflist}}
* Marsh, James H., ed. 1988. "" ''et al.'' '']''. Hurtig Publishers: Toronto.

* Martin, Robert. 1993(?). ''The Machray Review.'' Prayer Book Society of Canada. &mdash; ''A summative piece about nomenclature and pertinent history with abundant references.''
{{refbegin}}
* Rayburn, Alan. 2001. ''Naming Canada: stories about Canadian place names'', 2nd ed. (ISBN 0-8020-8293-9) University of Toronto Press: Toronto.
*{{cite book |last1=Buckley |first1=F. H. |title=The Once and Future King: The Rise of Crown Government in America |date=2014 |publisher=Encounter Books |location=New York |isbn=978-1-59403-719-1 |oclc=855580605}}
* Choudry, Sujit. 2001 (?). (based on looseleaf by ]). ''''. ], Centre for Constitutional Studies: Edmonton.
*{{cite book |last1=Holland |first1=R. F. |title=Britain and the Commonwealth Alliance 1918–1939 |date=1981 |publisher=Macmillan |location=London |isbn=978-0-333-27295-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/britaincommonwea0000holl/page/n1/mode/2up |url-access=registration |oclc=7677808 |ol=10495276M }}
*{{cite book |last1=Forsey |first1=E. A. |title=How Canadians Govern Themselves |date=2005 |publisher=Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada |location=Ottawa |isbn=978-0-662-39689-5 |edition=6th |url=https://publications.gc.ca/collections/Collection/X9-11-2005E.pdf |oclc=61498226 |access-date=13 May 2023 |archive-date=6 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180106171509/http://publications.gc.ca/collections/Collection/X9-11-2005E.pdf |url-status=live }}
*{{cite magazine |last1=Martin |first1=R. |title=A Lament for British North America |magazine=The Machray Review |date=November 1994 |issue=5 |url=http://prayerbook.ca/library/machray/issue5/machray5d.htm<!--Deny Citation Bot--> |publisher=The Prayer Book Society of Canada |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051017043704/http://prayerbook.ca/library/machray/issue5/machray5d.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2005-10-17 <!--Deny Citation Bot--> }}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==


*{{cite book |last1=Reid |first1=G. H. |title=The Australian Commonwealth and her relation to the British Empire: An Address delivered by the Right Hon. Sir George Reid G.C.M.G., K.C., D.C.L. to the Canadian Club of Ottawa at a luncheon given in the Chateau Laurier on Monday, 9th September 1912 |date=1912 |publisher=the Mortimer Press |location=Ottawa |isbn=|ol=7118827M |url=https://en.wikisource.org/The_Australian_Commonwealth_and_her_relation_to_the_British_Empire}}
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Self-governing countries of the British Empire This article is about the self-governing countries of the British Empire. For other uses, see Dominion (disambiguation).

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A Dominion was any of several largely self-governing countries of the British Empire, once known collectively as the British Commonwealth of Nations. Progressing from colonies, their degrees of colonial self-governance increased unevenly over the late 19th century through the 1930s. Vestiges of empire lasted in some dominions well into the late 20th century. With the evolution of the British Empire following the 1945 conclusion of the Second World War into the modern Commonwealth of Nations (after which the former Dominions were often referred to as the Old Commonwealth), finalised in 1949, the dominions became independent states, either as Commonwealth republics or Commonwealth realms.

In 1925, the British government created the Dominions Office from the Colonial Office, although for the next five years they shared the same secretary in charge of both offices. "Dominion status" was first accorded to Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Newfoundland, South Africa, and the Irish Free State at the 1926 Imperial Conference through the Balfour Declaration of 1926, recognising Great Britain and the Dominions as "autonomous communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a common allegiance to the Crown and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations". Their full legislative independence was subsequently confirmed in the 1931 Statute of Westminster. In the 1920s and 1930s, they began to represent themselves in international bodies, in treaty making, and in foreign capitals. Later India, Pakistan, and Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) also became dominions for short periods.

With the transition of the British Empire into the Commonwealth of Nations after World War II, it was decided that the term Commonwealth country should formally replace dominion for official Commonwealth usage. This decision was made during the 1949 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference when India was intending to become a republic, so that both types of governments could become and remain full members of the Commonwealth, and this term hence refers to the realms and republics.

After this the term dominion, without its legal dimension, stayed in use thirty more years for those Commonwealth countries which had the crown as head of state. Gradually, particularly after 1953, the term was replaced by the term realm, as equal realms of the crown of the Commonwealth.

Definition

Map of the British Empire under Queen Victoria at the end of the nineteenth century. "Dominions" refers to all territories belonging to the Crown.

The term dominion means "that which is mastered or ruled". It was used by the British to describe their colonies or territorial possessions.

Use of Dominion to refer to a particular territory within the British Empire dates back to the 16th century and was sometimes used to describe Wales from 1535 to around 1800: for instance, the Laws in Wales Act 1535 applies to "the Dominion, Principality and Country of Wales". Dominion, as an official title, was conferred on the Colony of Virginia about 1660 and on the Dominion of New England in 1686.

Under the British North America Act, 1867, the partially self-governing colonies of British North America were united into the Dominion of Canada. The new federal and provincial governments split considerable local powers, but Britain retained overall legislative supremacy. At the 1907 Imperial Conference, the self-governing polities of Canada and the Commonwealth of Australia were referred to collectively as Dominions for the first time. Two other self-governing coloniesNew Zealand and Newfoundland—were granted the status of Dominion in the same year. These were followed by the Union of South Africa in 1910. The Order in Council annexing the island of Cyprus in 1914 declared that, from 5 November 1914, the island "shall be annexed to and form part of His Majesty's dominions".

King George V (front, centre) and his Prime Ministers at the 1926 Imperial Conference

Dominion status was formally accorded to Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Newfoundland, South Africa, and the Irish Free State at the 1926 Imperial Conference to designate "autonomous communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a common allegiance to the Crown and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations".

The British government of Lloyd George had emphasised the use of the capital "D" when referring to the Irish Free State in the Anglo-Irish Treaty to assure it the same constitutional status in order to avoid confusion with the wider term "His Majesty's dominions", which referred to the British Empire as a whole. At the time of the founding of the League of Nations in 1924, the League Covenant made provision for the admission of any "fully self-governing state, Dominion, or Colony", the implication being that "Dominion status was something between that of a colony and a state".

With the adoption of the Statute of Westminster 1931, Britain and the Dominions (except Newfoundland) formed the British Commonwealth of Nations.

Dominions asserted full legislative independence, with direct access to the Monarch as Head of State previously reserved only for British governments. It also recognised autonomy in foreign affairs, including participation as autonomous countries in the League of Nations with full power over appointing ambassadors to other countries.

Following the Second World War, the changes in the constitutional relationship between the countries that continued to share a common sovereign with the United Kingdom led to the upper case term Dominion falling out of use. The Dominions Office was formally changed to the Commonwealth Relations Office in 1947.

"His/Her Majesty's dominions"

The status of "Dominion" established by the Statute of Westminster in 1931 was capitalised to distinguish it from the more general sense of "within the crown's dominions".

The phrase the crown's dominions or His/Her Majesty's dominions is a legal and constitutional phrase that refers to all the realms and territories of the British sovereign, whether independent or not. These territories include the United Kingdom and its colonies, including those that had become Dominions. Dependent territories that had never been annexed and were not colonies of the Crown, were notionally foreign territory and not "within the crown's dominions". When these territories—including protectorates and protected states (a status with greater powers of self-government), as well as League of Nations mandates (which later became United Nations Trust Territories)—were granted independence and at the same time recognised the British monarch as head of state, the United Kingdom act granting independence declared that such and such a territory "shall form part of Her Majesty's dominions", and so become part of the territory in which the Queen exercises sovereignty, not merely suzerainty.

Under British nationality law, the status of "Dominion" ceased to exist on January 1, 1949, when it was decided that each Dominion would enact laws pertaining to its own citizenship. However, "Dominion status" itself never ceased to exist within the greater scope of British law, because acts pertaining to "Dominion status", such as the Statute of Westminster 1931, have not been repealed in both the United Kingdom and historic Dominions such as Canada. The term "within the crown's dominions" continues to apply in British law to those territories in which the British monarch remains head of state, and the term "self-governing dominion" is used in some legislation. When a territory ceases to recognise the monarch as head of state, this status is changed by statute. Thus, for example, the British Ireland Act 1949, recognised that the Republic of Ireland had "ceased to be part of His Majesty's dominions".

Historical development

Responsible government: precursor to Dominion status

Main articles: Responsible government and Self-governing colony

The foundation of "Dominion" status followed the achievement of internal self-rule in British Colonies, in the specific form of full responsible government (as distinct from "representative government"). Colonial responsible government began to emerge during the mid-19th century. The legislatures of Colonies with responsible government were able to make laws in all matters other than foreign affairs, defence and international trade, these being powers which remained with the Parliament of the United Kingdom.

Nova Scotia soon followed by the Province of Canada (which included modern southern Ontario and southern Quebec) were the first colonies to achieve responsible government, in 1848. Prince Edward Island followed in 1851, and New Brunswick and Newfoundland in 1855. All except for Newfoundland and Prince Edward Island agreed to form a new federation named Canada from 1867. This was instituted by the British Parliament in the British North America Act, 1867 (see also Canadian Confederation). Section 3 of the Act referred to the new entity as a "Dominion", the first such entity to be created. From 1870 the Dominion included two vast neighbouring British territories without self-government: Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory; together these became over time the current provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta, and the three current territories, the Northwest Territories, Yukon and Nunavut. In 1871, the Crown Colony of British Columbia became a Canadian province, as did Prince Edward Island in 1873. Newfoundland, having become a Dominion itself in 1907, was restored to direct British rule in 1934, finally joining Canada in 1949 after referendums.

The conditions under which the four separate Australian colonies—New South Wales, Tasmania, Western Australia, South Australia—and New Zealand could gain full responsible government were set out by the British government in the Australian Constitutions Act 1850. The Act also separated the Colony of Victoria (in 1851) from New South Wales. During 1856, responsible government was achieved by New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, and Tasmania, and New Zealand. The remainder of New South Wales was divided in three in 1859, a change that established most of the present borders of NSW; the Colony of Queensland, with its own responsible self-government, and the Northern Territory (which was not granted self-government prior to federation of the Australian Colonies). Western Australia did not receive self-government until 1891, mainly because of its continuing financial dependence on the UK Government. After protracted negotiations (that initially included New Zealand), six Australian colonies with responsible government (and their dependent territories) agreed to federate, along Canadian lines, becoming the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901.

In South Africa, the Cape Colony became the first British self-governing colony, in 1872. (Until 1893, the Cape Colony also controlled the separate Colony of Natal.) Following the Second Boer War (1899–1902), the British Empire assumed direct control of the Boer Republics, but transferred limited self-government to Transvaal in 1906, and the Orange River Colony in 1907.

The New Zealand Observer (1907) shows New Zealand Prime Minister Joseph Ward as a pretentious dwarf beneath a massive "Dominion" top hat. The caption reads: The Surprise Packet:
Canada: "Rather large for him, is it not?"
Australia: "Oh, his head is swelling rapidly. The hat will soon fit."

The Commonwealth of Australia was recognised as a Dominion in 1901, and the Dominion of New Zealand and the Dominion of Newfoundland were officially given Dominion status in 1907, followed by the Union of South Africa in 1910.

Canadian Confederation and evolution of the term Dominion

In connection with proposals for the future government of British North America, use of the term "Dominion" was suggested by Samuel Leonard Tilley at the London Conference of 1866 discussing the confederation of the Province of Canada (subsequently becoming the provinces of Ontario and Quebec), Nova Scotia and New Brunswick into "One Dominion under the Name of Canada", the first federation internal to the British Empire. Tilley's suggestion was taken from the 72nd Psalm, verse eight, "He shall have dominion also from sea to sea, and from the river unto the ends of the earth", which is echoed in the national motto, "A Mari Usque Ad Mare". The new government of Canada under the British North America Act, 1867 began to use the phrase "Dominion of Canada" to designate the new, larger country. However, neither the Confederation nor the adoption of the title of "Dominion" granted extra autonomy or new powers to this new federal level of government. Senator Eugene Forsey wrote that the powers acquired since the 1840s that established the system of responsible government in Canada would simply be transferred to the new Dominion government:

By the time of Confederation in 1867, this system had been operating in most of what is now central and eastern Canada for almost 20 years. The Fathers of Confederation simply continued the system they knew, the system that was already working, and working well.

The constitutional scholar Andrew Heard argues that Confederation did not legally change Canada's colonial status to anything approaching its later status of a Dominion.

At its inception in 1867, Canada's colonial status was marked by political and legal subjugation to British Imperial supremacy in all aspects of government—legislative, judicial, and executive. The Imperial Parliament at Westminster could legislate on any matter to do with Canada and could override any local legislation, the final court of appeal for Canadian litigation lay with the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in London, the Governor General of Canada had a substantive role as a representative of the British government, and ultimate executive power was vested in the British Monarch — who was advised only by British ministers in its exercise. Canada's independence came about as each of these sub-ordinations was eventually removed.

When the Dominion of Canada was created in 1867, it was granted powers of self-government to deal with all internal matters, but Britain still retained overall legislative supremacy. This Imperial supremacy could be exercised through several statutory measures. In the first place, the British North America Act of 1867 provided in Section 55 that the Governor General may reserve any legislation passed by the two Houses of Parliament for "the signification of Her Majesty's pleasure", which is determined according to Section 57 by the British Monarch in Council. Secondly, Section 56 provides that the Governor General must forward to "one of Her Majesty's Principal Secretaries of State" in London a copy of any Federal legislation that has been assented to. Then, within two years after the receipt of this copy, the (British) Monarch in Council could disallow an Act. Thirdly, at least four pieces of Imperial legislation constrained the Canadian legislatures. The Colonial Laws Validity Act 1865 provided that no colonial law could validly conflict with, amend, or repeal Imperial legislation that either explicitly, or by necessary implication, applied directly to that colony. The Merchant Shipping Act of 1894, as well as the Colonial Courts of Admiralty Act 1890 required reservation of Dominion legislation on those topics for approval by the British Government. Also, the Colonial Stock Act 1900 provided for the disallowance of any Dominion legislation the British government felt would harm British stockholders of Dominion trustee securities. Most importantly, however, the British Parliament could exercise the legal right of supremacy that it possessed over common law to pass any legislation on any matter affecting the colonies.

For decades, the Dominions did not have their own embassies or consulates in foreign countries. International travel and commerce were transacted through British embassies and consulates. For example, matters concerning visas and lost or stolen passports of Dominion citizens were carried out at British diplomatic offices. In the late 1930s and early 1940s, Dominion governments established their own embassies, the first two of which were established by Australia and Canada in Washington, D.C., in the United States.

Until 1948 any resident of a British colony or Dominion had the status of British subject. In 1935, the Irish Nationality and Citizenship Act created a separate status of Irish national, but stopped short of creating a full citizenship. Canada was the first to create its own citizenship with the Canadian Citizenship Act, 1946, following which the British Nationality Act 1948 created Commonwealth citizenship and the Dominions subsequently created their own citizenships.

As Heard later explained, the British government seldom invoked its powers over Canadian legislation. British legislative powers over Canadian domestic policy were largely theoretical and their exercise was increasingly unacceptable in the 1870s and 1880s. The rise to the status of a Dominion and then full independence for Canada and other possessions of the British Empire did not occur by the granting of titles or similar recognition by the British Parliament but by initiatives taken by the new governments of certain former British dependencies to assert their independence and to establish constitutional precedents.

What is remarkable about this whole process is that it was achieved with a minimum of legislative amendments. Much of Canada's independence arose from the development of new political arrangements, many of which have been absorbed into judicial decisions interpreting the constitution—with or without explicit recognition. Canada's passage from being an integral part of the British Empire to being an independent member of the Commonwealth richly illustrates the way in which fundamental constitutional rules have evolved through the interaction of constitutional convention, international law, and municipal statute and case law.

What was significant about the creation of the Canadian and Australian federations was not that they were instantly granted wide new powers by the Imperial centre at the time of their creation; but that they, because of their greater size and prestige, were better able to exercise their existing powers and lobby for new ones than the various colonies they incorporated could have done separately. They provided a new model which politicians in New Zealand, Newfoundland, South Africa, Ireland, India, Malaysia could point to for their own relationship with Britain. Ultimately, " example of a peaceful accession to independence with a Westminster system of government came to be followed by 50 countries with a combined population of more than 2-billion people."

1907 Imperial Conference

Main article: 1907 Imperial Conference

Issues of colonial self-government spilled into foreign affairs with the Second Boer War (1899–1902). The self-governing colonies contributed significantly to British efforts to stem the insurrection, but ensured that they set the conditions for participation in these wars. Colonial governments repeatedly acted to ensure that they determined the extent of their participation in imperial wars in the military build-up to the First World War.

The assertiveness of the self-governing countries was recognised in the Imperial Conference of 1907 which, on the motions of the Prime Ministers of Canada and Australia, introduced the idea of the Dominions as self-governing countries by referring to Canada and Australia as Dominions. It also retired the name "Colonial Conference" and mandated that meetings take place regularly to consult the Dominions in running the foreign affairs of the empire.

The Colony of New Zealand, which chose not to take part in Australian federation, became the Dominion of New Zealand on 26 September 1907; Newfoundland became a Dominion on the same day. The Union of South Africa was referred to as a Dominion upon its creation on 31 May 1910.

First World War and Treaty of Versailles

The Parliamentary Recruiting Committee produced this First World War poster. Designed by Arthur Wardle, the poster urges men from the Dominions of the British Empire to enlist in the war effort.

The initiatives and contributions of British colonies to the British war effort in the First World War were recognised by Britain with the creation of the Imperial War Cabinet in 1917, which gave them a say in the running of the war. Dominion status as self-governing states, as opposed to symbolic titles granted various British colonies, waited until 1919, when the self-governing Dominions signed the Treaty of Versailles independently of the British government and became individual members of the League of Nations. This ended the purely colonial status of the Dominions.

Irish Free State

The Irish Free State, set up in 1922 after the Anglo-Irish War, was the third Dominion to appoint a non-UK born, non-aristocratic Governor-General when Timothy Michael Healy, following the tenures of Sir Gordon Drummond in Canada and of Sir Walter Edward Davidson and Sir William Allardyce in Newfoundland, took the position in 1922. Dominion status was never popular in the Irish Free State where people saw it as a face-saving measure for a British government unable to countenance a republic in what had previously been the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Successive Irish governments undermined the constitutional links with the United Kingdom. In 1937, Ireland, as it renamed itself, adopted a new republican constitution that included powers for a president of Ireland. At the same time, a law delegating functions to the King, not as King in Ireland but as the symbol of the co-operation amongst Commonwealth countries with which Ireland associated itself, continued to apply in external relations. The last statutory functions of the King with respect to Ireland were abolished in 1949.

Balfour Declaration of 1926 and Statute of Westminster

The Balfour Declaration of 1926, and the subsequent Statute of Westminster, 1931, restricted Britain's ability to pass or affect laws outside of its own jurisdiction.

Until 1931, Newfoundland was referred to as a colony of the United Kingdom, as for example, in the 1927 reference to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council to delineate the Quebec-Labrador boundary. Full autonomy was granted by the United Kingdom parliament with the Statute of Westminster in December 1931.

By the request of Australia and New Zealand, the Statute of Westminster was not applied automatically to those two Dominions until their own parliaments confirmed it. Being economically close to Britain and dependent on it for defence, they did not do so until 1942 for Australia and 1947 for New Zealand.

In 1934, following Newfoundland's economic collapse, and with the approval of its own legislature, Britain suspended self-government in Newfoundland and instituted a "Commission of Government", which continued until Newfoundland became a province of Canada in 1949.

White Dominions

See also: CANZUK

Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Irish Free State, Newfoundland and South Africa (prior to becoming a republic and temporarily leaving the Commonwealth in 1961), with their large populations of European descent, were sometimes collectively referred to as the "White Dominions".

Dominions

List of Dominions

Country From To Status
Canada 1867 Continues as a Commonwealth realm. Dominion was conferred as the country's title in the 1867 constitution, as a substitute for the title of "kingdom".
Australia 1901 Continues as a Commonwealth realm.
New Zealand 1907 Continues as a Commonwealth realm.
Newfoundland 1907 1949 The colony of Newfoundland enjoyed responsible government from 1855 to 1907 when it became a Dominion. Following the recommendations of a Royal Commission, and at the request of the Legislative Assembly and Legislative Council of Newfoundland, parliamentary government was suspended in 1934, due to severe financial difficulties resulting from the depression and a series of riots against the Newfoundland government in 1932. In 1934, Newfoundland reverted to direct British rule, governed by an unelected commission of government appointed by the British government. In 1949, it joined Canada and the legislature was restored after 16 years of direct rule by Britain.
South Africa 1910 1961 Continued as a monarchy until it became a republic in 1961 under the Republic of South Africa Constitution Act 1961, passed by the Parliament of South Africa, long title "To constitute the Republic of South Africa and to provide for matters incidental thereto", assented to 24 April 1961 to come into operation on 31 May 1961.
Irish Free State (1922–1937)
Éire (1937–1949)
1922 1949 The link with the monarchy ceased with the passage of the Republic of Ireland Act 1948, which came into force on 18 April 1949 and declared that the state was a republic.
India 1947 1950 The Union of India (with the addition of Sikkim from 1975) became a federal republic after its constitution came into effect on 26 January 1950. India became the first Commonwealth republic.
Pakistan (incl. East Pakistan, but excl. Gwadar) 1947 1956 Continued as a monarchy until 23 March 1956 when it became a republic under the name "The Islamic Republic of Pakistan": Constitution of 1956.
Ceylon 1948 1972 Continued as a monarchy until 1972 when it became a republic under the name of Sri Lanka.
  1. There was no single constitutional or legislative change that abolished the status of "dominions". The accession proclamation of 1952 referred to "realms", and the Royal Style and Titles Acts of 1953 changed references to "dominions" in the monarch's titles in the various Dominions to "realms", after which the term dominion generally fell into disuse, and the countries sharing the same monarch as the United Kingdom came to be referred to as realms (with the possible exception of Canada; see also Name of Canada).
  2. The Irish Free State was renamed Éire in Irish or Ireland in English in 1937. In 1937–1949, the Dominion was referred to as "Eire" by the British government. See also Names of the Irish state.

Australia

Four colonies of Australia had enjoyed responsible government since 1856: New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia. Queensland had responsible government soon after its founding in 1859. Because of ongoing financial dependence on Britain, Western Australia became the last Australian colony to attain self-government in 1890. During the 1890s, the colonies voted to unite and in 1901 they were federated under the British Crown as the Commonwealth of Australia by the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act. The Constitution of Australia had been drafted in Australia and approved by popular consent. Thus Australia is one of the few countries established by a popular vote. Under the Balfour Declaration of 1926, the federal government was regarded as coequal with (and not subordinate to) the British and other Dominion governments, and this was given formal legal recognition in 1942 (when the Statute of Westminster was adopted retroactively to the commencement of the Second World War in 1939). In 1930, the Australian prime minister, James Scullin, reinforced the right of the overseas Dominions to appoint native-born governors-general, when he advised King George V to appoint Sir Isaac Isaacs as his representative in Australia, against the wishes of the opposition and officials in London. The governments of the states (colonies before 1901) remained under the Commonwealth but retained links to the UK until the passage of the Australia Act 1986.

Canada

Dominion of Canada Postage Stamp, 1898
See also: Name of Canada § Use of Dominion

The term Dominion is employed in the Constitution Act, 1867 (originally the British North America Act, 1867), and describes the resulting political union. Specifically, the preamble of the act states: "Whereas the Provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick have expressed their Desire to be federally united into One Dominion under the Crown of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, with a Constitution similar in Principle to that of the United Kingdom ..." Furthermore, Sections 3 and 4 indicate that the provinces "shall form and be One Dominion under the Name of Canada; and on and after that Day those Three Provinces shall form and be One Dominion under that Name accordingly".

According to the Canadian Encyclopedia (1999), "The word came to be applied to the federal government and Parliament, and under the Constitution Act, 1982, 'Dominion' remains Canada's official title."

Usage of the phrase Dominion of Canada was employed as the country's name after 1867, predating the general use of the term Dominion as applied to the other autonomous regions of the British Empire after 1907. The phrase Dominion of Canada does not appear in the 1867 act nor in the Constitution Act, 1982, but does appear in the Constitution Act, 1871, other contemporaneous texts, and subsequent bills. References to the Dominion of Canada in later acts, such as the Statute of Westminster, do not clarify the point because all nouns were formally capitalised in British legislative style.

Frank Scott theorised that Canada's status as a Dominion ended when Canadian parliament declared war on Germany on 9 September 1939, separately and distinctly from the United Kingdom's declaration of war six days earlier. By the 1950s, the term Dominion of Canada was no longer used by the United Kingdom, which considered Canada a "Realm of the Commonwealth". The government of Louis St. Laurent ended the practice of using Dominion in the statutes of Canada in 1951. This began the phasing out of the use of Dominion, which had been used largely as a synonym of "federal" or "national" such as "Dominion building" for a post office, "Dominion-provincial relations", and so on. The last major change was renaming the national holiday from Dominion Day to Canada Day in 1982. Official bilingualism laws also contributed to the disuse of Dominion, as it has no acceptable equivalent in French.

While the term may be found in older official documents, and the Dominion Carillonneur still tolls at Parliament Hill, it is now hardly used to distinguish the federal government from the provinces or (historically) Canada before and after 1867. Nonetheless, the federal government continues to produce publications and educational materials that specify the currency of these official titles. The Constitution Act, 1982 does not mention and does not remove the title, and therefore a constitutional amendment may be required to change it.

The word Dominion has been used with other agencies, laws, and roles:

Notable Canadian corporations and organisations (not affiliated with government) that have used Dominion as a part of their name have included:

Ceylon

Ceylon, which, as a Crown colony, was originally promised "fully responsible status within the British Commonwealth of Nations", was formally granted independence as a Dominion in 1948. In 1972, it adopted a republican constitution to become the Free, Sovereign and Independent Republic of Sri Lanka. By a new constitution in 1978, it became the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka.

India and Pakistan

British India acquired a partially representative government in 1909, and the first Parliament was introduced by the Government of India Act 1919. Discussions on the further devolution of power, and granting of Dominion status, continued through the 1920s, with the Commonwealth of India Bill 1925, Simon Commission 1927–1930, and Nehru Report 1928 being often cited proposals. Further powers were eventually devolved, following the 1930–1932 Round Table Conferences, to the locally elected legislatures, via the Government of India Act 1935. The Cripps Mission of 1942 proposed the further devolution of powers, within Dominion status, to the political leadership of British India. Cripps's plan was rejected and full independence was sought. Pakistan (including Muslim-majority East Bengal forming East Pakistan) seceded from India at the point of Indian Independence with the passage of the Indian Independence Act 1947 and ensuing partition, resulting in two dominions. For India, dominion status was transitory until its new republican constitution was drafted and promulgated in 1950. Pakistan remained a dominion until it became an Islamic republic under its 1956 constitution. East Pakistan gained independence from Pakistan through Liberation War, as Bangladesh, in 1971.

Irish Free State / Ireland

The Irish Free State (Ireland from 1937) was a British Dominion between 1922 and 1949. As established by the Irish Free State Constitution Act of the United Kingdom Parliament on 6 December 1922 the new state—which had Dominion status in the likeness of that enjoyed by Canada within the British Commonwealth of Nations—comprised the whole of Ireland. However, provision was made in the Act for the Parliament of Northern Ireland to opt out of inclusion in the Irish Free State, which — as had been widely expected at the time — it duly did one day after the creation of the new state, on 7 December 1922.

Following a plebiscite of the people of the Irish Free State held on 1 July 1937, a new constitution came into force on 29 December of that year, establishing a successor state with the name of "Ireland" which ceased to participate in Commonwealth conferences and events. Nevertheless, the United Kingdom and other member states of the Commonwealth continued to regard Ireland as a Dominion owing to the unusual role accorded to the King under the Irish External Relations Act of 1936. Ultimately, however, Ireland's Oireachtas passed The Republic of Ireland Act 1948, which came into force on 18 April 1949 and unequivocally ended Ireland's links with the British Monarch and the Commonwealth. This Act was recognised by the United Kingdom in the Ireland Act 1949.

Newfoundland

In 1934, after a series of financial difficulties (owing in part to Newfoundland's railway debt from the 1890s, and its debt from the First World War, both of which were exacerbated by the collapse of fish prices during the Great Depression) and a riot against the elected government, Newfoundland voluntarily relinquished its elected parliament and autonomy, becoming a dependent territory of the British Empire until 1949. During these 15 years, Newfoundland was ruled by the Newfoundland Commission of Government, an unelected body of civil servants who were directly subordinate to the British Government in London, under the authority of a British statute, the Newfoundland Act, 1933. Despite the suspension of its legislature, and its de facto loss of Dominion status, Newfoundland continued to be regarded during these 15 years as a de jure Dominion—evidently shown by the fact that Newfoundland continued to be a responsibility of the Dominions Office in London—the intention of its commission of government not only to deal with Newfoundland's affairs, and dire economic situation, but to prepare the populace for the day that the legislature would be reconvened, and nationhood thus resumed. After two referendums in 1948, Newfoundlanders rejected both the continuance of the Newfoundland Commission of Government and return to responsible government, voting instead to join Canada as its 10th province. This was achieved under the British North America Act, 1949 (now known as the Newfoundland Act), which was passed in the Parliament of the United Kingdom on 23 March 1949, prior to the London Declaration of 28 April 1949.

New Zealand

The New Zealand Constitution Act 1852 gave New Zealand its own Parliament (General Assembly) and home rule in 1852. In 1907 New Zealand was proclaimed the Dominion of New Zealand. New Zealand, Canada, and Newfoundland used the word Dominion in the official title of the state, whereas Australia used Commonwealth of Australia, and South Africa used Union of South Africa. New Zealand adopted the Statute of Westminster in 1947 and in the same year legislation passed in London gave New Zealand full powers to amend its own constitution. In 1986, the New Zealand parliament passed the Constitution Act 1986, which repealed the Constitution Act of 1852 and the last constitutional links with the United Kingdom, formally ending its Dominion status.

South Africa

The Union of South Africa was formed in 1910 from the four self-governing colonies of the Cape Colony, Natal, the Transvaal, and the Orange River Colony (the last two were former Boer republics). The South Africa Act 1909 provided for a Parliament consisting of a Senate and a House of Assembly. The provinces had their own legislatures. In 1961, the Union of South Africa adopted a new constitution, became a republic, left the Commonwealth (and re-joined following end of apartheid rule on 1 June 1994), and became the present-day Republic of South Africa.

Southern Rhodesia

A map. See description
Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe since 1980), coloured red on a map of Africa

Southern Rhodesia (renamed Zimbabwe in 1980) was a special case in the British Empire. Although it was never a Dominion de jure, it was treated as a Dominion in many respects, and came to be regarded as a de facto Dominion. Southern Rhodesia was formed in 1923 out of territories of the British South Africa Company and established as a self-governing colony with substantial autonomy on the model of the Dominions. The imperial authorities in London retained direct powers over foreign affairs, constitutional alterations, native administration and bills regarding mining revenues, railways and the governor's salary.

Southern Rhodesia was not one of the territories that were mentioned in the 1931 Statute of Westminster although relations with Southern Rhodesia were administered in London through the Dominions Office, not the Colonial Office. When the Dominions were first treated as foreign countries by London for the purposes of diplomatic immunity in 1952, Southern Rhodesia was included in the list of territories concerned. This semi-Dominion status continued in Southern Rhodesia between 1953 and 1963, when it joined Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland in the Central African Federation, with the latter two territories continuing to be British protectorates. When Northern Rhodesia was given independence in 1964 it adopted the new name of Zambia, prompting Southern Rhodesia to shorten its name to Rhodesia, but Britain did not recognise this latter change.

Rhodesia unilaterally declared independence from Britain in 1965 as a result of the British government's insistence on no independence before majority rule (NIBMAR). London regarded this declaration as illegal, and applied sanctions and expelled Rhodesia from the sterling area. Rhodesia continued with its Dominion-style constitution until 1970, and continued to issue British passports to its citizens. The Rhodesian government continued to profess its loyalty to the Queen, despite being in a state of rebellion against Her Majesty's Government in London, until 1970, when it adopted a republican constitution following a referendum the previous year. This endured until the state's reconstitution as Zimbabwe Rhodesia in 1979 under the terms of the Internal Settlement; this lasted until the Lancaster House Agreement of December 1979, which put it under interim British rule while fresh elections were held. The country achieved independence deemed legal by the international community in April 1980, when Britain granted independence under the name Zimbabwe.

From Dominions to Commonwealth realms

The prime ministers of Britain and the four major Dominions at the 1944 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference. Left to right: William Lyon Mackenzie King (Canada); Jan Smuts (South Africa); Winston Churchill (UK); Peter Fraser (New Zealand); John Curtin (Australia)

Initially, the Dominions conducted their own trade policy, some limited foreign relations and had autonomous armed forces, although the British government claimed and exercised the exclusive power to declare wars. However, after the passage of the Statute of Westminster the language of dependency on the Crown of the United Kingdom ceased, where the Crown itself was no longer referred to as the Crown of any place in particular but simply as "the Crown". Arthur Berriedale Keith, in Speeches and Documents on the British Dominions 1918–1931, stated that "the Dominions are sovereign international States in the sense that the King in respect of each of His Dominions (Newfoundland excepted) is such a State in the eyes of international law". After then, those countries that were previously referred to as "Dominions" became Commonwealth realms where the sovereign reigns no longer as the British monarch, but as monarch of each country in its own right, and are considered equal to the UK and one another.

The Second World War, which fatally undermined Britain's already weakened commercial and financial leadership, further loosened the political ties between Britain and the Dominions. Australian Prime Minister John Curtin's unprecedented action (February 1942) in successfully countermanding an order from British Prime Minister Winston Churchill that Australian troops be diverted to defend British-held Burma (the 7th Division was then en route from the Middle East to Australia to defend against an expected Japanese invasion) demonstrated that Dominion governments might no longer subordinate their own national interests to British strategic perspectives. To ensure that Australia had full legal power to act independently, particularly in relation to foreign affairs, defence industry and military operations, and to validate its past independent action in these areas, Australia formally adopted the Statute of Westminster in October 1942 and backdated the adoption to the start of the war in September 1939.

The Dominions Office merged with the India Office as the Commonwealth Relations Office upon the independence of India and Pakistan in August 1947. The last country officially made a Dominion was Ceylon in 1948.

When the British Nationality Act 1948 entered into force on 1 January 1949, the former Dominions became fully independent, and adopted their own legislation governing nationality. In British nationality law, the Dominions were then referred to as "independent Commonwealth countries"; other former British dependencies that joined the Commonwealth were added to the list of "independent Commonwealth Countries" as they gained independence.

Ireland ceased to be a member of the Commonwealth on 18 April 1949, upon the coming into force of the Republic of Ireland Act 1948. This formally signalled the end of the former dependencies' common constitutional connection to the British Crown. India also adopted a republican constitution in January 1950. Unlike many dependencies that became republics, Ireland never re-joined the Commonwealth, which agreed to accept the British monarch as head of that association of independent states (although most of the individual countries had become republics).

The independence of the separate realms was emphasised after the accession of Queen Elizabeth II in 1952, when she was proclaimed not just as Queen of the United Kingdom, but also Queen of Canada, Queen of Australia, Queen of New Zealand, Queen of South Africa, and of all her other "realms and territories" etc. This also reflected the change from Dominion to realm; in the proclamation of Queen Elizabeth II's new titles in 1953, the phrase "of her other Realms and Territories" replaced "Dominion" with another mediaeval French word with the same connotation, "realm" (from royaume). Thus, recently, when referring to one of those fifteen countries within the Commonwealth of Nations that share the same monarch, the phrase Commonwealth realm has come into common usage instead of Dominion to differentiate the Commonwealth nations that continue to share the monarch as head of state (Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Jamaica, etc.) from those that do not (India, Pakistan, South Africa, etc.). The term "Dominion" is still found in the Canadian constitution where it appears numerous times, but it is largely a vestige of the past, as the Canadian government does not actively use it (see Canada section). The term "realm" does not appear in the Canadian constitution.

The practice of designating a diplomatic representative named "High Commissioner" (instead of "ambassador") for communication between the government of a Dominion and the British government in London continues in respect of members of the Commonwealth, including those that were never Dominions and those that have become republics.

Newly independent territories sometimes referred to as Dominions

The term "Dominion" remained in informal use for some years when relating to newly independent territories and was sometimes used to refer to the status of former British territories during an immediate post-independence period while the British monarch remained head of state, and the form of government a Westminster-style parliamentary democracy. The legal status of Dominion in British nationality law had ceased to exist on 1 January 1949. However, leaders of the independence movements sometimes called for Dominion status as one stage in the negotiations for independence (for example, Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana). Moreover, while these independent states retained the British monarch as head of state, they remained "within the Crown's dominions" in British law, leading to the confusion of terminology. These constitutions were typically replaced by republican constitutions within a few years.

After World War II, Britain attempted to repeat the Dominion model in decolonising the Caribbean. ... Though several colonies, such as Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago, maintained their formal allegiance to the British monarch, they soon revised their status to become republics. Britain also attempted to establish a Dominion model in decolonising Africa, but it, too, was unsuccessful. ... Ghana, the first former colony declared a Dominion in 1957, soon demanded recognition as a republic. Other African nations followed a similar pattern throughout the 1960s: Nigeria, Tanganyika, Uganda, Kenya, and Malawi. In fact, only Gambia, Sierra Leone, and Mauritius retained their Dominion status for more than three years.

As the above quote indicates, the term Dominion was sometimes applied in Africa to Ghana (formerly the Gold Coast) during the period from 1957 until 1960, when it became the Republic of Ghana; Nigeria from 1960 until 1963, when it became the Federal Republic of Nigeria; Uganda from 1962 to 1963; Kenya, from 1963 to 1964; Tanganyika from 1961 to 1962, after which it became a republic and then merged with the former British protectorate of Zanzibar to become Tanzania; Gambia from 1965 until 1970; Sierra Leone from 1961 to 1971; and Mauritius from 1968 to 1992. Malta also retained the Queen as head of state from 1964 to 1974 under the name of State of Malta. The term was also applied to Fiji upon independence. Similar occasional references to Barbados (which retained the Queen as head of state from 1966 to 2021) as a "dominion" can be found in publications as late as the 1970s.

See also

Notes and references

  1. Amy McKeever, "How the Commonwealth arose from a crumbling British Empire", National Geographic, 12 September 2022.
  2. "t the Court at Buckingham Palace, the 27th day of October, 1939. PRESENT, The KING's Most Excellent Majesty in Council". London Gazette. London. 31 October 1939. p. 7265. Retrieved 29 August 2024. The High Contracting Parties agree that His Majesty The King and Emperor may accede to the present Convention in respect of any other Member of the British Commonwealth of Nations
  3. "Commonwealth migration since 1945: What was the context and impact of migration in modern Britain?". National Archives. Government of the united Kingdom. Retrieved 29 August 2024. There was a significant demand for labour which came not only from the Caribbean but also from mainland Europe, Ireland, India, and Pakistan. However, it was opposition to Commonwealth and empire immigration that stood out, with a reluctance for example to accept skilled Caribbean labour. While wanting to allow entry to white people from the old Commonwealth, the government did not want to appear racist in any plans to restrict immigration from elsewhere in the empire and Commonwealth as governments of the newly emerging black Commonwealth took offence at moves to restrict movement to Britain from their respective countries while not applying the same rules to those from the white Commonwealth.
  4. "Balfour Declaration, Clause II" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 July 2005. Retrieved 25 June 2022.
  5. Parsons, T. H. (2014). The Second British Empire: In the Crucible of the Twentieth Century. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 128. ISBN 978-1-4422-3529-8. OCLC 870098208.
  6. ^ Forsey, E. A.; Hayday, M. "Dominion of Canada". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 8 April 2022. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
  7. "Parliamentary questions". Parliamentary Debates (Hansard). 5 November 1934. Archived from the original on 13 July 2009. Retrieved 11 June 2010.
  8. Heard, Andrew (1990). "Canadian independence". Archived from the original on 21 February 2009. Retrieved 12 February 2021. When the Dominion of Canada was created in 1867 it was granted powers of self-government to deal with all internal matters, but Britain still retained overall legislative supremacy.
  9. Roberts, J. M. (1995). The Penguin History of the World (3rd ed.). London: Penguin Books. p. 777. ISBN 978-0-14-015495-5. OCLC 33134439. OL 18674652M.
  10. Cyprus (Annexation) Order in Council, 1914, dated 5 November 1914.
  11. Order quoted in The American Journal of International Law, "Annexation of Cyprus by Great Britain"
  12. ^ "Dominion". Encyclopædia Britannica. 7 December 2011. Archived from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 13 February 2021. Although there was no formal definition of dominion status, a pronouncement by the Imperial Conference of 1926 described Great Britain and the dominions as "autonomous communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a common allegiance to the Crown and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations."
  13. ^ Mohr, T. (2013). "The Statute of Westminster, 1931: An Irish Perspective". Law and History Review. 31 (4): 749–791 . doi:10.1017/S073824801300045X. hdl:10197/7515. ISSN 0738-2480. S2CID 145071117.
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  22. Link to the Victoria Constitution Act 1855, on the Web site of the National Archives of Australia: www.foundingdocs.gov.au Archived 3 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine
  23. Link to the Constitution Act 1855 (SA), on the Web site of the National Archives of Australia: www.foundingdocs.gov.au Archived 3 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine
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  40. Newfoundland Act, 1933, 24 Geo. 5 (UK), c. 2.
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  91. "Prime Minister Jugnauth proposed to amend the constitution to change Mauritius from a dominion to a republic. It was passed unanimously and on 12 March 1992, Mauritius acceded to a republic state." NgCheong-Lum, Roseline (2009). CultureShock! Mauritius: A Survival Guide to Customs and Etiquette. Tarrytown, New York: Marshall Cavendish. p. 37. ISBN 978-07614-5668-1.
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  93. Manorama Year Book. Vol. 10. India. 1975. p. 181.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  94. "Barbados becomes a republic and parts ways with the Queen". BBC News. 30 November 2020. Archived from the original on 30 November 2021. Retrieved 11 May 2022.

Further reading

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*Current Commonwealth realm
Current member of the Commonwealth of Nations
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Asia
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18th and 19th centuries20th century
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  • Since 2009 part of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha; Ascension Island (1922–) and Tristan da Cunha (1938–) were previously dependencies of Saint Helena.
  • Claimed in 1908; territory formed 1962; overlaps portions of Argentine and Chilean claims, borders not enforced but claim not renounced under the Antarctic Treaty.
  • Claimed in 1908; territory formed 1985
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See also
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