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'''Criticism of Hinduism''' has been applied to both historical and current aspects of Hinduism, notably ] and the ]. '''Criticism of Hinduism''' has been applied to both the historical and the current aspects of Hinduism, notably the ] and the ] practice.


==Historical background== ==Historical background==
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Early opposition against Brahminism: Buddhism, Agamic traditions Early opposition against Brahminism: Buddhism, Agamic traditions
Formation of caste-based endogamy Formation of caste-based endogamy
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=== Early opposition === === Early opposition ===
Some of the earliest criticism of ] texts, including the ] and especially the ], comes from the ] (or renunciate) traditions, including ] and ]. Sramana scholars viewed Brahminical philosophy as "heretical." In particular Sramanas denied the ''sruti'' (divine) nature of the Vedas and opposed sacrificial rituals which were at the heart of Brahminical philosophy at the time.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thapar|first=Romila|date=1989|title=Imagined Religious Communities? Ancient History and the Modern Search for a Hindu Identity|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/312738|journal=Modern Asian Studies|volume=23|issue=2|pages=209–231|doi=10.1017/S0026749X00001049 |jstor=312738 |s2cid=145293468 |issn=0026-749X}}</ref> Some of the earliest criticism of ] texts, including the ] and especially the ], come from the ] (or renunciate) traditions, including ] and ]. Sramana scholars viewed Brahminical philosophy as "heretical".{{Citation needed|date=August 2024}} In particular, Sramanas denied the ''sruti'' (divine) nature of the Vedas and opposed sacrificial rituals which were at the heart of Brahminical philosophy at the time.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thapar|first=Romila|date=1989|title=Imagined Religious Communities? Ancient History and the Modern Search for a Hindu Identity|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/312738|journal=Modern Asian Studies|volume=23|issue=2|pages=209–231|doi=10.1017/S0026749X00001049 |jstor=312738 |s2cid=145293468 |issn=0026-749X}}</ref>

The criticisms of Hinduism and Brahminical philosophy by Sramana scholars occurred primarily during the 6th century BCE to around 8th century CE in ancient India.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://cdn.visionias.in/value_added_material/1a628-religion-and-philosophy.pdf|publisher=Vision IAS|title=Quick Revision Module (UPSC Prelims 2024) Art & Culture Religion & Philosophy-1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240930162603/https://cdn.visionias.in/value_added_material/1a628-religion-and-philosophy.pdf|archive-date=30 September 2024|url-status=live}}</ref> This period witnessed a flourishing of diverse philosophical schools, including Yoga, Buddhism, Jainism, ], and other Sramana traditions that engaged in debates with orthodox Vedic practices.{{citation needed |date=December 2024}}

The Sramanas rejected the rigid social hierarchy enforced by the Brahmins, which placed individuals into fixed social classes from birth. Sramana scholars criticized the emphasis on elaborate rituals and sacrificial practices in Brahminical philosophy. They believed that true spiritual progress could not be achieved through external ceremonies, but rather through internal transformation and self-realization.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Johri |first=Arushi |title=Brahminic and Shramanic Traditions in Ancient India |url=https://www.studocu.com/in/document/university-of-delhi/political-science/brahminic-and-shramanic-traditions-in-ancient-india/12388292}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite journal |volume=5|year=2018|journal=Than Hsiang Buddhist Research e-Journal |edition=Special|publisher=Than Hsiang Buddhist Research Centre|url=http://research.thanhsiang.org/sites/default/files/attachment/th2018v5.pdf#page=38|title=Origin of Indian Buddhism|first=Ludovic|last=Corsini|pages=35-43|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240825062659/http://research.thanhsiang.org/sites/default/files/attachment/th2018v5.pdf#page=38|archive-date=25 August 2024|url-status=live}}</ref> While Brahminical philosophy placed a strong emphasis on the authority of the Vedas as the sacred text, Sramana scholars questioned this authority severely.{{citation needed |date=December 2024}} They advocated for individual experience, and the direct faithful realizations regardless of worldly or societal hierarchy, over 'blind' faith in scriptures.<ref name=":0" />

Another point of contention was the contrast between ] favored by many Sramanas and the ritualistic approach promoted by Brahminical traditions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Main Answer Writing Practice |url=https://www.drishtiias.com/mains-practice-question/question-638 |access-date=2024-06-13 |website=Drishti IAS |language=en}}</ref> The Sramanas believed in renunciation and austerity as paths to spiritual liberation, while criticizing excessive ] and attachment to worldly possessions.<ref>Robertson, S., 2003. Periyar EV Ramasami's critique of priestly Hinduism and its implications for social reforms. ''Indian Journal of Theology'', ''45'',

https://www.gospelstudies.org.uk/biblicalstudies/pdf/ijt/45_075.pdf</ref> Sramana traditions, such as Jainism, placed a strong emphasis on non-violence (ahimsa), which stood in contrast to certain ].<ref name=":1" />


== Sati == == Sati ==
Line 24: Line 29:
{{Main|Sati (practice)|l1=Sati}} {{Main|Sati (practice)|l1=Sati}}


Sati was a historical ] practice, in which a widow sacrifices herself by sitting atop her deceased husband's funeral ].<ref>, Routledge, Ann M. Oberhauser, Jennifer L. Fluri, Risa Whitson, Sharlene Mollett</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gilmartin|first1=Sophie|year=1997|title=The Sati, the Bride, and the Widow: Sacrificial Woman in the Nineteenth Century|journal=Victorian Literature and Culture |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=141–158 | doi =10.1017/S1060150300004678 | jstor =25058378 |s2cid=162954709 | quote =Suttee, or sati, is the obsolete Hindu practice in which a widow burns herself upon her husband's funeral pyre...}}</ref>{{sfn|Sharma|2001|pp=19–21}}<ref name="julialeslie">On attested Rajput practice of sati during wars, see, for example {{cite book|last1=Leslie|first1=Julia|title=Institutions and Ideologies: A SOAS South Asia Reader|publisher=Routledge|year=1993|isbn=978-0700702848|editor-last=Arnold|editor-first=David|volume=10|location=London|page=46|chapter=Suttee or Sati: Victim or Victor?|editor-last2=Robb|editor-first2=Peter|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vPdYkFguJ8IC&pg=PA46}}</ref> ] states that sati was introduced late into Indian society, and became regular only after 500 CE.{{sfn|Dehejia|1994|p=50}} The practice became prevalent from 7th century onwards and declined to its elimination in 17th century to gain resurgence in Bengal in 18th century.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Nandy|first=Ashis|title=Sati: A Nineteenth Century Tale of Women, Violence and Protest in the book "At the Edge of Psychology"|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1980|pages=1}}</ref> Roshen Dalal postulated that its mention in some of the ] indicates that it slowly grew in prevalence from 5th-7th century and later became an accepted custom around 1000 CE among those of higher classes, especially the ].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&q=sati+shiva+greeks+widow&pg=PA363|last=Dalal |first=Roshen |year=2010 |title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide |publisher=Penguin Books India |page=363 |isbn=9780143414216 }}</ref>{{sfn|Yang|2008|p=21–23}} Sati was a historical ] practice, in which a widow sacrifices herself by sitting atop her deceased husband's funeral ].<ref>, Routledge, Ann M. Oberhauser, Jennifer L. Fluri, Risa Whitson, Sharlene Mollett</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gilmartin|first1=Sophie|year=1997|title=The Sati, the Bride, and the Widow: Sacrificial Woman in the Nineteenth Century|journal=Victorian Literature and Culture |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=141–158 | doi =10.1017/S1060150300004678 | jstor =25058378 |s2cid=162954709 | quote =Suttee, or sati, is the obsolete Hindu practice in which a widow burns herself upon her husband's funeral pyre...}}</ref>{{sfn|Sharma|2001|pp=19–21}}<ref name="julialeslie">On attested Rajput practice of sati during wars, see, for example {{cite book|last1=Leslie|first1=Julia|title=Institutions and Ideologies: A SOAS South Asia Reader|publisher=Routledge|year=1993|isbn=978-0700702848|editor-last=Arnold|editor-first=David|volume=10|location=London|page=46|chapter=Suttee or Sati: Victim or Victor?|editor-last2=Robb|editor-first2=Peter|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vPdYkFguJ8IC&pg=PA46}}</ref> ] states that sati was introduced late into the Indian society, and became regular only after 500 CE.{{sfn|Dehejia|1994|p=50}} The practice became prevalent from 7th century onwards, and declined to its elimination in the 17th century, to then gain resurgence in Bengal in the 18th century.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Nandy|first=Ashis|title=Sati: A Nineteenth Century Tale of Women, Violence and Protest in the book "At the Edge of Psychology"|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1980|pages=1}}</ref> Roshen Dalal postulated that its mention in some of the ] indicates that it slowly grew in prevalence from 5th-7th century and later became an accepted custom around 1000 CE among those of higher classes, especially the ].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&q=sati+shiva+greeks+widow&pg=PA363|last=Dalal |first=Roshen |year=2010 |title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide |publisher=Penguin Books India |page=363 |isbn=9780143414216 }}</ref>{{sfn|Yang|2008|p=21–23}}


According to Dehejia, sati originated within the ] (warrior) ] and remained mostly limited to the warrior class among Hindus.{{sfn|Dehejia|1994|p=51-53}} Yang adds that the practice was also emulated by those seeking to achieve high status of the royalty and the warriors.{{sfn|Yang|2008|p=21–23}} The increase of sati may also be related to the centuries of Islamic invasion and its expansion in South Asia.{{sfn|Yang|2008|p=21–23}}<ref name=ssshashi>{{cite book|last=Sashi|first=S.S.|page=115|title=Encyclopaedia Indica: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh|volume=100|year=1996|publisher=Anmol Publications|isbn=9788170418597}}</ref> It acquired an additional meaning as a means to preserve the honour of women whose men had been slain,{{sfn|Yang|2008|p=21–23}} especially with the variant of mass sati called '']'', practiced especially among the Rajputs as a direct response to the onslaught they experienced.<ref name="julialeslie" /><ref>{{cite book|title=Social Problems And Welfare In India|year=1992|publisher=Ashish Publishing House|author=Jogan Shankar}}</ref> According to Dehejia, sati originated within the ] (warrior Caste) ], and remained mostly limited to the warrior class among Hindus.{{sfn|Dehejia|1994|p=51-53}} Yang adds that the practice was also emulated by those seeking to achieve high status among the royalty and the warriors.{{sfn|Yang|2008|p=21–23}} The increase of the sati practice may also be related to the centuries of Islamic invasion and its expansion in South Asia.{{sfn|Yang|2008|p=21–23}}<ref name=ssshashi>{{cite book|last=Sashi|first=S.S.|page=115|title=Encyclopaedia Indica: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh|volume=100|year=1996|publisher=Anmol Publications|isbn=9788170418597}}</ref> It acquired an additional meaning as a means to preserve the honour of women whose men had been slain,{{sfn|Yang|2008|p=21–23}} especially with the variant of a mass sati called '']'', practiced especially among the Rajputs as a direct response to the onslaught they had experienced.<ref name="julialeslie" /><ref>{{cite book|title=Social Problems And Welfare In India|year=1992|publisher=Ashish Publishing House|author=Jogan Shankar}}</ref>


The ] (1526–1857) rulers and the Muslim population were ambivalent about the practice,<ref name=annemarie113>{{cite book|author=Annemarie Schimmel|editor=Burzine K. Waghmar|title=The Empire of the Great Mughals: History, Art and Culture|url=https://archive.org/details/empireofgreatmug00anne|url-access=registration|year=2004|publisher=Reaktion|isbn=978-1-86189-185-3|pages=–114}}</ref>{{Sfn|Sharma|2001|p=23}}<ref name=pirbhai108>{{cite book|author=M. Reza Pirbhai|title=Reconsidering Islam in a South Asian Context |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=szKwCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA107 | year=2009| publisher=Brill Academic| isbn=978-90-474-3102-2|page=108}}</ref> with many Mughal emperors forbidding the practice,<ref name=Columbia/> and later European travelers record that ''sati'' was not much practiced in the Mughal empire.<ref name=Columbia> from ''Muslim Civilization in India'' by S. M. Ikram, edited by Ainslie T. Embree New York: Columbia University Press, 1964</ref> It was notably associated with elite Hindu ] clans in western ], marking one of the points of divergence between Hindu Rajputs and the Muslim ]s.<ref name="AsherTalbot2006">{{citation|last1=Asher|first1=Catherine B.|last2=Talbot|first2=Cynthia|title=India before Europe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1GEWAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT268|year=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-91561-8|pages=268–}}</ref> The ] (1526–1857) rulers and the Muslim population were ambivalent about the practice,<ref name=annemarie113>{{cite book|author=Annemarie Schimmel|editor=Burzine K. Waghmar|title=The Empire of the Great Mughals: History, Art and Culture|url=https://archive.org/details/empireofgreatmug00anne|url-access=registration|year=2004|publisher=Reaktion|isbn=978-1-86189-185-3|pages=–114}}</ref>{{Sfn|Sharma|2001|p=23}}<ref name=pirbhai108>{{cite book|author=M. Reza Pirbhai|title=Reconsidering Islam in a South Asian Context |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=szKwCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA107 | year=2009| publisher=Brill Academic| isbn=978-90-474-3102-2|page=108}}</ref> with many Mughal emperors forbidding the practice,<ref name=Columbia/> and later the European travelers record that ''sati'' was not much practiced in the Mughal empire.<ref name=Columbia> from ''Muslim Civilization in India'' by S. M. Ikram, edited by Ainslie T. Embree New York: Columbia University Press, 1964</ref> It was notably associated only with elite Hindu ] clans in western ], marking one of the points of divergence between the Hindu Rajputs and the Muslim ]s.<ref name="AsherTalbot2006">{{citation|last1=Asher|first1=Catherine B.|last2=Talbot|first2=Cynthia|title=India before Europe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1GEWAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT268|year=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-91561-8|pages=268–}}</ref>


With the onset of the British Raj, opposition against sati grew. The principal campaigners against Sati were ] and Hindu reformers such as ] and ].{{sfn|Sharma|2001|pp=6–7}}<ref name="marshman">{{cite book|last=Marshman|first=John Clark|title=History of India from the earliest period to the close of the East India Company's government |publisher= Edinburgh: W. Blackwood |year=1876|page=374|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tbmT_Tv-VGUC&pg=PA357|isbn=9781108021043}}</ref> In 1829 Lord Bentinck issued Regulation XVII declaring ''Sati'' to be illegal and punishable in criminal courts.<ref>Sharma pp. 7–8.</ref> On 2 February 1830 this law was extended to ] and ].<ref name=hist>{{cite book|last=Rai|first=Raghunath|title=History |page=137|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z4-8Z0gqBkoC&q=RAM+MOHAN+ROY+SATI+PRACTICE&pg=PA137|isbn=9788187139690}}</ref> The ban was challenged by a petition signed by "several thousand... Hindoo inhabitants of Bihar, Bengal, Orissa etc"<ref>Dodwell 1932 p. 141.</ref> and the matter went to the ] in London. Along with British supporters, Ram Mohan Roy presented counter-petitions to parliament in support of ending Sati. The Privy Council rejected the petition in 1832, and the ban on ''Sati'' was upheld.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kulkarni|first1=A.R.|last2=Feldhaus|first2=Anne|page=192|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1YSU9Qp9w0MC&pg=PA192|title=Images of Women in Maharashtrian Literature and Religion|chapter=Sati in the Maratha Country|publisher=SUNY Press|year=1996|location=Albany, NY|isbn=978-0791428382}}</ref> With the onset of the British Raj, opposition against sati grew. The principal campaigners against Sati were ] and Hindu reformers such as ] and ].{{sfn|Sharma|2001|pp=6–7}}<ref name="marshman">{{cite book|last=Marshman|first=John Clark|title=History of India from the earliest period to the close of the East India Company's government |publisher= Edinburgh: W. Blackwood |year=1876|page=374|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tbmT_Tv-VGUC&pg=PA357|isbn=9781108021043}}</ref> In 1829, Lord Bentinck issued Regulation XVII, declaring ''Sati'' to be illegal and punishable in criminal courts.<ref>Sharma pp. 7–8.</ref> On 2 February 1830, this law was extended to ] and ].<ref name=hist>{{cite book|last=Rai|first=Raghunath|title=History|page=137|publisher=FK Publications |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z4-8Z0gqBkoC&q=RAM+MOHAN+ROY+SATI+PRACTICE&pg=PA137|isbn=9788187139690}}{{Dead link|date=December 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The ban was challenged by a petition signed by "several thousand... Hindoo inhabitants of Bihar, Bengal, Orissa etc"<ref>Dodwell 1932 p. 141.</ref> and the matter went to the ] in London. Along with British supporters, Ram Mohan Roy presented counter-petitions to parliament in support of ending Sati. The Privy Council rejected the petition in 1832, and the ban on ''Sati'' was upheld.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kulkarni|first1=A.R.|last2=Feldhaus|first2=Anne|page=192|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1YSU9Qp9w0MC&pg=PA192|title=Images of Women in Maharashtrian Literature and Religion|chapter=Sati in the Maratha Country|publisher=SUNY Press|year=1996|location=Albany, NY|isbn=978-0791428382}}</ref>


== Caste system == == Caste system ==
<!-- How is the caste-system a defining feature of Hinduism, and not of South Asian society? Criticisms by Buddhists, Bhakti traditions, Islam, British rulers & evangelists, contemporary Dalit activists and international NGO's. --> <!-- How is the caste-system a defining feature of Hinduism, and not of South Asian society? Criticisms by Buddhists, Bhakti traditions, Islam, British rulers & evangelists, contemporary Dalit activists and international NGO's. -->
{{Main|Caste system in India}} {{Main|Caste system in India}}
] describes the caste system as "discriminatory and cruel, inhuman, and degrading treatment"<ref name="hidden apartheid"/> of over 165 million people in India. The justification of the discrimination on the basis of ], which according to HRW is "a defining feature of Hinduism,"<ref name="hrw"/> has repeatedly been noticed and described by the United Nations and HRW, along with criticism of other ] worldwide.<ref name="hrw">{{Cite web|title=CASTE DISCRIMINATION|url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/2001/globalcaste/caste0801-03.htm|access-date=2021-01-09|website=www.hrw.org}}</ref><ref name="hidden apartheid">{{Cite web|date=2007-02-12|title=Hidden Apartheid|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2007/02/12/hidden-apartheid/caste-discrimination-against-indias-untouchables|access-date=2021-01-09|website=Human Rights Watch|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=OHCHR {{!}} Caste systems violate human rights and dignity of millions worldwide – New UN expert report|url=https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=18497&LangID=E|access-date=2021-01-09|website=www.ohchr.org}}</ref><ref>"". CBC News. 2 March 2007.</ref> ] describes the caste system as a "discriminatory and cruel, inhuman, and degrading treatment"<ref name="hidden apartheid"/> of over 165 million people in India. The justification of the discrimination on the basis of ], which according to HRW is "a defining feature of Hinduism,"<ref name="hrw"/> has repeatedly been noticed and described by the United Nations and HRW, along with criticism of other ] worldwide.<ref name="hrw">{{Cite web|title=CASTE DISCRIMINATION|url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/2001/globalcaste/caste0801-03.htm|access-date=2021-01-09|website=www.hrw.org}}</ref><ref name="hidden apartheid">{{Cite web|date=2007-02-12|title=Hidden Apartheid|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2007/02/12/hidden-apartheid/caste-discrimination-against-indias-untouchables|access-date=2021-01-09|website=Human Rights Watch|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=OHCHR {{!}} Caste systems violate human rights and dignity of millions worldwide – New UN expert report|url=https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=18497&LangID=E|access-date=2021-01-09|website=www.ohchr.org}}</ref><ref>"". CBC News. 2 March 2007.</ref>


==See also== ==See also==

Latest revision as of 15:06, 11 December 2024

This article is of a series on
Criticism of religion
By religion
By religious figure
By text
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Related topics

Criticism of Hinduism has been applied to both the historical and the current aspects of Hinduism, notably the caste system and the sati practice.

Historical background

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2021)

Early opposition

Some of the earliest criticism of Brahminical texts, including the Vedas and especially the Dharmashastras, come from the Sramana (or renunciate) traditions, including Buddhism and Jainism. Sramana scholars viewed Brahminical philosophy as "heretical". In particular, Sramanas denied the sruti (divine) nature of the Vedas and opposed sacrificial rituals which were at the heart of Brahminical philosophy at the time.

The criticisms of Hinduism and Brahminical philosophy by Sramana scholars occurred primarily during the 6th century BCE to around 8th century CE in ancient India. This period witnessed a flourishing of diverse philosophical schools, including Yoga, Buddhism, Jainism, Ajivikas, and other Sramana traditions that engaged in debates with orthodox Vedic practices.

The Sramanas rejected the rigid social hierarchy enforced by the Brahmins, which placed individuals into fixed social classes from birth. Sramana scholars criticized the emphasis on elaborate rituals and sacrificial practices in Brahminical philosophy. They believed that true spiritual progress could not be achieved through external ceremonies, but rather through internal transformation and self-realization. While Brahminical philosophy placed a strong emphasis on the authority of the Vedas as the sacred text, Sramana scholars questioned this authority severely. They advocated for individual experience, and the direct faithful realizations regardless of worldly or societal hierarchy, over 'blind' faith in scriptures.

Another point of contention was the contrast between ascetic practices favored by many Sramanas and the ritualistic approach promoted by Brahminical traditions. The Sramanas believed in renunciation and austerity as paths to spiritual liberation, while criticizing excessive materialism and attachment to worldly possessions. Sramana traditions, such as Jainism, placed a strong emphasis on non-violence (ahimsa), which stood in contrast to certain Vedic rituals that involved animal sacrifices.

Sati

An 18th-century painting depicting sati
Main article: Sati

Sati was a historical Hindu practice, in which a widow sacrifices herself by sitting atop her deceased husband's funeral pyre. Vidya Dehejia states that sati was introduced late into the Indian society, and became regular only after 500 CE. The practice became prevalent from 7th century onwards, and declined to its elimination in the 17th century, to then gain resurgence in Bengal in the 18th century. Roshen Dalal postulated that its mention in some of the Puranas indicates that it slowly grew in prevalence from 5th-7th century and later became an accepted custom around 1000 CE among those of higher classes, especially the Rajputs.

According to Dehejia, sati originated within the Kshatriyas (warrior Caste) aristocracy, and remained mostly limited to the warrior class among Hindus. Yang adds that the practice was also emulated by those seeking to achieve high status among the royalty and the warriors. The increase of the sati practice may also be related to the centuries of Islamic invasion and its expansion in South Asia. It acquired an additional meaning as a means to preserve the honour of women whose men had been slain, especially with the variant of a mass sati called jauhar, practiced especially among the Rajputs as a direct response to the onslaught they had experienced.

The Mughal Empire (1526–1857) rulers and the Muslim population were ambivalent about the practice, with many Mughal emperors forbidding the practice, and later the European travelers record that sati was not much practiced in the Mughal empire. It was notably associated only with elite Hindu Rajput clans in western India, marking one of the points of divergence between the Hindu Rajputs and the Muslim Mughals.

With the onset of the British Raj, opposition against sati grew. The principal campaigners against Sati were Christian and Hindu reformers such as William Carey and Ram Mohan Roy. In 1829, Lord Bentinck issued Regulation XVII, declaring Sati to be illegal and punishable in criminal courts. On 2 February 1830, this law was extended to Madras and Bombay. The ban was challenged by a petition signed by "several thousand... Hindoo inhabitants of Bihar, Bengal, Orissa etc" and the matter went to the Privy Council in London. Along with British supporters, Ram Mohan Roy presented counter-petitions to parliament in support of ending Sati. The Privy Council rejected the petition in 1832, and the ban on Sati was upheld.

Caste system

Main article: Caste system in India

Human Rights Watch describes the caste system as a "discriminatory and cruel, inhuman, and degrading treatment" of over 165 million people in India. The justification of the discrimination on the basis of caste, which according to HRW is "a defining feature of Hinduism," has repeatedly been noticed and described by the United Nations and HRW, along with criticism of other caste systems worldwide.

See also

References

  1. Thapar, Romila (1989). "Imagined Religious Communities? Ancient History and the Modern Search for a Hindu Identity". Modern Asian Studies. 23 (2): 209–231. doi:10.1017/S0026749X00001049. ISSN 0026-749X. JSTOR 312738. S2CID 145293468.
  2. "Quick Revision Module (UPSC Prelims 2024) Art & Culture Religion & Philosophy-1" (PDF). Vision IAS. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 September 2024.
  3. ^ Johri, Arushi. "Brahminic and Shramanic Traditions in Ancient India".
  4. ^ Corsini, Ludovic (2018). "Origin of Indian Buddhism" (PDF). Than Hsiang Buddhist Research e-Journal. 5 (Special ed.). Than Hsiang Buddhist Research Centre: 35–43. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 August 2024.
  5. "Main Answer Writing Practice". Drishti IAS. Retrieved 2024-06-13.
  6. Robertson, S., 2003. Periyar EV Ramasami's critique of priestly Hinduism and its implications for social reforms. Indian Journal of Theology, 45, https://www.gospelstudies.org.uk/biblicalstudies/pdf/ijt/45_075.pdf
  7. Feminist Spaces: Gender and Geography in a Global Context, Routledge, Ann M. Oberhauser, Jennifer L. Fluri, Risa Whitson, Sharlene Mollett
  8. Gilmartin, Sophie (1997). "The Sati, the Bride, and the Widow: Sacrificial Woman in the Nineteenth Century". Victorian Literature and Culture. 25 (1): 141–158. doi:10.1017/S1060150300004678. JSTOR 25058378. S2CID 162954709. Suttee, or sati, is the obsolete Hindu practice in which a widow burns herself upon her husband's funeral pyre...
  9. Sharma 2001, pp. 19–21.
  10. ^ On attested Rajput practice of sati during wars, see, for example Leslie, Julia (1993). "Suttee or Sati: Victim or Victor?". In Arnold, David; Robb, Peter (eds.). Institutions and Ideologies: A SOAS South Asia Reader. Vol. 10. London: Routledge. p. 46. ISBN 978-0700702848.
  11. Dehejia 1994, p. 50.
  12. Nandy, Ashis (1980). Sati: A Nineteenth Century Tale of Women, Violence and Protest in the book "At the Edge of Psychology". Oxford University Press. p. 1.
  13. Dalal, Roshen (2010). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide. Penguin Books India. p. 363. ISBN 9780143414216.
  14. ^ Yang 2008, p. 21–23.
  15. Dehejia 1994, p. 51-53.
  16. Sashi, S.S. (1996). Encyclopaedia Indica: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh. Vol. 100. Anmol Publications. p. 115. ISBN 9788170418597.
  17. Jogan Shankar (1992). Social Problems And Welfare In India. Ashish Publishing House.
  18. Annemarie Schimmel (2004). Burzine K. Waghmar (ed.). The Empire of the Great Mughals: History, Art and Culture. Reaktion. pp. 113–114. ISBN 978-1-86189-185-3.
  19. Sharma 2001, p. 23.
  20. M. Reza Pirbhai (2009). Reconsidering Islam in a South Asian Context. Brill Academic. p. 108. ISBN 978-90-474-3102-2.
  21. ^ XVII. "Economic and Social Developments under the Mughals" from Muslim Civilization in India by S. M. Ikram, edited by Ainslie T. Embree New York: Columbia University Press, 1964
  22. Asher, Catherine B.; Talbot, Cynthia (2006), India before Europe, Cambridge University Press, pp. 268–, ISBN 978-1-139-91561-8
  23. Sharma 2001, pp. 6–7.
  24. Marshman, John Clark (1876). History of India from the earliest period to the close of the East India Company's government. Edinburgh: W. Blackwood. p. 374. ISBN 9781108021043.
  25. Sharma pp. 7–8.
  26. Rai, Raghunath. History. FK Publications. p. 137. ISBN 9788187139690.
  27. Dodwell 1932 p. 141.
  28. Kulkarni, A.R.; Feldhaus, Anne (1996). "Sati in the Maratha Country". Images of Women in Maharashtrian Literature and Religion. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. p. 192. ISBN 978-0791428382.
  29. ^ "Hidden Apartheid". Human Rights Watch. 2007-02-12. Retrieved 2021-01-09.
  30. ^ "CASTE DISCRIMINATION". www.hrw.org. Retrieved 2021-01-09.
  31. "OHCHR | Caste systems violate human rights and dignity of millions worldwide – New UN expert report". www.ohchr.org. Retrieved 2021-01-09.
  32. "UN report slams India for caste discrimination". CBC News. 2 March 2007.

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