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{{Short description|Use of knowledge for practical goals}} | |||
] humans had achieved a mastery of technology sufficient to leave the surface of the ] for the first time and ].]] | |||
{{distinguish|Electronics}} | |||
{{portal}} | |||
{{other uses}} | |||
'''Technology''' is a broad concept that deals with a ]' usage and knowledge of ]s and ]s, and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt to its ]. In human society, it is a consequence of ] and ], although several technological advances predate the two concepts. Technology is a term with ]s in the ] "''technologia''" ("''τεχνολογία''") — "''techne''", "''τέχνη''" ("craft") and "''logia''", "''λογία''" ("saying").<ref name="mwdict">{{cite web | url=http://mw1.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/technology | title=Definition of technology | accessdate=2007-02-16 | publisher=]}}</ref> However, a strict definition is elusive; "technology" can refer to material objects, such as ]s, ] or ]s, but can also encompass broader themes, such as ]s, methods of ], and ]s. The term can either be applied generally or to specific areas, such as in "construction technology", "medical technology", or "] technology". | |||
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] with the case opened, an example of ]|alt=Photo of technicians working on a steam turbine]] | |||
{{History of technology sidebar}} | |||
'''Technology''' is the application of ] to achieve practical ]s, especially in a ] way.<ref>{{cite book |last=Skolnikoff |first=Eugene B. |year=1993 |title=The Elusive Transformation: Science, Technology, and the Evolution of International Politics |chapter=The Setting |page=13 |publisher=] |isbn=0-691-08631-1 |jstor=j.ctt7rpm1 |quote=I find the most useful conceptual definition for this study to be that given by Harvey Brooks, who has defined technology{{nbsp}}...as 'knowledge of how to fulfill certain human purposes in a specifiable and reproducible way.'}}</ref> The word ''technology'' can also mean the products resulting from such efforts,<ref>{{harvnb|Salomon|1984|pages=117–118}}: "The first pole, that of the naturalisation of a new discipline within the university curriculum, was presented by Christian Wolff in 1728, in Chapter III of the "Preliminary discourse" to his ''{{lang|la|Philosophia rationalisis sive Logica}}'': 'Technology is the science of skills and works of skill, or, if one prefers, the science of things made by man's labour, chiefly through the use of his hands.'"</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Mitcham |first=Carl |author-link=Carl Mitcham |year=1994 |title=Thinking Through Technology: The Path Between Engineering and Philosophy |publisher=] |isbn=0-226-53196-1}}</ref> including both tangible ]s such as ] or ]s, and intangible ones such as ]. Technology plays a critical role in ], ], and ]. | |||
The human race's use of technology began with the conversion of plentiful natural resources into simple tools. The ] discovery of the ability to control ], a simple ], increased the amount of available sources of food, and the invention of the ] helped humans in travelling in and controlling their environment. Recent technological developments, such as the ] and the ], have lessened physical barriers to ] and allowed humans to interact with each other on a global scale. However, not all technology has been used for peaceful purposes; the development of ]s of ever-increasing destructive power has constantly progressed throughout history, from ] to ]s. | |||
Technological advancements have led to significant changes in society. The earliest known technology is the ], used during ], followed by the ]—which in turn contributed to the ] of the ] and the development of ] during the ], according to the ]. The invention of the ] in the ] allowed greater travel and the creation of more complex machines. More recent technological inventions, including the ], telephone, and the ], have lowered barriers to communication and ushered in the ]. | |||
Technology has affected ] and its surroundings in a number of ways, both positively and negatively. In many societies, technology has spurred on the development of more advanced ], such as today's ], and has allowed the rise of a leisure class. However, many technological processes produce unwanted by-products, known as ], and deplete natural resources, to the detriment of the ] and its ]. Various implementations of technology influence the ] of a society and new technology raises new ethical questions. Examples include the rise of the notion of ] in terms of human productivity, a term originally applied only to machines, and the challenge of many traditional norms. | |||
While technology contributes to ] and improves human ], it can also have negative impacts like ] and ], and can cause social harms like ] resulting from ]. As a result, philosophical and ] about the role and use of technology, the ], and ways to mitigate its downsides are ongoing. | |||
Philosophical debates have arisen over the present and future use of technology in society, with disagreements over whether technology improves the ] or worsens it. ] and similar movements criticise the pervasiveness of technology in the modern world, claiming that it alienates people and destroys culture; proponents of ideologies such as ] and ] view continued technological progress as beneficial to society and the human condition. | |||
== Etymology == | |||
Until recently, it was believed that the development of technology was a concept akin and restricted only to human beings, but recent scientific studies show that other ] (such as ]), and certain ] communities, have developed simple tools and learned to pass this knowledge to other generations. | |||
''Technology'' is a term dating back to the ] that meant 'systematic treatment' (from ] {{lang|grc|Τεχνολογία}}, from the {{Langx|el|{{wikt-lang|el|τέχνη}}|tékhnē|craft, art}} and {{wikt-lang|grc|-λογία}} ({{transliteration|grc|-logíā}}), 'study, knowledge').''<ref name="Liddell 1980">{{cite book |last1=Liddell |first1=Henry George |author1-link=Henry Liddell |last2=Scott |first2=Robert |author2-link=Robert Scott (philologist) |title=Greek-English Lexicon |title-link=Greek-English Lexicon |edition=Abridged |publisher=] |year=1996 |orig-date=1891 |isbn=0-19-910205-8 |oclc=38307662}}</ref>''<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=technology |encyclopedia=The Oxford English Dictionary |editor1-last=Simpson |editor1-first=J. |editor2-last=Weiner |editor2-first=Edmund |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1989 |isbn=978-0198611868}}</ref> It is predated in use by the ] word {{wikt-lang|grc|τέχνη}} ({{transliteration|grc|tékhnē}}), used to mean 'knowledge of how to make things', which encompassed activities like architecture.<ref>{{cite book |author=Aristotle |author-link=Aristotle |editor-last=Brown |editor-first=Lesley |translator-last=Ross |translator-first=David |year=2009 |title=The Nicomachean Ethics |page=105 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-19-921361-0 |lccn=2009005379 |oclc=246896490 |series=Oxford World's Classics}}</ref> | |||
Starting in the 19th century, continental Europeans started using the terms {{lang|de|Technik}} (German) or {{lang|fr|technique}} (French) to refer to a 'way of doing', which included all technical arts, such as dancing, navigation, or printing, whether or not they required tools or instruments.{{Sfn|Salomon|1984|pages=114–115}} At the time, {{lang|de|Technologie}} (German and French) referred either to the academic discipline studying the "methods of arts and crafts", or to the political discipline "intended to legislate on the functions of the arts and crafts."{{Sfn|Salomon|1984|page=117}} The distinction between {{lang|de|Technik}} and {{lang|de|Technologie}} is absent in English, and so both were translated as ''technology''. The term was previously uncommon in English and mostly referred to the academic discipline, as in the ].<ref name=jstor40061169>{{Cite journal |last=Schatzberg |first=Eric |year=2006 |title="Technik" Comes to America: Changing Meanings of "Technology" before 1930 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40061169 |journal=Technology and Culture |volume=47 |issue=3 |pages=486–512 |doi=10.1353/tech.2006.0201 |jstor=40061169 |s2cid=143784033 |issn=0040-165X |access-date=10 September 2022 |archive-date=10 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220910165857/https://www.jstor.org/stable/40061169 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
==Definition and usage== | |||
] made it possible for ]s and ]s to communicate their ideas with ease, leading to the ]; an example of technology as a cultural force.]] | |||
In general, "technology" is the relationship that society has with its tools and crafts, and to what extent society can control its environment. The ] dictionary offers a definition of the term: "the practical application of knowledge especially in a particular area" and "a capability given by the practical application of knowledge".<ref name="mwdict" /> ], in her 1989 "Real World of Technology" lecture, gave another possible definition of the concept; it is "practice, the way we do things around here".<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.anansi.ca/titles.cfm?series_id=4&pub_id=58 | title=Real World of Technology | accessdate=2007-02-13 | author=Franklin, Ursula | publisher=Anansi Press}}</ref> The term is often used to imply a specific field of technology; the ] uses "technology" to refer to ], rather than technology as a whole.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/default.stm | title=Technology news | accessdate=2006-02-17 | publisher=]}}</ref> However, the term is mostly used in three different contexts: when referring to a tool, a technique, the cultural force, or a combination of the three. | |||
In the 20th century, as a result of ] and the ], ''technology'' stopped being considered a distinct academic discipline and took on the meaning: the systemic use of knowledge to practical ends.<ref>{{harvnb|Salomon|1984|page=119}}: "With the industrial revolution and the important part England played in it, the word technology was to lose this meaning as the subject or thrust of a branch of education, as first in English and then in other languages it embodied all technical activity based on the application of science to practical ends."</ref> | |||
Technology can be most broadly defined as the entities, both material and immaterial, created by the application of mental and physical effort in order to achieve some value. In this usage, technology refers to ]s and ]s that may be used to solve real-world problems. It is a far-reaching term that may include simple tools, such as a ] or wooden ], and more complex machines, such as a ] or ]. Tools and machines need not be material; virtual technology, such as ] and ]s, fall under this definition of technology. | |||
The world "technology" can also be used to refer to a collection of techniques. In this context, it is the current state of humanity's knowledge, either in a particular field or in general, of how to combine resources to produce desired products, to solve problems, fulfil needs, or satisfy wants; it includes technical methods, skills, processes, techniques, tools and raw materials. Terms such as "medical technology", "space technology" and "state-of-the-art technology"<ref>The term ] refers to the latest ] available to humanity.</ref> refer to the state of the respective field's knowledge (as well as the tools used). | |||
"Technology" can also be viewed as an activity that forms or changes culture.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Borgmann | first=Albert | authorlink=Albert Borgmann | year=2006 | title=Technology as a Cultural Force: For Alena and Griffin | journal=] | volume=31 | issue=3 | pages=351-360 | url=http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/canadian_journal_of_sociology/v031/31.3borgmann.html | format=fee required | accessdate=2007-02-16}}</ref> A modern example is the rise of ] technology, which has lessened barriers to human interaction and as a result spawned new subcultures; the rise of ] has, at its basis, the development of the ] and the ] . Not all technology enhances culture in a creative way; technology can also help facilitate political oppression and ] via tools such as guns. As a cultural activity, technology predates both ] and ], each of which formalize some aspects of technological endeavor. | |||
==Science, engineering and technology== | |||
The distinction between science, engineering and technology is not always clear. Generally, ] is the ] investigation or study of nature, aimed at discovering enduring principles among elements of the ] world by employing ] ]s such as the ].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/science | title=Science | accessdate=2007-02-17 | publisher=]}}</ref> However, technologies are not usually direct products of science, because they have to satisfy requirements such as ], ] and ]; therefore the application of scientific knowledge to concrete purposes requires the contribution of ] research. Engineering is the ] process of designing and building tools and systems to exploit natural phenomena for practical human means, using results and techniques from science. | |||
The development of technology broadly involves the use and application of knowledge, such as scientific, engineering, ], ], and ] knowledge, to achieve some practical result. It is usually a consequence of science and engineering — although technology as a human activity has preceeded the two fields. For example, science might study the flow of ]s in ]s, by utilising already-existing specialist technology and knowledge. This new-found knowledge may then be used by engineers to create new tools and machines, such as ]s, ]s, and other forms of advanced technology. In this sense, scientists and engineers may both be considered technologists; the three fields are often considered together for the purposes of research and reference.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.intute.ac.uk/sciences/ | title=Intute: Science, Engineering and Technology | accessdate=2007-02-17 | publisher=]}}</ref> | |||
==History== | ==History== | ||
{{Main|History of technology|3 = Timeline of historic inventions}} | |||
{{Unreferencedsect|date=February 2007}} <!-- Needs more citations --> | |||
{{main|History of technology}} | |||
{{seealso|Timeline of invention|History of science and technology}} | |||
===Prehistory (— 5000BCE)=== | |||
====Lower Paleolithic==== | |||
] ] ], used by early humans for hunting and fighting.]] | |||
The history of technology is at least as old as ], if not older. Primitive tools have been discovered with almost every find of ancient human remains,<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20000304/fob1.asp | title=Ancient Asian Tools Crossed the Line | accessdate=2007-02-17 | author=Bower, Bruce | publisher=]}}</ref> and ] have uncovered tools made by humanity's ancestors that date back to more than 2 million years ago.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/336555.stm | title=Ancient 'tool factory' uncovered | accessdate=2007-02-18 | publisher=] | date=1999-05-06}}</ref> The earliest tools, such as the ] and ], were mainly developed to aid early humans in their role as ]s. However, the hunter-gatherer lifestyle, characteristic of the ] era, involved a limited use of technology, and the earliest technologies converted readily occurring natural resources, such as ], ] and other vegetation, ] and other animal byproducts, into simple tools, such as the ], a primitive weapon. | |||
===Prehistoric=== | |||
The discovery, use, and then mastery, of ], a simple ] source with many profound uses, was a turning point in the technological evolution of humankind. The exact date of its discovery is not known, but scholars believe ] was using fire by 400,000 BCE.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ab10 | title=History of Stone Age Man | accessdate=2007-02-13 | publisher=]}}</ref> Fire, fuelled mostly by wood and ], allowed humans to cook their food, thereby increasing the total amount of food available, and its heat, especially during winter, extended the range of humanity's possible habitation. Fire also enabled humans to hunt more effectively; wooden spears with fire-hardened points have been found as early as 250,000 BCE. <!-- Wood, ], and rock (such as ]), were among the earliest materials shaped or treated by fire, for making artifacts such as ], ], ], and ].--> | |||
{{main|Prehistoric technology}} | |||
]|alt=refer to caption]] | |||
Tools were initially developed by ] through observation and ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schiffer |first=M. B. |title=The Archaeology of Science |chapter=Discovery Processes: Trial Models |year=2013 |chapter-url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-00077-0_13 |series=Manuals in Archaeological Method, Theory and Technique |volume=9 |pages=185–198 |place=Heidelberg |publisher=Springer International Publishing |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-00077-0_13 |isbn=978-3319000770 |access-date=11 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004184259/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-00077-0_13 |url-status=live }}</ref> Around 2 ] (million years ago), they learned to make the first stone tools by hammering flakes off a pebble, forming a sharp ].<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |author=The British Museum |title=Our earliest technology? |url=https://smarthistory.org/our-earliest-technology/#:~:text=Made%20nearly%20two%20million%20years,deposits%20in%20Olduvai%20Gorge,%20Tanzania. |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902015829/https://smarthistory.org/our-earliest-technology/#:~:text=Made%20nearly%20two%20million%20years,deposits%20in%20Olduvai%20Gorge,%20Tanzania. |archive-date=2 September 2022 |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=smarthistory.org}}</ref> This practice was refined 75 kya (thousand years ago) into ], enabling much finer work.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Minogue |first=K. |date=28 October 2010 |title=Stone Age Toolmakers Surprisingly Sophisticated |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/stone-age-toolmakers-surprisingly-sophisticated |url-status=live |access-date=10 September 2022 |website=science.org |archive-date=10 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220910174555/https://www.science.org/content/article/stone-age-toolmakers-surprisingly-sophisticated }}</ref> | |||
The ] was described by ] as "possibly the greatest ever made by man".<ref>{{cite book | last=Crump | first=Thomas | title=A Brief History of Science | year=2001 | publisher=] | isbn=978-1841192352 | page=9}}</ref> Archaeological, dietary, and social evidence point to "continuous fire-use" at least 1.5 Mya.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gowlett |first1=J. A. J. |last2=Wrangham |first2=R. W. |date=1 March 2013 |title=Earliest fire in Africa: towards the convergence of archaeological evidence and the cooking hypothesis |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/0067270X.2012.756754 |journal=Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=5–30 |doi=10.1080/0067270X.2012.756754 |s2cid=163033909 |issn=0067-270X}}</ref> Fire, fueled with wood and ], allowed early humans to cook their food to increase its digestibility, improving its nutrient value and broadening the number of foods that could be eaten.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Stahl | first= Ann B. | author-link= Ann B. Stahl | year=1984 | title=Hominid dietary selection before fire | journal=] | volume=25 | pages= 151–68 | doi=10.1086/203106 | issue=2 | jstor=2742818| s2cid= 84337150 }}</ref> The '']'' proposes that the ability to cook promoted an increase in hominid ], though some researchers find the evidence inconclusive.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wrangham |first=R. |date=1 August 2017 |title=Control of Fire in the Paleolithic: Evaluating the Cooking Hypothesis |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/692113 |journal=Current Anthropology |volume=58 |issue=S16 |pages=S303–S313 |doi=10.1086/692113 |s2cid=148798286 |issn=0011-3204 |access-date=10 September 2022 |archive-date=10 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220910190830/https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/692113 |url-status=live }}</ref> Archaeological evidence of ]s was dated to 790 kya; researchers believe this is likely to have intensified human ] and may have contributed to the emergence of ].<ref name=worldcat1124046527>{{Cite book |last= |first= |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1124046527 |title=Lucy to Language: the Benchmark Papers |year=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0199652594 |editor-last=Dunbar |editor-first=R. I. M. |oclc=1124046527 |editor-last2=Gamble |editor-first2=C. |editor-last3=Gowlett |editor-first3=J. A. J. |access-date=10 September 2022 |archive-date=14 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200814044201/http://worldcat.org/oclc/1124046527 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=20030715nytimes-science>{{Cite news |last=Wade |first=Nicholas |date=15 July 2003 |title=Early Voices: The Leap to Language |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/07/15/science/early-voices-the-leap-to-language.html |url-status=live |access-date=7 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312091336/http://www.nytimes.com/2003/07/15/science/early-voices-the-leap-to-language.html |archive-date=12 March 2017 }}</ref> | |||
====Middle Paleolithic==== | |||
Other technological advances made during the Paleolithic era include clothing and shelter.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Shaar |first1=Ron |last2=Matmon |first2=Ari |last3=Horwitz |first3=Liora K. |last4=Ebert |first4=Yael |last5=Chazan |first5=Michael |last6=Arnold |first6=M. |last7=Aumaître |first7=G. |last8=Bourlès |first8=D. |last9=Keddadouche |first9=K. |date=1 May 2021 |title=Magnetostratigraphy and cosmogenic dating of Wonderwerk Cave: New constraints for the chronology of the South African Earlier Stone Age |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0277379121001141 |journal=Quaternary Science Reviews |volume=259 |page=106907 |doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2021.106907 |bibcode=2021QSRv..25906907S |s2cid=234833092 |issn=0277-3791}}</ref> No consensus exists on the approximate time of adoption of either technology, but archaeologists have found archaeological evidence of clothing 90-120 kya<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hallett |first1=Emily Y. |last2=Marean |first2=Curtis W. |last3=Steele |first3=Teresa E. |last4=Álvarez-Fernández |first4=Esteban |last5=Jacobs |first5=Zenobia |author5-link=Zenobia Jacobs |last6=Cerasoni |first6=Jacopo Niccolò |last7=Aldeias |first7=Vera |last8=Scerri |first8=Eleanor M. L. |last9=Olszewski |first9=Deborah I. |last10=Hajraoui |first10=Mohamed Abdeljalil El |last11=Dibble |first11=Harold L. |date=24 September 2021 |title=A worked bone assemblage from 120,000–90,000 year old deposits at Contrebandiers Cave, Atlantic Coast, Morocco |journal=iScience |volume=24 |issue=9 |page=102988 |doi=10.1016/j.isci.2021.102988 |issn=2589-0042 |pmc=8478944 |pmid=34622180|bibcode=2021iSci...24j2988H }}</ref> and shelter 450 kya.<ref name=":4" /> As the Paleolithic era progressed, dwellings became more sophisticated and more elaborate; as early as 380 kya, humans were constructing temporary wood huts.<ref>{{cite web |author=O'Neil, Dennis |title=Evolution of Modern Humans: Archaic Homo sapiens Culture |url=http://anthro.palomar.edu/homo2/mod_homo_3.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070404130017/http://anthro.palomar.edu/homo2/mod_homo_3.htm |archive-date=4 April 2007 |access-date=31 March 2007 |publisher=] }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Villa |first=Paola |title=Terra Amata and the Middle Pleistocene archaeological record of southern France |publisher=] |year=1983 |isbn=978-0520096622 |location=] |page=303}}</ref> Clothing, adapted from the fur and hides of hunted animals, helped humanity expand into colder regions; humans began to ] out of Africa around 200 kya, initially moving to ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Cordaux |first=Richard |author2=Stoneking, Mark |year=2003 |title=South Asia, the Andamanese, and the Genetic Evidence for an 'Early' Human Dispersal out of Africa |url=http://site.voila.fr/rcordaux/pdfs/04.pdf |url-status=live |journal=] |volume=72 |issue=6 |pages=1586–1590; author reply 1590–93 |doi=10.1086/375407 |pmc=1180321 |pmid=12817589 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091001022940/http://site.voila.fr/rcordaux/pdfs/04.pdf |archive-date=1 October 2009 |access-date=22 May 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title='Oldest remains' outside Africa reset human migration clock |url=https://phys.org/news/2019-07-oldest-africa-reset-human-migration.html |access-date=10 September 2022 |website=phys.org |archive-date=11 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711124429/https://phys.org/news/2019-07-oldest-africa-reset-human-migration.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1=Harvati | first1=Katerina | author-link=Katerina Harvati | last2=Röding | first2=Carolin | last3=Bosman | first3=Abel M. | last4=Karakostis | first4=Fotios A. | last5=Grün | first5=Rainer | last6=Stringer | first6=Chris | last7=Karkanas | first7=Panagiotis | last8=Thompson | first8=Nicholas C. | last9=Koutoulidis | first9=Vassilis | last10=Moulopoulos | first10=Lia A. | last11=Gorgoulis | first11=Vassilis G. | last12=Kouloukoussa | first12=Mirsini | title=Apidima Cave fossils provide earliest evidence of Homo sapiens in Eurasia | journal=Nature | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=571 | issue=7766 | year=2019 | issn=0028-0836 | doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1376-z | pages=500–504 | pmid=31292546 | s2cid=195873640 | url=https://zenodo.org/record/6646855 | access-date=17 September 2022 | archive-date=1 August 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220801132212/https://zenodo.org/record/6646855 | url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
===Ancient history (5000BCE — 0CE)=== | |||
=== Neolithic === | |||
Continuing improvements led to the ] and ] and provided the ability to ] and ] native metals (naturally occurring in relatively pure form).<ref>{{cite web | url=http://neon.mems.cmu.edu/cramb/Processing/history.html | title=A Short History of Metals | accessdate=2007-01-08 | author=Alan W. Cramb | publisher=]}}</ref> ], ], ], and ], were such early metals. The advantages of copper tools over stone, bone, and wooden tools were quickly apparent to early humans, and native copper was probably used from near the beginning of ] times (about 8000 BCE). Native copper does not naturally occur in large amounts, but copper ores are quite common and some of them produce metal easily when burned in wood or charcoal fires. Eventually, the working of metals led to the discovery of ] such as ] and ] (about 4000 BCE). The first uses of iron alloys such as ] dates to around 1400 BCE. | |||
{{Main|2 = Neolithic Revolution}} | |||
] | |||
The ] (or ''First Agricultural Revolution'') brought about an acceleration of technological innovation, and a consequent increase in social complexity.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2D8OBwAAQBAJ&dq=neolithic+revolution+social+organization&pg=PA3 |title=Life in Neolithic Farming Communities: Social Organization, Identity, and Differentiation |publisher=Springer New York |year=2002 |isbn=9780306471667 |editor-last=Kuijt |editor-first=i. |series=Fundamental Issues in Archaeology |access-date=13 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004184244/https://books.google.com/books?id=2D8OBwAAQBAJ&dq=neolithic+revolution+social+organization&pg=PA3 |url-status=live }}</ref> The invention of the polished ] was a major advance that allowed large-scale ] and farming.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Coghlan |first=H. H. |date=1943 |title=The Evolution of the Axe from Prehistoric to Roman Times |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2844356 |journal=The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland |volume=73 |issue=1/2 |pages=27–56 |doi=10.2307/2844356 |jstor=2844356 |issn=0307-3114 |access-date=26 September 2022 |archive-date=26 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220926011626/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2844356 |url-status=live }}</ref> This use of polished stone axes increased greatly in the Neolithic but was originally used in the preceding ] in some areas such as Ireland.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Driscoll|first1=Killian|title=The early prehistory in the west of Ireland: Investigations into the social archaeology of the Mesolithic, west of the Shannon, Ireland|date=2006|url=http://lithicsireland.ie/mlitt_mesolithic_west_ireland_chap_2.html|access-date=11 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170904110326/http://lithicsireland.ie/mlitt_mesolithic_west_ireland_chap_2.html|archive-date=4 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Agriculture fed larger populations, and the transition to ] allowed for the simultaneous raising of more children, as infants no longer needed to be carried around by ]s. Additionally, children could contribute labor to the raising of crops more readily than they could participate in ] activities.<ref name=20060104sciencedaily>{{Cite news|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/01/060103114116.htm|title=The First Baby Boom: Skeletal Evidence Shows Abrupt Worldwide Increase In Birth Rate During Neolithic Period|last=University of Chicago Press Journals|date=4 January 2006|work=ScienceDaily|access-date=7 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161108133752/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/01/060103114116.htm|archive-date=8 November 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Child Transport, Family Size, and Increase in Human Population During the Neolithic|journal=]|author=Sussman, Robert W. |author2=Hall, Roberta L. |volume=13|issue=2| pages=258–267|date=April 1972|doi=10.1086/201274 |jstor=2740977|s2cid=143449170}}</ref> | |||
Meanwhile, humans were learning to harness other forms of energy. The earliest known use of wind power is the sailboat. The earliest record of a ship under sail is shown on an Egyptian pot dating back to 3200 BCE. From prehistoric times, Egyptians probably used "the power of the Nile" annual floods to irrigate their lands, gradually learning to regulate much of it through purposely-built irrigation channels and 'catch' basins. Similarly, the early peoples of Mesopotamia, the Sumerians, learned to use the Tigris and Euphrates rivers for much the same purposes. But more extensive use of wind and water (and even human) power required another invention. | |||
With this increase in population and availability of labor came an increase in ].<ref>{{cite book|access-date=17 May 2008|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=isGyuX9motEC&q=labor+neolithic+population&pg=PA163|title=Cultural Anthropology: An Applied Perspective|publisher=]|author=Ferraro, Gary P.|year=2006|isbn=978-0495030393|archive-date=31 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210331145412/https://books.google.com/books?id=isGyuX9motEC&q=labor+neolithic+population&pg=PA163|url-status=live}}</ref> What triggered the progression from early Neolithic villages to the first cities, such as ], and the first civilizations, such as ], is not specifically known; however, the emergence of increasingly ] social structures and specialized labor, of trade and war among adjacent cultures, and the need for collective action to overcome environmental challenges such as ], are all thought to have played a role.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8pKKwlEcpwYC&q=labor+surplus+neolithic+population&pg=PA7|access-date=17 May 2008|title=The Essentials of Ancient History|publisher=Research & Education Association|author=Patterson, Gordon M.|year=1992|isbn=978-0878917044|archive-date=31 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210331145419/https://books.google.com/books?id=8pKKwlEcpwYC&q=labor+surplus+neolithic+population&pg=PA7|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
] was invented in circa 4000 BCE.]] | |||
According to archaeologists, the ] was invented around 4000 B.C. The wheel was likely independently invented in Mesopotamia (in present-day ]) as well. Estimates on when this may have occurred range from 5500 to 3000 B.C., with most experts putting it closer to 4000 B.C. The oldest artifacts with drawings that depict wheeled carts date from about 3000 B.C.; however, the wheel may have been in use for millennia before these drawings were made. There is also evidence from the same period of time that wheels were used for the production of ]. (Note that the original potter's wheel was probably not a wheel, but rather an irregularly shaped slab of flat wood with a small hollowed or pierced area near the center and mounted on a peg driven into the earth. It would have been rotated by repeated tugs by the potter or his assistant.) More recently, the oldest-known wooden wheel in the world was found in the Ljubljana marshes of Slovenia.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.angelfire.com/country/veneti/AmerDomoOldestWheel.html | title=Slovenian Marsh Yields World's Oldest Wheel | accessdate=2007-02-13 | publisher=Ameriška Domovina | date=2003-03-27}}</ref> | |||
The invention of ] led to the spread of cultural knowledge and became the basis for history, ], schools, and ] research.<ref>{{cite book |last=Goody |first=J. |date=1986 |title=The Logic of Writing and the Organization of Society |publisher=]}}</ref> | |||
The invention of the wheel revolutionized activities as disparate as transportation, war, and the production of pottery (for which it may have been first used). It didn't take long to discover that wheeled wagons could be used to carry heavy loads and fast (rotary) potters' wheels enabled early mass production of pottery. But it was the use of the wheel as a transformer of energy (through water wheels, windmills, and even treadmills) that revolutionized the application of nonhuman power sources. | |||
Continuing improvements led to the ] and ] and provided, for the first time, the ability to ] and ] gold, copper, silver, and lead{{spaced ndash}}native metals found in relatively pure form in nature.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=A Short History of Metals |journal=Nature |volume=203 |issue=4943 |page=337 |last=Cramb |first=Alan W |bibcode=1964Natur.203Q.337T |year=1964 |doi=10.1038/203337a0 |s2cid=382712 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The advantages of copper tools over stone, bone and wooden tools were quickly apparent to early humans, and native copper was probably used from near the beginning of ] times (about 10 kya).<ref>{{cite EB1911|wstitle= Ceramics |volume= 05 | pages = 703–760; see page 708 |last1= Hall |first1= Harry Reginald Holland |author-link= Harry Reginald Holland Hall |quote= The art of making a pottery consisting of a siliceous sandy body coated with a vitreous copper glaze seems to have been known unexpectedly early, possibly even as early as the period immediately preceding the Ist Dynasty (4000 B.C.).}}</ref> Native copper does not naturally occur in large amounts, but copper ores are quite common and some of them produce metal easily when burned in wood or charcoal fires. Eventually, the working of metals led to the discovery of ] such as ] and ] (about 4,000 BCE). The first use of iron alloys such as steel dates to around 1,800 BCE.<ref>{{Cite journal |first=Hideo |last=Akanuma |title=The significance of the composition of excavated iron fragments taken from Stratum III at the site of Kaman-Kalehöyük, Turkey |journal=Anatolian Archaeological Studies |volume=14 |publisher=Japanese Institute of Anatolian Archaeology |place=Tokyo}}</ref><ref name=hindu001200903261>{{Cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/holnus/001200903261611.htm |title=Ironware piece unearthed from Turkey found to be oldest steel |date=26 March 2009 |work=The Hindu |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090329111924/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/holnus/001200903261611.htm |archive-date=29 March 2009 |url-status=dead |access-date=8 November 2016 }}</ref> | |||
===Modern history (0CE —)=== | |||
=== Ancient === | |||
Tools include both ] (such as the ], the ], and the ]), and more complex machines (such as the ], the ], the ] and the ], the ], ], and the ], among many others). | |||
{{Main|Ancient technology}} | |||
{{Ancient technology}} | |||
] | |||
] | |||
After harnessing fire, humans discovered other forms of energy. The earliest known use of wind power is the ]; the earliest record of a ship under sail is that of a Nile boat dating to around 7,000 BCE.<ref>{{Cite journal|author1-first=Donatella |author1-last=Usai | author2-first=Sandro |author2-last=Salvatori |title=The oldest representation of a Nile boat|journal=Antiquity|volume=81}}</ref> From prehistoric times, Egyptians likely used the power of the annual ] to irrigate their lands, gradually learning to regulate much of it through purposely built irrigation channels and "catch" basins.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Postel |first=Sandra |author-link=Sandra Postel |url=http://www.waterhistory.org/histories/nile/t1.html |title=Pillar of Sand: Can the Irrigation Miracle Last? |date=1999 |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0393319378 |chapter=Egypt's Nile Valley Basin Irrigation |access-date=25 September 2022 |archive-date=19 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201119022630/http://www.waterhistory.org/histories/nile/t1.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The ancient ]ians in ] used a complex system of canals and levees to divert water from the ] and ] rivers for irrigation.<ref>{{cite book|last=Crawford|first=Harriet|author-link=Harriet Crawford|date=2013|title=The Sumerian World|location=New York & London|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0203096604|pages=34–43|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qSOYAAAAQBAJ&q=Sumerian+irrigation&pg=PA35|access-date=12 November 2020|archive-date=5 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201205005423/https://books.google.com/books?id=qSOYAAAAQBAJ&q=Sumerian+irrigation&pg=PA35|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
Archaeologists estimate that the wheel was invented independently and concurrently in Mesopotamia (in present-day ]), the Northern Caucasus (]), and Central Europe.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East|last=Potts|first=D.T.|year=2012|page=285}}</ref> Time estimates range from 5,500 to 3,000 BCE with most experts putting it closer to 4,000 BCE.<ref>{{Cite book|title=New Light on the Most Ancient East|last=Childe|first=V. Gordon|year=1928|page=110}}</ref> The oldest artifacts with drawings depicting wheeled carts date from about 3,500 BCE.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World|last=Anthony|first=David A.|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0691058870|location=Princeton|page=67}}</ref> More recently, the oldest-known wooden wheel in the world as of 2024 was found in the ] of ]; Austrian experts have established that the wheel is between 5,100 and 5,350 years old.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ukom.gov.si/en/media_room/background_information/culture/worlds_oldest_wheel_found_in_slovenia/|title=World's Oldest Wheel Found in Slovenia|last=Gasser|first=Aleksander|date=March 2003|publisher=Republic of Slovenia Government Communication Office|access-date=8 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826021129/http://www.ukom.gov.si/en/media_room/background_information/culture/worlds_oldest_wheel_found_in_slovenia/|archive-date=26 August 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> | |||
] - a key foundation for modern ]s.]] | |||
As tools increase in complexity, so does the type of knowledge needed to support them. Complex modern machines require libraries of written technical manuals of collected information that has continually increased and improved -— their designers, builders, maintainers, and users often require the mastery of decades of sophisticated general and specific training. Moreover, these tools have become so complex that a comprehensive infrastructure of technical knowledge-based lesser tools, processes and practices (complex tools in themselves) exist to support them, including ], ], and ]. Complex ] and ] techniques and organizations are needed to construct and maintain them. Entire ] have arisen to support and develop succeeding generations of increasingly more complex tools. | |||
{{section-stub}} | |||
The invention of the wheel revolutionized trade and war. It did not take long to discover that wheeled wagons could be used to carry heavy loads. The ancient Sumerians used a ] and may have invented it.<ref name="Kramer1963">{{cite book|last=Kramer|first=Samuel Noah|date=1963|title=The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IuxIdug8DBUC|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|isbn=978-0226452388|page=290|access-date=26 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808201642/http://books.google.com/books/about/The_Sumerians.html?id=IuxIdug8DBUC|archive-date=8 August 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> A stone pottery wheel found in the city-state of ] dates to around 3,429 BCE,<ref name="Moorey1994">{{cite book|last=Moorey|first=Peter Roger Stuart|date=1999|orig-year=1994|title=Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: The Archaeological Evidence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P_Ixuott4doC|location=Winona Lake, Indiana|publisher=Eisenbrauns|isbn=978-1575060422|page=146|access-date=26 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171017215042/https://books.google.com/books/about/Ancient_Mesopotamian_Materials_and_Indus.html?id=P_Ixuott4doC|archive-date=17 October 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> and even older fragments of wheel-thrown pottery have been found in the same area.<ref name="Moorey1994" /> Fast (rotary) potters' wheels enabled early ] of pottery, but it was the use of the wheel as a transformer of energy (through ]s, windmills, and even treadmills) that revolutionized the application of nonhuman power sources. The first two-wheeled carts were derived from ]<ref name="Lay1992">{{cite book|last=Lay|first=M G |title=Ways of the World|publisher=Primavera Press|year=1992|location=Sydney|page=28|isbn=978-1875368051}}</ref> and were first used in Mesopotamia and ] in around 3,000 BCE.<ref name="Lay1992" /> | |||
==Fields== | |||
{{Cleanup|February 2007}} | |||
{{seealso|List of technologies}} | |||
The oldest known constructed roadways are the stone-paved streets of the city-state of Ur, dating to {{Circa|4,000 BCE}},<ref name="Gregersen2012">{{cite book|last1=Gregersen|first1=Erik|title=The Complete History of Wheeled Transportation: From Cars and Trucks to Buses and Bikes|date=2012|publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing|location=New York |isbn=978-1615307012|page=130|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ldSbAAAAQBAJ&q=paved+road+in+Ur&pg=PA130|access-date=12 November 2020|archive-date=31 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210331145500/https://books.google.com/books?id=ldSbAAAAQBAJ&q=paved+road+in+Ur&pg=PA130|url-status=live}}</ref> and timber roads leading through the swamps of ], England, dating to around the same period.<ref name="Gregersen2012" /> The first long-distance road, which came into use around 3,500 BCE,<ref name="Gregersen2012" /> spanned 2,400 km from the ] to the ],<ref name="Gregersen2012" /> but was not paved and was only partially maintained.<ref name="Gregersen2012" /> In around 2,000 BCE, the ] on the Greek island of ] built a 50 km road leading from the palace of ] on the south side of the island, through the mountains, to the palace of ] on the north side of the island.<ref name="Gregersen2012" /> Unlike the earlier road, the Minoan road was completely paved.<ref name="Gregersen2012" />] in France, one of the most famous ]<ref name="Aicher1995" />|alt=refer to caption]] | |||
Today technology is pervasive. It is nearly impossible to go anywhere today and escape from technology or from its impact, either upon the environment or upon society. | |||
Ancient Minoan private homes had ].<ref name="Eslamian2014">{{cite book|last1=Eslamian|first1=Saeid|title=Handbook of Engineering Hydrology: Environmental Hydrology and Water Management|date=2014|publisher=CRC Press|location=Boca Raton, Florida|isbn=978-1466552500|pages=171–175|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=USXcBQAAQBAJ&q=Minoan+flush+toilet&pg=PA174|access-date=12 November 2020|archive-date=10 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201210095408/https://books.google.com/books?id=USXcBQAAQBAJ&q=Minoan+flush+toilet&pg=PA174|url-status=live}}</ref> A bathtub virtually identical to modern ones was unearthed at the Palace of Knossos.<ref name="Eslamian2014" /><ref name="Lechner2012">{{cite book|last1=Lechner|first1=Norbert|title=Plumbing, Electricity, Acoustics: Sustainable Design Methods for Architecture|date=2012|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|location=Hoboken, NJ|isbn=978-1118014752|page=106|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0loW1G-Q5f4C&q=Minoan+flush+toilet&pg=PA106|access-date=12 November 2020|archive-date=31 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210331145421/https://books.google.com/books?id=0loW1G-Q5f4C&q=Minoan+flush+toilet&pg=PA106|url-status=live}}</ref> Several Minoan private homes also had toilets, which could be flushed by pouring water down the drain.<ref name="Eslamian2014" /> The ancient Romans had many public flush toilets,<ref name="Lechner2012" /> which emptied into an extensive ].<ref name="Lechner2012" /> The primary sewer in Rome was the ];<ref name="Lechner2012" /> construction began on it in the sixth century BCE and it is still in use today.<ref name="Lechner2012" /> | |||
The ancient Romans also had a complex system of ],<ref name="Aicher1995">{{cite book|last1=Aicher|first1=Peter J.|title=Guide to the Aqueducts of Ancient Rome|date=1995|publisher=Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Inc.|location=Wauconda, IL|isbn=978-0865162822|page=6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IEa04PmWXq0C&q=Pont+du+Gard|access-date=12 November 2020|archive-date=5 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201205010425/https://books.google.com/books?id=IEa04PmWXq0C&q=Pont+du+Gard|url-status=live}}</ref> which were used to transport water across long distances.<ref name="Aicher1995" /> The first ] was built in 312 BCE.<ref name="Aicher1995" /> The eleventh and final ancient Roman aqueduct was built in 226 CE.<ref name="Aicher1995" /> Put together, the Roman aqueducts extended over 450 km,<ref name="Aicher1995" /> but less than 70 km of this was above ground and supported by arches.<ref name="Aicher1995" /> | |||
===Home and farm=== | |||
====Agriculture==== | |||
] farming a field in ]. Tractors are often used in modern ] to help increase yield.]] | |||
=== Pre-modern === | |||
In the ], the use of ], better management of soil nutrients, and improved ] have greatly increased yields per unit area. At the same time, the use of mechanization has decreased labour requirements. The developing world generally produces lower yields, having less access to the latest technology. | |||
{{Main|Medieval technology|Renaissance technology}} | |||
Innovations continued through the ] with the introduction of silk production (in Asia and later Europe), the ], and ]s. ]s (such as the ], the ], and the ]) were combined into more complicated tools, such as the ], ]s, and ]s.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315588605 |title=Innovation and Creativity in Late Medieval and Early Modern European Cities |date=2019 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781315588605 |isbn=978-1317116530 |s2cid=148764971 |editor-last=Davids |editor-first=K. |editor-last2=De Munck |editor-first2=B. |access-date=11 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004184255/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781315588605/innovation-creativity-late-medieval-early-modern-european-cities-karel-davids-bert-de-munck |url-status=live }}</ref> A system of universities developed and spread scientific ideas and practices, including ] and ].<ref>{{Cite book |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HnQNVPbnrDgC |title=Universities and Schooling in Medieval Society |last2= |first2= |last3= |first3= |date=2000 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-9004113510 |editor-last=Courtenay |editor-first=W. J. |editor-last2=Miethke |editor-first2=J. |editor-last3=Priest |editor-first3=D. B. |access-date=11 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004184252/https://books.google.com/books?id=HnQNVPbnrDgC |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
Modern agriculture depends heavily on engineering and technology and on the biological and physical sciences. ], ], ] and sanitary engineering, each of which is important in successful farming, are some of the fields requiring the specialized knowledge of agricultural engineers. | |||
The ] era produced many innovations, including the introduction of the ] ] to Europe, which facilitated the communication of knowledge. Technology became increasingly influenced by science, beginning a cycle of mutual advancement.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Deming |first=D. |url= |title=Science and Technology in World History, Volume 3: The Black Death, the Renaissance, the Reformation and the Scientific Revolution |year=2014 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0786490868}}</ref> | |||
====Domestic technology==== | |||
] is the incorporation of applied science into the home. On one level, there are domestic appliances and other devices commonly used in the home, such as ]s and ]s, and ]. On another level, domestic technology recognizes the use of applied science to construct homes to achieve a particular goal, such as energy efficiency or self-sufficiency. | |||
=== |
=== Modern === | ||
{{Main|Industrial Revolution|Second Industrial Revolution|Information Age}} | |||
] is vital to everyday life, and throughout history people have devised systems to make getting and using it more convenient. Early ] had indoor plumbing, meaning a system of ]s and pipes that terminated in homes and at public wells and fountains for people to use. | |||
], here the original ], revolutionized personal transportation.]] | |||
Starting in the United Kingdom in the 18th century, the discovery of ] set off the ], which saw wide-ranging technological discoveries, particularly in the areas of ], manufacturing, mining, ], and transport, and the widespread application of the ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Stearns |first=P. N. |url= |title=The Industrial Revolution in World History |publisher=Routledge |year=2020 |isbn=978-0813347295 }}</ref> This was followed a century later by the ] which led to rapid scientific discovery, standardization, and mass production. New technologies were developed, including ], electricity, ], ]s, railroads, ], and airplanes. These technological advances led to significant developments in medicine, ], ], and engineering.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mokyr |first=J. |title=The Second Industrial Revolution, 1870–1914 |year=2000 |url=https://faculty.wcas.northwestern.edu/jmokyr/castronovo.pdf |access-date=10 September 2022 |archive-date=10 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220910210450/https://faculty.wcas.northwestern.edu/jmokyr/castronovo.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> They were accompanied by consequential social change, with the introduction of skyscrapers accompanied by rapid urbanization.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Black |first=B. C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NPJjEAAAQBAJ |title=To Have and Have Not: Energy in World History |year= 2022 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1538105047 |access-date=11 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004184800/https://books.google.com/books?id=NPJjEAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Communication improved with the invention of the ], the telephone, the radio, and television.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Albion |first=Robert G. |date=1 January 1933 |title=The Communication Revolution, 1760–1933 |url=https://doi.org/10.1179/tns.1933.002 |journal=Transactions of the Newcomen Society |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=13–25 |doi=10.1179/tns.1933.002 |issn=0372-0187 |access-date=26 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004184825/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1179/tns.1933.002 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
The intake from these water sources usually is through a large cage-like box designed to screen out large particulate matter before it enters the system. After it is sucked in by a pumping station or allowed in by a gravity-feed system, it is usually filtered further, ], ], and then pumped either to holding locations like ]s or ], or fed directly into the user's spigot. Typically wastewater is piped away in a ] system. | |||
The 20th century brought a host of innovations. In physics, the discovery of ] in the ] led to both ] and ]. ]s were invented and asserted dominance in processing complex data. While the invention of ]s allowed for digital computing with ]s like the ], their sheer size precluded widespread use until innovations in ] allowed for the invention of the ] in 1947, which significantly compacted computers and led the digital transition. Information technology, particularly ] and ]s, allowed for simple and fast long-distance communication, which ushered in the ] and the birth of the ]. The ] began with the launch of ] in 1957, and later the launch of ] to the moon in the 1960s. Organized efforts to ] have used ]s to detect signs of technology use, or '']s'', given off by alien civilizations. In medicine, new technologies were developed for diagnosis (], ], and ] scanning), treatment (like the ], ], ], and a wide array of new ]s), and research (like ] cloning and ]s).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Agar |first=J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e2TrhBB_4fYC |title=Science in the 20th Century and Beyond |year=2012 |publisher=Polity |isbn=978-0745634692|access-date=11 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004184804/https://books.google.com/books?id=e2TrhBB_4fYC |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
] originated during the ancient civilizations such as Roman, Persian, Indian, and Chinese civilizations as they developed public baths and needed to provide fresh water and drainage. | |||
Complex manufacturing and construction techniques and organizations are needed to make and maintain more modern technologies, and entire ] have arisen to develop succeeding generations of increasingly more complex tools. Modern technology increasingly relies on training and education – their designers, builders, maintainers, and users often require sophisticated general and specific training.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Goldin |first1=C. |author1-link=Claudia Goldin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yGlCFqnakCoC |title=The Race between Education and Technology |last2=Katz |first2=L. F. |author2-link=Lawrence F. Katz |year=2010 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0674037731 |access-date=11 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004184804/https://books.google.com/books?id=yGlCFqnakCoC |url-status=live }}</ref> Moreover, these technologies have become so complex that entire fields have developed to support them, including engineering, medicine, and ]; and other fields have become more complex, such as construction, transportation, and architecture. | |||
] checking a prototype]] | |||
===Electricity and electronics=== | |||
{{main|Electricity|electronics}} | |||
Electricity is a property of ] that results from the presence or movement of ]. Together with ], it constitutes the ] known as ]. | |||
==Impact== | |||
The field of electronics refers to the study and use of systems that operate by controlling the flow of ]s (or other ]s) in devices such as ] and ]s. | |||
{{main|Technology and society}} | |||
Technological change is the largest cause of long-term economic growth.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Solow |first=Robert M. |date=1957 |title=Technical Change and the Aggregate Production Function |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1926047 |journal=The Review of Economics and Statistics |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=312–320 |doi=10.2307/1926047 |jstor=1926047 |issn=0034-6535 |access-date=15 January 2023 |archive-date=15 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115022751/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1926047 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bresnahan |first1=Timothy F. |last2=Trajtenberg |first2=M. |date=1 January 1995 |title=General purpose technologies 'Engines of growth'? |journal=Journal of Econometrics |volume=65 |issue=1 |pages=83–108 |doi=10.1016/0304-4076(94)01598-T |issn=0304-4076|doi-access=free }}</ref> Throughout human history, energy production was the main constraint on ], and new technologies allowed humans to significantly increase the amount of available energy'''.''' First came fire, which made edible a wider variety of foods, and made it less physically demanding to digest them. Fire also enabled ], and the use of ], copper, and iron tools, used for hunting or ]ship. Then came the agricultural revolution: humans no longer needed to ] to survive, and began to settle in towns and cities, forming more complex societies, with ] and more organized forms of religion.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal |last=Wrigley |first=E. A |date=13 March 2013 |title=Energy and the English Industrial Revolution |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences |volume=371 |issue=1986 |page=20110568 |doi=10.1098/rsta.2011.0568|pmid=23359739 |bibcode=2013RSPTA.37110568W |s2cid=10624423 |doi-access=free }}</ref><!-- paragraph is not done (obviously stops abruptly) --> | |||
Technologies have contributed to human welfare through increased prosperity, improved comfort and quality of life, and ], but they can also disrupt existing social hierarchies, cause pollution, and harm individuals or groups. | |||
Electronic systems are used to perform a wide variety of tasks. The main uses of electronic circuits are controlling and processing of information and the conversion and distribution of ]. | |||
Recent years have brought about a rise in social media's cultural prominence, with potential repercussions on democracy, and economic and social life. Early on, the internet was seen as a "liberation technology" that would democratize knowledge, improve access to education, and promote democracy. Modern research has turned to investigate the internet's downsides, including disinformation, polarization, hate speech, and propaganda.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/social-media-and-democracy/E79E2BBF03C18C3A56A5CC393698F117 |title=Social Media and Democracy: The State of the Field, Prospects for Reform |date=2020 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1108835558 |editor-last=Persily |editor-first=Nathaniel |series=SSRC Anxieties of Democracy |location=Cambridge |doi=10.1017/9781108890960 |hdl=11245.1/cf2f5b6a-8dc8-4400-bc38-3317b0164499 |s2cid=243715477 |editor-last2=Tucker |editor-first2=Joshua A. |access-date=19 October 2022 |archive-date=19 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221019091703/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/social-media-and-democracy/E79E2BBF03C18C3A56A5CC393698F117 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
Both these applications involve the creation, detection, or both, of ]s and ]s. The harnessing of electricity enabled ] applications such as electronics and ]. While ] had been used for some time before the late ] to transmit data over ] and ] lines, development in electronics grew exponentially after the advent of ]. | |||
Since the 1970s, technology's impact on the environment has been ], leading to a surge in investment in ], ], and other forms of ]. | |||
===Energy and other applied sciences=== | |||
{{main|Energy}} | |||
=== Social === | |||
]s include ], wood and ]. All these types of ] are combustible (they create fire and heat). Coal was burnt by ] ] to heat water into steam to move parts and provide power. Peat and wood are mainly used for domestic and industrial heating, though peat has been used for ], and wood-burning steam ]s were common in times past. Steam power is becoming more and more desirable as oil and gas supplies begin to run out, given the wide number of possible things that can burn to heat water. | |||
==== Jobs ==== | |||
Non-solid fuels include ] such as ] and ] (both fuel types have myriad varieties including ] (gasoline) and ]). The former is widely used in the ] while both are used in power generation. | |||
Since the invention of the wheel, technologies have helped increase humans' economic output. Past automation has both substituted and complemented labor; machines replaced humans at some lower-paying jobs (for example in agriculture), but this was compensated by the creation of new, higher-paying jobs.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Autor|first=D. H.|year=2015|title=Why Are There Still So Many Jobs? The History and Future of Workplace|journal=Journal of Economic Perspectives|volume=29|number=3|pages=3–30|doi=10.1257/jep.29.3.3 |url=https://economics.mit.edu/files/11563|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901060615/http://economics.mit.edu/files/11563 |archive-date=1 September 2022 |doi-access=free|hdl=1721.1/109476|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Studies have found that computers did not create significant net ].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bessen |first=J. E. |date=3 October 2016 |title=How Computer Automation Affects Occupations: Technology, Jobs, and Skills |journal=Economic Perspectives on Employment & Labor Law EJournal. |volume=15{{hyphen}}49 |location=Rochester, NY |doi=10.2139/ssrn.2690435 |ssrn=2690435 |s2cid=29968989 |url=https://scholarship.law.bu.edu/faculty_scholarship/813 |access-date=20 January 2024 |archive-date=10 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240310050823/https://scholarship.law.bu.edu/faculty_scholarship/813/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Due to ] being far more capable than computers, and still being in its infancy, it is not known whether it will follow the same trend; the question has been debated at length among economists and policymakers. A 2017 survey found no clear consensus among economists on whether AI would increase long-term unemployment.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 June 2017 |title=Robots and Artificial Intelligence |url=https://www.igmchicago.org/surveys/robots-and-artificial-intelligence/ |access-date=17 September 2022 |website=igmchicago.org |publisher=] |archive-date=20 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920171212/https://www.igmchicago.org/surveys/robots-and-artificial-intelligence/ |url-status=live }}</ref> According to the ]'s "The Future of Jobs Report 2020", AI is predicted to replace 85 million jobs worldwide, and create 97 million new jobs by 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |date=October 2020 |title=The Future of Jobs Report 2020 |url=https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Future_of_Jobs_2020.pdf |access-date=16 January 2022 |website=www3.weforum.org |archive-date=15 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115173909/https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Future_of_Jobs_2020.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Robots and AI Taking Over Jobs: What to Know {{!}} Built In |url=https://builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/ai-replacing-jobs-creating-jobs |access-date=16 January 2023 |website=builtin.com |archive-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116171804/https://builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/ai-replacing-jobs-creating-jobs |url-status=live }}</ref> From 1990 to 2007, a study in the U.S. by ] economist ] showed that an addition of one robot for every 1,000 workers decreased the ] by 0.2%, or about 3.3 workers, and lowered wages by 0.42%.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How many jobs do robots really replace? |url=https://news.mit.edu/2020/how-many-jobs-robots-replace-0504 |access-date=16 January 2023 |website=MIT News {{!}} Massachusetts Institute of Technology |date=4 May 2020 |archive-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116171803/https://news.mit.edu/2020/how-many-jobs-robots-replace-0504 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Acemoglu |first1=Daron |last2=Restrepo |first2=Pascual |date=1 June 2020 |title=Robots and Jobs: Evidence from US Labor Markets |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/705716 |journal=Journal of Political Economy |volume=128 |issue=6 |pages=2188–2244 |doi=10.1086/705716 |hdl=1721.1/130324 |s2cid=7468879 |issn=0022-3808 |hdl-access=free |access-date=16 January 2023 |archive-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116171811/https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/705716 |url-status=live }}</ref> Concerns about technology replacing human labor however are long-lasting. As US president ] said in 1964, "Technology is creating both new opportunities and new obligations for us, opportunity for greater productivity and progress; obligation to be sure that no workingman, no family must pay an unjust price for progress." upon signing the National Commission on Technology, Automation, and Economic Progress bill.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Remarks Upon Signing Bill Creating the National Commission on Technology, Automation, and Economic Progress. {{!}} The American Presidency Project |url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-upon-signing-bill-creating-the-national-commission-technology-automation-and |access-date=16 January 2023 |website=www.presidency.ucsb.edu |archive-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116174700/https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-upon-signing-bill-creating-the-national-commission-technology-automation-and |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=February 1966 |title=Technology and the American Economy |url=https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED023803.pdf |access-date=16 January 2023 |website=files.eric.ed.gov |archive-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116174655/https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED023803.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=If Robots Take Our Jobs, Will They Make It Up to Us? |url=https://www.chicagobooth.edu/review/if-robots-take-our-jobs-will-they-make-it-us |access-date=16 January 2023 |website=The University of Chicago Booth School of Business |archive-date=25 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230325132904/https://www.chicagobooth.edu/review/if-robots-take-our-jobs-will-they-make-it-us |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=GovInfo |url=https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/STATUTE-78/STATUTE-78-Pg462 |access-date=16 January 2023 |website=www.govinfo.gov n |archive-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116174655/https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/STATUTE-78/STATUTE-78-Pg462 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=1963 |title=H.R.11611 – An Act to establish a National Commission on Technology, Automation, and Economic Progress |url=https://www.congress.gov/bill/88th-congress/house-bill/11611/text |access-date=16 January 2023 |website=www.congress.gov |archive-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116180845/https://www.congress.gov/bill/88th-congress/house-bill/11611/text |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
=== |
==== Security ==== | ||
With the growing reliance of technology, there have been security and privacy concerns along with it. Billions of people use different online payment methods, such as ], ], ], and much more to help transfer money. Although security measures are placed, some criminals are able to bypass them.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |last1=Rosenberg |first1=Elizabeth |author1-link=Elizabeth Rosenberg |last2=Harrell |first2=Peter E. |last3=Shiffman |first3=Gary M. |last4=Dorshimer |first4=Sam |date=2019 |title=Financial Technology and National Security |publisher=Center for a New American Security |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep20404 |access-date=19 January 2023 |archive-date=19 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119140345/https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep20404 |url-status=live }}</ref> In March 2022, North Korea used ], a ] which helped them to hide their cryptocurrency exchanges, to launder over $20.5 million in cryptocurrency, from ], and steal over $600 million worth of cryptocurrency from the game's owner. Because of this, the U.S. Treasury Department sanctioned Blender.io, which marked the first time it has taken action against a mixer, to try to crack down on North Korean hackers.<ref>{{Cite web |title=U.S. takes aim at North Korean crypto laundering |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/crypto/us-takes-aim-north-korean-crypto-laundering-rcna27660 |access-date=19 January 2023 |website=NBC News |date=6 May 2022 |archive-date=19 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119140345/https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/crypto/us-takes-aim-north-korean-crypto-laundering-rcna27660 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=U.S. ties North Korean hacker group to Axie Infinity crypto theft |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/crypto/north-korea-lazarus-axie-infinity-crypto-theft-rcna24518 |access-date=19 January 2023 |website=NBC News |date=15 April 2022 |archive-date=19 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119140346/https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/crypto/north-korea-lazarus-axie-infinity-crypto-theft-rcna24518 |url-status=live }}</ref> The privacy of cryptocurrency has been debated. Although many customers like the privacy of cryptocurrency, many also argue that it needs more transparency and stability.<ref name=":11" /> | |||
{{main|Military}} | |||
=== Environmental === | |||
]s are qualitatively different from earlier ]s because they store energy in a combustible ], such as ], rather than in a weight or spring. This energy is released quite rapidly, and can be restored without much effort by the user, so that even early firearms such as the ] were much more powerful than human-powered weapons. They became increasingly important and effective from the 16th century to 19th century, with progressive improvements in ] ] followed by revolutionary changes in ] handling and propellant. During the ] various technologies including the ] and ] emerged that would be recognizable and useful military weapons today, particularly in lower-technology conflicts. | |||
Technology can have both positive and negative effects on the environment. ], describes an array of technologies which seek to reverse, mitigate or halt environmental damage to the environment. This can include measures to ] through environmental regulations, capture and storage of pollution, or using pollutant byproducts in other industries.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Austin |first1=David |last2=Macauley |first2=Molly K. |author2-link=Molly K. Macauley |date=1 December 2001 |title=Cutting Through Environmental Issues: Technology as a double-edged sword |url=https://www.brookings.edu/articles/cutting-through-environmental-issues-technology-as-a-double-edged-sword/ |access-date=10 February 2023 |website=Brookings |archive-date=9 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230209002853/https://www.brookings.edu/articles/cutting-through-environmental-issues-technology-as-a-double-edged-sword/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Other examples of environmental technology include ] and the reversing of deforestation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Grainger |first1=Alan |last2=Francisco |first2=Herminia A. |last3=Tiraswat |first3=Penporn |date=July 2003 |title=The impact of changes in agricultural technology on long-term trends in deforestation |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0264837703000097 |journal=The International Journal Covering All Aspects of Land Use |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=209–223 |doi=10.1016/S0264-8377(03)00009-7 |bibcode=2003LUPol..20..209G |via=Elsevier Science Direct |access-date=10 February 2023 |archive-date=10 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210214149/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0264837703000097 |url-status=live }}</ref> Emerging technologies in the fields of ] may be able to halt or reverse global warming and its environmental impacts,<ref>{{cite web|author=EPA|date=19 January 2017|title=Climate Impacts on Ecosystems|url=https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/climate-impacts/climate-impacts-ecosystems_.html#Extinction|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180127185656/https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/climate-impacts/climate-impacts-ecosystems_.html#Extinction|archive-date=27 January 2018|access-date=5 February 2019|quote=Mountain and arctic ecosystems and species are particularly sensitive to climate change... As ocean temperatures warm and the acidity of the ocean increases, bleaching and coral die-offs are likely to become more frequent.}}</ref> although this remains highly controversial.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Union of Concerned Scientists |date=6 November 2017 |year=2017 |title=What is Climate Engineering? |url=https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/what-climate-engineering |access-date=2024-10-28 |website=www.ucsusa.org |language=en}}</ref> As technology has advanced, so too has the negative environmental impact, with increased release of ]es, including ], ] and ], into the atmosphere, causing the ]. This continues to gradually heat the earth, causing global warming and ]. Measures of technological innovation correlates with a rise in greenhouse gas emissions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chaudhry |first1=Imran Sharif |last2=Ali |first2=Sajid |last3=Bhatti |first3=Shaukat Hussain |last4=Anser |first4=Muhammad Khalid |last5=Khan |first5=Ahmad Imran |last6=Nazar |first6=Raima |date=October 2021 |title=Dynamic common correlated effects of technological innovations and institutional performance on environmental quality: Evidence from East-Asia and Pacific countries |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1462901121001921 |journal=Environmental Science & Policy |volume=124 |issue=Environmental Science & Policy |pages=313–323 |doi=10.1016/j.envsci.2021.07.007 |bibcode=2021ESPol.124..313C |via=Elsevier Science Direct |access-date=14 February 2023 |archive-date=14 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230214142841/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1462901121001921 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
==== Pollution ==== | |||
] and its derivative the Vickers (shown here) remained in British military service for 79 consecutive years.]] | |||
Pollution, the presence of contaminants in an environment that causes adverse effects, could have been present as early as the ]. They used a ] ] in the ] of ores, along with the use of a wind-drafted clay ], which released lead into the ] and the ] of rivers.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smol |first=J. P. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/476272945 |title=Pollution of Lakes and Rivers : a Paleoenvironmental Perspective. |date=2009 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1444307573 |edition=2nd |location=Chichester |page=135 |oclc=476272945 |access-date=14 February 2023 |archive-date=29 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240429043125/https://search.worldcat.org/title/476272945 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
The age of edged weapons diminished abruptly just before ] with the increased development of rifled ], such as ]s, able to destroy any masonry fortress. | |||
== Philosophy == | |||
The most notable development in weaponry since World War II has been the combination and further development of two weapons first used in it—]s and the ], leading to its ultimate configuration: the ]. The indiscriminate nature of nuclear weapons has made nuclear-tipped missiles essentially useless for smaller wars. However, computer-guided weaponry of all kinds, from ]s (or "smart bombs") to computer-aimed tank rounds, has greatly increased the weapon's accuracy. | |||
{{main|Philosophy of technology}} | |||
Philosophy of technology is a branch of philosophy that studies the "practice of designing and creating artifacts", and the "nature of the things so created."<ref name=":5">{{Cite encyclopedia |last1=Franssen |first1=M. |chapter=Philosophy of Technology |year=2018 |chapter-url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2018/entries/technology/ |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=E. N. |edition=Fall 2018 |access-date=11 September 2022 |last2=Lokhorst |first2=G.-J. |last3=van de Poel |first3=I. |archive-date=11 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220911061556/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2018/entries/technology/ |url-status=live }}</ref> It emerged as a discipline over the past two centuries, and has grown "considerably" since the 1970s.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book |last1=de Vries |first1=M. J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EOmPCgAAQBAJ |title=Philosophy of Technology : An Introduction for Technology and Business Students |last2=Verkerk |first2=M. J. |last3=Hoogland |first3=J. |last4=van der Stoep |first4=J. |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2015 |isbn=978-1317445715 |location=United Kingdom |oclc=907132694 |access-date=10 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004184227/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Philosophy_of_Technology/EOmPCgAAQBAJ |archive-date=4 October 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> The ''humanities philosophy of technology'' is concerned with the "meaning of technology for, and its impact on, society and culture".<ref name=":5" /> | |||
===Transportation=== | |||
{{main|Transportation}} | |||
====Automobiles==== | |||
Automobiles typically use an ], a ] in which the burning of a fuel occurs in a confined space called a combustion chamber. This ] reaction of a fuel with an ] creates gases of high ] and ], which are permitted to expand. The defining feature of an internal combustion engine is that useful work is performed by the expanding hot gases acting directly to cause movement, for example by acting on pistons, rotors, or even by pressing on and moving the entire engine itself. | |||
Initially, technology was seen as an extension of the human organism that replicated or amplified bodily and mental faculties.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brey |first=P. |year=2000 |editor-last=Mitcham |editor-first=C. |title=Theories of Technology as Extension of Human Faculties |journal=Metaphysics, Epistemology, and Technology. Research in Philosophy and Technology |volume=19 }}</ref> ] framed it as a tool used by capitalists to oppress the proletariat, but believed that technology would be a fundamentally liberating force once it was "freed from societal deformations". Second-wave philosophers like Ortega later shifted their focus from economics and politics to "daily life and living in a techno-material culture", arguing that technology could oppress "even the members of the bourgeoisie who were its ostensible masters and possessors." Third-stage philosophers like ] and ] represent a turn toward de-generalization and empiricism, and considered how humans can learn to live with technology.<ref name=":8" />{{Page needed|date=December 2022}}<!-- citation applies to most of the paragraph --> | |||
] first produced internal combustion engine automobiles in Germany in 1885-1886. Henry Ford brought ] to the masses, as the founder of the ] and father of the modern ]. | |||
Early scholarship on technology was split between two arguments: ], and ]. Technological determinism is the idea that technologies cause unavoidable social changes.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=Deborah G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iN6MEAAAQBAJ |title=Technology and Society: Building Our Sociotechnical Future |edition=2nd |last2=Wetmore |first2=Jameson M. |date=2021 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0262539968 |access-date=18 October 2022 |archive-date=29 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240429043232/https://books.google.com/books?id=iN6MEAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Rp|page=95}} It usually encompasses a related argument, technological autonomy, which asserts that technological progress follows a natural progression and cannot be prevented.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dusek |first=Val |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J_VXvwEACAAJ |title=Philosophy of Technology: An Introduction |date=2006 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-1405111621|access-date=13 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004184807/https://books.google.com/books?id=J_VXvwEACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Social constructivists{{who|date=December 2022}} argue that technologies follow no natural progression, and are shaped by cultural values, laws, politics, and economic incentives. Modern scholarship has shifted towards an analysis of ]s, "assemblages of things, people, practices, and meanings", looking at the value judgments that shape technology.<ref name=":9" />{{Page needed|date=December 2022}} | |||
====Aviation and space travel==== | |||
], an example of a modern passenger ].]] | |||
] or air transport refers to the activities surrounding human ] and the ] industry. Aircraft include ], rotary wing (]/]) types, and ]s, as well as lighter-than-air craft such as ] and ]s (also known as dirigibles). | |||
Cultural critic ] distinguished tool-using societies from technological societies and from what he called "technopolies", societies that are dominated by an ideology of technological and scientific progress to the detriment of other cultural practices, values, and world views.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Postman |first=Neil |title=Technopoly: The Surrender of Culture to Technology |publisher=Vintage |year=1993 |location=New York}}</ref> ] and ] suggest that technological society will inevitably deprive us of our freedom and psychological health.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Marcuse |first=H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WoKGAgAAQBAJ |title=Technology, War and Fascism: Collected Papers of Herbert Marcuse, Volume 1 |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1134774661|access-date=11 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004184809/https://books.google.com/books?id=WoKGAgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
Fixed-wing aircraft generally use an internal-combustion engine in the form of a ] (with a ]) or a ] (] or ]), to provide thrust that moves the craft forward through the air. The movement of air over the airfoil produces ] that causes the aircraft to fly. The ], Orville and Wilbur, are generally credited with making the first controlled, powered, heavier-than-air flight on ], ]. | |||
==Ethics== | |||
] began to be seriously developed after the development of large liquid-fueled ] during the early 20th century. The first major milestone of this endeavour was the launch of the USSR's '']'' on ], ], the first man-made object to ] the ]. After the first 20 years of exploration, focus began shifting from one-off flights to renewable hardware, such as the ], and from competition to cooperation as on the ]. | |||
{{main|Ethics of technology}} | |||
The ''ethics of technology'' is an interdisciplinary subfield of ethics that analyzes technology's ethical implications and explores ways to mitigate the potential negative impacts of new technologies. There is a broad range of ethical issues revolving around technology, from specific areas of focus affecting professionals working with technology to broader social, ethical, and legal issues concerning the role of technology in society and everyday life.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hansson |first=Sven Ove |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YeLaDwAAQBAJ&dq=technology+ethics&pg=PR7 |title=The Ethics of Technology: Methods and Approaches |year=2017 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1783486595 |access-date=13 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004184810/https://books.google.com/books?id=YeLaDwAAQBAJ&dq=technology+ethics&pg=PR7 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
Prominent debates have surrounded ]s, the use of robotic soldiers, ], and the issue of ] behavior with human values.<ref name="Al-Rodhan">{{Cite web |last=Al-Rodhan |first=Nayef |title=The Many Ethical Implications of Emerging Technologies |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-many-ethical-implications-of-emerging-technologies/ |access-date=13 December 2019 |website=Scientific American |archive-date=8 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170408081948/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-many-ethical-implications-of-emerging-technologies/ |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
====Rail==== | |||
A typical railway (or ]) track consists of two parallel rails. The vehicles traveling on the rails are arranged in a ]. These vehicles move with much less friction than do rubber tires on a paved road, and the ] that pulls the train tends to use energy far more efficiently as a result. | |||
Technology ethics encompasses several key fields. ] looks at ethical issues surrounding biotechnologies and modern medicine, including cloning, human genetic engineering, and stem cell research. ] focuses on issues related to computing. ] explores internet-related issues like ], ], and ]. ] examines issues surrounding the alteration of matter at the atomic and molecular level in various disciplines including computer science, engineering, and biology. And ] deals with the professional standards of engineers, including ] and their moral responsibilities to the public.<ref name="Luppicini, R. 20082">{{cite book |last=Luppicini |first=R. |title=Handbook of Research on Technoethics |publisher=Idea Group Publishing |year=2008 |editor1=Luppicini |location=Hershey |chapter=The emerging field of Technoethics |editor2=R. Adell}}</ref> | |||
The first railways in Great Britain (also known as wagonways) were built in the early ], mainly for transporting coal from the mine to the water side where it could be loaded on to a boat. | |||
A wide branch of technology ethics is concerned with the ]: it includes ], which deals with ethical issues involved in the design, construction, use, and treatment of robots,<ref name="Veruggio2002">{{cite journal |author=Veruggio, Gianmarco |year=2011 |title=The Roboethics Roadmap |journal=EURON Roboethics Atelier |publisher=Scuola di Robotica |page=2 |citeseerx=10.1.1.466.2810}}</ref> as well as ], which is concerned with ensuring the ethical behavior of ].<ref name="Anderson2011">{{Cite book |title=Machine Ethics |date= 2011 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0521112352 |editor1-last=Anderson |editor1-first=Michael |editor2-last=Anderson |editor2-first=Susan Leigh}}</ref> Within the field of AI ethics, significant yet-unsolved research problems include ] (ensuring that AI behaviors are aligned with their creators' intended goals and interests) and the reduction of ]. Some researchers have warned against the hypothetical risk of an ], and have advocated for the use of ] in addition to AI alignment methods. | |||
A ] system is a railway system, usually in an urban area, with a high capacity and frequency of service, and ] from other traffic. | |||
Other fields of ethics have had to contend with technology-related issues, including ], ], and ]. | |||
====Water==== | |||
In the ] the first ] were developed, using a ] to drive a ] or ] to move the ship. The ] was produced using wood or coal. Now most ships have an engine using a slightly refined type of ] called ]. Some specialized ships, such as ]s, use ] to produce the steam. | |||
==Futures studies== | |||
===The arts and language=== | |||
{{main|Futures studies}} | |||
The accessibility of ] and artistic expression in modern society are now widely available to all segments of society due to technological advances. In addition, technology creates a new aspect of art in ], ], and ]. | |||
''Futures studies'' is the systematic and interdisciplinary study of social and technological progress. It aims to quantitatively and qualitatively explore the range of plausible futures and to incorporate human values in the development of new technologies.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|page=54}} More generally, futures researchers are interested in improving "the freedom and welfare of humankind".<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|page=73}} It relies on a thorough quantitative and qualitative analysis of past and present technological trends, and attempts to rigorously extrapolate them into the future.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Bell |first=W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ILJ_pfMgLqsC |title=Foundations of Futures Studies, Volume 1: Human Science for a New Era |publisher=Transaction Publishers |isbn=978-1412823791|access-date=12 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004185315/https://books.google.com/books?id=ILJ_pfMgLqsC |url-status=live }}</ref> Science fiction is often used as a source of ideas.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|page=173}} Futures research methodologies include ], modeling, ], and ].<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|page=187}}<!-- I think this section shouldn't just give an overview of the field, but also its major findings, currents, etc. Avoid redundancy with the Emerging technologies section; add more perspectives on "what society might look like in the future" --> | |||
=== Existential risk === | |||
Today, due to mass communication, communication crosses geographic, ethnic, cultural, and moral boundaries, from widespread use of ], radio, and telephone. There is also a vast array of networks that connect these devices, including ]s, ]s, ]s, and ]s. | |||
{{main|Global catastrophic risk}} | |||
Existential risk researchers analyze risks that could lead to ] or civilizational collapse, and look for ways to build resilience against them.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About us |url=https://www.cser.ac.uk/about-us/ |access-date=11 September 2022 |website=cser.ac.uk |archive-date=30 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171230172611/https://www.cser.ac.uk/about-us/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Gottlieb |first=J. |date=1 May 2022 |title=Discounting, Buck-Passing, and Existential Risk Mitigation: The Case of Space Colonization |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0265964622000121 |journal=Space Policy |volume=60 |page=101486 |bibcode=2022SpPol..6001486G |doi=10.1016/j.spacepol.2022.101486 |issn=0265-9646 |s2cid=247718992}}</ref> Relevant research centers include the ], and the Stanford Existential Risk Initiative.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |last2= |last3= |title=Stanford Existential Risks Initiative |url=https://cisac.fsi.stanford.edu/stanford-existential-risks-initiative/content/stanford-existential-risks-initiative |access-date=4 October 2022 |website=cisac.fsi.stanford.edu |archive-date=22 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922150116/https://cisac.fsi.stanford.edu/stanford-existential-risks-initiative/content/stanford-existential-risks-initiative |url-status=live }}</ref> Future technologies may contribute to the risks of ], ], ], ], ], ], or stable global ], though technologies may also help us mitigate ] and ]s.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bostrom |first1=Nick |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sTkfAQAAQBAJ |title=Global Catastrophic Risks |last2=Cirkovic |first2=Milan M. |year=2011 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0199606504|access-date=11 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004185315/https://books.google.com/books?id=sTkfAQAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2019 philosopher ] introduced the notion of a ''vulnerable world'', "one in which there is some level of technological development at which civilization almost certainly gets devastated by default", citing the risks of a ] caused by ], or an ] triggered by the development of novel armaments and the loss of ].<ref name="Bostrom 2019">{{Cite journal |last=Bostrom |first=Nick |date=6 September 2019 |title=The Vulnerable World Hypothesis |journal=Global Policy |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=455–476 |doi=10.1111/1758-5899.12718 |issn=1758-5880 |s2cid=203169705|doi-access=free }}</ref> He invites policymakers to question the assumptions that technological progress is always beneficial, that scientific openness is always preferable, or that they can afford to wait until a dangerous technology has been invented before they prepare mitigations.<ref name="Bostrom 2019" /> | |||
==Emerging technologies== | |||
Computer communication across the ], such as ] and ], is just one of many examples of mass communication. | |||
{{main|Emerging technologies}} | |||
] | |||
Emerging technologies are novel technologies whose development or practical applications are still largely unrealized. They include ], ], ], ], ]s, and ]. | |||
In 2005, futurist ] claimed the next technological revolution would rest upon advances in ], ], and ], with robotics being the most impactful of the three technologies.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kurzweil |first=Ray |title=The Singularity is Near |publisher=Penguin |year=2005 |isbn=978-1101218884 |chapter=GNR: Three Overlapping Revolutions}}</ref> ] will allow far greater control over human biological nature through a process called ]. Some thinkers believe that this may shatter our sense of self, and have urged for renewed public debate exploring the issue more thoroughly;<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kompridis |first=N. |year=2009 |title=Technology's challenge to democracy: What of the human |url=http://www.parrhesiajournal.org/parrhesia08/parrhesia08_kompridis.pdf |journal=Parrhesia |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=20–33 |access-date=21 February 2011 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004185314/http://www.parrhesiajournal.org/parrhesia08/parrhesia08_kompridis.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> others fear that directed evolution could lead to eugenics or extreme social inequality. ] will grant us the ability to manipulate matter "at the molecular and atomic scale",<ref>{{Cite news|date=19 April 2016|title=Ray Kurzweil Predicts Three Technologies Will Define Our Future|url=https://singularityhub.com/2016/04/19/ray-kurzweil-predicts-three-technologies-will-define-our-future/|access-date=10 May 2021|website=Singularity Hub|last1=McShane|first1=Sveta|archive-date=10 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210510191934/https://singularityhub.com/2016/04/19/ray-kurzweil-predicts-three-technologies-will-define-our-future/|url-status=live}}</ref> which could allow us to reshape ourselves and our environment in fundamental ways.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Poole |first1=C. P. Jr. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XfzgEoY9SNkC |title=Introduction to Nanotechnology |last2=Owens |first2=F. J. |year=2003 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0471079354}}</ref> Nanobots could be used within the human body to destroy cancer cells or form new body parts, blurring the line between biology and technology.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Vince |first=G. |date=3 July 2003 |title=Nanotechnology may create new organs |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn3916-nanotechnology-may-create-new-organs/ |access-date=11 September 2022 |website=New Scientist |archive-date=11 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220911220109/https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn3916-nanotechnology-may-create-new-organs/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Autonomous robots have undergone rapid progress, and are expected to replace humans at many dangerous tasks, including ], ], ], and war.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Lee |first1=Sukhan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=65-q7fi9yrcC&dq=progress+in+robotics&pg=PA4 |title=Recent Progress in Robotics: Viable Robotic Service to Human: An Edition of the Selected Papers from the 13th International Conference on Advanced Robotics |last2=Suh |first2=Il Hong |year= 2008 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-3540767282 |page=3 |access-date=13 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004185316/https://books.google.com/books?id=65-q7fi9yrcC&dq=progress+in+robotics&pg=PA4 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
{{sectstub}} | |||
Estimates on the advent of ] vary, but half of machine learning experts surveyed in 2018 believe that AI will "accomplish every task better and more cheaply" than humans by 2063, and automate all human jobs by 2140.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Grace |first1=K. |last2=Salvatier |first2=J. |last3=Dafoe |first3=A. |last4=Zhang |first4=B. |last5=Evans |first5=O. |date=31 July 2018 |title=Viewpoint: When Will AI Exceed Human Performance? Evidence from AI Experts |url=https://jair.org/index.php/jair/article/view/11222 |journal=Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research|volume=62 |pages=729–754 |doi=10.1613/jair.1.11222 |issn=1076-9757 |s2cid=8746462 |access-date=11 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004185317/https://jair.org/index.php/jair/article/view/11222 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}</ref> This expected technological unemployment has led to calls for increased emphasis on ] education and debates about ]. Political science experts predict that this could lead to a rise in extremism, while others see it as an opportunity to usher in a ]. | |||
===Architecture, construction, and engineering=== | |||
{{main|Architecture|construction|engineering}} | |||
==Movements== | |||
The creation of technology is also a technological undertaking and there are four broad professions that generally support the application of technical knowledge and the making of technological tools: | |||
*architecture is the profession devoted to making human-occupied spaces; | |||
*engineering is a set of professions devoted to the application of technical knowledge to solve a human problem; | |||
*construction and manufacturing are the professions devoted to the transformation of raw materials into finished products. | |||
=== |
===Appropriate technology=== | ||
{{main| |
{{main|Appropriate technology}} | ||
Some segments of the ] grew to dislike urban living and developed a preference for ], ], and ] technology, termed ''appropriate technology''. This later influenced ] and ]. | |||
===Technological utopianism=== | |||
Medical technology includes ] such as ]s for ]; the ] for surgery; laboratory equipment to automate or help analysis of ], ] and ]s; and ] that measure such things as blood pressure. | |||
{{main|Technological utopianism}} | |||
Technological utopianism refers to the belief that technological development is a ], which can and should bring about a ], that is, a society in which laws, governments, and social conditions serve the needs of all its citizens.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Segal |first=H. P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n6RabZ8t48gC |title=Technological Utopianism in American Culture|edition=20th Anniversary|year=2005 |publisher=Syracuse University Press |isbn=978-0815630616 |access-date=11 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004185317/https://books.google.com/books?id=n6RabZ8t48gC |url-status=live }}</ref> Examples of techno-utopian goals include ], ], ], ], and the creation of artificial ]. Major techno-utopian movements include ] and ]. | |||
Related subjects include ], which can be used to create new drugs, and ] which helps disabled people, such as with devices with voice activation and speech recognition for blind people. | |||
The transhumanism movement is founded upon the "continued evolution of human life beyond its current human form" through science and technology, informed by "life-promoting principles and values."<ref>{{Cite book |chapter=Roots and Core Themes |date=29 April 2013 |chapter-url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118555927.part1 |title=The Transhumanist Reader |pages=1–2 |editor-last=More |editor-first=M. |editor-link=Max More |edition= |publisher=Wiley |doi=10.1002/9781118555927.part1 |isbn=978-1118334294 |access-date=11 September 2022 |editor2-last=Vita-More |editor2-first=N. |editor2-link=Natasha Vita-More |archive-date=11 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220911102725/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118555927.part1 |url-status=live }}</ref> The movement gained wider popularity in the early 21st century.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Istvan |first=Zoltan |date=1 February 2015 |title=A New Generation of Transhumanists Is Emerging |url=https://www.interaliamag.org/articles/a-new-generation-of-transhumanists-is-emerging/ |access-date=11 September 2022 |website=Interalia Magazine |archive-date=11 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220911102727/https://www.interaliamag.org/articles/a-new-generation-of-transhumanists-is-emerging/ |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
{{sectstub}} | |||
] believe that machine superintelligence will "accelerate technological progress" by orders of magnitude and "create even more intelligent entities ever faster", which may lead to a pace of societal and technological change that is "incomprehensible" to us. This ''event horizon'' is known as the ].<ref>{{Cite book |chapter=Future Trajectories: Singularity |date=29 April 2013 |chapter-url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118555927.part8 |title=The Transhumanist Reader |pages=361–363 |editor-last=More |editor-first=M. |edition= |publisher=Wiley |doi=10.1002/9781118555927.part8 |isbn=978-1118334294 |access-date=11 September 2022 |editor2-last=Vita-More |editor2-first=N. |archive-date=11 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220911110449/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118555927.part8 |url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
==Economics and technological development== | |||
{{Copyedit|date=February 2007}} | |||
] can be said to have arrived on the scene when the occasional, spontaneous exchange of ] and services began to occur on a less occasional, less spontaneous basis. It probably didn't take long for the maker of arrowheads to realize that he could probably do a lot better by concentrating on the making of arrowheads and barter for his other needs. Clearly, regardless of the goods and services bartered, some amount of technology was involved—if no more than in the making of shell and bead jewelry. Even the ]'s potions and sacred objects can be said to have involved some technology. From the very beginnings, technology can be said to have spurred the development of more elaborate economies. | |||
Major figures of techno-utopianism include ] and ]. Techno-utopianism has attracted both praise and criticism from progressive, religious, and conservative thinkers.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Blackford |first1=R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2XinlAEACAAJ |title=H±: Transhumanism and Its Critics |last2=Bostrom |first2=N. |last3=Dupuy |first3=J.-P. |date=2011 |publisher=Metanexus Institute |isbn=978-1456815653 |access-date=13 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004185317/https://books.google.com/books?id=2XinlAEACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
In the modern world, superior technologies, resources, geography, and history give rise to robust economies; and in a well-functioning, robust economy, economic excess naturally flows into greater use of technology. Moreover, because technology is such an inseparable part of human ], especially in its economic aspects, funding sources for (new) technological endeavors are virtually illimitable. However, while in the beginning, technological investment involved little more than the time, efforts, and skills of one or a few men, today, such investment may involve the collective ] and skills of many millions. | |||
===Anti-technology backlash=== | |||
===Funding=== | |||
{{See also|Luddite|Neo-Luddism|Bioconservatism}} | |||
{{Cleanup-section|February 2007}} | |||
Technology's central role in our lives has drawn concerns and backlash. The backlash against technology is not a uniform movement and encompasses many heterogeneous ideologies.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jones |first=Steven E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VPBZANKoOHkC |title=Against Technology: From the Luddites to Neo-Luddism |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1135522391 |access-date=11 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004185317/https://books.google.com/books?id=VPBZANKoOHkC |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
Consequently the sources of funding for large technological efforts have dramatically narrowed, since few have ready access to the collective labor of a whole society, or even a large part. It is conventional to divide up funding sources into governmental (involving whole, or nearly whole, social ]s) and private (involving more limited, but generally more sharply focused) business or individual enterprises. | |||
The earliest known revolt against technology was ], a pushback against early automation in textile production. Automation had resulted in a need for fewer workers, a process known as ]. | |||
====Governmental funding==== | |||
Between the 1970s and 1990s, American terrorist ] carried out a series of bombings across America and published the ] denouncing technology's negative impacts on nature and human freedom. The essay resonated with a large part of the American public.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kelman |first=David |date=1 June 2020 |title=Politics in a Small Room: Subterranean Babel in Piglia's El camino de Ida |url=https://utpjournals.press/doi/10.3138/ycl.63.005 |journal=The Yearbook of Comparative Literature |volume=63 |pages=179–201 |doi=10.3138/ycl.63.005 |s2cid=220494877 |issn=0084-3695 |access-date=11 September 2022 |archive-date=6 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220306190259/https://utpjournals.press/doi/10.3138/ycl.63.005 |url-status=live }}</ref> It was partly inspired by Jacques Ellul's '']''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fleming |first1=Sean |date=7 May 2021 |title=The Unabomber and the origins of anti-tech radicalism |journal=Journal of Political Ideologies |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=207–225 |doi=10.1080/13569317.2021.1921940 |issn=1356-9317 |doi-access=free}}</ref> | |||
The government is a major contributor to the development of new technology in many ways. In the United States alone, many government agencies specifically invest billions of dollars in new technology. | |||
Some subcultures, like the ] movement, advocate a withdrawal from technology and a return to nature. The ] movement seeks to reestablish harmony between technology and nature.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Vannini|first1=Phillip|author2=Jonathan Taggart|title=Voluntary simplicity, involuntary complexities, and the pull of remove: The radical ruralities of off-grid lifestyles|journal=Environment and Planning A|volume=45|number=2|year=2013|pages=295–311|doi=10.1068/a4564 |bibcode=2013EnPlA..45..295V |s2cid=143970611 }}</ref> | |||
In 1980, the UK government invested just over 6 million pounds in a four-year programme, later extended to six years, called the ] (MEP), which was intended to give every school in Britain at least one computer, microprocessor training materials and software, and extensive teacher training. Governments around the world have instituted similar programmes. | |||
==Relation to science and engineering== | |||
Technology has frequently been driven by the military, with many modern applications being developed for the military before being adapted for civilian use. However, this has always been a two-way flow, with industry often taking the lead in developing and adopting a technology which is only later adopted by the military. | |||
] experimenting with combustion generated by amplified sunlight|alt=Drawing of Lavoisier conducting an experiment in front of onlookers]] | |||
{{See also|Science|Engineering}} | |||
Engineering is the process by which technology is developed. It often requires problem-solving under strict constraints.<ref name=":7" /> Technological development is "action-oriented", while scientific knowledge is fundamentally explanatory.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Di Nucci Pearce |first1=M. R. |last2=Pearce |first2=David |year=1989 |title=Technology vs. Science: The Cognitive Fallacy |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20116729 |journal=Synthese |volume=81 |issue=3 |pages=405–419 |doi=10.1007/BF00869324 |jstor=20116729 |s2cid=46975083 |issn=0039-7857 |access-date=12 September 2022 |archive-date=10 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220910152955/https://www.jstor.org/stable/20116729 |url-status=live }}</ref> Polish philosopher ] framed it like so: "science concerns itself with what {{em|is}}, technology with what {{em|is to be}}."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Skolimowski |first=Henryk |year=1966 |title=The Structure of Thinking in Technology |journal=Technology and Culture |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=371–383 |doi=10.2307/3101935 |jstor=3101935 |issn=0040-165X }}</ref>{{rp|375}} | |||
The direction of ] between scientific discovery and technological innovation has been debated by scientists, philosophers and policymakers.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brooks |first=H. |date=1 September 1994 |title=The relationship between science and technology |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0048-7333%2894%2901001-3 |journal=Research Policy |series=Special Issue in Honor of Nathan Rosenberg|volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=477–486 |doi=10.1016/0048-7333(94)01001-3 |issn=0048-7333 |access-date=13 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004185321/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0048733394010013?via%3Dihub |url-status=live }}</ref> Because innovation is often undertaken at the edge of scientific knowledge, most technologies are not derived from scientific knowledge, but instead from engineering, tinkering and chance.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Taleb |first=Nassim Nicholas |title=Antifragile |year=2012 |publisher=Penguin Random House |oclc=1252833169}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=217–240}} For example, in the 1940s and 1950s, when knowledge of turbulent combustion or fluid dynamics was still crude, jet engines were invented through "running the device to destruction, analyzing what broke and repeating the process".<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Scranton |first=Philip |date=1 May 2006 |title=Urgency, uncertainty, and innovation: Building jet engines in postwar America |url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1744935906064096 |journal=Management & Organizational History |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=127–157 |doi=10.1177/1744935906064096 |s2cid=143813033 |issn=1744-9359}}</ref> Scientific explanations often follow technological developments rather than preceding them.<ref name=":6" />{{Rp|pages=217–240}} Many discoveries also arose from pure chance, like the discovery of ] as a result of accidental lab contamination.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hare |first=Ronald |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hQecpwAACAAJ |title=The Birth of Penicillin, and the Disarming of Microbes |date=1970 |publisher=Allen & Unwin |isbn=978-0049250055 |access-date=12 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004185318/https://books.google.com/books?id=hQecpwAACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Since the 1960s, the assumption that government funding of ] would lead to the discovery of marketable technologies has lost credibility.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wise |first=George |year=1985 |title=Science and Technology |journal=Osiris |series=2nd Series |volume=1 |pages=229–46 |doi=10.1086/368647 |s2cid=144475553}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Guston |first=David H. |title=Between Politics and Science: Assuring the Integrity and Productivity of Research |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0521653183 |location=New York}}</ref> Probabilist Nassim Taleb argues that national research programs that implement the notions of ] and ] through frequent trial and error are more likely to lead to useful innovations than research that aims to reach specific outcomes.<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Taleb |first=N. N. |date=12 December 2012 |title=Understanding is a Poor Substitute for Convexity (Antifragility) |url=https://fooledbyrandomness.com/ConvexityScience.pdf |access-date=12 September 2022 |website=fooledbyrandomness.com |archive-date=21 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220621041454/https://www.fooledbyrandomness.com/ConvexityScience.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
Entire government agencies are specifically dedicated to research, such as America's ], the United Kingdom's ], America's ] effort. Many other government agencies dedicate a major portion of their budget to research and development. | |||
Despite this, modern technology is increasingly reliant on deep, domain-specific scientific knowledge. In 1975, there was an average of one citation of scientific literature in every three patents granted in the U.S.; by 1989, this increased to an average of one citation per patent. The average was skewed upwards by patents related to the pharmaceutical industry, chemistry, and electronics.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Narin |first1=Francis |last2=Olivastro |first2=Dominic |date=1 June 1992 |title=Status report: Linkage between technology and science |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0048-7333%2892%2990018-Y |journal=Research Policy |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=237–249 |doi=10.1016/0048-7333(92)90018-Y |issn=0048-7333 |access-date=13 September 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004185326/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/004873339290018Y?via%3Dihub |url-status=live }}</ref> A 2021 analysis shows that patents that are based on scientific discoveries are on average 26% more valuable than equivalent non-science-based patents.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Krieger |first1=Joshua L. |last2=Schnitzer |first2=Monika |author2-link=Monika Schnitzer | last3=Watzinger| first3=Martin|date=1 May 2019 |title=Standing on the Shoulders of Science |url=https://www.hbs.edu/ris/Publication%20Files/21-128_6a36a0e5-7f30-4d63-a591-3196d4b3fb5e.pdf |ssrn=3401853 |access-date=12 September 2022 |archive-date=12 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220912192637/https://www.hbs.edu/ris/Publication%20Files/21-128_6a36a0e5-7f30-4d63-a591-3196d4b3fb5e.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
The U.S. government spends more than other countries on military research and development, although the proportion has fallen from about 30 percent in the 1980s to less than 20 percent.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/49/45/24236156.pdf |title=Gross Domestic Expenditure on Research and Development by Country | accessdate=2007-02-13 | publisher=]}}</ref> | |||
==Other animal species== | |||
====Private funding==== | |||
{{See also|Tool use by animals|Structures built by animals|Ecosystem engineer}} | |||
] is one of the biggest areas of investments made by corporations toward new and innovative technology.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} | |||
] to gauge the water's depth.|alt=Photo of a gorilla walking hip-deep in a pond, holding a stick]] | |||
The use of basic technology is also a feature of non-human animal species. Tool use was once considered a defining characteristic of the genus ].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oakley |first=K. P. |title=Man the Tool-Maker |journal=Nature |year=1976 |isbn=978-0226612706 |volume=199 |pages=1042–1043 |bibcode=1963Natur.199U1042. |doi=10.1038/1991042e0 |issue=4898 |s2cid=4298952}}</ref> This view was supplanted after discovering evidence of tool use among ]s and other primates,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/dept/d10/asb//anthro2003/origins/hominid_journey/optional3.html |title=Chimpanzee Tool Use |access-date=13 February 2007 |author1=Sagan, Carl |author1-link=Carl Sagan |author2=Druyan, Ann |author2-link=Ann Druyan |author3=Leakey, Richard |author3-link=Ann Druyan |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060921062716/http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/dept/d10/asb/anthro2003/origins/hominid_journey/optional3.html <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date=21 September 2006}}</ref> dolphins,<ref name="20050607bbc">{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4613709.stm|title=Sponging dolphins learn from mum|last=Rincon|first=Paul|date=7 June 2005|work=BBC News|access-date=11 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161204093731/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4613709.stm|archive-date=4 December 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> and ]s.<ref name=nbcnews21135366>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna21135366|title=Crows use tools to find food|last=Schmid|first=Randolph E.|date=4 October 2007|publisher=NBC News|access-date=11 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170310185618/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/21135366/#.WCYQR9IrLIU|archive-date=10 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author1=Rutz, C. |author2=Bluff, L.A. |author3=Weir, A.A.S. |author4=Kacelnik, A. |title=Video cameras on wild birds|journal=]|date=4 October 2007|doi=10.1126/science.1146788|pmid=17916693 |volume=318|issue=5851|page=765 |bibcode = 2007Sci...318..765R |s2cid=28785984 |doi-access=free }}</ref> For example, researchers have observed wild chimpanzees using basic foraging tools, pestles, levers, using leaves as sponges, and tree bark or vines as probes to fish termites.<ref>{{cite book | last=McGrew | first=W. C | year=1992 | title=Chimpanzee Material Culture | publisher=Cambridge Univ. Press | isbn=978-0521423717 | location=Cambridge u.a.}}</ref> ]s use stone hammers and anvils for cracking nuts,<ref>{{cite journal | last=Boesch | first=Christophe | title=Mental map in wild chimpanzees: An analysis of hammer transports for nut cracking | year=1984 | journal=] | issue=2 | pages=160–170 |author2=Boesch, Hedwige | doi=10.1007/BF02382388 | volume=25| s2cid=24073884 }}</ref> as do ]s of ], Brazil.<ref name=20090115newscientist>{{Cite news|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn16426-nut-cracking-monkeys-find-the-right-tool-for-the-job/|title=Nut-cracking monkeys find the right tool for the job|last=Brahic|first=Catherine|date=15 January 2009|work=New Scientist|access-date=11 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115142232/https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn16426-nut-cracking-monkeys-find-the-right-tool-for-the-job/|archive-date=15 November 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Tool use is not the only form of animal technology use; for example, ]s, built with wooden sticks or large stones, are a technology with "dramatic" impacts on river habitats and ecosystems.<ref>{{Cite conference |last1=Müller |first1=G. |last2=Watling |first2=J. |date=24 June 2016 |title=The engineering in beaver dams |url=https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/400282/ |conference=River Flow 2016: Eighth International Conference on Fluvial Hydraulics |location=St. Louis|publisher=University of Southampton Institutional Research Repository |access-date=29 September 2022 |archive-date=24 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220924081921/https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/400282/ |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
== |
==Popular culture== | ||
{{See also|Science fiction}} | |||
The relationship of humanity with technology has been explored in science-fiction literature, for example in '']'', '']'', '']'', ]'s essays, and movies like '']'', '']'', '']'', and '']''. It has spawned the dystopian and futuristic ] genre, which juxtaposes futuristic technology with societal collapse, dystopia or decay.<ref>{{cite book |contributor=Thomas Michaud|contribution=Science fiction and politics: Cyberpunk science fiction as political philosophy|pages=65–77 |last= Hassler |first= Donald M. |title= New Boundaries in Political Science Fiction |publisher= ] |year= 2008 |isbn= 978-1570037368}}</ref> Notable cyberpunk works include ]'s '']'' novel, and movies like '']'', and '']''. | |||
Many foundations and other nonprofit organizations contribute to the development of technology. In the ], about two-thirds of ] in scientific and technical fields is carried out by industry, and 20 percent and 10 percent respectively by ] and government. But in poorer countries such as ] and ] the industry contribution is significantly less. | |||
===Other economic considerations=== | |||
* ], more of ], refers to compromises between central and expensive technologies of ]s and those which ]s find most effective to deploy given an excess of labour and scarcity of cash. In general, a so-called "appropriate" technology will also be "intermediate". | |||
* ]: In ], definitions or assumptions of ] or ] are often related to one or more assumptions about technology's economic influence. Challenging prevailing assumptions about technology and its usefulness has led to alternative ideas like ] or ]. These, and economics itself, can often be described as technologies, specifically, as ]. | |||
Public schools have attempted to introduce varied concepts of technology on the junior high level to better prepare youngsters for subsequent schooling, as well as entrance into the workforce. | |||
==Sociological factors and effects== | |||
{{list to prose (section)}} | |||
] (2005). ], a ], is surrounded by ].]] | |||
The use of technology has a great many effects; these may be separated into intended effects and unintended effects. Unintended effects are usually also unanticipated, and often unknown before the arrival of a new technology. Nevertheless, they are often as important as the intended effect. | |||
The subtlest side effects of technology are often sociological. They are subtle because the side effects may go unnoticed unless carefully observed and studied. These may involve gradually occurring changes in the behavior of individuals, groups, institutions, and even entire societies. | |||
====Values==== | |||
The implementation of technology influences the ] of a society by changing expectations and realities. The implementation of technology is also influenced by values. There are (at least) three major, interrelated values that inform, and are informed by, technological innovations: | |||
*]: Viewing the universe as a collection of parts, (like a machine), that can be individually analyzed and understood (McGinn). This is a form of ] that is rare nowadays. However, the "neo-mechanistic world view" holds that nothing in the universe cannot be understood by the human intellect. Also, while all things are greater than the sum of their parts (e.g., even if we consider nothing more than the information involved in their combination), in principle, even this excess must eventually be understood by human intelligence. That is, no ] or ] principle or essence is involved. | |||
*]: A value, originally applied only to machines, but now applied to all aspects of society, so that each element is expected to attain a higher and higher percentage of its maximal possible performance, output, or ability. (McGinn) | |||
*]: The belief that there is such a thing as social progress, and that, in the main, it is beneficent. Before the ], and the subsequent explosion of technology, almost all societies believed in a cyclical theory of social movement and, indeed, of all history and the universe. This was, obviously, based on the cyclicity of the seasons, and an agricultural economy's and society's strong ties to that cyclicity. Since much of the world (i.e., everyone but the hyperindustrialized West) is closer to their agricultural roots, they are still much more amenable to cyclicity than progress in history. This may be seen, for example, in . For a more westernized version of social cyclicity, see ''Generations : The History of America's Future, 1584 to 2069'' (Paperback) by Neil Howe and William Strauss; Harper Perennial; Reprint edition (September 30, 1992); ISBN 0-688-11912-3, and subsequent books by these authors. | |||
====Ethics==== | |||
Winston provides an excellent summary of the ethical implications of technological development and deployment. He states there are four major ethical implications: | |||
*Challenges traditional ethical norms. | |||
*Creates an aggregation of effects. | |||
*Changes the distribution of justice. | |||
*Provides great power. | |||
{{Sectstub}} | |||
But the most important contribution of technology is making life of common people much easier and helping them achieve what was previously not possible. It is important to keep in mind that although technology enriches many, there may also be drawbacks. This is the ethical challenge faced by society as technology becomes more ingrained in our lives. All of the advances afforded by technology also cause the digital divide to widen, enlarging the gap between the technological haves and have-nots; the same gap that exists between those that have or can get access to information, and those that suffer for lack of that access. | |||
====Lifestyle==== | |||
Technology, throughout history, has allowed people to complete more tasks in less time and with less human intellectual or manual labour. Many herald this as a way of making life easier. However, work has continued to be proportional to the amount of energy expended, rather than the quantitative amount of information or material processed. Technology has had profound effects on lifestyle throughout human history, and as the rate of progress increases, society must deal with both the good and bad implications. | |||
In many ways, technology improves life. | |||
*The rise of a leisure class | |||
*A more informed society can make quicker responses to events and trends | |||
*Sets the stage for more complex learning tasks | |||
*Increases multi-tasking | |||
*Global networking | |||
*Creates denser social circles | |||
*Cheap price | |||
In other ways, technology complicates life. | |||
*Sweatshops and harsher forms of ] are more likely to be found in technologically advanced societies, relative to primitive societies. | |||
*The increasing ] of technologically advanced societies over those which are not. | |||
*More people are starving now, in this most technologically advanced age, than at any point in history or ]. | |||
*The increase in transportation technology has brought ] in some areas. | |||
*] | |||
*New forms of danger existing as a consequence of new forms of technology, new types of nuclear reactors, unforeseen genetic mutations as the result of genetic engineering, or perhaps something more subtle which can i.e. destroy the ozone or warm the planet. | |||
*New forms of ], such as ] and ] access could have possible social effects on areas such as academic performance. | |||
*Creates new diseases and disorders such as ], ] and a loss of ]. | |||
{{Sectstub}} | |||
====Institutions and groups==== | |||
Technology often enables organizational and bureaucratic group structures that otherwise and heretofore were simply not possible. Example of this might include: | |||
*The rise of very large organizations: e.g., governments, the military, health and social welfare institutions, supranational corporations. | |||
*The commercialization of leisure: sports events, products, etc. (McGinn) | |||
*The almost instantaneous dispersal of information (especially news) and entertainment around the world. | |||
{{Sectstub}} | |||
===International=== | |||
Technology enables greater knowledge of international issues, values, and cultures. Due mostly to mass transportation, mass media, and inexpensive personal communication, the world seems to be a much smaller place, due to the following, among others: | |||
*Globalization of ideas | |||
*Embeddedness of values | |||
*Population growth and control | |||
*Others | |||
{{Sectstub}} | |||
==Environment== | |||
], ]. Nuclear reactors produce ] as a by-product; a ].]] | |||
Most modern technological processes produce unwanted by-products in addition to the desired products, known as ] or ]. Whilst most material waste can be reused in other industrial processes, many forms are released into the environment, with negative environmental side effects, such as pollution and lack of sustainability. Different social and political systems establish different balances between the value they place on additional goods versus the disvalues of waste products and pollution. Some technologies are designed specifically with the environment in mind, but most are designed first for economic or ergonomic effects. Historically, the value of a clean environment and more efficient productive processes has been the result of an increase in the wealth of society, because once people are able to provide for their basic needs, they are able to focus on less-tangible goods such as clean air and water. | |||
The effects of technology on the environment are both obvious and subtle. The more obvious effects include the depletion of non-renewable natural resources (such as petroleum, coal, ores), and the added ] of air, water, and land. The more subtle effects include debates over long-term effects (e.g., global warming, deforestation, natural habitat destruction, coastal wetland loss.) | |||
Each wave of technology creates a set of waste previously unknown to humans: ], ], and ]. | |||
==Control== | |||
===Autonomous technology=== | |||
In one line of thought, technology develops autonomously, in other words, technology seems to feed on itself, moving forward with a force irresistible by humans. To these individuals, technology is "inherently dynamic and self-augmenting." <ref>McGinn, Robert E. (1991). Science, Technology, and Society. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-794736-4. pg. 73</ref> | |||
] is one proponent of the irresistibleness of technology to humans. He espouses the idea that humanity cannot resist the temptation of expanding our knowledge and our technological abilities. However, he does not believe that this seeming autonomy of technology is inherent. But the perceived autonomy is due to the fact that humans do not adequately consider the responsibility that is inherent in technological processes. | |||
Another proponent of these ideas is ] who believes that ] is essentially beyond the control of individuals or society. | |||
===Government=== | |||
Individuals rely on governmental assistance to control the side effects and negative consequences of technology. | |||
*Supposed independence of government. An assumption commonly made about the government is that their governance role is neutral or independent. However some argue that governing is a political process, so government will be influenced by political winds of influence. In addition, because government provides much of the funding for technological research and development, it has a vested interest in certain outcomes. Others point out that the world's biggest ecological disasters, such as the ], ], and ] have been caused by government projects, which are not accountable to consumers, so governments should stay out of industry entirely. | |||
*Liability. One means for controlling technology is to place responsibility for the harm with the agent causing the harm. Government can allow more or less legal liability to fall to the organizations or individuals responsible for damages. | |||
*Legislation. A source of controversy is the role of industry versus that of government in maintaining a clean environment. While it is generally agreed that industry needs to be held responsible when pollution harms other people, there is disagreement over whether this should be prevented by legislation or civil courts, and whether ecological systems as such should be protected from harm by governments. | |||
{{Sectstub}} | |||
===Choice=== | |||
Society also controls technology through the choices it makes. These choices not only include consumer demands; they also include: | |||
*the channels of distribution, how do products go from raw materials to consumption to disposal; | |||
*the cultural beliefs regarding style, freedom of choice, consumerism, materialism, etc.; | |||
*the economic values we place on the environment, individual wealth, government control, capitalism, etc. | |||
{{Sectstub}} | |||
==Technology and philosophy== | |||
===Technicism=== | |||
Generally, ] is an over reliance or overconfidence in technology as a benefactor of society. | |||
Taken to extreme, some argue that technicism is the belief that humanity will ultimately be able to control the entirety of existence using technology. In other words, human beings will eventually be able to master all problems, supply all wants and needs, possibly even control the future. Some, such as Monsma, connect these ideas to the abdication of religion as a higher moral authority. | |||
More commonly, technicism is a criticism of the commonly held belief that newer, more recently-developed technology is "better." For example, more recently-developed computers are faster than older computers, and more recently-developed cars have greater gas efficiency and more features than older cars. Because current technologies are generally accepted as good, future technological developments are not considered circumspectly, resulting in what seems to be a blind acceptance of technological developments. | |||
===Optimism=== | |||
{{see also|Extropianism}} | |||
Optimistic assumptions are made by proponents of ideologies such as ] and ], which view ] as generally having beneficial effects for the society and the human condition. In these ideologies, technological development is morally good. Some critics see these ideologies as examples of ] and ] and fear the notion of ] and ] which they support. Some have described ] as a techno-optimist.<ref name="Hughes 2002">{{cite paper| author = Hughes, James| title = Democratic Transhumanism 2.0| date = 2002 | url = http://www.changesurfer.com/Acad/DemocraticTranshumanism.htm| accessdate=2007-01-26}}</ref> | |||
===Pessimism=== | |||
{{see also|Neo-luddism|Bioconservatism}} | |||
On the somewhat pessimistic side are certain philosophers like ], ], and ], who believe that technological societies are inherently flawed ''a priori''. They suggest that the result of such a society is to become evermore technological at the cost of freedom and psychological health (and probably physical health in general, as pollution from technological products is dispersed). | |||
Perhaps the most poignant criticisms of technology are found in what are now considered to be dystopian literary classics, for example ]'s '']'' and other writings, ]'s '']'', and ]'s '']''. | |||
===Appropriate technology=== | |||
{{see also|Technocriticism|Technorealism}} | |||
The notion of ], however, was developed in the ] to describe situations where it was not desirable to use very new technologies or those that required access to some centralized ] or parts or skills imported from elsewhere. The ] movement emerged in part due to this concern. | |||
===The nature of technology=== | |||
{{Cleanup-section|February 2007}} | |||
The philosopher ], in '']'', understands technology as "organized inorganic matter", and as "the pursuit of life by means other than life."<ref>Bernard Stiegler, ''Technics and Time, 1: The Fault of Epimetheus'' (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998), p. 17 and p. 49.</ref> As such, the advent of technology represents a moment in the history of the exteriorization of existence. In formulating an understanding of technology in these terms, Stiegler draws especially on the work of ] and ]. | |||
For human beings this does not only mean that it is possible to learn how to use tools from one's parents, but that the past is in general inscribed in objects and remains. Whether purposely or incidentally, every manufactured object is therefore a means of transmitting knowledge, a ''third kind of memory'' in addition to genetic memory and individual nervous system memory. Thus an archeologist can learn from the discovery of a primitive tool about the life of the person whose gesture is inscribed in the flint from which it is fashioned. As Stiegler puts it, "humans die but their histories remain."<ref>{{cite web | url=http://culturemachine.tees.ac.uk/Cmach/Backissues/j005/Articles/Stiegler.htm | title=Our Ailing Educational Institutions | accessdate=2007-02-13 | author=Stiegler, Bernard | publisher=Culture Machine}}</ref> According to Stiegler this interrupts the ordinary processes of natural selection, and it is therefore no more true to say that humans invented technology than it is to say that technology invented humanity. | |||
==Other species== | |||
The use of elementary technology is also a feature of other species apart from humans. These include primates such as ]s and some dolphin communities.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/dept/d10/asb//anthro2003/origins/hominid_journey/optional3.html | title=Chimpanzee Tool Use | accessdate=2007-02-13 | author=Sagan, Carl; Druyan, Ann; Leakey, Richard}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4613709.stm | title=Sponging dolphins learn from mum. | accessdate=2007-02-13 | author=Rincon, Paul | publisher=] | date=2005-06-07}}</ref> | |||
<!-- Adapt this: Birds and other animals often build elaborate nests and some simple tools out of various materials. We normally don't consider them to be performing a technological feat, primarily because such behavior is largely instinctive. There is some evidence of occasional cultural transference, especially among the other, nonhuman primates. Nevertheless, there is now considerable evidence of such simple technology among animals other than humans. --> | |||
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* {{Cite journal |last=Baum |first=S. D. |date=1 May 2009 |title=Cost–benefit analysis of space exploration: Some ethical considerations |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0265964609000198 |journal=Space Policy |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=75–80 |doi=10.1016/j.spacepol.2009.02.008 |bibcode=2009SpPol..25...75B |s2cid=5930045 |issn=0265-9646 |access-date=11 September 2022 |archive-date=29 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240429041700/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0265964609000198 |url-status=live }} | |||
===Printed sources=== | |||
* {{Cite web |last=Bernstein |first=Jared |date=7 October 2014 |title=It's Not a Skills Gap That's Holding Wages Down: It's the Weak Economy, Among Other Things |url=https://prospect.org/api/content/fd7bf37d-d89e-5e04-b361-5f43c6ba8a25/ |access-date=11 September 2022 |website=The American Prospect |archive-date=29 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240429043623/https://pandg.tapad.com/tag?us_privacy=1YNY&referrer_url=&page_url=https%3A%2F%2Fprospect.org%2Feconomy%2Fskills-gap-holding-wages-down-weak-economy-among-things%2F&owner=P%26G&bp_id=cafemedia&ch=%7B%22architecture%22%3A%22%22%2C%22bitness%22%3A%22%22%2C%22brands%22%3A%5B%5D%2C%22mobile%22%3Afalse%2C%22model%22%3A%22%22%2C%22platformVersion%22%3A%22%22%7D&initiator=js |url-status=live }} | |||
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* {{Cite book|title=To Save Everything, Click Here: The Folly of Technological Solutionism|last=Morozov|first=Evgeny|publisher=PublicAffairs|year=2013|isbn=978-1610391399|location=New York|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/tosaveeverything0000moro}} | |||
* {{cite book|last=Mumford|first=L.|author-link=Lewis Mumford|date=2010|title=Technics and Civilization|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0226550275}} | |||
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* {{cite book |first1=Gwen |last1= Ottinger |editor-first1=Gwen |editor-last1=Ottinger |editor-first2=Benjamin |editor-last2=Cohen |title=Technoscience and Environmental Justice: Expert Cultures in a Grassroots Movement |date=2011 |pages=229–248 |chapter=Rupturing Engineering Education: Opportunities for Transforming Expert Identities Through Community-Based Projects |publisher=] |isbn=978-0262015790}} | |||
* {{cite book|last=Rhodes|first=R.|author-link=Richard Rhodes|date=2000|title=Visions of Technology: A Century of Vital Debate about Machines, Systems, and the Human World|publisher=Simon & Schuster|isbn=0-684-86311-1}} | |||
* {{cite journal |last=Salomon |first=Jean-Jacques |year=1984 |title=What is technology? The issue of its origins and definitions |journal=History and Technology |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=113–156 |doi=10.1080/07341518408581618 |issn=0734-1512 |eissn=1477-2620 |lccn=88656216 |oclc=8682103}} | |||
* {{Cite journal | last=Schuurman | first=E. | url=https://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/SPT/v3n1/schuurman.html | year=1997 | title=Philosophical and Ethical Problems of Technicism and Genetic Engineering | journal=Society for Philosophy and Technology Quarterly Electronic Journal | volume=3 | issue=1 | issn=1091-8264 | doi=10.5840/techne19973111 | pages=27–44 | access-date=11 September 2022 | archive-date=11 September 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220911090553/https://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/SPT/v3n1/schuurman.html | url-status=live }} | |||
* {{Cite journal |last1=Shaar |first1=R. |last2=Matmon |first2=A. |last3=Horwitz |first3=L. K. |last4=Ebert |first4=Y. |last5=Chazan |first5=M. |last6=Arnold |first6=M. |last7=Aumaître |first7=G. |last8=Bourlès |first8=D. |last9=Keddadouche |first9=K. |date=1 May 2021 |title=Magnetostratigraphy and cosmogenic dating of Wonderwerk Cave: New constraints for the chronology of the South African Earlier Stone Age |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0277379121001141 |journal=Quaternary Science Reviews |volume=259 |page=106907 |doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2021.106907 |bibcode=2021QSRv..25906907S |s2cid=234833092 |issn=0277-3791 }} | |||
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P_O0q-LMbiQC&pg=PA6 |title=A Treatise on Science Technology and Society |date=2020 |last=Sharma |first=M. R. |publisher=Laxmi Publications Pvt Limited |isbn=978-8131806678 |access-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417100334/https://books.google.com/books?id=P_O0q-LMbiQC&pg=PA6 |archive-date=17 April 2021 |url-status=live }} | |||
* {{cite book|last=Teich|first=A.H. |date=2008|title=Technology and the Future|publisher=Wadsworth Publishing|edition=11th|isbn=978-0495570523}} | |||
* {{cite magazine|last=Tooze|first=A.|author-link=Adam Tooze|title=Democracy and Its Discontents|magazine=]|volume=LXVI|number=10|date=6 June 2019|pages=52–53, 56–57|url=https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2019/06/06/democracy-and-its-discontents/|issn=0028-7504|access-date=1 January 2024|archive-date=1 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231201202423/https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2019/06/06/democracy-and-its-discontents/|url-status=live}} | |||
* {{Cite journal |last=Turchin |first=A. |year=2018 |title=Approaches to the Prevention of Global Catastrophic Risks |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/TURATT-6 |journal=Human Prospect |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=52–65 |s2cid=135224906 |access-date=11 September 2022 |archive-date=11 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220911094554/https://philpapers.org/rec/TURATT-6 |url-status=live }} | |||
* {{cite Q|Q26221492|author=Wilson, G.|mode=cs1}}<!-- What is technology? --> | |||
* {{cite book|last=Wright|first=R.T. |date=2008|title=Technology|publisher=Goodheart-Wilcox Company|edition=5th|isbn=978-1590707180}} | |||
{{refend}} | |||
==Further reading== | ==Further reading== | ||
* ], "Alone in the Milky Way: Why we are probably the only intelligent life in the galaxy", '']'', vol. 319, no. 3 (September 2018), pp. 94–99. "Is life likely to exist elsewhere in the galaxy? Almost certainly yes, given the speed with which it appeared on Earth. Is another technological civilization likely to exist today? Almost certainly no, given the chain of circumstances that led to our existence. These considerations suggest that we are unique not just on our planet but in the whole Milky Way. And if our planet is so special, it becomes all the more important to preserve this unique world for ourselves, our descendants and the many creatures that call Earth home." (p. 99.) | |||
*{{cite book | last = Adas | first = Michael | year = 1989 | title = Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance | publisher = Cornell University Press | location = Ithaca | id = ISBN 0-8014-2303-1}} | |||
*{{cite book | last = Monsma | first = Stephen V., et al. | year = 1986 | title = Responsible Technology: A Christian Perspective | publisher = W.B. Eerdmans | location = Grand Rapids, Mich. | id = ISBN 0-8028-0175-7}} | |||
*{{cite book | last = Noble | first = David F. | authorlink = David F. Noble | year = 1984 | title = Forces of Production: A Social History of Industrial Automation | publisher = Knopf | location = New York | id = ISBN 0-394-51262-6}} | |||
*{{cite book | last = Roussel | first = Philip A. | coauthors = Kamal N. Saad, and Tamara J. Erickson | year = 1991 | title = Third Generation R & D: Managing the Link to Corporate Strategy | publisher = Harvard Business School Press | location = Boston, Mass. | id = ISBN 0-87584-252-6}} | |||
*{{cite book | last = Smil | first = Vaclav | year = 1994 | title = Energy in World History | publisher = Westview Press | location = Boulder | id = ISBN 0-8133-1901-3 | pages = pp. 259-267}} Cited at (accessed ], ]). | |||
*{{cite book | last = Stiegler | first = Bernard | authorlink = Bernard Stiegler | title = ] | year = 1998 | publisher = Stanford University Press | location = Stanford | id = ISBN 0-8047-3041-5 }} | |||
*{{cite book | last = Van Creveld | first = Martin | authorlink = Martin Van Creveld | title = Technology and war : 2000BC to the present | publisher=] | location = New York | year=1989 | id = ISBN 0-02-933151-X}} | |||
*{{cite book | last = Winston | first = Morton | editor = in Morton Winston and Ralph Edelbach (eds.), | title = Society, Ethics, and Technology | edition = 2nd ed. | year = 2003 | publisher = Thomson/Wadsworth | location = Belmont, Calif. | id = ISBN 0-534-58540-X | chapter = Children of invention}} | |||
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Latest revision as of 06:34, 12 December 2024
Use of knowledge for practical goals Not to be confused with Electronics. For other uses, see Technology (disambiguation).
Technology is the application of conceptual knowledge to achieve practical goals, especially in a reproducible way. The word technology can also mean the products resulting from such efforts, including both tangible tools such as utensils or machines, and intangible ones such as software. Technology plays a critical role in science, engineering, and everyday life.
Technological advancements have led to significant changes in society. The earliest known technology is the stone tool, used during prehistory, followed by the control of fire—which in turn contributed to the growth of the human brain and the development of language during the Ice Age, according to the cooking hypothesis. The invention of the wheel in the Bronze Age allowed greater travel and the creation of more complex machines. More recent technological inventions, including the printing press, telephone, and the Internet, have lowered barriers to communication and ushered in the knowledge economy.
While technology contributes to economic development and improves human prosperity, it can also have negative impacts like pollution and resource depletion, and can cause social harms like technological unemployment resulting from automation. As a result, philosophical and political debates about the role and use of technology, the ethics of technology, and ways to mitigate its downsides are ongoing.
Etymology
Technology is a term dating back to the early 17th century that meant 'systematic treatment' (from Greek Τεχνολογία, from the Greek: τέχνη, romanized: tékhnē, lit. 'craft, art' and -λογία (-logíā), 'study, knowledge'). It is predated in use by the Ancient Greek word τέχνη (tékhnē), used to mean 'knowledge of how to make things', which encompassed activities like architecture.
Starting in the 19th century, continental Europeans started using the terms Technik (German) or technique (French) to refer to a 'way of doing', which included all technical arts, such as dancing, navigation, or printing, whether or not they required tools or instruments. At the time, Technologie (German and French) referred either to the academic discipline studying the "methods of arts and crafts", or to the political discipline "intended to legislate on the functions of the arts and crafts." The distinction between Technik and Technologie is absent in English, and so both were translated as technology. The term was previously uncommon in English and mostly referred to the academic discipline, as in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
In the 20th century, as a result of scientific progress and the Second Industrial Revolution, technology stopped being considered a distinct academic discipline and took on the meaning: the systemic use of knowledge to practical ends.
History
Main articles: History of technology and Timeline of historic inventionsPrehistoric
Main article: Prehistoric technologyTools were initially developed by hominids through observation and trial and error. Around 2 Mya (million years ago), they learned to make the first stone tools by hammering flakes off a pebble, forming a sharp hand axe. This practice was refined 75 kya (thousand years ago) into pressure flaking, enabling much finer work.
The discovery of fire was described by Charles Darwin as "possibly the greatest ever made by man". Archaeological, dietary, and social evidence point to "continuous fire-use" at least 1.5 Mya. Fire, fueled with wood and charcoal, allowed early humans to cook their food to increase its digestibility, improving its nutrient value and broadening the number of foods that could be eaten. The cooking hypothesis proposes that the ability to cook promoted an increase in hominid brain size, though some researchers find the evidence inconclusive. Archaeological evidence of hearths was dated to 790 kya; researchers believe this is likely to have intensified human socialization and may have contributed to the emergence of language.
Other technological advances made during the Paleolithic era include clothing and shelter. No consensus exists on the approximate time of adoption of either technology, but archaeologists have found archaeological evidence of clothing 90-120 kya and shelter 450 kya. As the Paleolithic era progressed, dwellings became more sophisticated and more elaborate; as early as 380 kya, humans were constructing temporary wood huts. Clothing, adapted from the fur and hides of hunted animals, helped humanity expand into colder regions; humans began to migrate out of Africa around 200 kya, initially moving to Eurasia.
Neolithic
Main article: Neolithic RevolutionThe Neolithic Revolution (or First Agricultural Revolution) brought about an acceleration of technological innovation, and a consequent increase in social complexity. The invention of the polished stone axe was a major advance that allowed large-scale forest clearance and farming. This use of polished stone axes increased greatly in the Neolithic but was originally used in the preceding Mesolithic in some areas such as Ireland. Agriculture fed larger populations, and the transition to sedentism allowed for the simultaneous raising of more children, as infants no longer needed to be carried around by nomads. Additionally, children could contribute labor to the raising of crops more readily than they could participate in hunter-gatherer activities.
With this increase in population and availability of labor came an increase in labor specialization. What triggered the progression from early Neolithic villages to the first cities, such as Uruk, and the first civilizations, such as Sumer, is not specifically known; however, the emergence of increasingly hierarchical social structures and specialized labor, of trade and war among adjacent cultures, and the need for collective action to overcome environmental challenges such as irrigation, are all thought to have played a role.
The invention of writing led to the spread of cultural knowledge and became the basis for history, libraries, schools, and scientific research.
Continuing improvements led to the furnace and bellows and provided, for the first time, the ability to smelt and forge gold, copper, silver, and lead – native metals found in relatively pure form in nature. The advantages of copper tools over stone, bone and wooden tools were quickly apparent to early humans, and native copper was probably used from near the beginning of Neolithic times (about 10 kya). Native copper does not naturally occur in large amounts, but copper ores are quite common and some of them produce metal easily when burned in wood or charcoal fires. Eventually, the working of metals led to the discovery of alloys such as bronze and brass (about 4,000 BCE). The first use of iron alloys such as steel dates to around 1,800 BCE.
Ancient
Main article: Ancient technologyAfter harnessing fire, humans discovered other forms of energy. The earliest known use of wind power is the sailing ship; the earliest record of a ship under sail is that of a Nile boat dating to around 7,000 BCE. From prehistoric times, Egyptians likely used the power of the annual flooding of the Nile to irrigate their lands, gradually learning to regulate much of it through purposely built irrigation channels and "catch" basins. The ancient Sumerians in Mesopotamia used a complex system of canals and levees to divert water from the Tigris and Euphrates rivers for irrigation.
Archaeologists estimate that the wheel was invented independently and concurrently in Mesopotamia (in present-day Iraq), the Northern Caucasus (Maykop culture), and Central Europe. Time estimates range from 5,500 to 3,000 BCE with most experts putting it closer to 4,000 BCE. The oldest artifacts with drawings depicting wheeled carts date from about 3,500 BCE. More recently, the oldest-known wooden wheel in the world as of 2024 was found in the Ljubljana Marsh of Slovenia; Austrian experts have established that the wheel is between 5,100 and 5,350 years old.
The invention of the wheel revolutionized trade and war. It did not take long to discover that wheeled wagons could be used to carry heavy loads. The ancient Sumerians used a potter's wheel and may have invented it. A stone pottery wheel found in the city-state of Ur dates to around 3,429 BCE, and even older fragments of wheel-thrown pottery have been found in the same area. Fast (rotary) potters' wheels enabled early mass production of pottery, but it was the use of the wheel as a transformer of energy (through water wheels, windmills, and even treadmills) that revolutionized the application of nonhuman power sources. The first two-wheeled carts were derived from travois and were first used in Mesopotamia and Iran in around 3,000 BCE.
The oldest known constructed roadways are the stone-paved streets of the city-state of Ur, dating to c. 4,000 BCE, and timber roads leading through the swamps of Glastonbury, England, dating to around the same period. The first long-distance road, which came into use around 3,500 BCE, spanned 2,400 km from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean Sea, but was not paved and was only partially maintained. In around 2,000 BCE, the Minoans on the Greek island of Crete built a 50 km road leading from the palace of Gortyn on the south side of the island, through the mountains, to the palace of Knossos on the north side of the island. Unlike the earlier road, the Minoan road was completely paved.
Ancient Minoan private homes had running water. A bathtub virtually identical to modern ones was unearthed at the Palace of Knossos. Several Minoan private homes also had toilets, which could be flushed by pouring water down the drain. The ancient Romans had many public flush toilets, which emptied into an extensive sewage system. The primary sewer in Rome was the Cloaca Maxima; construction began on it in the sixth century BCE and it is still in use today.
The ancient Romans also had a complex system of aqueducts, which were used to transport water across long distances. The first Roman aqueduct was built in 312 BCE. The eleventh and final ancient Roman aqueduct was built in 226 CE. Put together, the Roman aqueducts extended over 450 km, but less than 70 km of this was above ground and supported by arches.
Pre-modern
Main articles: Medieval technology and Renaissance technologyInnovations continued through the Middle Ages with the introduction of silk production (in Asia and later Europe), the horse collar, and horseshoes. Simple machines (such as the lever, the screw, and the pulley) were combined into more complicated tools, such as the wheelbarrow, windmills, and clocks. A system of universities developed and spread scientific ideas and practices, including Oxford and Cambridge.
The Renaissance era produced many innovations, including the introduction of the movable type printing press to Europe, which facilitated the communication of knowledge. Technology became increasingly influenced by science, beginning a cycle of mutual advancement.
Modern
Main articles: Industrial Revolution, Second Industrial Revolution, and Information AgeStarting in the United Kingdom in the 18th century, the discovery of steam power set off the Industrial Revolution, which saw wide-ranging technological discoveries, particularly in the areas of agriculture, manufacturing, mining, metallurgy, and transport, and the widespread application of the factory system. This was followed a century later by the Second Industrial Revolution which led to rapid scientific discovery, standardization, and mass production. New technologies were developed, including sewage systems, electricity, light bulbs, electric motors, railroads, automobiles, and airplanes. These technological advances led to significant developments in medicine, chemistry, physics, and engineering. They were accompanied by consequential social change, with the introduction of skyscrapers accompanied by rapid urbanization. Communication improved with the invention of the telegraph, the telephone, the radio, and television.
The 20th century brought a host of innovations. In physics, the discovery of nuclear fission in the Atomic Age led to both nuclear weapons and nuclear power. Analog computers were invented and asserted dominance in processing complex data. While the invention of vacuum tubes allowed for digital computing with computers like the ENIAC, their sheer size precluded widespread use until innovations in quantum physics allowed for the invention of the transistor in 1947, which significantly compacted computers and led the digital transition. Information technology, particularly optical fiber and optical amplifiers, allowed for simple and fast long-distance communication, which ushered in the Information Age and the birth of the Internet. The Space Age began with the launch of Sputnik 1 in 1957, and later the launch of crewed missions to the moon in the 1960s. Organized efforts to search for extraterrestrial intelligence have used radio telescopes to detect signs of technology use, or technosignatures, given off by alien civilizations. In medicine, new technologies were developed for diagnosis (CT, PET, and MRI scanning), treatment (like the dialysis machine, defibrillator, pacemaker, and a wide array of new pharmaceutical drugs), and research (like interferon cloning and DNA microarrays).
Complex manufacturing and construction techniques and organizations are needed to make and maintain more modern technologies, and entire industries have arisen to develop succeeding generations of increasingly more complex tools. Modern technology increasingly relies on training and education – their designers, builders, maintainers, and users often require sophisticated general and specific training. Moreover, these technologies have become so complex that entire fields have developed to support them, including engineering, medicine, and computer science; and other fields have become more complex, such as construction, transportation, and architecture.
Impact
Main article: Technology and societyTechnological change is the largest cause of long-term economic growth. Throughout human history, energy production was the main constraint on economic development, and new technologies allowed humans to significantly increase the amount of available energy. First came fire, which made edible a wider variety of foods, and made it less physically demanding to digest them. Fire also enabled smelting, and the use of tin, copper, and iron tools, used for hunting or tradesmanship. Then came the agricultural revolution: humans no longer needed to hunt or gather to survive, and began to settle in towns and cities, forming more complex societies, with militaries and more organized forms of religion.
Technologies have contributed to human welfare through increased prosperity, improved comfort and quality of life, and medical progress, but they can also disrupt existing social hierarchies, cause pollution, and harm individuals or groups.
Recent years have brought about a rise in social media's cultural prominence, with potential repercussions on democracy, and economic and social life. Early on, the internet was seen as a "liberation technology" that would democratize knowledge, improve access to education, and promote democracy. Modern research has turned to investigate the internet's downsides, including disinformation, polarization, hate speech, and propaganda.
Since the 1970s, technology's impact on the environment has been criticized, leading to a surge in investment in solar, wind, and other forms of clean energy.
Social
Jobs
Since the invention of the wheel, technologies have helped increase humans' economic output. Past automation has both substituted and complemented labor; machines replaced humans at some lower-paying jobs (for example in agriculture), but this was compensated by the creation of new, higher-paying jobs. Studies have found that computers did not create significant net technological unemployment. Due to artificial intelligence being far more capable than computers, and still being in its infancy, it is not known whether it will follow the same trend; the question has been debated at length among economists and policymakers. A 2017 survey found no clear consensus among economists on whether AI would increase long-term unemployment. According to the World Economic Forum's "The Future of Jobs Report 2020", AI is predicted to replace 85 million jobs worldwide, and create 97 million new jobs by 2025. From 1990 to 2007, a study in the U.S. by MIT economist Daron Acemoglu showed that an addition of one robot for every 1,000 workers decreased the employment-to-population ratio by 0.2%, or about 3.3 workers, and lowered wages by 0.42%. Concerns about technology replacing human labor however are long-lasting. As US president Lyndon Johnson said in 1964, "Technology is creating both new opportunities and new obligations for us, opportunity for greater productivity and progress; obligation to be sure that no workingman, no family must pay an unjust price for progress." upon signing the National Commission on Technology, Automation, and Economic Progress bill.
Security
With the growing reliance of technology, there have been security and privacy concerns along with it. Billions of people use different online payment methods, such as WeChat Pay, PayPal, Alipay, and much more to help transfer money. Although security measures are placed, some criminals are able to bypass them. In March 2022, North Korea used Blender.io, a mixer which helped them to hide their cryptocurrency exchanges, to launder over $20.5 million in cryptocurrency, from Axie Infinity, and steal over $600 million worth of cryptocurrency from the game's owner. Because of this, the U.S. Treasury Department sanctioned Blender.io, which marked the first time it has taken action against a mixer, to try to crack down on North Korean hackers. The privacy of cryptocurrency has been debated. Although many customers like the privacy of cryptocurrency, many also argue that it needs more transparency and stability.
Environmental
Technology can have both positive and negative effects on the environment. Environmental technology, describes an array of technologies which seek to reverse, mitigate or halt environmental damage to the environment. This can include measures to halt pollution through environmental regulations, capture and storage of pollution, or using pollutant byproducts in other industries. Other examples of environmental technology include deforestation and the reversing of deforestation. Emerging technologies in the fields of climate engineering may be able to halt or reverse global warming and its environmental impacts, although this remains highly controversial. As technology has advanced, so too has the negative environmental impact, with increased release of greenhouse gases, including methane, nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide, into the atmosphere, causing the greenhouse effect. This continues to gradually heat the earth, causing global warming and climate change. Measures of technological innovation correlates with a rise in greenhouse gas emissions.
Pollution
Pollution, the presence of contaminants in an environment that causes adverse effects, could have been present as early as the Inca Empire. They used a lead sulfide flux in the smelting of ores, along with the use of a wind-drafted clay kiln, which released lead into the atmosphere and the sediment of rivers.
Philosophy
Main article: Philosophy of technologyPhilosophy of technology is a branch of philosophy that studies the "practice of designing and creating artifacts", and the "nature of the things so created." It emerged as a discipline over the past two centuries, and has grown "considerably" since the 1970s. The humanities philosophy of technology is concerned with the "meaning of technology for, and its impact on, society and culture".
Initially, technology was seen as an extension of the human organism that replicated or amplified bodily and mental faculties. Marx framed it as a tool used by capitalists to oppress the proletariat, but believed that technology would be a fundamentally liberating force once it was "freed from societal deformations". Second-wave philosophers like Ortega later shifted their focus from economics and politics to "daily life and living in a techno-material culture", arguing that technology could oppress "even the members of the bourgeoisie who were its ostensible masters and possessors." Third-stage philosophers like Don Ihde and Albert Borgmann represent a turn toward de-generalization and empiricism, and considered how humans can learn to live with technology.
Early scholarship on technology was split between two arguments: technological determinism, and social construction. Technological determinism is the idea that technologies cause unavoidable social changes. It usually encompasses a related argument, technological autonomy, which asserts that technological progress follows a natural progression and cannot be prevented. Social constructivists argue that technologies follow no natural progression, and are shaped by cultural values, laws, politics, and economic incentives. Modern scholarship has shifted towards an analysis of sociotechnical systems, "assemblages of things, people, practices, and meanings", looking at the value judgments that shape technology.
Cultural critic Neil Postman distinguished tool-using societies from technological societies and from what he called "technopolies", societies that are dominated by an ideology of technological and scientific progress to the detriment of other cultural practices, values, and world views. Herbert Marcuse and John Zerzan suggest that technological society will inevitably deprive us of our freedom and psychological health.
Ethics
Main article: Ethics of technologyThe ethics of technology is an interdisciplinary subfield of ethics that analyzes technology's ethical implications and explores ways to mitigate the potential negative impacts of new technologies. There is a broad range of ethical issues revolving around technology, from specific areas of focus affecting professionals working with technology to broader social, ethical, and legal issues concerning the role of technology in society and everyday life.
Prominent debates have surrounded genetically modified organisms, the use of robotic soldiers, algorithmic bias, and the issue of aligning AI behavior with human values.
Technology ethics encompasses several key fields. Bioethics looks at ethical issues surrounding biotechnologies and modern medicine, including cloning, human genetic engineering, and stem cell research. Computer ethics focuses on issues related to computing. Cyberethics explores internet-related issues like intellectual property rights, privacy, and censorship. Nanoethics examines issues surrounding the alteration of matter at the atomic and molecular level in various disciplines including computer science, engineering, and biology. And engineering ethics deals with the professional standards of engineers, including software engineers and their moral responsibilities to the public.
A wide branch of technology ethics is concerned with the ethics of artificial intelligence: it includes robot ethics, which deals with ethical issues involved in the design, construction, use, and treatment of robots, as well as machine ethics, which is concerned with ensuring the ethical behavior of artificially intelligent agents. Within the field of AI ethics, significant yet-unsolved research problems include AI alignment (ensuring that AI behaviors are aligned with their creators' intended goals and interests) and the reduction of algorithmic bias. Some researchers have warned against the hypothetical risk of an AI takeover, and have advocated for the use of AI capability control in addition to AI alignment methods.
Other fields of ethics have had to contend with technology-related issues, including military ethics, media ethics, and educational ethics.
Futures studies
Main article: Futures studiesFutures studies is the systematic and interdisciplinary study of social and technological progress. It aims to quantitatively and qualitatively explore the range of plausible futures and to incorporate human values in the development of new technologies. More generally, futures researchers are interested in improving "the freedom and welfare of humankind". It relies on a thorough quantitative and qualitative analysis of past and present technological trends, and attempts to rigorously extrapolate them into the future. Science fiction is often used as a source of ideas. Futures research methodologies include survey research, modeling, statistical analysis, and computer simulations.
Existential risk
Main article: Global catastrophic riskExistential risk researchers analyze risks that could lead to human extinction or civilizational collapse, and look for ways to build resilience against them. Relevant research centers include the Cambridge Center for the Study of Existential Risk, and the Stanford Existential Risk Initiative. Future technologies may contribute to the risks of artificial general intelligence, biological warfare, nuclear warfare, nanotechnology, anthropogenic climate change, global warming, or stable global totalitarianism, though technologies may also help us mitigate asteroid impacts and gamma-ray bursts. In 2019 philosopher Nick Bostrom introduced the notion of a vulnerable world, "one in which there is some level of technological development at which civilization almost certainly gets devastated by default", citing the risks of a pandemic caused by bioterrorists, or an arms race triggered by the development of novel armaments and the loss of mutual assured destruction. He invites policymakers to question the assumptions that technological progress is always beneficial, that scientific openness is always preferable, or that they can afford to wait until a dangerous technology has been invented before they prepare mitigations.
Emerging technologies
Main article: Emerging technologiesEmerging technologies are novel technologies whose development or practical applications are still largely unrealized. They include nanotechnology, biotechnology, robotics, 3D printing, blockchains, and artificial intelligence.
In 2005, futurist Ray Kurzweil claimed the next technological revolution would rest upon advances in genetics, nanotechnology, and robotics, with robotics being the most impactful of the three technologies. Genetic engineering will allow far greater control over human biological nature through a process called directed evolution. Some thinkers believe that this may shatter our sense of self, and have urged for renewed public debate exploring the issue more thoroughly; others fear that directed evolution could lead to eugenics or extreme social inequality. Nanotechnology will grant us the ability to manipulate matter "at the molecular and atomic scale", which could allow us to reshape ourselves and our environment in fundamental ways. Nanobots could be used within the human body to destroy cancer cells or form new body parts, blurring the line between biology and technology. Autonomous robots have undergone rapid progress, and are expected to replace humans at many dangerous tasks, including search and rescue, bomb disposal, firefighting, and war.
Estimates on the advent of artificial general intelligence vary, but half of machine learning experts surveyed in 2018 believe that AI will "accomplish every task better and more cheaply" than humans by 2063, and automate all human jobs by 2140. This expected technological unemployment has led to calls for increased emphasis on computer science education and debates about universal basic income. Political science experts predict that this could lead to a rise in extremism, while others see it as an opportunity to usher in a post-scarcity economy.
Movements
Appropriate technology
Main article: Appropriate technologySome segments of the 1960s hippie counterculture grew to dislike urban living and developed a preference for locally autonomous, sustainable, and decentralized technology, termed appropriate technology. This later influenced hacker culture and technopaganism.
Technological utopianism
Main article: Technological utopianismTechnological utopianism refers to the belief that technological development is a moral good, which can and should bring about a utopia, that is, a society in which laws, governments, and social conditions serve the needs of all its citizens. Examples of techno-utopian goals include post-scarcity economics, life extension, mind uploading, cryonics, and the creation of artificial superintelligence. Major techno-utopian movements include transhumanism and singularitarianism.
The transhumanism movement is founded upon the "continued evolution of human life beyond its current human form" through science and technology, informed by "life-promoting principles and values." The movement gained wider popularity in the early 21st century.
Singularitarians believe that machine superintelligence will "accelerate technological progress" by orders of magnitude and "create even more intelligent entities ever faster", which may lead to a pace of societal and technological change that is "incomprehensible" to us. This event horizon is known as the technological singularity.
Major figures of techno-utopianism include Ray Kurzweil and Nick Bostrom. Techno-utopianism has attracted both praise and criticism from progressive, religious, and conservative thinkers.
Anti-technology backlash
See also: Luddite, Neo-Luddism, and BioconservatismTechnology's central role in our lives has drawn concerns and backlash. The backlash against technology is not a uniform movement and encompasses many heterogeneous ideologies.
The earliest known revolt against technology was Luddism, a pushback against early automation in textile production. Automation had resulted in a need for fewer workers, a process known as technological unemployment.
Between the 1970s and 1990s, American terrorist Ted Kaczynski carried out a series of bombings across America and published the Unabomber Manifesto denouncing technology's negative impacts on nature and human freedom. The essay resonated with a large part of the American public. It was partly inspired by Jacques Ellul's The Technological Society.
Some subcultures, like the off-the-grid movement, advocate a withdrawal from technology and a return to nature. The ecovillage movement seeks to reestablish harmony between technology and nature.
Relation to science and engineering
See also: Science and EngineeringEngineering is the process by which technology is developed. It often requires problem-solving under strict constraints. Technological development is "action-oriented", while scientific knowledge is fundamentally explanatory. Polish philosopher Henryk Skolimowski framed it like so: "science concerns itself with what is, technology with what is to be."
The direction of causality between scientific discovery and technological innovation has been debated by scientists, philosophers and policymakers. Because innovation is often undertaken at the edge of scientific knowledge, most technologies are not derived from scientific knowledge, but instead from engineering, tinkering and chance. For example, in the 1940s and 1950s, when knowledge of turbulent combustion or fluid dynamics was still crude, jet engines were invented through "running the device to destruction, analyzing what broke and repeating the process". Scientific explanations often follow technological developments rather than preceding them. Many discoveries also arose from pure chance, like the discovery of penicillin as a result of accidental lab contamination. Since the 1960s, the assumption that government funding of basic research would lead to the discovery of marketable technologies has lost credibility. Probabilist Nassim Taleb argues that national research programs that implement the notions of serendipity and convexity through frequent trial and error are more likely to lead to useful innovations than research that aims to reach specific outcomes.
Despite this, modern technology is increasingly reliant on deep, domain-specific scientific knowledge. In 1975, there was an average of one citation of scientific literature in every three patents granted in the U.S.; by 1989, this increased to an average of one citation per patent. The average was skewed upwards by patents related to the pharmaceutical industry, chemistry, and electronics. A 2021 analysis shows that patents that are based on scientific discoveries are on average 26% more valuable than equivalent non-science-based patents.
Other animal species
See also: Tool use by animals, Structures built by animals, and Ecosystem engineerThe use of basic technology is also a feature of non-human animal species. Tool use was once considered a defining characteristic of the genus Homo. This view was supplanted after discovering evidence of tool use among chimpanzees and other primates, dolphins, and crows. For example, researchers have observed wild chimpanzees using basic foraging tools, pestles, levers, using leaves as sponges, and tree bark or vines as probes to fish termites. West African chimpanzees use stone hammers and anvils for cracking nuts, as do capuchin monkeys of Boa Vista, Brazil. Tool use is not the only form of animal technology use; for example, beaver dams, built with wooden sticks or large stones, are a technology with "dramatic" impacts on river habitats and ecosystems.
Popular culture
See also: Science fictionThe relationship of humanity with technology has been explored in science-fiction literature, for example in Brave New World, A Clockwork Orange, Nineteen Eighty-Four, Isaac Asimov's essays, and movies like Minority Report, Total Recall, Gattaca, and Inception. It has spawned the dystopian and futuristic cyberpunk genre, which juxtaposes futuristic technology with societal collapse, dystopia or decay. Notable cyberpunk works include William Gibson's Neuromancer novel, and movies like Blade Runner, and The Matrix.
See also
- Bright green environmentalism
- Ecological modernization
- Ecomodernism
- Instrumentation
- Logology
- Outline of technology
- Productivity-improving technologies
- Raw material
- Resource
- Tech ed
- Technogaianism
- Techno-progressivism
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Further reading
- Gribbin, John, "Alone in the Milky Way: Why we are probably the only intelligent life in the galaxy", Scientific American, vol. 319, no. 3 (September 2018), pp. 94–99. "Is life likely to exist elsewhere in the galaxy? Almost certainly yes, given the speed with which it appeared on Earth. Is another technological civilization likely to exist today? Almost certainly no, given the chain of circumstances that led to our existence. These considerations suggest that we are unique not just on our planet but in the whole Milky Way. And if our planet is so special, it becomes all the more important to preserve this unique world for ourselves, our descendants and the many creatures that call Earth home." (p. 99.)
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