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{{short description|1971 anti-Vietnam War event in Detroit, Michigan}} | |||
:''For other uses, see ] | |||
{{Other uses|Winter Soldier (disambiguation)}} | |||
The '''"Winter Soldier Investigation"''' was a media event sponsored by the ] intended to publicize of ]s and ] by the ] and their allies in the ], while showing their direct relationship to military policies in Vietnam. The three-day gathering of 109 ]s and 16 civilians took place in ], ], from ]-], ]. Honorably discharged servicemen, as well as civilian contractors, medical personnel and academics, all gave testimony about war crimes they had committed or witnessed during the years of 1963-1970.<ref>Richard Stacewicz; Winter Soldiers: An Oral History of the Vietnam Veterans Against the War; Twayne Publishers, 1997; Page 234</ref><ref>James Olson; Dictionary of the Vietnam War; Peter Bedrick Books, 1988; Page 489</ref> | |||
{{Campaignbox Vietnam War massacres}} | |||
The '''"Winter Soldier Investigation"''' was a ] sponsored by the ] (VVAW) from January 31, 1971, to February 2, 1971. It was intended to publicize ] and their allies in the ]. The VVAW challenged the morality and conduct of the war by showing the direct relationship between military policies and war crimes in ]. The three-day gathering of 109 ]s and 16 civilians took place in ], ]. ] servicemen from each branch of the ], as well as civilian contractors, medical personnel and academics, all gave testimony about war crimes they had committed or witnessed during the years 1963–1970.<ref name="Richard Stacewicz Page 234">Richard Stacewicz; ''Winter Soldiers: An Oral History of the Vietnam Veterans Against the War''; Twayne Publishers, 1997; p. 234</ref><ref>James Olson; ''Dictionary of the Vietnam War''; Peter Bedrick Books, 1988; p. 489</ref><ref>Day Two testimony, POW Panel {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071213171110/http://www3.iath.virginia.edu/sixties/HTML_docs/Resources/Primary/Winter_Soldier/WS_23_POW.html |date=2007-12-13 }}</ref> | |||
While the event was largely unmentioned by most ] channels, several journalists and film crews recorded the event, and a transcript was later entered into the ]. | |||
With the exception of ], the event was not covered extensively outside Detroit. However, several journalists and a film crew recorded the event, and a ] titled '']'' was released in 1972. A complete transcript<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080322005850/http://www3.iath.virginia.edu/sixties/HTML_docs/Resources/Primary/Winter_Soldier/WS_entry.html|date=2008-03-22}} Complete WSI transcript; The Sixties Project</ref> was later entered into the ] by Senator ], and discussed in the ] in April and May 1971, convened by Senator ], chair of the ]. | |||
A documentary film of the event, called '']'', was first released in 1972. Due to the disturbing nature of the subject matter about an ongoing war, it got little distribution and support at that time and had been archived by its creators, collectively called the ]. <ref>Gerald Nicosia, Home to War: A History of the Vietnam Veterans' Movement; Carroll & Graf Publishers, 2004, Page 84-86</ref><ref>Jonathan Curiel; San Francisco Chronical, September 2, 2005</ref> In September, 2005, it was re-released across the U.S. in small ] theatres. Most media reviews have regarded the film highly, with some calling it a "powerful" and "emotional" record of the era. <!--added initial source for several dozen reviews. Looking up more. After looking up more at IMDb, Rotten Tomatoes and FilmCritic, all reviews are positive. Still looking for a negative review. --> | |||
== Background == |
== Background == | ||
Prompted by numerous investigations into ]s, such as the ], ] and ] (CCI), the ] wanted to have a large scale public hearing. With the courts martial for the ] making front page news, and the recent disclosure by members of the ]'s ] of its record of alleged human rights violations, the VVAW was determined to expose a broad pattern of war crimes in Vietnam. The Winter Soldier Investigation (WSI) was intended to prove that incidents like ] were not isolated and rare occurrences, but were instead the frequent and predictable result of official American war policy.<ref>Andrew E. Hunt; The Turning: A History of Vietnam Veterans Against the War; New York University Press, 1999; Pages 55-58</ref> | |||
Prompted by numerous investigations into ] such as the ], ] and ] (CCI), the ] wanted to have a large scale public hearing. With the courts martial for the ] making front-page news, and the recent disclosure by members of the ]'s ] of its record of ] violations in ], the VVAW was determined to expose a broad pattern of war crimes in Vietnam. The Winter Soldier Investigation (WSI) was intended to prove that massacres like the My Lai were not isolated and rare occurrences, but were instead the frequent and predictable result of official American war policy.<ref>{{cite book |last= Hunt |first= Andrew E. |author-link= Andrew Hunt (historian) |title= The Turning: A History of Vietnam Veterans Against the War |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=3AhGjLUf8SYC&q=The+Turning:+A+History+of+Vietnam+Veterans+Against+the+War |access-date= 2011-06-29 |year= 2001 |publisher= ] |isbn= 978-0-8147-3635-7 |pages= 55–58 |archive-date= 2021-05-24 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210524215345/https://books.google.com/books?id=3AhGjLUf8SYC&q=The+Turning:+A+History+of+Vietnam+Veterans+Against+the+War |url-status= live }}</ref> | |||
=== Organizers === | |||
=== Organizers === | |||
The groundwork for what would become the Winter Soldier Investigation was laid by ], ], Michael Uhl and ] of the ]. In search of first-hand information on war crimes, they contacted the ] and gained the support of VVAW co-founder Jan Crumb. During the summer of 1970, the CCI were approached by ] who had become a full-time organizer with VVAW. Hubbard suggested that CCI combine their efforts with ], Rev. Dick Fernandez of Clergy and Laymen Concerned about Vietnam (CALCAV), ] and ] (who had previously testified at the ] in ]). An initial steering committee was formed, consisting of Duncan, Ensign, Fonda, Lane, Hubbard, Rifkin, and Fernandez, and continued to organize the WSI through September, 1970. <ref>Richard Stacewicz; Winter Soldiers: An Oral History of the Vietnam Veterans Against the War; Twayne Publishers, 1997; Pages 235-237</ref><ref>Gerald Nicosia; Home to War: A History of the Vietnam Veterans' Movement, 2001, Pages 74-75</ref> | |||
The groundwork for what would become the Winter Soldier Investigation was laid by ], ], ] and ] of CCI. In search of first-hand information on war crimes, they contacted the ] and gained the support of VVAW co-founder Jan Crumb. During the summer of 1970, the CCI were approached by ] who had become a full-time organizer with VVAW. Hubbard suggested that CCI combine their efforts with ], Rev. Dick Fernandez of Clergy and Laymen Concerned about Vietnam (CALCAV), ], and ] (who had previously testified at the Russell Tribunal in ]). An initial steering committee was formed, consisting of Duncan, Ensign, Fonda, Lane, Hubbard, Rifkin and Fernandez, and continued to organize the WSI through September, 1970.<ref name="Richard Stacewicz Pages 235">Richard Stacewicz; ''Winter Soldiers: An Oral History of the Vietnam Veterans Against the War''; Twayne Publishers, 1997; pp. 235–237</ref><ref>Gerald Nicosia; ''Home to War: A History of the Vietnam Veterans' Movement''; Carroll & Graf Publishers, 2004, pp. 74–75</ref> | |||
Among the growing collective of organizers, differences of opinion and direction arose concerning the planned public event. VVAW leaders felt it should be an all-veteran event, to maintain its credibility. Less than three months into planning for the Winter Soldier Investigation, most of the Vietnam veteran organizers and Jeremy Rifkin had become adamant that WSI disassociate itself from Mark Lane. CCI staffers criticized Lane as being arrogant and sensationalistic, and said the book he was writing had "shoddy reporting in it." The CCI leaders refused to work with Lane further and gave the VVAW leaders a "Lane or us" ultimatum. VVAW didn't want to lose the monetary support of Lane and Fonda, so the CCI split from the project. The following month, after caustic reviews of Lane's book by authors and a Vietnam expert, VVAW would also distance itself from Lane just one month before the event.<ref>Andrew E. Hunt; The Turning: A History of Vietnam Veterans Against the War; New York University Press, 1999; Pages 63;67</ref> Lane had recently published a book, ''Conversations with Americans'', in which Lane relied on unverified interviews with thirty three servicemen, four of which were later exposed as unreliable by ] in a ] book review. <ref>Review of ''Conversations With Americans'', The New York Times Book Review, December 27th, 1970 by ]</ref> Leaders of VVAW feared involvement with Lane would tarnish the credibility of the WSI. A new steering committee was created without Lane, but he was allowed to continue with fundraising events. The new six-member steering committee for WSI was composed of three national office leaders (Al Hubbard, Craig Scott Moore, and Mike Oliver) and three members of the growing list of chapters (Art Flesch, Tim Butz, and William F. Crandell). Organizers hoped Lane would keep a low profile during the event, and he did, as he spent his time flying around the country defending his book. <ref>Andrew E. Hunt; The Turning: A History of Vietnam Veterans Against the War; New York University Press, 1999; Page 63-67</ref>Ultimately, the WSI was an event produced by veterans only, without the need of "so-called experts" such as Lane and Fonda. <ref>Gerald Nicosia; Home to War: A History of the Vietnam Veterans' Movement, 2004, Page 84</ref><ref>William F. Crandell. </ref> | |||
Among the growing collective of organizers, differences of opinion and direction arose concerning the planned public event. VVAW leaders felt it should be an all-veteran event, to maintain its credibility. Less than three months into planning for the Winter Soldier Investigation, most of the Vietnam veteran organizers and Jeremy Rifkin had become adamant that WSI disassociate itself from Mark Lane. CCI staffers criticized Lane as being arrogant and sensationalistic, and said the book he was writing had "shoddy reporting in it." The CCI leaders refused to work with Lane further and gave the VVAW leaders a "Lane or us" ultimatum. VVAW did not want to lose the monetary support of Lane and Fonda, so the CCI split from the project. The following month, after caustic reviews of Lane's book by authors and a Vietnam expert, VVAW would also distance itself from Lane just one month before the event.<ref>Andrew E. Hunt; The Turning: A History of Vietnam Veterans Against the War; New York University Press, 1999; pp. 63, 67</ref> Lane had recently published a book, ''Conversations with Americans'', in which Lane relied on unverified interviews with thirty three servicemen, four of whom were later exposed as unreliable by ] in a '']'' book review.<ref>Review of ''Conversations With Americans'', ''The New York Times Book Review'', December 27, 1970 by ]</ref> Leaders of VVAW feared involvement with Lane would tarnish the credibility of the WSI. A new steering committee was created without Lane, but he was allowed to continue with fundraising events and was available for legal counsel. The new six-member steering committee for WSI was composed of three national office leaders (Al Hubbard, Craig Scott Moore and Mike Oliver) and three members of the growing list of chapters (Art Flesch, Tim Butz, and William F. Crandell). Organizers hoped Lane would keep a low profile during the event, and he did, as he spent his time flying around the country defending his book.<ref>Andrew E. Hunt; ''The Turning: A History of Vietnam Veterans Against the War''; New York University Press, 1999; pp. 63–67</ref> <!-- When the event began, Lane returned to participate in the media event, acting as its "]<ref>''Ironwood Daily Globe'', Jan 28, 1971</ref> Is there a page number for this source? --> Ultimately, the WSI was an event produced by veterans only, without the need of "so-called experts" such as Lane and Fonda.<ref name="Gerald Nicosia 2004, Page 84-89">Gerald Nicosia; ''Home to War: A History of the Vietnam Veterans' Movement''; Carroll & Graf Publishers, 2004, pp. 84–89</ref><ref>William F. Crandell. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070814001850/http://www3.iath.virginia.edu/sixties/HTML_docs/Texts/Narrative/Crandell_Winter.html |date=2007-08-14 }}</ref> | |||
After the organizers of the national hearings separated into two groups, they each developed their own events. The CCI advanced its plans for a December event in Washington, DC, while the WSI's new organizers continued with the original plan to hold its hearings in ]. The Washington, DC, event would be called The ]. The ] event would be called the Winter Soldier Investigation. Seven of the 142 total participants would provide testimony at both events.<ref>Richard Stacewicz; Winter Soldiers: An Oral History of the Vietnam Veterans Against the War; Twayne Publishers, 1997; Page 234</ref> | |||
After the organizers of the national hearings separated into two groups, they each developed their own events. The CCI advanced its plans for a December event in Washington, D.C., while the WSI's new organizers continued with the original plan to hold its hearings in ]. The Washington, DC, event would be called the ]. The Detroit event would be called the Winter Soldier Investigation. Seven of the 142 total participants would provide testimony at both events.<ref name="Richard Stacewicz Page 234"/> | |||
The support of antiwar celebrities was considered crucial to generate both money and publicity. A series of benefit productions, ''"Acting in Concert for Peace,"'' were created and featured performances by ], ], ], and ]. Two concerts by ] and ], as well as folk singer ], also raised funds.<ref>Andrew E. Hunt; The Turning: A History of Vietnam Veterans Against the War; New York University Press, 1999; page 67</ref> | |||
The support of antiwar celebrities was considered crucial to generate both money and publicity. A series of benefit productions, ''Acting in Concert for Peace'', were created and featured performances by Jane Fonda, ], ] and ]. Two concerts by ] and ], as well as folk singer ], also raised funds.<ref>Andrew E. Hunt; ''The Turning: A History of Vietnam Veterans Against the War''; New York University Press, 1999; p. 67</ref> | |||
The WSI also relied on considerable support from the Detroit community. Dean Robb and Ernie Goodman solicited donations from their fellow local attorneys, and several clergymen arranged housing for the witnesses. In the words of the Director of Missions for the ] Metropolitan Council of Churches, Dr. John B Forsyth, "It is important that the public realize that American atrocities in Vietnam are an every day occurrence." The Secretary-Treasurer for the ], Emil Mazey and ] Secretary of State Richard Austin also helped raise funds for the event. | |||
The WSI also relied on considerable support from the Detroit community. Dean Robb and Ernie Goodman solicited donations from their fellow local attorneys and several clergymen arranged housing for the witnesses. In the words of the Director of Missions for the Detroit Metropolitan Council of Churches, Dr. John B Forsyth, "It is important that the public realize that American atrocities in Vietnam are an {{sic|every day}} occurrence." The Secretary-Treasurer for the ], Emil Mazey and ] Secretary of State Richard Austin also helped raise funds for the event. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/sixties/HTML_docs/Texts/Narrative/Crandell_Winter.html|title=What Did America Learn from the Winter Soldier Investigation?, William F. Crandell|website=www2.iath.virginia.edu}}</ref> | |||
=== Purpose === | |||
=== Purpose === | |||
The purpose of the Winter Soldier Investigation was to show that American policies in Vietnam |
The purpose of the Winter Soldier Investigation was to show that American policies in Vietnam had led to war crimes. In the words of one participant veteran, Donald Dzagulones, | ||
<blockquote> | |||
"We gathered not to sensationalize our service but to decry the travesty that was Lt. ]'s trial for the My Lai Massacre. The U.S. had established the ] with the ] of the Nazis. Following those principles, we held that if Calley were responsible, so were his superiors up the chain of command – even to the president. The causes of My Lai and the brutality of the Vietnam War were rooted in the policies of our government as executed by our military commanders." | |||
</blockquote> | |||
:''"These are the times that try men's souls. The summer soldier and the sunshine patriot will in this crisis shrink from the service of his country, but he that stands it now deserves the love and thanks of man and woman."'' | |||
The name "Winter Soldier Investigation" was proposed by Mark Lane,<ref>Andrew E. Hunt; ''The Turning: A History of Vietnam Veterans Against the War''; New York University Press, 1999; p. 59</ref> and was derived as a contrast to what ] described as a "summer soldier" in his first '']'' paper, written in December 1776. When future Senator and ] ], then a decorated Lieutenant in the Naval Reserve (Inactive), later spoke before a ], he explained, | |||
Future Senator ], then a decorated Lieutenant in the Naval Reserve (Inactive), while later speaking before a Senate Committee, further explained "We who have come here to Washington have come here because we feel we have to be winter soldiers now. We could come back to this country; we could be quiet; we could hold our silence; we could not tell what went on in Vietnam, but we feel because of what threatens this country, the fact that the crimes threaten it, not reds, and not redcoats but the crimes which we are committing that threaten it, that we have to speak out." | |||
<blockquote> | |||
== Planning == | |||
"We who have come here to Washington have come here because we feel we have to be winter soldiers now. We could come back to this country; we could be quiet; we could hold our silence; we could not tell what went on in Vietnam, but we feel because of what threatens this country, the fact that the crimes threaten it, not reds, and not redcoats but the crimes which we are committing that threaten it, that we have to speak out."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.c-span.org/2004vote/jkerrytestimony.asp |title=C-SPAN: Vote 2004 |access-date=2009-09-05 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091206095147/http://www.c-span.org/2004vote/jkerrytestimony.asp |archive-date=2009-12-06 }}</ref> | |||
</blockquote> | |||
=== Planning === | |||
The collecting of testimony from veterans had begun under the auspice of the Citizens Commission of Inquiry the previous year, and it took almost two months of on-site planning in ] to organize the conference. Detroit was proposed by Fonda because of its central location in the American heartland, and the "blue-collar" social status of most of the residents. The steering committee set up a collective in a house on the industrial east side of Detroit with the help of Catholic antiwar activists; and five clergymen of different denominations, including the director of missions for the Detroit Metropolitan Council of Churches, offered housing for the witnesses. | |||
The collecting of testimony from veterans had begun under the auspice of the CCI the previous year, and it took almost two months of on-site planning in Detroit to organize the conference. Detroit was proposed by Fonda because of its central location in the American heartland, and the "blue-collar" social status of most of the residents. The steering committee set up a collective in a house on the industrial east side of Detroit with the help of Catholic antiwar activists; and five clergymen of different denominations, including the director of missions for the Detroit Metropolitan Council of Churches, offered housing for the witnesses. | |||
The program consisted primarily of testimony, with 109 Vietnam veterans to appear on panels arranged by unit so they could corroborate each other's reports. Grouping these veterans by unit would also help to establish that events and practices to which they testified were unit-wide policy, and not just random and rare occurrences. Several civilian experts who had been to Vietnam were also to speak during this event. Arrangements had been made to include the testimony of several expatriated Vietnamese students residing in Canada, but they were denied visas to the United States by the Canadian government. | The program consisted primarily of testimony, with 109 Vietnam veterans to appear on panels arranged by unit so they could corroborate each other's reports. Grouping these veterans by unit would also help to establish that events and practices to which they testified were unit-wide policy, and not just random and rare occurrences. Several civilian experts who had been to Vietnam were also to speak during this event. Arrangements had been made to include the testimony of several expatriated Vietnamese students residing in Canada, but they were denied visas to the United States by the Canadian government.<ref>Gerald Nicosia; ''Home to War: A History of the Vietnam Veterans' Movement''; Carroll & Graf Publishers, 2004, p. 90</ref> | ||
Organizers also investigated the legal implications of veterans publicly admitting to criminal acts which they had witnessed or participated in. With legal advice from the ] the organizers were assured that the armed forces could not charge or try veterans for crimes committed while they were on active duty. The veterans giving testimony were also instructed not to reveal the specific names of others involved in war crimes. The goal of these hearings was not to indict individual soldiers, but instead to expose the frequency of criminal behavior and its relationship to U.S. war policy.<ref> |
Organizers also investigated the legal implications of veterans publicly admitting to criminal acts which they had witnessed or participated in. With legal advice from the ], the organizers were assured that the armed forces could not charge or try veterans for crimes committed while they were on active duty.<ref>Andrew E. Hunt; ''The Turning: A History of Vietnam Veterans Against the War''; New York University Press, 1999; pp. 58, 62</ref> The veterans giving testimony were also instructed not to reveal the specific names of others involved in war crimes. The goal of these hearings was not to indict individual soldiers, but instead to expose the frequency of criminal behavior and its relationship to U.S. war policy.<ref>Gerald Nicosia; ''Home to War: A History of the Vietnam Veterans' Movement''; Carroll & Graf Publishers, 2004, pp. 82–83</ref> | ||
== Credibility of the veterans and their testimony == | |||
=== Verification of participants' credibility === | |||
Critics have claimed that participants were frauds; that they were told to not cooperate with later investigators; that their testimonies were inaccurate or completely fabricated.<ref>Andrew E. Hunt, ''The Turning: A History of Vietnam Veterans Against the War''; New York University Press, 1999, p. 84</ref><ref name="Gerald Nicosia 2004, Page 84-89"/> | |||
The organizers of the Winter Soldier Investigation took several steps to guarantee the validity of the participants. | |||
=== Verifying the participants === | |||
Each veteran's authenticity was checked before the hearings by the investigation event organizers, and subsequently by reporters and Pentagon officials. In addition, they also gave specific details about their units and the locations where the events had occurred. Those who wanted to testify were carefully screened by the officers of VVAW, and care was taken to verify the service records and testimony of the veterans. After the severe criticism of the accuracy of Mark Lane's book about atrocities a month before the event, the organizers of the Winter Soldier Investigation made the credibility of the participants a top priority. All veterans participating in Winter Soldier were required to bring their discharge papers (DD-214's) and IDs. | |||
The organizers of the Winter Soldier Investigation took several steps to ensure the validity of the participants. Each veteran's authenticity was checked before the hearings by the investigation event organizers, and subsequently by reporters and ] (DoD) officials. In addition, they also gave specific details about their units and the locations where the events had occurred. Those who wanted to testify were carefully screened by the officers of VVAW, and care was taken to verify the service records and testimony of the veterans. After the severe criticism of the accuracy of Mark Lane's book about atrocities a month before the event, the organizers of the Winter Soldier Investigation made the credibility of the participants a top priority. As noted by one VVAW leader, "The lesson is that we'd better do our work right. We'd better talk to these vets and weed out the bullshitters so that we can't get set up, because we're going to come under attack. We're going to do this right."<ref name="Richard Stacewicz Pages 235"/> All veterans participating in Winter Soldier were required to bring their discharge papers (DD-214s) and IDs.<ref name="Gerald Nicosia 2004, Page 84-89"/> | |||
The identifying military affiliation of each veteran testifying, including in almost all cases, the dates of service, appears on the roster for each panel that was included with the testimony in the Congressional Record.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/sixties/HTML_docs/Resources/Primary/Winter_Soldier/WS_entry.html|title=Winter Soldier Investigation: Table of Contents|website=www2.iath.virginia.edu}}</ref> | |||
A later search of the service records of at least 2 of the participants found that they could not have been in the claimed location on the relevant date.<ref name=Dougan>{{cite book|last1=Dougan|first1=Clark|last2=Lipsman|first2=Samuel|title=the Vietnam Experience A Nation Divided|publisher=Boston Publishing Company|year=1984|isbn=0939526115|page=178}}</ref> | |||
As noted in ] records, each veteran's authenticity and testimony were checked after the hearings by Nixon's "]." ] was assigned the task. In a confidential "Plan to Counteract Viet Nam Veterans Against the War", Colson wrote, "The men that participated in the pseudo-atrocity hearings in Detroit will be checked to ascertain if they are genuine combat veterans." At one point, the Nixon team suggested in a memo about VVAW, "Several of their regional coordinators are former Kennedy supporters." <ref>Andrew E. Hunt; The Turning: A History of Vietnam Veterans Against the War; New York University Press, 1999; Page 73</ref> VVAW was also targeted by the ] for observation as a possible dissident organization. | |||
=== Verifying the testimony === | |||
Although military documentation was provided, some media organizations such as the '']'' made further inquiries into the hearings by questioning the authenticity of the testifying veterans. Discharge papers were closely examined; military records were checked against ] records; after all their digging, not one fraudulent veteran was found.<ref>Gerald Nicosia; Home to War: A History of the Vietnam Veterans' Movement; Carroll & Graf Publishers, 2004; Page 87</ref> The Detroit Free Press reported daily of participants that had been confirmed by ] as veterans. | |||
The organizers had two primary concerns when considering the testimony they would use. They wanted testimony that would not allow the scapegoating of individuals when they were attempting to show what was being done in Vietnam was due to policy, not decisions by individual GIs. They also wanted the testimony to be accurate, and double and sometimes triple confirmed by others in the same units. Specific sets of questions were drafted by experienced combat vets to help verify that participants were not fabricating their stories or faking their knowledge, and that only the strongest testimony was used.<ref name="Gerald Nicosia 2004, Page 84-89"/><ref name="Richard Stacewicz Pages 237">Richard Stacewicz; ''Winter Soldiers: An Oral History of the Vietnam Veterans Against the War''; Twayne Publishers, 1997; pp. 237–238</ref> | |||
According to Army reports compiled by the Criminal Investigation Command (]) and later reported by the '']'' following declassification, the Army found the allegations made by 46 veterans at the hearings to merit further inquiry. As of March 1972, the CID reported successfully locating 36 of the people who had testified, 31 of whom submitted to interviews.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050901110556/http://www.villagevoice.com/news/0438%2Cturse%2C56936%2C1.html |date=2005-09-01 }} ''Village Voice''; Nicholas Turse; September 14, 2004</ref> | |||
Fritz Efaw, a Chapter Representative of VVAW, stated: "The claims that the WSI hearings contained falsified testimony from men who were not veterans is an old one, and it's definitely false. The testimony was startling even at the time it took place: startling to the general public, startling to the military and the Nixon administration, and startling to those who participated because each of them knew a piece of the story, but the hearings brought a great many of them together for the first time and provided a venue in which they could be heard for the first time. It's hardly surprising that those on the other side would set out almost immediately to discredit them." | |||
One WSI participant, Jamie Henry, had reported the massacre he described at the hearings<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lists.village.virginia.edu/sixties/HTML_docs/Resources/Primary/Winter_Soldier/WS_13_3Marine.html |title=Winter Soldier Investigation: 3d Marine Division, Part I |publisher=Lists.village.virginia.edu |access-date=2014-01-31 |archive-date=2008-02-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080205091403/http://lists.village.virginia.edu/sixties/HTML_docs/Resources/Primary/Winter_Soldier/WS_13_3Marine.html |url-status=live }}</ref> to the Army, which investigated and subsequently confirmed his story. However, the details of the investigation were not made public until 2006, when the '']'' published the declassified information.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080205074745/http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-na-vietnam6aug06,0,6350517.story?page=1&coll=la-home-headlines%20 |date=2008-02-05 }} ''Los Angeles Times''; Nicholas Turse and Deborah Nelson; August 6, 2006</ref> | |||
Seven years after the hearings, writer Guenter Lewy claimed in his book, ''America in Vietnam'', that allegations against Marines were investigated by the ]. Lewy wrote that the report stated that some veterans contacted by the NIS did not attend the WSI hearing in Detroit or had never been to Detroit, and many refused to be interviewed. However, government officials today cannot verify the report's existence, and no other historian has seen it.{{ref|chicago}} Lewy later said that he could not recall if he had actually seen the alleged report or simply been told of its contents.{{ref|baltimore}} | |||
=== Efforts to discredit the WSI === | |||
'''' | |||
{{more citations needed|section|date=January 2018}}<!--3 paragraphs have no citations--> | |||
Months before the WSI event, the organizers anticipated heavy scrutiny and attacks on their credibility, and they prepared for it. Although military documentation was provided, some media organizations such as the '']'' tried to discredit the hearings on the very first day of testimony by questioning the authenticity of the 109 testifying veterans. Discharge papers were examined; military records were checked against DoD records; after all their digging, it was claimed that not one fraudulent veteran was found.<ref name="Gerald Nicosia 2004, Page 84-89"/><ref name="Richard Stacewicz Pages 237"/> The '']'' reported daily of participants who had been confirmed by the DoD as veterans.<ref>''Detroit Free Press''; "Probe Sought on Atrocity Charges"; February 2, 1971; pp. 1, 4A</ref> | |||
As noted in VVAW records, each veteran's authenticity and testimony were also checked shortly after the hearings by Nixon's "]." ] was assigned the task. In a confidential "Plan to Counteract Viet Nam Veterans Against the War," Colson wrote, "The men that participated in the pseudo-atrocity hearings in Detroit will be checked to ascertain if they are genuine combat veterans." At one point, the Nixon team suggested in a memo about VVAW, "Several of their regional coordinators are former Kennedy supporters."<ref>Andrew E. Hunt; ''The Turning: A History of Vietnam Veterans Against the War''; New York University Press, 1999; p. 73</ref> VVAW was also targeted by the ] for observation as a possible dissident organization. | |||
In addition, the Army found the allegations made by 46 veterans at the hearings to merit further inquiry, and were able to identify 43 of the complainants. The Army's CID investigators attempted to contact 41 of the people who testified; of the 36 they were able to locate, 31 submitted to interviews. | |||
The Nixon administration also attempted to rally pro-war veterans to counter VVAW. "What happened to the president's request that we take steps to mobilize veterans?" demanded White House Chief of Staff ] to Colson just a few weeks after the WSI. "The President should know that we are continuing the effort to discredit VVAW," Colson assured Haldeman.<ref>Andrew E. Hunt; ''The Turning: A History of Vietnam Veterans Against the War''; New York University Press, 1999; p. 84</ref> Nixon aides formed the ''Vietnam Veterans for a Just Peace'', according to Colson, as a "counterfoil" to Kerry and the VVAW, and they did everything they could to boost the group. ], representing this group, made public appearances denouncing the antiwar veterans and promoting Nixon's ] policy. According to White House memos, Colson worked behind the scenes to get a Kerry-O'Neill debate on nationwide television. "Let's destroy this young demagogue before he becomes another Ralph Nader," he wrote, referring to Kerry.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171217151631/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A39956-2004Aug27.html |date=2017-12-17 }} ''The Washington Post''; Michael Dobbs; August 28, 2004</ref> | |||
== Winter Soldier panels == | |||
''See '' | |||
Seven years after the hearings, writer ] claimed in his book, ''America in Vietnam'', that allegations against Marines were investigated by the ]. Lewy wrote that the report stated that some veterans contacted by the NIS said they did not attend the WSI hearing in Detroit or had never been to Detroit, and many refused to be interviewed. However, government officials have no record of the report and no other historian has seen it.<ref name="Chicago1">{{cite journal | author=Jackson, David | title=Foes lash Kerry for Vietnam War words | journal=Chicago Tribune | date=February 22, 2004 | pages= 3| url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/2004/02/22/foes-lash-kerry-for-vietnam-war-words/ | access-date=2013-09-08 | archive-date=2014-02-02 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202231457/http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2004-02-22/news/0402220494_1_vietnam-veterans-wires-from-portable-telephones-vietnam-war | url-status=live }} <span style="font-size:87%;">"Government officials today cannot verify that Naval Investigative Service report's existence. "We have not been able to confirm the existence of this report, but it's also possible that such records could have been destroyed or misplaced," said Naval Criminal Investigative Service public affairs specialist Paul O'Donnell. "I don't think Lewy is interested in presenting any of as truthful," said University of Richmond history professor Ernest Bolt. "He has an angle on the war as a whole." Bolt said it is impossible to tell whether Lewy fairly characterized the naval investigative report because no other historian had seen it. "He's using the points of their investigation that fit his purposes," Bolt said."</span></ref> Lewy later said that he could not recall if he had actually seen the alleged report or simply been told of its contents.<ref name="Baltimore1">{{cite journal | author=Bowman, Tom | title=Kerry went from soldier to anti-war protester | journal=Baltimore Sun | date=Feb 14, 2004 | pages= 1A | url=http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/elections/bal-te.antiwar14feb14,1,1535166.story }} {{dead link|date=March 2010}}</ref><ref>Kerry went from Soldier to Anti-war protester; Tom Bowman, ]; February 14, 2004 </ref><ref>"Foes lash Kerry for Vietnam War words"; David Jackson, ''Chicago Tribune''; February 22, 2004; p. 3A</ref><ref name = "media">{{cite journal | |||
The three days of testimony was presented by unit:<br> | |||
| first = Gabe | |||
*'''Sunday, ]st,''' there were speakers from the 1st Marine Division, 3rd Marine Division, and 1st Air Cavalry Division<br> | |||
| last = Wildau | |||
*'''Monday, ]st,''' from the 101st Airborne Division and ]<br> | |||
| date = September 13, 2004 | |||
*'''Tuesday, ]nd,''' from the 25th Infantry Division, 1st Infantry Division, 4th Infantry Division, ], and Lieutenant Calley's Americal Division | |||
| title = Stolen Honor producer Sherwood falsely claimed Winter Soldier investigation "utterly discredited" | |||
| journal = Media Matters | |||
| url = http://mediamatters.org/items/200409130003 | |||
| access-date = October 5, 2009 | |||
| archive-date = September 14, 2004 | |||
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20040914054932/http://mediamatters.org/items/200409130003 | |||
| url-status = live | |||
}}</ref><ref>]. ''Torture and Democracy''. Princeton University Press, 2007, p. 588.</ref> | |||
More than 30 years after the Winter Soldier Investigation, during the ] in which former VVAW spokesman and Navy veteran John Kerry was a candidate, the WSI was again in the news. Steve Pitkin, who participated at the investigation in 1971, now claimed just weeks before the presidential election at an anti-Kerry political rally that he was not originally planning to testify at the WSI, but was pressured by Kerry and others into testifying about rape, brutality, atrocities and racism. Pitkin also signed a 2004 ] making similar claims about Kerry, but after being challenged by other participants, admitted that his recollections were flawed. On 1971 archival film footage of the WSI panel, Pitkin criticized the press for its coverage of the war, and detailed what he considered poor training for combat in Vietnam, and low morale he claimed to have witnessed while there. Although he introduced himself by saying, "I'll testify about the beating of civilians and enemy personnel, destruction of villages, indiscriminate use of artillery, the general racism and the attitude of the American GI toward the Vietnamese," his actual testimony contained no such statements. | |||
In addition to the testimony panels, the veterans also held open discussions on related subjects such as "What We Are Doing to Vietnam," "What We Are Doing to Ourselves," violations of international law, Prisoners of War, racism in the military, and also press censorship. Dr. Bert Pfeiffer of the University of Montana presented the first public testimony about the potential toxicity and health effects of the chemical Agent Orange. A special panel of psychiatrists was convened, many of whom had served in Vietnam, to discuss the impact of the war on American society. Midway through the hearings, the organizers insisted that no one make statements on behalf of the Vietnam veterans except for vets. It was presumed by reporters that this was to separate the participation of veterans from that of people like Mark Lane. | |||
Upon hearing of these claims by Pitkin, another WSI participant named ] filed his own affidavit refuting Pitkin's statements. Pitkin has subsequently admitted his recollections were flawed, and has re-issued a second affidavit now reflecting a different date of discharge from the Army, different people traveling with him to the Winter Soldier event, and different circumstances under which he joined the VVAW.<ref> Coldest 'Winter' ever</ref><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113031522/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4176/is_20040927/ai_n14586305/ |date=2016-01-13 }} ''Oakland Tribune''</ref> | |||
=== Testimony from veterans === | |||
Fritz Efaw, a Chapter Representative of VVAW, stated: "The claims that the WSI hearings contained falsified testimony from men who were not veterans is an old one, and it's definitely false. The testimony was startling even at the time it took place: startling to the general public, startling to the military and the Nixon administration and startling to those who participated because each of them knew a piece of the story, but the hearings brought a great many of them together for the first time and provided a venue in which they could be heard for the first time. It's hardly surprising that those on the other side would set out almost immediately to discredit them." | |||
Testimony given during the three day event covered both broad policy concerns, such as the use of chemical agents, indiscriminate bombing, and ]s as well as more specific and unusual war crime incidents, including rape, torture and desecration of the dead. The testifying veterans were usually grouped by branch of military service, and geographic location of service. Before launching into their detailed testimony, each gave a brief statement of personal information including rank, division, unit, length of service and a summary of what their testimony would cover. While only 109 veterans gave testimony, over 700 veterans attended the hearing. Excerpts from the testimony transcripts: | |||
The U.S. participation in the Vietnam War was the source of much deeply divided sentiment among Americans. The Winter Soldier Investigation produced a conglomerate of testimony resulting in the implication and indictment of American leadership in criminal conduct, and thereby further drove a wedge between proponents and opponents of the war. | |||
:Stephen Craig: ''"...My testimony covers the maltreatment of prisoners, the suspects actually, and a convoy running down an old woman with no reason at all..."'' | |||
:Rusty Sachs: ''"...my testimony concerns the leveling of villages for no valid reason, ] after binding them and gagging them with copper wire..."'' | |||
== Winter Soldier panels == | |||
:]: ''"...My testimony involves burning of villages with civilians in them, the cutting off of ears, cutting off of heads, torturing of prisoners, calling in of artillery on villages for games, corpsmen killing wounded prisoners..."'' | |||
''See ]'' | |||
:Kenneth Campbell: ''"...My testimony will consist of eyewitnessing and participating in the calling in of artillery on undefended villages, mutilation of bodies, killing of civilians, mistreatment of civilians..."'' | |||
:Fred Nienke: ''"...My testimony includes killing of non-combatants, destruction of Vietnamese property and livestock, use of chemical agents and the use of torture in interpreting prisoners..."'' | |||
The three days of testimony was presented by unit: | |||
* '''Sunday, January 31,''' there were speakers from the ], ] and ] | |||
* '''Monday, February 1,''' from the ] and ] | |||
* '''Tuesday, February 2,''' from the ], ], ], ] and Lieutenant Calley's ] | |||
Other veterans testified to the treatment they received when held captive as ]s by the ] (VC). In contrast to accounts of mistreatment described by prisoners of the ] (PAVN) in the north, the former prisoners speaking at the WSI said they were never physically abused, except for some rough handling during their capture. The VC provided enough food and medical attention to sustain them, and in the particular case of Sgt. George E. Smith, he claims "I usually had more food than I could eat," although he would often grow ill from intolerance. Smith admitted fearing for his life when he heard Hanoi Radio broadcasts saying VC soldiers were being executed in Saigon and the VC was promising to execute Americans in retaliation. Shortly afterward, two American prisoners held in the same camp with Smith are believed to have been executed in reprisal. At a press conference when Smith was released after two years as a POW, he made statements in support of the VC and against US involvement in Vietnam, and immediately faced ] charges for violation of Article 104 of the ] (aiding the enemy). The charges were dropped due to insufficient evidence, and five years later at the WSI, Smith said that he stood by his statements. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pownetwork.org/bios/s/s169.htm|title=Bio, Smith, George E. "Smitty"|website=www.pownetwork.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/sixties/HTML_docs/Resources/Primary/Winter_Soldier/WS_23_POW.html|title=Winter Soldier Investigation: Prisoner of War Panel, Part I|website=www2.iath.virginia.edu}}</ref> | |||
In addition to the testimony panels, the veterans also held open discussions on related subjects such as "What We Are Doing to Vietnam", "What We Are Doing to Ourselves", violations of international law, Prisoners of War, racism in the military, and also press censorship. Dr. Bert Pfeiffer of the ] presented the first public testimony about the potential toxicity and health effects of the chemical ]. A special panel of psychiatrists was convened, many of whom had served in Vietnam, to discuss the impact of the war on American society. Midway through the hearings, the organizers insisted that no one make statements on behalf of the Vietnam veterans except for vets. It was presumed by reporters that this was to separate the participation of veterans from that of people like Mark Lane.<ref name="Gerald Nicosia 2004, Page 84-89"/> | |||
=== Testimony from veterans === | |||
Testimony given during the three-day event covered both broad policy concerns, such as the use of chemical agents, indiscriminate bombing and ]s as well as more specific and unusual war crime incidents, including rape, torture and desecration of the dead. The testifying veterans were usually grouped by branch of military service and geographic location of service. Before launching into their detailed testimony, each gave a brief statement of personal information including rank, division, unit, length of service and a summary of what their testimony would cover. While only 109 veterans gave testimony, over 700 veterans attended the hearing.<ref name="Gerald Nicosia 2004, Page 84-89"/> Excerpts from the testimony transcripts: | |||
:Stephen Craig: ''"...My testimony covers the maltreatment of prisoners, the suspects actually, and a convoy running down an old woman with no reason at all..."'' | |||
:Rusty Sachs: ''"...my testimony concerns the leveling of villages for no valid reason, throwing Viet Cong suspects from the aircraft after binding them and gagging them with copper wire..."'' | |||
:Scott Camil: ''"...My testimony involves burning of villages with civilians in them, the cutting off of ears, cutting off of heads, torturing of prisoners, calling in of artillery on villages for games, corpsmen killing wounded prisoners..."'' | |||
:Kenneth Campbell: ''"...My testimony will consist of eyewitnessing and participating in the calling in of artillery on undefended villages, mutilation of bodies, killing of civilians, mistreatment of civilians..."'' | |||
:Fred Nienke: ''"...My testimony includes killing of non-combatants, destruction of Vietnamese property and livestock, use of chemical agents and the use of torture in interpreting prisoners..."'' | |||
After giving their brief initial statements, a moderator had each of them elaborate upon their testimony, and then the press and observers were given time to ask questions of the veterans. | After giving their brief initial statements, a moderator had each of them elaborate upon their testimony, and then the press and observers were given time to ask questions of the veterans. | ||
=== What are we doing to ourselves? Panel === | |||
During the “What are we doing to ourselves?” panel, Dr. Robert J. Lifton spoke of the psychological impact the events in Vietnam had on returning soldiers. He pointed out how rampant disapproval was for the war and highlighted how that affected returning veteran: {{block quote|So the returning veteran, who has a psychological need, as he returns from any war, to make his difficult transition into civilian life by in some way giving significance to what he did in his war, has no such opportunity, because he can't, in any way, inwardly approve of what he has done in this war. Nor can the rest of society find sources of pride for him or acceptance or necessity about this war. Both the veteran and the larger society see him the taint of this filthy, unnecessary, immoral war.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9E1pDTgUExAC&pg=PA9978|title=Congressional Record: Proceedings and Debates of the 92nd Congress, First Session |date=1971 |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |language=en}}</ref>}} | |||
=== Racism and Third World Panels === | |||
Two of the discussion panels conducted with veterans during the Winter Soldier Investigations centered on racism in the American military. These panels addressed one source of resentment towards the Vietnam War by black soldiers, as "African Americans and Latinos paid a higher human price for the war".<ref name="Gartner">Scott Sigmund Gartner and Gary M. Segura. (2000, February). Race, Casualties, and Opinion in the Vietnam War; '']''; pp. 115–116</ref> Studies have shown that black soldiers suffered ] at the beginning of the war.<ref name="Gartner"/> Black veterans testifying at the WSI intended to show that racism by the U.S. military toward the Vietnamese, as well as toward non-whites within the military, were both extensions of the racism present in American society.<ref name="TWPanel">William Light, Third World Panel. Winter Soldier Investigations, The Sixties Project. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101008152022/http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/sixties/HTML_docs/Resources/Primary/Winter_Soldier/WS_entry.html|date=2010-10-08}}</ref> Many veterans testified that black soldiers were demeaned by platoon leaders and refusal to comply to orders often led to beatings and starvation,<ref name="TWPanel"/> and black soldiers were intentionally endangered by being placed as "point, rearguards, and side-guards".<ref>Allan Akers, Third Marine Division. Winter Soldier Investigations, The Sixties Project. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141202011707/http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/sixties/HTML_docs/Resources/Primary/Winter_Soldier/WS_13_3Marine.html|date=2014-12-02}}</ref> As a result of the attention brought to the significant disparity between white and black soldiers assigned to, and dying in, combat units,<ref>Henry E. Darby and Margaret N. Rowley. (1st Qtr, 1986). King on Vietnam and Beyond. ''The Phylon Quarterly'' (1960–), 43</ref> Pentagon officials implemented cutbacks in the number of blacks in combat positions.<ref name="Gartner"/><ref>''Patriots: The Vietnam War Remembered from All Sides''; Appy, Christian G.; Penguin Books Ltd.; 2003; pp. 354–355</ref> The fact that this racial inequality was taking place during the height of the ] in the United States was of great significance. | |||
African Americans were not the only ones subject to discrimination during the war. The American military portrayed Asians as "sub-human" as a means of providing justification for killing children and civilians.<ref>Scott Shimabukuro, Racism Panel. Winter Soldier Investigations, The Sixties Project. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141202011722/http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/sixties/HTML_docs/Resources/Primary/Winter_Soldier/WS_16_Racism.html|date=2014-12-02}}</ref> This notion was also projected into medical treatment of soldiers and POWs. Non-white patients were reported to have been operated on without anesthetic on several occasions. There is a specific case where the driver for a Medical Battalion describes incidents where ] (ARVN) soldiers were treated without anesthetic. He recalls filling a syringe with anesthetic and setting it beside the doctor, only to later find out that it was never used when hearing the patient screaming.<ref>Dave Fortin, Racism Panel. Winter Soldier Investigations, The Sixties Project. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101008152022/http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/sixties/HTML_docs/Resources/Primary/Winter_Soldier/WS_entry.html|date=2010-10-08}}</ref> | |||
The testimony given by the soldiers during the racism panel of the WSI was presented as evidence that the veterans were justified in their disapproval of the war, on the grounds that basic principles such as civil rights were not being upheld during the war. African Americans and Latinos expressed increasingly greater disapproval of the war than whites during its later stages.<ref>Scott Sigmund Gartner and Gary M. Segura. (2000, February). "Race, Casualties, and Opinion in the Vietnam War". ''The Journal of Politics'', 138.</ref> | |||
=== Laos operation revealed === | === Laos operation revealed === | ||
The previously secret two-week U.S. penetration into Laos in February |
The previously secret two-week U.S. penetration into Laos in February 1969, which was part of ] (primarily taking place in South Vietnam at the time), became a controversial subject at this event since the Pentagon had only days before denied that any American troops had crossed the Laotian border and carried out military operations. Five veterans from the ] who had returned from the war were present at the WSI and refuted the claims of the Pentagon. They described their secret operations in Laos and also revealed that they were given meticulous orders to hide the fact that they were American including, but not limited to, the removal of identification from uniforms and switching to Russian arms that were typically used by the PAVN. They were also ordered to deny all knowledge of involvement of American troops in Laos. A Marine Corps spokesman persisted in issuing a statement at the WSI saying, "no platoons or any large number of Marines ever crossed the border." This quickly prompted investigations by American media such as the ''Detroit Free Press'', '']'' and '']'', which were successful in turning up testimonies from other veterans that they had crossed into Laos throughout a 16-month period extending through all of 1971, well past the enactment of the ] forbidding such actions and which had come into effect in January 1971.<ref name="Gerald Nicosia 2004, Page 84-89"/> On March 27, 1974, Senator Harold Hughes informed the Senate that several witnesses had testified to the ] about U.S. combat forces entering Laos and Cambodia after they were forbidden to do so. Department of Defense white papers revealed thirteen platoon-sized operations in Laos between January 1971 and April 1972.<ref>''San Francisco Chronicle'', March 28, 1974, pp. 33–34</ref> | ||
== Winter Soldier results == | == Winter Soldier results == | ||
Immediately following the WSI, Senator ] and Representative ] announced that they were calling for congressional investigations based on the testimony. This announcement was received with skepticism by the veterans, but VVAW representatives agreed to meet with McGovern and Conyers.<ref>Peter Michelson; "Bringing the War Home", ''The New Republic'', February 27, 1971; p. 21</ref> | |||
=== Senator Hatfield's Address to Congress === | |||
=== Senator Hatfield's address to Congress === | |||
On Monday, ], ], Senator ] of ] addressed the WSI allegation made in Detroit that war crimes were the result of military policy and racism was widespread in the armed forces. Hatfield noted that some of these allegations, specifically of war crimes, would place the United States in Violation of the ] and international laws of war. | |||
Senator Hatfield made several recommendations. He asked that a transcript of the Winter Soldier Investigation be read into the Congressional record and made available to the public. Hatfield also asked congress to hold hearings discussing the use of military force in Vietnam and their relation to international agreements our country has ratified. He sent the testimony to the Department of Defense, the Department of State asked Marine Commandant, ], to investigate the allegations. He also recommend consideration be given to forming a special commission that would look into these issues and provide a forum to determine the moral consequence of American involvement in Vietnam. | |||
On Monday, April 5, 1971, Senator ] of ] addressed the WSI allegation made in Detroit that war crimes were the result of military policy and racism was widespread in the armed forces. Hatfield noted that some of these allegations, specifically of war crimes, would place the United States in violation of the ] and international laws of war. | |||
=== Media coverage === | |||
Senator Hatfield made several recommendations. He asked that a transcript of the Winter Soldier Investigation be read into the Congressional record and made available to the public. Hatfield also asked congress to hold hearings discussing the use of military force in Vietnam and their relation to international agreements ratified by the United States legislature. He sent the testimony to the Department of Defense, the Department of State asked Marine Commandant, ], to investigate the allegations. He recommended consideration be given to forming a special commission that would look into these issues and provide a forum to determine the moral consequences of American involvement in Vietnam. | |||
Mainstream media all but ignored the Winter Soldier Investigation. The East Coast papers refused to cover the hearings, other than a '']'' story a week later. The local field reporter for the ''Times'', Jerry M. Flint, commented with disinterest, "this stuff happens in all wars." In a February 7, 1971 article he wrote that "much of what they said had been reported or televised before, even from Vietnam. What was different here was the number of veterans present." Several of the VVAW representatives speculated that there was an "official censorship blackout," and they would express this theory later in their newsletter. A few articles that were sympathetic to the veterans appeared in lesser-known publications, and ], known for its left-wing perspective, gave the event considerable coverage. The CBS television crew that showed up were impressed, but only three minutes made it to the nightly news on the first night -- three minutes that were "mostly irrelevant to the subject," according to VVAW. {{ref|anon}} | |||
On April 22, 1971, John Kerry testified before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee during their hearings on the Vietnam war, and made reference to evidence brought forth by veterans at the WSI.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131216174458/https://facultystaff.richmond.edu/~ebolt/history398/JohnKerryTestimony.html |date=December 16, 2013 }} Editorial Notes by Dr. Ernest Bolt, University of Richmond.</ref> He covered some of the actions of Americans in Vietnam, saying “We rationalized destroying villages in order to save them...We learned the meaning of free fire zones, shooting anything that moves, and we watched while America placed a cheapness on the lives of Orientals. We watched the U.S. falsification of body counts, in fact the glorification of body counts...We fought using weapons against those people which I do not believe this country would dream of using were we fighting in the European theater or let us say a non-third-world people theater, and so we watched while men charged up hills because a general said that hill has to be taken, and after losing one platoon or two platoons they marched away to leave the high for the reoccupation by the North Vietnamese because we watched pride allow the most unimportant of battles to be blown into extravaganzas, because we couldn't lose, and we couldn't retreat, and because it didn't matter how many American bodies were lost to prove that point.”<ref>{{Citation |title=The Winter Soldier Investigation (Part K) |url=http://americanarchive.org/catalog/cpb-aacip-27-gt5fb4x113 |access-date=2023-08-16 |others=WYSO FM 91 3 Public Radio |place=Yellow Springs, Ohio |publisher=WYSO |language=en}}</ref> | |||
The '']'' printed several stories about the event, including comments from the military. This included confirmation by the Pentagon that WSI participants investigated by reporters were indeed Vietnam veterans. The Pentagons denials of large scale U.S. activity in Laos was reported as well, until reporters learned from several marines not involved with WSI that operations in Laos had been conducted. | |||
=== Media coverage === | |||
The words of the participants have been permanently recorded in the Congressional Record. Portions of the testimony, as well as some photos of the event, appear in a book produced by the Vietnam Veterans Against the War and John Kerry entitled ''The New Soldier''. | |||
Mainstream media all but ignored the Winter Soldier Investigation. The East Coast papers refused to cover the hearings, other than a '']'' story a week later. The local field reporter for the ''Times'', Jerry M. Flint, commented with uninterest, "this stuff happens in all wars." In a February 7, 1971 article he wrote that "much of what they said had been reported or televised before, even from Vietnam. What was different here was the number of veterans present." Several of the VVAW representatives speculated that there was an "official censorship blackout," and they would express this theory later in their newsletter.{{citation needed|date=January 2020}} | |||
In addition, film footage of the event, as well as some pre-event and post-event footage, and commentary can be found in ''Winter Soldier: A film'' / ] in association with ]. Winterfilm, Inc., 1972. | |||
* Film version: 1972, B&W, 16mm, 93min. | |||
* Videotape: 1992, B&W with some color, 110 or 130 minutes | |||
* The ] consisted of: Fred Aranow, Nancy Baker, Joe Bangert, Rhetta Barron, Robert Fiore, David Gillis, David Grubin, Jeff Holstein, Barbara Jarvis, Al Kaupas, ], Mark Lenix, Michael Lesser, Nancy Miller, Lee Osborne, Lucy Massie Phenix, Roger Phenix, Benay Rubenstein, Michael Weil. | |||
A few articles that were sympathetic to the veterans appeared in lesser-known publications, and ], known for its left-wing perspective, gave the event considerable coverage. The ] television crew that showed up were impressed, but only three minutes made it to the nightly news on the first night—three minutes that were "mostly irrelevant to the subject", according to VVAW. {{ref|anon}} | |||
Despite significant fund raising efforts by supporters of the VVAW, the cost of the Winter Soldier Investigation event financially bankrupted the organization. Organizers of the event hoped to recoup some of their expenditures through the above mentioned book, film and recording deals. Orders were taken at the event for copies of the film footage, which was to be made available for $300. | |||
The ''Detroit Free Press'' printed several stories about the event, including comments from the military. This included confirmation by the Pentagon that WSI participants investigated by reporters were indeed Vietnam veterans. The Pentagon's denials of large scale U.S. activity in Laos was reported as well, until reporters learned from several marines not involved with WSI that operations in Laos had been conducted. | |||
In 2005, a website was established to spread information about this documentary and to spread information about further showings of the film (in the United States). | |||
The words of the participants have been permanently recorded in the Congressional Record.<ref>Congressional Record (92nd Congress, 1st Session) for Thursday, April 22, 1971, pp. 179–210</ref> Portions of the testimony, as well as some photos of the event, appear in a book produced by the Vietnam Veterans Against the War and John Kerry entitled ''The New Soldier''. | |||
=== Winter Soldier controversy === | |||
{{wikiquote}} | |||
In addition, film footage of the event, as well as some pre-event and post-event footage, and commentary can be found in ''Winter Soldier: A film'' / ] in association with Vietnam Veterans Against the War. Winterfilm, Inc., 1972. | |||
Veteran Steve Pitkin, who was 20 years old at the time, has claimed that he was not originally planning to testify at the WSI, but came to Detroit to support his fellow veterans and listen to live music. Pitkin says he was asked by event leaders to speak on the second day of the event. On the panel Pitkin criticized the press for its coverage of the war, and detailed what he considered poor training for combat in Vietnam, and low morale he claimed to have witnessed while there. Pitkin is quoted as saying he was later contacted by a reporter for Life Magazine who asked about war crimes and atrocities. "I didn’t tell him what he wanted to hear," Pitkin is quoted as saying, and nothing he claims to have said was included in the final story. In August, 2004, 33 years after the Winter Soldier Investigation and during the 2004 presidential campaign season, Pitkin signed an affidavit stating "John Kerry and other leaders of that event pressured me to testify about American war crimes, despite my repeated statements that I could not honestly do so." | |||
* Film version: 1972, B&W, 16 mm, 93 min. | |||
* Videotape: 1992, B&W with some color, 110 or 130 minutes | |||
* The ] consisted of: Fred Aranow, Nancy Baker, Joe Bangert, Rhetta Barron, Robert Fiore, David Gillis, ], Jeff Holstein, Barbara Jarvis, Al Kaupas, ], Mark Lenix, Michael Lesser, Nancy Miller, Lee Osborne, Lucy Massie Phenix, Roger Phenix, Benay Rubenstein, Michael Weil. | |||
A documentary film of the event, titled '']'', was first released in February 1972 at the Cinema 2 theater in the Whitney Museum in Manhattan, New York. In May 1972 it was reviewed at the Berlin and ]s.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071127125050/http://www.wintersoldierfilm.com/images/winter_soldier_presskit.pdf|date=2007-11-27}} The Winterfilm Collective Press Release</ref><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080205055050/http://www.wintersoldierfilm.com/reviews_051072_variety.htm |date=2008-02-05 }} May 10, 1972 Issue</ref> Due to the disturbing nature of the subject matter about an ongoing war, it got little distribution and support at that time and had been archived by its creators, collectively called the ].<ref name="Gerald Nicosia 2004, Page 84-89"/><ref>George Katsiaficas; ''Vietnam Documents: American and Vietnamese Views of the War''; M. E. Sharpe, Inc., 1992</ref><ref>Jonathan Curiel; ''San Francisco Chronicle'', September 2, 2005</ref> | |||
Upon hearing of these statements by Pitkin, another participant named Scott Camil filed his own affidavit refuting Pitkins statements. Pitkin has subsequently admitted his recollections were flawed, and has re-issued a second affidavit now reflecting a different date of discharge from the Army, different people traveling with him to the Winter Soldier event, and different circumstances under which he joined the VVAW . On September 15, 2004, Pitkin signed a second ] stating that he had been instructed by organizers to "publicly state that I had witnessed incidents of rape, brutality, atrocities and racism, knowing that such statements would necessarily be untrue". However, although he introduced himself by saying, "I'll testify about the beating of civilians and enemy personnel, destruction of villages, indiscriminate use of artillery, the general racism and the attitude of the American GI toward the Vietnamese," his actual testimony contained no such statements. | |||
In September 2005, it was re-released across the U.S. in small ] theatres. Most of the media reviews have regarded the film positively, with some calling it a "powerful" and "emotional" record of the era. The same year, a was established to spread information about this documentary and to spread information about further showings of the film (in the United States). <ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050929011721/http://www.alternet.org/movies/24437/ |date=2005-09-29 }}</ref> | |||
The U.S. participation in the Vietnam conflict was the source of much deeply divided sentiment among Americans. The Winter Soldier Investigation produced a conglomerate of testimony resulting in the implication and indictment of American leadership in criminal conduct, and thereby further drove a wedge between proponents and opponents of the war. Many people viewed the Winter Soldier proceedings with a critical eye, and questions have been raised about the testimony given at the Winter Soldier Investigation. Details in the testimonies have been questioned, as have the identities of participants, since the first day of the three day investigation. It has been claimed that participants were frauds; that they were told to not cooperate with later investigators; that their testimonies were inaccurate or just plain fabricated. <ref>Andrew E. Hunt; The Turning: A History of Vietnam Veterans Against the War; New York University Press, 1999; page 84</ref> | |||
Despite significant fund raising efforts by supporters of the VVAW, the cost of the Winter Soldier Investigation event financially ] the organization. Organizers of the event hoped to recoup some of their expenditures through the above-mentioned book, film and recording deals. Orders were taken at the event for copies of the film footage, which was to be made available for $300. | |||
For more than thirty years since the WSI, individuals and organizations have sought to discredit or at least minimize the painful revelations brought forth at that event. To date, no records of fraudulent participants or fraudulent testimony have been produced. <ref>Gerald Nicosia; Home to War: A History of the Vietnam Veterans' Movement; Carroll & Graf Publishers, 2004; Page 87, 108-109</ref> | |||
==Winter Soldier: Iraq & Afghanistan== | |||
== Footnotes == | |||
{{Main|Winter Soldier: Iraq & Afghanistan}} | |||
# {{note|anon}} ''Column Sixty-Eight''; February 1, 2002 (Article with excerpts from the book); {{cite book | author=Nicosia, Gerald | title=Home To War: A History Of The Vietnam Veterans' Movement | publisher=Crown | year=2001 | id=ISBN 0-8129-9103-6}} | |||
# {{note|chicago}} {{cite journal | author=Jackson, David | title=Foes lash Kerry for Vietnam War words | journal=Chicago Tribune | year=February 22, 2004 | volume= | issue= | pages= (Page 3) | url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/chi-0402220494feb22,1,6906503.story?page=3&ctrack=1&cset=true&coll=chi-newsnationworld-utl }} <font size="1">"Government officials today cannot verify that Naval Investigative Service report's existence. "We have not been able to confirm the existence of this report, but it's also possible that such records could have been destroyed or misplaced," said Naval Criminal Investigative Service public affairs specialist Paul O'Donnell. "I don't think Lewy is interested in presenting any of as truthful," said University of Richmond history professor Ernest Bolt. "He has an angle on the war as a whole." Bolt said it is impossible to tell whether Lewy fairly characterized the naval investigative report because no other historian had seen it. "He's using the points of their investigation that fit his purposes," Bolt said."</font>; | |||
# {{note|baltimore}}{{cite journal | author=Bowman, Tom | title=Kerry went from soldier to anti-war protester | journal=Baltimore Sun | year=Feb 14, 2004 | volume= | issue= | pages= 1A | url=http://kerrylibrary.invisionzone.com/index.php?showtopic=6&view=findpost&p=1357}} <font size="1">"Lewy said he does not recall if he saw a copy of the naval investigative report or was briefed on its contents. "I'm quite confident the information is authentic," he said."</font> | |||
] was an event organized in March 2008 by ], inspired by the Vietnam-era Winter Soldier Investigation, at which U.S. veterans provided accounts of their experiences in ] and ]. | |||
== See also == | |||
{{wikiquote}} | |||
*"]" - Documentary detailing John Kerry's participation in the Vietnam war and subsequent antiwar movement. | |||
*"]" - Briefly declassified (1994) and subsequently reclassified (c. 2002) documentary evidence compiled by a Pentagon task force detailing endemic war crimes. The files, prepared by Army investigators, substantiate 320 incidents, which include seven massacres from 1967 through 1971 in which at least 137 civilians died (not including My Lai), as well as 78 other attacks on noncombatants in which at least 57 were killed, 56 wounded and 15 sexually assaulted; in addition, 149 instances are documented in which U.S. soldiers tortured civilian detainees or prisoners of war. | |||
== |
== See also == | ||
{{Portal|Vietnam|United States}} | |||
* Full Congressional Record of Testimony online | |||
* ] | |||
* Columnist Rick Freedman on Winter Soldier | |||
* '']'' – Documentary recounting John Kerry's participation in the Vietnam war and subsequent antiwar movement. | |||
* Winter Soldier Viewpoints | |||
* ] | |||
* "Vietnam Vets Stand by Kerry Today" | |||
* ] | |||
* Re-released documentary of the event | |||
* ], book about soldier & sailor resistance during the Vietnam War | |||
* Second affidavit by Steve Pitkin | |||
* ] – Documentary evidence compiled by a Pentagon task force detailing war crimes committed by US troops. | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
== References == | == References == | ||
{{ |
{{reflist|30em}} | ||
== Further reading == | |||
* Kerry, John and Vietnam Veterans Against the War (1971). ''The New Soldier''. CA: Simon & Schuster. {{ISBN|0-02-073610-X}} | |||
* Nicosia, Gerald (2002). ''Home to War: A History of the Vietnam Veterans' Movement''. CA: Three Rivers Press. {{ISBN|0-609-80906-7}} | |||
* Lewy, Guenter (1978). ''America in Vietnam''. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-502391-9}}. {{ISBN|0-19-502732-9}} pbk. | |||
* Hunt, Andrew E. ''The Turning: A History of Vietnam Veterans Against the War''. New York: New York University Press, 1999. {{ISBN?}} | |||
==External links== | |||
{{wikiquote}} | |||
* Full Congressional Record of Testimony online | |||
* Winter Soldier Viewpoints | |||
* "Vietnam Vets Stand by Kerry Today" | |||
* Re-released documentary of the event | |||
* ] Affidavits by Steve Pitkin | |||
{{Anti-war}} | |||
== Further reading == | |||
{{Anti-Vietnam}} | |||
* Kerry, John & Vietnam Veterans Against the War (1971). ''The New Soldier''. CA: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-02-073610-X | |||
* Nicosia, Gerald (2002). ''Home to War: A History of the Vietnam Veterans' Movement''. CA: Three Rivers Press. ISBN 0-609-80906-7 | |||
* Lewy, Guenter (1978). ''America in Vietnam''. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-502391-9. ISBN 0-19-502732-9 pbk. | |||
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Latest revision as of 17:21, 12 December 2024
1971 anti-Vietnam War event in Detroit, Michigan For other uses, see Winter Soldier (disambiguation).Mass killings during the Vietnam War | |
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The "Winter Soldier Investigation" was a media event sponsored by the Vietnam Veterans Against the War (VVAW) from January 31, 1971, to February 2, 1971. It was intended to publicize war crimes and atrocities by the United States Armed Forces and their allies in the Vietnam War. The VVAW challenged the morality and conduct of the war by showing the direct relationship between military policies and war crimes in Vietnam. The three-day gathering of 109 veterans and 16 civilians took place in Detroit, Michigan. Discharged servicemen from each branch of the armed forces, as well as civilian contractors, medical personnel and academics, all gave testimony about war crimes they had committed or witnessed during the years 1963–1970.
With the exception of Pacifica Radio, the event was not covered extensively outside Detroit. However, several journalists and a film crew recorded the event, and a documentary film titled Winter Soldier was released in 1972. A complete transcript was later entered into the Congressional Record by Senator Mark Hatfield, and discussed in the Fulbright Hearings in April and May 1971, convened by Senator J. William Fulbright, chair of the United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations.
Background
Prompted by numerous investigations into war crimes such as the Russell Tribunal, National Veterans Inquiry and Citizens Commission of Inquiry (CCI), the Vietnam Veterans Against the War wanted to have a large scale public hearing. With the courts martial for the My Lai Massacre making front-page news, and the recent disclosure by members of the Central Intelligence Agency's Phoenix Program of its record of human rights violations in Vietnam, the VVAW was determined to expose a broad pattern of war crimes in Vietnam. The Winter Soldier Investigation (WSI) was intended to prove that massacres like the My Lai were not isolated and rare occurrences, but were instead the frequent and predictable result of official American war policy.
Organizers
The groundwork for what would become the Winter Soldier Investigation was laid by Jeremy Rifkin, Tod Ensign, Michael Uhl and Bob Johnson of CCI. In search of first-hand information on war crimes, they contacted the Vietnam Veterans Against the War and gained the support of VVAW co-founder Jan Crumb. During the summer of 1970, the CCI were approached by Al Hubbard who had become a full-time organizer with VVAW. Hubbard suggested that CCI combine their efforts with Jane Fonda, Rev. Dick Fernandez of Clergy and Laymen Concerned about Vietnam (CALCAV), Mark Lane, and Donald Duncan (who had previously testified at the Russell Tribunal in Denmark). An initial steering committee was formed, consisting of Duncan, Ensign, Fonda, Lane, Hubbard, Rifkin and Fernandez, and continued to organize the WSI through September, 1970.
Among the growing collective of organizers, differences of opinion and direction arose concerning the planned public event. VVAW leaders felt it should be an all-veteran event, to maintain its credibility. Less than three months into planning for the Winter Soldier Investigation, most of the Vietnam veteran organizers and Jeremy Rifkin had become adamant that WSI disassociate itself from Mark Lane. CCI staffers criticized Lane as being arrogant and sensationalistic, and said the book he was writing had "shoddy reporting in it." The CCI leaders refused to work with Lane further and gave the VVAW leaders a "Lane or us" ultimatum. VVAW did not want to lose the monetary support of Lane and Fonda, so the CCI split from the project. The following month, after caustic reviews of Lane's book by authors and a Vietnam expert, VVAW would also distance itself from Lane just one month before the event. Lane had recently published a book, Conversations with Americans, in which Lane relied on unverified interviews with thirty three servicemen, four of whom were later exposed as unreliable by Neil Sheehan in a New York Times book review. Leaders of VVAW feared involvement with Lane would tarnish the credibility of the WSI. A new steering committee was created without Lane, but he was allowed to continue with fundraising events and was available for legal counsel. The new six-member steering committee for WSI was composed of three national office leaders (Al Hubbard, Craig Scott Moore and Mike Oliver) and three members of the growing list of chapters (Art Flesch, Tim Butz, and William F. Crandell). Organizers hoped Lane would keep a low profile during the event, and he did, as he spent his time flying around the country defending his book. Ultimately, the WSI was an event produced by veterans only, without the need of "so-called experts" such as Lane and Fonda.
After the organizers of the national hearings separated into two groups, they each developed their own events. The CCI advanced its plans for a December event in Washington, D.C., while the WSI's new organizers continued with the original plan to hold its hearings in Detroit. The Washington, DC, event would be called the National Veterans Inquiry. The Detroit event would be called the Winter Soldier Investigation. Seven of the 142 total participants would provide testimony at both events.
The support of antiwar celebrities was considered crucial to generate both money and publicity. A series of benefit productions, Acting in Concert for Peace, were created and featured performances by Jane Fonda, Dick Gregory, Donald Sutherland and Barbara Dane. Two concerts by Crosby and Nash, as well as folk singer Phil Ochs, also raised funds.
The WSI also relied on considerable support from the Detroit community. Dean Robb and Ernie Goodman solicited donations from their fellow local attorneys and several clergymen arranged housing for the witnesses. In the words of the Director of Missions for the Detroit Metropolitan Council of Churches, Dr. John B Forsyth, "It is important that the public realize that American atrocities in Vietnam are an every day [sic] occurrence." The Secretary-Treasurer for the United Auto Workers, Emil Mazey and Michigan Secretary of State Richard Austin also helped raise funds for the event.
Purpose
The purpose of the Winter Soldier Investigation was to show that American policies in Vietnam had led to war crimes. In the words of one participant veteran, Donald Dzagulones,
"We gathered not to sensationalize our service but to decry the travesty that was Lt. William Calley's trial for the My Lai Massacre. The U.S. had established the principle of culpability with the Nuremberg trials of the Nazis. Following those principles, we held that if Calley were responsible, so were his superiors up the chain of command – even to the president. The causes of My Lai and the brutality of the Vietnam War were rooted in the policies of our government as executed by our military commanders."
The name "Winter Soldier Investigation" was proposed by Mark Lane, and was derived as a contrast to what Thomas Paine described as a "summer soldier" in his first American Crisis paper, written in December 1776. When future Senator and Secretary of State John Kerry, then a decorated Lieutenant in the Naval Reserve (Inactive), later spoke before a Senate Committee, he explained,
"We who have come here to Washington have come here because we feel we have to be winter soldiers now. We could come back to this country; we could be quiet; we could hold our silence; we could not tell what went on in Vietnam, but we feel because of what threatens this country, the fact that the crimes threaten it, not reds, and not redcoats but the crimes which we are committing that threaten it, that we have to speak out."
Planning
The collecting of testimony from veterans had begun under the auspice of the CCI the previous year, and it took almost two months of on-site planning in Detroit to organize the conference. Detroit was proposed by Fonda because of its central location in the American heartland, and the "blue-collar" social status of most of the residents. The steering committee set up a collective in a house on the industrial east side of Detroit with the help of Catholic antiwar activists; and five clergymen of different denominations, including the director of missions for the Detroit Metropolitan Council of Churches, offered housing for the witnesses.
The program consisted primarily of testimony, with 109 Vietnam veterans to appear on panels arranged by unit so they could corroborate each other's reports. Grouping these veterans by unit would also help to establish that events and practices to which they testified were unit-wide policy, and not just random and rare occurrences. Several civilian experts who had been to Vietnam were also to speak during this event. Arrangements had been made to include the testimony of several expatriated Vietnamese students residing in Canada, but they were denied visas to the United States by the Canadian government.
Organizers also investigated the legal implications of veterans publicly admitting to criminal acts which they had witnessed or participated in. With legal advice from the Center for Constitutional Rights, the organizers were assured that the armed forces could not charge or try veterans for crimes committed while they were on active duty. The veterans giving testimony were also instructed not to reveal the specific names of others involved in war crimes. The goal of these hearings was not to indict individual soldiers, but instead to expose the frequency of criminal behavior and its relationship to U.S. war policy.
Credibility of the veterans and their testimony
Critics have claimed that participants were frauds; that they were told to not cooperate with later investigators; that their testimonies were inaccurate or completely fabricated.
Verifying the participants
The organizers of the Winter Soldier Investigation took several steps to ensure the validity of the participants. Each veteran's authenticity was checked before the hearings by the investigation event organizers, and subsequently by reporters and United States Department of Defense (DoD) officials. In addition, they also gave specific details about their units and the locations where the events had occurred. Those who wanted to testify were carefully screened by the officers of VVAW, and care was taken to verify the service records and testimony of the veterans. After the severe criticism of the accuracy of Mark Lane's book about atrocities a month before the event, the organizers of the Winter Soldier Investigation made the credibility of the participants a top priority. As noted by one VVAW leader, "The lesson is that we'd better do our work right. We'd better talk to these vets and weed out the bullshitters so that we can't get set up, because we're going to come under attack. We're going to do this right." All veterans participating in Winter Soldier were required to bring their discharge papers (DD-214s) and IDs.
The identifying military affiliation of each veteran testifying, including in almost all cases, the dates of service, appears on the roster for each panel that was included with the testimony in the Congressional Record.
A later search of the service records of at least 2 of the participants found that they could not have been in the claimed location on the relevant date.
Verifying the testimony
The organizers had two primary concerns when considering the testimony they would use. They wanted testimony that would not allow the scapegoating of individuals when they were attempting to show what was being done in Vietnam was due to policy, not decisions by individual GIs. They also wanted the testimony to be accurate, and double and sometimes triple confirmed by others in the same units. Specific sets of questions were drafted by experienced combat vets to help verify that participants were not fabricating their stories or faking their knowledge, and that only the strongest testimony was used.
According to Army reports compiled by the Criminal Investigation Command (CID) and later reported by the Village Voice following declassification, the Army found the allegations made by 46 veterans at the hearings to merit further inquiry. As of March 1972, the CID reported successfully locating 36 of the people who had testified, 31 of whom submitted to interviews.
One WSI participant, Jamie Henry, had reported the massacre he described at the hearings to the Army, which investigated and subsequently confirmed his story. However, the details of the investigation were not made public until 2006, when the Los Angeles Times published the declassified information.
Efforts to discredit the WSI
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Months before the WSI event, the organizers anticipated heavy scrutiny and attacks on their credibility, and they prepared for it. Although military documentation was provided, some media organizations such as the Detroit News tried to discredit the hearings on the very first day of testimony by questioning the authenticity of the 109 testifying veterans. Discharge papers were examined; military records were checked against DoD records; after all their digging, it was claimed that not one fraudulent veteran was found. The Detroit Free Press reported daily of participants who had been confirmed by the DoD as veterans.
As noted in VVAW records, each veteran's authenticity and testimony were also checked shortly after the hearings by Nixon's "plumbers." Charles Colson was assigned the task. In a confidential "Plan to Counteract Viet Nam Veterans Against the War," Colson wrote, "The men that participated in the pseudo-atrocity hearings in Detroit will be checked to ascertain if they are genuine combat veterans." At one point, the Nixon team suggested in a memo about VVAW, "Several of their regional coordinators are former Kennedy supporters." VVAW was also targeted by the FBI for observation as a possible dissident organization.
The Nixon administration also attempted to rally pro-war veterans to counter VVAW. "What happened to the president's request that we take steps to mobilize veterans?" demanded White House Chief of Staff H. R. Haldeman to Colson just a few weeks after the WSI. "The President should know that we are continuing the effort to discredit VVAW," Colson assured Haldeman. Nixon aides formed the Vietnam Veterans for a Just Peace, according to Colson, as a "counterfoil" to Kerry and the VVAW, and they did everything they could to boost the group. John O'Neill, representing this group, made public appearances denouncing the antiwar veterans and promoting Nixon's Vietnamization policy. According to White House memos, Colson worked behind the scenes to get a Kerry-O'Neill debate on nationwide television. "Let's destroy this young demagogue before he becomes another Ralph Nader," he wrote, referring to Kerry.
Seven years after the hearings, writer Guenter Lewy claimed in his book, America in Vietnam, that allegations against Marines were investigated by the Naval Investigative Service. Lewy wrote that the report stated that some veterans contacted by the NIS said they did not attend the WSI hearing in Detroit or had never been to Detroit, and many refused to be interviewed. However, government officials have no record of the report and no other historian has seen it. Lewy later said that he could not recall if he had actually seen the alleged report or simply been told of its contents.
More than 30 years after the Winter Soldier Investigation, during the 2004 presidential campaign in which former VVAW spokesman and Navy veteran John Kerry was a candidate, the WSI was again in the news. Steve Pitkin, who participated at the investigation in 1971, now claimed just weeks before the presidential election at an anti-Kerry political rally that he was not originally planning to testify at the WSI, but was pressured by Kerry and others into testifying about rape, brutality, atrocities and racism. Pitkin also signed a 2004 affidavit making similar claims about Kerry, but after being challenged by other participants, admitted that his recollections were flawed. On 1971 archival film footage of the WSI panel, Pitkin criticized the press for its coverage of the war, and detailed what he considered poor training for combat in Vietnam, and low morale he claimed to have witnessed while there. Although he introduced himself by saying, "I'll testify about the beating of civilians and enemy personnel, destruction of villages, indiscriminate use of artillery, the general racism and the attitude of the American GI toward the Vietnamese," his actual testimony contained no such statements.
Upon hearing of these claims by Pitkin, another WSI participant named Scott Camil filed his own affidavit refuting Pitkin's statements. Pitkin has subsequently admitted his recollections were flawed, and has re-issued a second affidavit now reflecting a different date of discharge from the Army, different people traveling with him to the Winter Soldier event, and different circumstances under which he joined the VVAW.
Fritz Efaw, a Chapter Representative of VVAW, stated: "The claims that the WSI hearings contained falsified testimony from men who were not veterans is an old one, and it's definitely false. The testimony was startling even at the time it took place: startling to the general public, startling to the military and the Nixon administration and startling to those who participated because each of them knew a piece of the story, but the hearings brought a great many of them together for the first time and provided a venue in which they could be heard for the first time. It's hardly surprising that those on the other side would set out almost immediately to discredit them."
The U.S. participation in the Vietnam War was the source of much deeply divided sentiment among Americans. The Winter Soldier Investigation produced a conglomerate of testimony resulting in the implication and indictment of American leadership in criminal conduct, and thereby further drove a wedge between proponents and opponents of the war.
Winter Soldier panels
See Opening statement excerpt in Wikiquote
The three days of testimony was presented by unit:
- Sunday, January 31, there were speakers from the 1st Marine Division, 3rd Marine Division and 1st Cavalry Division
- Monday, February 1, from the 101st Airborne Division and 5th Special Forces
- Tuesday, February 2, from the 25th Infantry Division, 1st Infantry Division, 4th Infantry Division, 9th Infantry Division and Lieutenant Calley's 23rd Infantry (Americal) Division
Other veterans testified to the treatment they received when held captive as POWs by the Vietcong (VC). In contrast to accounts of mistreatment described by prisoners of the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) in the north, the former prisoners speaking at the WSI said they were never physically abused, except for some rough handling during their capture. The VC provided enough food and medical attention to sustain them, and in the particular case of Sgt. George E. Smith, he claims "I usually had more food than I could eat," although he would often grow ill from intolerance. Smith admitted fearing for his life when he heard Hanoi Radio broadcasts saying VC soldiers were being executed in Saigon and the VC was promising to execute Americans in retaliation. Shortly afterward, two American prisoners held in the same camp with Smith are believed to have been executed in reprisal. At a press conference when Smith was released after two years as a POW, he made statements in support of the VC and against US involvement in Vietnam, and immediately faced court-martial charges for violation of Article 104 of the Uniform Code of Military Justice (aiding the enemy). The charges were dropped due to insufficient evidence, and five years later at the WSI, Smith said that he stood by his statements.
In addition to the testimony panels, the veterans also held open discussions on related subjects such as "What We Are Doing to Vietnam", "What We Are Doing to Ourselves", violations of international law, Prisoners of War, racism in the military, and also press censorship. Dr. Bert Pfeiffer of the University of Montana presented the first public testimony about the potential toxicity and health effects of the chemical Agent Orange. A special panel of psychiatrists was convened, many of whom had served in Vietnam, to discuss the impact of the war on American society. Midway through the hearings, the organizers insisted that no one make statements on behalf of the Vietnam veterans except for vets. It was presumed by reporters that this was to separate the participation of veterans from that of people like Mark Lane.
Testimony from veterans
Testimony given during the three-day event covered both broad policy concerns, such as the use of chemical agents, indiscriminate bombing and free-fire zones as well as more specific and unusual war crime incidents, including rape, torture and desecration of the dead. The testifying veterans were usually grouped by branch of military service and geographic location of service. Before launching into their detailed testimony, each gave a brief statement of personal information including rank, division, unit, length of service and a summary of what their testimony would cover. While only 109 veterans gave testimony, over 700 veterans attended the hearing. Excerpts from the testimony transcripts:
- Stephen Craig: "...My testimony covers the maltreatment of prisoners, the suspects actually, and a convoy running down an old woman with no reason at all..."
- Rusty Sachs: "...my testimony concerns the leveling of villages for no valid reason, throwing Viet Cong suspects from the aircraft after binding them and gagging them with copper wire..."
- Scott Camil: "...My testimony involves burning of villages with civilians in them, the cutting off of ears, cutting off of heads, torturing of prisoners, calling in of artillery on villages for games, corpsmen killing wounded prisoners..."
- Kenneth Campbell: "...My testimony will consist of eyewitnessing and participating in the calling in of artillery on undefended villages, mutilation of bodies, killing of civilians, mistreatment of civilians..."
- Fred Nienke: "...My testimony includes killing of non-combatants, destruction of Vietnamese property and livestock, use of chemical agents and the use of torture in interpreting prisoners..."
After giving their brief initial statements, a moderator had each of them elaborate upon their testimony, and then the press and observers were given time to ask questions of the veterans.
What are we doing to ourselves? Panel
During the “What are we doing to ourselves?” panel, Dr. Robert J. Lifton spoke of the psychological impact the events in Vietnam had on returning soldiers. He pointed out how rampant disapproval was for the war and highlighted how that affected returning veteran:
So the returning veteran, who has a psychological need, as he returns from any war, to make his difficult transition into civilian life by in some way giving significance to what he did in his war, has no such opportunity, because he can't, in any way, inwardly approve of what he has done in this war. Nor can the rest of society find sources of pride for him or acceptance or necessity about this war. Both the veteran and the larger society see him the taint of this filthy, unnecessary, immoral war.
Racism and Third World Panels
Two of the discussion panels conducted with veterans during the Winter Soldier Investigations centered on racism in the American military. These panels addressed one source of resentment towards the Vietnam War by black soldiers, as "African Americans and Latinos paid a higher human price for the war". Studies have shown that black soldiers suffered disproportionately more casualties than white soldiers at the beginning of the war. Black veterans testifying at the WSI intended to show that racism by the U.S. military toward the Vietnamese, as well as toward non-whites within the military, were both extensions of the racism present in American society. Many veterans testified that black soldiers were demeaned by platoon leaders and refusal to comply to orders often led to beatings and starvation, and black soldiers were intentionally endangered by being placed as "point, rearguards, and side-guards". As a result of the attention brought to the significant disparity between white and black soldiers assigned to, and dying in, combat units, Pentagon officials implemented cutbacks in the number of blacks in combat positions. The fact that this racial inequality was taking place during the height of the Civil Rights Movement in the United States was of great significance.
African Americans were not the only ones subject to discrimination during the war. The American military portrayed Asians as "sub-human" as a means of providing justification for killing children and civilians. This notion was also projected into medical treatment of soldiers and POWs. Non-white patients were reported to have been operated on without anesthetic on several occasions. There is a specific case where the driver for a Medical Battalion describes incidents where Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) soldiers were treated without anesthetic. He recalls filling a syringe with anesthetic and setting it beside the doctor, only to later find out that it was never used when hearing the patient screaming.
The testimony given by the soldiers during the racism panel of the WSI was presented as evidence that the veterans were justified in their disapproval of the war, on the grounds that basic principles such as civil rights were not being upheld during the war. African Americans and Latinos expressed increasingly greater disapproval of the war than whites during its later stages.
Laos operation revealed
The previously secret two-week U.S. penetration into Laos in February 1969, which was part of Operation Dewey Canyon (primarily taking place in South Vietnam at the time), became a controversial subject at this event since the Pentagon had only days before denied that any American troops had crossed the Laotian border and carried out military operations. Five veterans from the 3rd Marine Regiment who had returned from the war were present at the WSI and refuted the claims of the Pentagon. They described their secret operations in Laos and also revealed that they were given meticulous orders to hide the fact that they were American including, but not limited to, the removal of identification from uniforms and switching to Russian arms that were typically used by the PAVN. They were also ordered to deny all knowledge of involvement of American troops in Laos. A Marine Corps spokesman persisted in issuing a statement at the WSI saying, "no platoons or any large number of Marines ever crossed the border." This quickly prompted investigations by American media such as the Detroit Free Press, St. Louis Post-Dispatch and The Boston Globe, which were successful in turning up testimonies from other veterans that they had crossed into Laos throughout a 16-month period extending through all of 1971, well past the enactment of the Cooper–Church Amendment forbidding such actions and which had come into effect in January 1971. On March 27, 1974, Senator Harold Hughes informed the Senate that several witnesses had testified to the Senate Armed Services Committee about U.S. combat forces entering Laos and Cambodia after they were forbidden to do so. Department of Defense white papers revealed thirteen platoon-sized operations in Laos between January 1971 and April 1972.
Winter Soldier results
Immediately following the WSI, Senator George McGovern and Representative John Conyers announced that they were calling for congressional investigations based on the testimony. This announcement was received with skepticism by the veterans, but VVAW representatives agreed to meet with McGovern and Conyers.
Senator Hatfield's address to Congress
On Monday, April 5, 1971, Senator Mark Hatfield of Oregon addressed the WSI allegation made in Detroit that war crimes were the result of military policy and racism was widespread in the armed forces. Hatfield noted that some of these allegations, specifically of war crimes, would place the United States in violation of the Geneva Convention and international laws of war.
Senator Hatfield made several recommendations. He asked that a transcript of the Winter Soldier Investigation be read into the Congressional record and made available to the public. Hatfield also asked congress to hold hearings discussing the use of military force in Vietnam and their relation to international agreements ratified by the United States legislature. He sent the testimony to the Department of Defense, the Department of State asked Marine Commandant, Leonard F. Chapman, Jr., to investigate the allegations. He recommended consideration be given to forming a special commission that would look into these issues and provide a forum to determine the moral consequences of American involvement in Vietnam.
On April 22, 1971, John Kerry testified before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee during their hearings on the Vietnam war, and made reference to evidence brought forth by veterans at the WSI. He covered some of the actions of Americans in Vietnam, saying “We rationalized destroying villages in order to save them...We learned the meaning of free fire zones, shooting anything that moves, and we watched while America placed a cheapness on the lives of Orientals. We watched the U.S. falsification of body counts, in fact the glorification of body counts...We fought using weapons against those people which I do not believe this country would dream of using were we fighting in the European theater or let us say a non-third-world people theater, and so we watched while men charged up hills because a general said that hill has to be taken, and after losing one platoon or two platoons they marched away to leave the high for the reoccupation by the North Vietnamese because we watched pride allow the most unimportant of battles to be blown into extravaganzas, because we couldn't lose, and we couldn't retreat, and because it didn't matter how many American bodies were lost to prove that point.”
Media coverage
Mainstream media all but ignored the Winter Soldier Investigation. The East Coast papers refused to cover the hearings, other than a New York Times story a week later. The local field reporter for the Times, Jerry M. Flint, commented with uninterest, "this stuff happens in all wars." In a February 7, 1971 article he wrote that "much of what they said had been reported or televised before, even from Vietnam. What was different here was the number of veterans present." Several of the VVAW representatives speculated that there was an "official censorship blackout," and they would express this theory later in their newsletter.
A few articles that were sympathetic to the veterans appeared in lesser-known publications, and Pacifica Radio, known for its left-wing perspective, gave the event considerable coverage. The CBS television crew that showed up were impressed, but only three minutes made it to the nightly news on the first night—three minutes that were "mostly irrelevant to the subject", according to VVAW.
The Detroit Free Press printed several stories about the event, including comments from the military. This included confirmation by the Pentagon that WSI participants investigated by reporters were indeed Vietnam veterans. The Pentagon's denials of large scale U.S. activity in Laos was reported as well, until reporters learned from several marines not involved with WSI that operations in Laos had been conducted.
The words of the participants have been permanently recorded in the Congressional Record. Portions of the testimony, as well as some photos of the event, appear in a book produced by the Vietnam Veterans Against the War and John Kerry entitled The New Soldier.
In addition, film footage of the event, as well as some pre-event and post-event footage, and commentary can be found in Winter Soldier: A film / Winterfilm Collective in association with Vietnam Veterans Against the War. Winterfilm, Inc., 1972.
- Film version: 1972, B&W, 16 mm, 93 min.
- Videotape: 1992, B&W with some color, 110 or 130 minutes
- The Winterfilm Collective consisted of: Fred Aranow, Nancy Baker, Joe Bangert, Rhetta Barron, Robert Fiore, David Gillis, David Grubin, Jeff Holstein, Barbara Jarvis, Al Kaupas, Barbara Kopple, Mark Lenix, Michael Lesser, Nancy Miller, Lee Osborne, Lucy Massie Phenix, Roger Phenix, Benay Rubenstein, Michael Weil.
A documentary film of the event, titled Winter Soldier, was first released in February 1972 at the Cinema 2 theater in the Whitney Museum in Manhattan, New York. In May 1972 it was reviewed at the Berlin and Cannes Film Festivals. Due to the disturbing nature of the subject matter about an ongoing war, it got little distribution and support at that time and had been archived by its creators, collectively called the Winterfilm Collective.
In September 2005, it was re-released across the U.S. in small art house theatres. Most of the media reviews have regarded the film positively, with some calling it a "powerful" and "emotional" record of the era. The same year, a website was established to spread information about this documentary and to spread information about further showings of the film (in the United States).
Despite significant fund raising efforts by supporters of the VVAW, the cost of the Winter Soldier Investigation event financially bankrupted the organization. Organizers of the event hoped to recoup some of their expenditures through the above-mentioned book, film and recording deals. Orders were taken at the event for copies of the film footage, which was to be made available for $300.
Winter Soldier: Iraq & Afghanistan
Main article: Winter Soldier: Iraq & AfghanistanWinter Soldier: Iraq & Afghanistan was an event organized in March 2008 by Iraq Veterans Against the War, inspired by the Vietnam-era Winter Soldier Investigation, at which U.S. veterans provided accounts of their experiences in Iraq and Afghanistan.
See also
- Rape during the Vietnam War
- Going Upriver – Documentary recounting John Kerry's participation in the Vietnam war and subsequent antiwar movement.
- GI Coffeehouses
- GI Underground Press
- Soldiers in Revolt: GI Resistance During the Vietnam War, book about soldier & sailor resistance during the Vietnam War
- Vietnam War Crimes Working Group – Documentary evidence compiled by a Pentagon task force detailing war crimes committed by US troops.
- Detroit Committee to End the War in Vietnam
- Vietnam Veterans Against the War
References
- ^ Richard Stacewicz; Winter Soldiers: An Oral History of the Vietnam Veterans Against the War; Twayne Publishers, 1997; p. 234
- James Olson; Dictionary of the Vietnam War; Peter Bedrick Books, 1988; p. 489
- Day Two testimony, POW Panel Transcript and Panel Members, The Sixties Project Archived 2007-12-13 at the Wayback Machine
- Archived 2008-03-22 at the Wayback Machine Complete WSI transcript; The Sixties Project
- Hunt, Andrew E. (2001). The Turning: A History of Vietnam Veterans Against the War. New York University Press. pp. 55–58. ISBN 978-0-8147-3635-7. Archived from the original on 2021-05-24. Retrieved 2011-06-29.
- ^ Richard Stacewicz; Winter Soldiers: An Oral History of the Vietnam Veterans Against the War; Twayne Publishers, 1997; pp. 235–237
- Gerald Nicosia; Home to War: A History of the Vietnam Veterans' Movement; Carroll & Graf Publishers, 2004, pp. 74–75
- Andrew E. Hunt; The Turning: A History of Vietnam Veterans Against the War; New York University Press, 1999; pp. 63, 67
- Review of Conversations With Americans, The New York Times Book Review, December 27, 1970 by Neil Sheehan
- Andrew E. Hunt; The Turning: A History of Vietnam Veterans Against the War; New York University Press, 1999; pp. 63–67
- ^ Gerald Nicosia; Home to War: A History of the Vietnam Veterans' Movement; Carroll & Graf Publishers, 2004, pp. 84–89
- William F. Crandell. What Did America Learn from the Winter Soldier Investigation? Archived 2007-08-14 at the Wayback Machine
- Andrew E. Hunt; The Turning: A History of Vietnam Veterans Against the War; New York University Press, 1999; p. 67
- "What Did America Learn from the Winter Soldier Investigation?, William F. Crandell". www2.iath.virginia.edu.
- Andrew E. Hunt; The Turning: A History of Vietnam Veterans Against the War; New York University Press, 1999; p. 59
- "C-SPAN: Vote 2004". Archived from the original on 2009-12-06. Retrieved 2009-09-05.
- Gerald Nicosia; Home to War: A History of the Vietnam Veterans' Movement; Carroll & Graf Publishers, 2004, p. 90
- Andrew E. Hunt; The Turning: A History of Vietnam Veterans Against the War; New York University Press, 1999; pp. 58, 62
- Gerald Nicosia; Home to War: A History of the Vietnam Veterans' Movement; Carroll & Graf Publishers, 2004, pp. 82–83
- Andrew E. Hunt, The Turning: A History of Vietnam Veterans Against the War; New York University Press, 1999, p. 84
- "Winter Soldier Investigation: Table of Contents". www2.iath.virginia.edu.
- Dougan, Clark; Lipsman, Samuel (1984). the Vietnam Experience A Nation Divided. Boston Publishing Company. p. 178. ISBN 0939526115.
- ^ Richard Stacewicz; Winter Soldiers: An Oral History of the Vietnam Veterans Against the War; Twayne Publishers, 1997; pp. 237–238
- Swift Boat Swill Archived 2005-09-01 at the Wayback Machine Village Voice; Nicholas Turse; September 14, 2004
- "Winter Soldier Investigation: 3d Marine Division, Part I". Lists.village.virginia.edu. Archived from the original on 2008-02-05. Retrieved 2014-01-31.
- "Civilian Killings went Unpunished" Archived 2008-02-05 at the Wayback Machine Los Angeles Times; Nicholas Turse and Deborah Nelson; August 6, 2006
- Detroit Free Press; "Probe Sought on Atrocity Charges"; February 2, 1971; pp. 1, 4A
- Andrew E. Hunt; The Turning: A History of Vietnam Veterans Against the War; New York University Press, 1999; p. 73
- Andrew E. Hunt; The Turning: A History of Vietnam Veterans Against the War; New York University Press, 1999; p. 84
- "After Decades, Renewed War on Old Conflict" Archived 2017-12-17 at the Wayback Machine The Washington Post; Michael Dobbs; August 28, 2004
- Jackson, David (February 22, 2004). "Foes lash Kerry for Vietnam War words". Chicago Tribune: 3. Archived from the original on 2014-02-02. Retrieved 2013-09-08. "Government officials today cannot verify that Naval Investigative Service report's existence. "We have not been able to confirm the existence of this report, but it's also possible that such records could have been destroyed or misplaced," said Naval Criminal Investigative Service public affairs specialist Paul O'Donnell. "I don't think Lewy is interested in presenting any of as truthful," said University of Richmond history professor Ernest Bolt. "He has an angle on the war as a whole." Bolt said it is impossible to tell whether Lewy fairly characterized the naval investigative report because no other historian had seen it. "He's using the points of their investigation that fit his purposes," Bolt said."
- Bowman, Tom (Feb 14, 2004). "Kerry went from soldier to anti-war protester". Baltimore Sun: 1A.
- Kerry went from Soldier to Anti-war protester; Tom Bowman, The Baltimore Sun; February 14, 2004 Archive link
- "Foes lash Kerry for Vietnam War words"; David Jackson, Chicago Tribune; February 22, 2004; p. 3A
- Wildau, Gabe (September 13, 2004). "Stolen Honor producer Sherwood falsely claimed Winter Soldier investigation "utterly discredited"". Media Matters. Archived from the original on September 14, 2004. Retrieved October 5, 2009.
- Rejali, Darius. Torture and Democracy. Princeton University Press, 2007, p. 588.
- San Francisco Bay Guardian Coldest 'Winter' ever
- "Vietnam Vets face off over Kerry" Archived 2016-01-13 at the Wayback Machine Oakland Tribune
- "Bio, Smith, George E. "Smitty"". www.pownetwork.org.
- "Winter Soldier Investigation: Prisoner of War Panel, Part I". www2.iath.virginia.edu.
- Congressional Record: Proceedings and Debates of the 92nd Congress, First Session. U.S. Government Printing Office. 1971.
- ^ Scott Sigmund Gartner and Gary M. Segura. (2000, February). Race, Casualties, and Opinion in the Vietnam War; The Journal of Politics; pp. 115–116
- ^ William Light, Third World Panel. Winter Soldier Investigations, The Sixties Project. Archived 2010-10-08 at the Wayback Machine
- Allan Akers, Third Marine Division. Winter Soldier Investigations, The Sixties Project. Archived 2014-12-02 at the Wayback Machine
- Henry E. Darby and Margaret N. Rowley. (1st Qtr, 1986). King on Vietnam and Beyond. The Phylon Quarterly (1960–), 43
- Patriots: The Vietnam War Remembered from All Sides; Appy, Christian G.; Penguin Books Ltd.; 2003; pp. 354–355
- Scott Shimabukuro, Racism Panel. Winter Soldier Investigations, The Sixties Project. Archived 2014-12-02 at the Wayback Machine
- Dave Fortin, Racism Panel. Winter Soldier Investigations, The Sixties Project. Archived 2010-10-08 at the Wayback Machine
- Scott Sigmund Gartner and Gary M. Segura. (2000, February). "Race, Casualties, and Opinion in the Vietnam War". The Journal of Politics, 138.
- San Francisco Chronicle, March 28, 1974, pp. 33–34
- Peter Michelson; "Bringing the War Home", The New Republic, February 27, 1971; p. 21
- Vietnam War Veteran John Kerry's Testimony Before The Senate Foreign Relations Committee, April 22, 1971. Archived December 16, 2013, at the Wayback Machine Editorial Notes by Dr. Ernest Bolt, University of Richmond.
- The Winter Soldier Investigation (Part K), WYSO FM 91 3 Public Radio, Yellow Springs, Ohio: WYSO, retrieved 2023-08-16
{{citation}}
: CS1 maint: others (link) - Congressional Record (92nd Congress, 1st Session) for Thursday, April 22, 1971, pp. 179–210
- Winter Soldier leaflet Archived 2007-11-27 at the Wayback Machine The Winterfilm Collective Press Release
- Variety review Archived 2008-02-05 at the Wayback Machine May 10, 1972 Issue
- George Katsiaficas; Vietnam Documents: American and Vietnamese Views of the War; M. E. Sharpe, Inc., 1992
- Jonathan Curiel; San Francisco Chronicle, September 2, 2005
- Winter Soldiers' Stories Archived 2005-09-29 at the Wayback Machine
Further reading
- Kerry, John and Vietnam Veterans Against the War (1971). The New Soldier. CA: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-02-073610-X
- Nicosia, Gerald (2002). Home to War: A History of the Vietnam Veterans' Movement. CA: Three Rivers Press. ISBN 0-609-80906-7
- Lewy, Guenter (1978). America in Vietnam. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-502391-9. ISBN 0-19-502732-9 pbk.
- Hunt, Andrew E. The Turning: A History of Vietnam Veterans Against the War. New York: New York University Press, 1999.
External links
- Winter Soldier Investigation Testimony Full Congressional Record of Testimony online
- VVAW Archives Winter Soldier Viewpoints
- Baltimore Sun Article "Vietnam Vets Stand by Kerry Today"
- Wintersoldierfilm.com Re-released documentary of the event
- Pitkin's two affidavits Affidavits by Steve Pitkin
- 1971 in Michigan
- 1971 in military history
- 1971 protests
- January 1971 events in the United States
- February 1971 events in the United States
- Vietnam War crimes committed by the United States
- Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War
- Anti-war protests
- Torture in the Vietnam War
- 1971 in Detroit
- Resistance Inside the Army