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{{short description|French politician (1756–1794)}}
{{about|the French politician|the Haitian revolutionary leader|Alexandre Pétion}} {{about|the French politician|the Haitian revolutionary leader|Alexandre Pétion}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2014}} {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2022}}
{{Infobox Mayor {{Infobox officeholder
|honorific-prefix = |honorific-prefix =
|name = Jérôme Pétion de Villeneuve |name = Jérôme Pétion de Villeneuve
|honorific-suffix = |honorific-suffix =
|image =Jérôme Pétion de Villeneuve.jpg |image =Jérôme Petion de Villeneuve.jpg
|caption =Jérôme Pétion de Villeneuve |caption =Portrait by ]
| office = 1st ] | office = 1st ]
| term_start = 20 September 1792 | term_start = 20 September 1792
| term_end = 4 October 1792 | term_end = 4 October 1792
| predecessor = ] (provisional) | predecessor = ] (King of France)
| successor = ] | successor = ]
|order2 = |order2 =
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'''Jérôme Pétion de Villeneuve''' ({{IPA|fr|ʒeʁom petjɔ̃ də vilnœv}}; 3 January 1756 – 18 June 1794) was a ] writer and politician who served as the second ], from 1791 to 1792, and the first regular ] in 1792.<ref>{{Cite web |last=History |first=Alpha |date=2015-04-02 |title=Jerome Pétion |url=https://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/jerome-petion/ |access-date=2024-12-13 |website=French Revolution |language=en-US}}</ref> During the ], he was associated with the moderate ], and voted against the immediate ] at ] in January 1793, though he supported a suspended sentence. This led to Pétion's proscription by the Convention alongside other Girondin deputies following the radical ], and ultimately his suicide together with fellow-Girondin ] while evading arrest during the ].
'''Jérôme Pétion de Villeneuve''' (3 January 1756 in ], France – 18 June 1794 in ] (near ])) was a French writer and politician who served as the second ], from 1791 to 1792.


==Early life and work== ==Early life and work==
Jérôme Pétion de Villeneuve was the son of a ''{{lang|fr|procureur}}'' at ]. Though it is known that he was trained as a lawyer, very few specifics are known about Petion's early life, as he was virtually unknown prior to the French Revolution.<ref>John Adolphus, Biographical Memoirs of the French Revolution (T. Cadell, jun. and W. Davies, 1799), 328.</ref> He became a lawyer in 1778, and at once began to try to make a name in literature. His first printed work was an essay, ''{{lang|fr|Sur les moyens de prévenir l'infanticide}}'', which failed to gain the prize for which it was composed, but pleased ] so much that he printed it in vol. vii. of his ''{{lang|fr|Bibliothèque philosophique des législateurs}}''. Jérôme Pétion de Villeneuve was the son of a ] at ]. Though it is known that he was trained as a lawyer, very few specifics are known about Petion's early life, as he was virtually unknown prior to the French Revolution.<ref>John Adolphus, Biographical Memoirs of the French Revolution (T. Cadell, jun. and W. Davies, 1799), 328.</ref> He became a lawyer in 1778, and at once began to try to make a name in literature. His first printed work was an essay, ''{{lang|fr|Sur les moyens de prévenir l'infanticide}}'', which failed to gain the prize for which it was composed, but pleased ] so much that he printed it in vol. vii. of his ''{{lang|fr|Bibliothèque philosophique des législateurs}}''.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}


Pétion's next works, ''{{lang|fr|Les Lois civiles}}'', and ''{{lang|fr|Essais sur le mariage}}'', in which he advocated the marriage of priests, confirmed his position as a bold reformer. He also attacked long-held ] traditions such as ], accusing it of dividing the countryside into "proletarians and colossal properties."<ref>John Markoff, "Peasants Help Destroy an Old Regime and Defy a New One: Some Lessons from (and for) the Study of Social Movements,” The American Journal of Sociology 102, 4 (Jan 1997): 1135.</ref> Later works penned by Pétion include his account of ] entitled "{{lang|fr|Reflexions sur la noir et denonciation d'un crime affreux commis a Saint-Domingue}}" (1790)<ref>Glenn O. Phillips, "The Caribbean Collection at the Moorland-Spingarn Research Center, Howard University," Latin American Research Review 15, 2 (1980), 168.</ref> and "{{lang|fr|Avis aux francois}}" in which he chides France for its corruption.<ref>David A. Bell, "The Unbearable Lightness of Being French: Law, Republicanism and National Identity at the End of the Old Regime,” The American Historical Review 106, 4 (Oct 2001), 1231.</ref> Pétion's next works, ''{{lang|fr|Les Lois civiles}}'', and ''{{lang|fr|Essais sur le mariage}}'', in which he advocated the marriage of priests, confirmed his position as a bold reformer.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}} He also attacked long-held ] traditions such as ], accusing it of dividing the countryside into "proletarians and colossal properties."<ref>John Markoff, "Peasants Help Destroy an Old Regime and Defy a New One: Some Lessons from (and for) the Study of Social Movements", The American Journal of Sociology 102, 4 (Jan 1997): 1135.</ref> Later works penned by Pétion include his account of ] entitled "{{lang|fr|Reflexions sur la noir et denonciation d'un crime affreux commis a Saint-Domingue}}" (1790)<ref>Glenn O. Phillips, "The Caribbean Collection at the Moorland-Spingarn Research Center, Howard University," Latin American Research Review 15, 2 (1980), 168.</ref> and "{{lang|fr|Avis aux francois}}" in which he chides France for its corruption.<ref>David A. Bell, "The Unbearable Lightness of Being French: Law, Republicanism and National Identity at the End of the Old Regime", The American Historical Review 106, 4 (Oct 2001), 1231.</ref>

]]]
When the elections to the Estates-General took place in 1789 he was elected a deputy to the ] for Chartres. Both in the assembly of the Tiers Etat and in the ] Pétion showed himself a radical leader. Although Petion was overshadowed in the Assembly by such orators as ] and ], his close relationship with Girondin leader ] provided him with helpful advice on political conduct.<ref>Adolphus, 330.</ref> He supported ] on 23 June, attacked the queen on 5 October, and was elected president on 4 December 1790. On 15 June 1791 he was elected president of the criminal tribunal of Paris. On 21 June 1791 he was chosen one of three commissioners appointed to bring back the king from ], and he has left an account of the journey. After the last meeting of the assembly on 30 September 1791 ] and Pétion were made the popular heroes and were crowned by the populace with civic crowns. When the elections to the Estates-General took place in 1789, he was elected a deputy to the ] for Chartres. Both in the assembly of the Tiers Etat and in the ] Pétion showed himself a radical leader.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}} Although Petion was overshadowed in the Assembly by such orators as ] and ], his close relationship with Girondin leader ] provided him with helpful advice on political conduct.<ref>Adolphus, 330.</ref> He supported ] on 23 June, attacked the queen on 5 October, and was elected president on 4 December 1790. On 15 June 1791, he was elected president of the criminal tribunal of Paris. On 21 June 1791, he was chosen one of three commissioners appointed to bring back the king from ], and he has left an account of the journey. After the last meeting of the assembly on 30 September 1791, ] and Pétion were made the popular heroes and were crowned by the populace with civic crowns.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}


==Mayor of Paris== ==Mayor of Paris==
From 24 October - 11 November Pétion visited London and had dinner with ].<ref></ref> By late 1791, administrative control of Paris was dominated by the Jacobins and mayor ] had resigned due to constant political attacks from the left.<ref>David Andress, The Terror (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2005), 61.</ref> Pétion received a still further proof of the affection of the Parisians for him on 16 November 1791, when he was elected second ] of Paris in succession to ] in a contest against ]. (Only 10% of eligible citizens cast a vote, and Pétion won 60% of votes cast).<ref>Chronicle of the French Revolution,Longman Group 1989 p.245</ref> In his mayoralty he exhibited clearly his republican tendency and his hatred of the old monarchy, especially on 20 June 1792, when he allowed the mob to overrun the ] and insult the royal family. For neglecting to protect the Tuileries he was suspended from his functions by the Directory of the ] '']'', but the leaders of the ] felt that Pétion's cause was theirs, and rescinded the suspension on 13 July.<ref>Chronicle of the French Revolution, Longman Group 1989 p.271</ref> On 4 August, at the head of the municipality of Paris, Pétion demanded the deposition of the king.<ref>Chronicle of the French Revolution, Longman Group 1989 p.276</ref> Following news of the ]'s ] reaching the fortress of ] near Paris during the late summer of 1792, fear encouraged frenzied Parisian mobs to target prisoners, royalist sympathizers, and ] in a series of acts of violence that would come to be known as the ].<ref>Andress, 96.</ref> From 24 October - 11 November Pétion visited London and had dinner with ].<ref></ref> By late 1791, administrative control of Paris was dominated by the Jacobins and mayor ] had resigned due to constant political attacks from the left.<ref>David Andress, The Terror (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2005), 61.</ref> Pétion received a still further proof of the affection of the Parisians for him on 16 November 1791, when he was elected second ] of Paris in succession to ] in a contest against ]. (Only 10% of eligible citizens cast a vote, and Pétion won 60% of votes cast).<ref>Chronicle of the French Revolution,Longman Group 1989 p.245</ref> In his mayoralty he exhibited clearly his republican tendency and his hatred of the old monarchy, especially on 20 June 1792, when he allowed the mob to overrun the ] and insult the royal family.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}} For neglecting to protect the Tuileries he was suspended from his functions on 6 July by [[Louis Alexandre de La Rochefoucauld d'Enville|
Louis Alexandre de La Rochefoucauld]], the president of the Directory of the ] '']'', but the leaders of the ] felt that Pétion's cause was theirs, and rescinded the suspension on 13 July.<ref>Chronicle of the French Revolution, Longman Group 1989 p.271</ref> The next day he was installed. On 4 August, at the head of the municipality of Paris, Pétion demanded the deposition of the king.<ref>Chronicle of the French Revolution, Longman Group 1989 p.276</ref> Following news of the ]'s ] and the ], fear encouraged frenzied Parisian mobs to target prisoners, royalist sympathizers, and ] in a series of acts of violence that would come to be known as the ].<ref>Andress, 96.</ref>


==Convention, flight and death== ==Convention, flight and death==
Pétion was elected to the Convention for ] and became its first president. After his election he stood down as Mayor of Paris and ] was elected to replace him.<ref>Chronicle of the French Revolution, Longman Group 1989 p.305</ref> ] proposed that the president of the Assembly should have the same authority as the president of the United States; his proposition was at once rejected, but Pétion got the nickname of "Roi Pétion," which contributed to his fall. With disagreements over such items as the necessity of the September Massacres, the ] was a scene of large-scale political infighting between different factions.<ref>Andress, 116.</ref> The ]s represented the moderate Right in the Convention while their more radical opponents, the ], represented the Left and were distinguished by their preference for occupying the higher rows of benches in the Convention.<ref>Lynn Hunt, Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution (Berkeley; Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1984, 2004), 129.</ref> His jealousy of Robespierre allied him to the '']'' party, with which he voted for the king's death and for the appeal to the people. He participated to the Constitution Committee that drafted the ]. He was elected in March 1793 to the Commission (not the Committee) of Public Safety and attacked Robespierre, who had accused him of having known and having kept secret ] project of restoring the ]. Pétion was elected to the {{nat|Convention}} for ] and became its first president. After his election he stood down as Mayor of Paris and ] was elected to replace him.<ref>Chronicle of the French Revolution, Longman Group 1989 p.305</ref> ] proposed that the president of the Assembly should have the same authority as the president of the United States; his proposition was at once rejected, but Pétion got the nickname of "Roi Pétion," which contributed to his fall.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}} With disagreements over such items as the necessity of the ], the ] was a scene of large-scale political infighting between different factions.<ref>Andress, 116.</ref> The Girondins represented the moderate Right in the {{nat|Convention}} while their more radical opponents, the ], represented the Left and were distinguished by their preference for occupying the higher rows of benches in the {{nat|Convention}}.<ref>Lynn Hunt, Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution (Berkeley; Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1984, 2004), 129.</ref> As late as August 1792 he was still friends with Robespierre and, according to Marisa Linton, choosing a side was especially hard for him but in the end his friendship with Brissot proved stronger.<ref>Choosing terror: virtue, friendship, and authenticity in the French Revolution, Marisa Linton, p151</ref> Hence he chose the '']'' party, with which he voted for a suspended sentence of execution at the ], and in favor of the appeal to the people. He participated to the Constitution Committee that drafted the ]. He was elected in March 1793 to the ] (the precursor of the ]) and attacked Robespierre, who had accused him of having known and having kept secret ] project of restoring the ].{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}

⚫ Pétion's name was among those of the twenty-two Girondin deputies proscribed on 2 June 1793 (see ]). Pétion was one of those who escaped to ] and raised the standard of provincial insurrection against the {{nat|Convention}}; and, when the Norman rising failed, he fled with ], ], ], ] and ] to the ], where they were sheltered by a wigmaker in ]. At last, a month before Robespierre's fall on ], the escaped deputies felt themselves no longer safe, and deserted their asylum.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}} Salle and Guadet were arrested on 18 June, taken to ] and guillotined the next day. Barbaroux was guillotined on 25 June after a botched suicide attempt on 18 June. The bodies of Pétion and Buzot, who had most likely succeeded in killing themselves on 18 June, were found in a field, half eaten by wolves, on 27 June.<ref></ref> However, some historians disagree about how the two men actually died. ] claims that they "blew out their brains"<ref>{{cite book |last=Stephens |first=H. Morse |author-link=H. Morse Stephens |date=1891 |title=A History of the French Revolution |location=New York |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |page=278}}</ref> with a pistol, while ] states that "whether they had committed suicide by poison or by other means, or whether they had perished of hunger"<ref>{{cite book |last=MacFarlane |first=Charles |author-link=Charles MacFarlane |date=1845 |title=The French Revolution: Volume IV |location=London |publisher=Charles Knight & Co. |page=10}}</ref> was impossible to say due to the decomposed state the bodies were found in.


==Publications==
⚫ Pétion's name was among those of the twenty-two Girondin deputies proscribed on 2 June 1793 (see ]). Pétion was one of those who escaped to ] and raised the standard of provincial insurrection against the Convention; and, when the Norman rising failed, he fled with ], ], ], ] and ] to the ], where they were sheltered by a wigmaker of ]. At last, a month before Robespierre's fall in June 1794, the escaped deputies felt themselves no longer safe, and deserted their asylum. Louvet found his way to Paris, Salle and Guadet to Bordeaux, where they were soon taken. Barbaroux was guillotined after a botched suicide attempt and the bodies of Pétion and Buzot, who had killed themselves, were found in a field or forest, half eaten by wolves.<ref>Chronicle of the French Revolution, Longman Group 1989 p.427</ref>
* ''Moyens proposés pour prévenir l'infanticide'' (1781)
* (1782)
* ''Essai sur le mariage considéré sous des rapports naturels, moraux et politiques, ou Moyens de faciliter et d'encourager les mariages en France'' (1785)
* (1789)
* (1790)
* (1791)
* . Haarlem, J. Tetmans (1792)
* , 4 parts (1793)
* (1866)


See ''Mémoires inédits du Pétion et mémoires de Buzot et de Barbaroux, accompagnés de notes inédites de Buzot et de nombreux documents inédits sur Barbaroux, Buzot, Brissot, etc., précédés d'une introduction par C. A. Dauban'' (Paris, 1866); ''Œuvres du Pétion'' (3 vols., 1792); ], ''Les Orateurs de la Constituante'' (Paris, 1882). See ], ''Les Orateurs de la Constituante'' (Paris, 1882).


==Notes== ==Notes==
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==References== ==References==
* {{EB1911|wstitle = Pétion de Villeneuve, Jerôme|volume=21}} * {{EB1911|wstitle = Pétion de Villeneuve, Jerôme|volume=21|page=305}}
*]. ''Biographical Memoirs of the French Revolution''. T. Cadell, jun. and W. Davies, 1799. *]. ''Biographical Memoirs of the French Revolution''. T. Cadell, jun. and W. Davies, 1799.
*Andress, David. ''The Terror''. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2005. *Andress, David. ''The Terror''. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2005.
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Latest revision as of 07:49, 13 December 2024

French politician (1756–1794) This article is about the French politician. For the Haitian revolutionary leader, see Alexandre Pétion.

Jérôme Pétion de Villeneuve
Portrait by Jean-Urbain Guérin
1st President of the National Convention
In office
20 September 1792 – 4 October 1792
Preceded byLouis XVI (King of France)
Succeeded byJean-François Delacroix
2nd Mayor of Paris
In office
18 November 1791 – 15 October 1792
Preceded byJean Sylvain Bailly
Succeeded byPhilibert Borie (temporary mayor)
Personal details
Born(1756-01-03)3 January 1756
Chartres, Eure-et-Loir, France
Died18 June 1794(1794-06-18) (aged 38)
Saint-Magne-de-Castillon, near Saint-Émilion, Gironde, France
Cause of deathSuicide
Political partyGirondist
OccupationWriter, politician
Signature

Jérôme Pétion de Villeneuve (French pronunciation: [ʒeʁom petjɔ̃ də vilnœv]; 3 January 1756 – 18 June 1794) was a French writer and politician who served as the second mayor of Paris, from 1791 to 1792, and the first regular president of the National Convention in 1792. During the French Revolution, he was associated with the moderate Girondins, and voted against the immediate execution of Louis XVI at the king's trial in January 1793, though he supported a suspended sentence. This led to Pétion's proscription by the Convention alongside other Girondin deputies following the radical insurrection of 31 May – 2 June 1793, and ultimately his suicide together with fellow-Girondin François Buzot while evading arrest during the Terror.

Early life and work

Jérôme Pétion de Villeneuve was the son of a prosecutor at Chartres. Though it is known that he was trained as a lawyer, very few specifics are known about Petion's early life, as he was virtually unknown prior to the French Revolution. He became a lawyer in 1778, and at once began to try to make a name in literature. His first printed work was an essay, Sur les moyens de prévenir l'infanticide, which failed to gain the prize for which it was composed, but pleased Brissot so much that he printed it in vol. vii. of his Bibliothèque philosophique des législateurs.

Pétion's next works, Les Lois civiles, and Essais sur le mariage, in which he advocated the marriage of priests, confirmed his position as a bold reformer. He also attacked long-held Ancien Régime traditions such as primogeniture, accusing it of dividing the countryside into "proletarians and colossal properties." Later works penned by Pétion include his account of Haiti entitled "Reflexions sur la noir et denonciation d'un crime affreux commis a Saint-Domingue" (1790) and "Avis aux francois" in which he chides France for its corruption.

When the elections to the Estates-General took place in 1789, he was elected a deputy to the Tiers Etat for Chartres. Both in the assembly of the Tiers Etat and in the Constituent Assembly Pétion showed himself a radical leader. Although Petion was overshadowed in the Assembly by such orators as Mirabeau and Barnave, his close relationship with Girondin leader Brissot provided him with helpful advice on political conduct. He supported Mirabeau on 23 June, attacked the queen on 5 October, and was elected president on 4 December 1790. On 15 June 1791, he was elected president of the criminal tribunal of Paris. On 21 June 1791, he was chosen one of three commissioners appointed to bring back the king from Varennes, and he has left an account of the journey. After the last meeting of the assembly on 30 September 1791, Robespierre and Pétion were made the popular heroes and were crowned by the populace with civic crowns.

Mayor of Paris

From 24 October - 11 November Pétion visited London and had dinner with Thomas Paine. By late 1791, administrative control of Paris was dominated by the Jacobins and mayor Jean-Sylvain Bailly had resigned due to constant political attacks from the left. Pétion received a still further proof of the affection of the Parisians for him on 16 November 1791, when he was elected second mayor of Paris in succession to Bailly in a contest against Lafayette. (Only 10% of eligible citizens cast a vote, and Pétion won 60% of votes cast). In his mayoralty he exhibited clearly his republican tendency and his hatred of the old monarchy, especially on 20 June 1792, when he allowed the mob to overrun the Tuileries and insult the royal family. For neglecting to protect the Tuileries he was suspended from his functions on 6 July by Louis Alexandre de La Rochefoucauld, the president of the Directory of the Seine département, but the leaders of the Legislative Assembly felt that Pétion's cause was theirs, and rescinded the suspension on 13 July. The next day he was installed. On 4 August, at the head of the municipality of Paris, Pétion demanded the deposition of the king. Following news of the Duke of Brunswick's Prussian Army and the Battle of Verdun (1792), fear encouraged frenzied Parisian mobs to target prisoners, royalist sympathizers, and Catholic priests in a series of acts of violence that would come to be known as the September Massacres.

Convention, flight and death

Pétion was elected to the Convention for Eure-et-Loir and became its first president. After his election he stood down as Mayor of Paris and Nicolas Chambon de Montaux was elected to replace him. L.P. Manuel proposed that the president of the Assembly should have the same authority as the president of the United States; his proposition was at once rejected, but Pétion got the nickname of "Roi Pétion," which contributed to his fall. With disagreements over such items as the necessity of the September Massacres, the Convention was a scene of large-scale political infighting between different factions. The Girondins represented the moderate Right in the Convention while their more radical opponents, the Montagnards, represented the Left and were distinguished by their preference for occupying the higher rows of benches in the Convention. As late as August 1792 he was still friends with Robespierre and, according to Marisa Linton, choosing a side was especially hard for him but in the end his friendship with Brissot proved stronger. Hence he chose the Girondin party, with which he voted for a suspended sentence of execution at the trial of Louis XVI, and in favor of the appeal to the people. He participated to the Constitution Committee that drafted the Girondin constitutional project. He was elected in March 1793 to the Committee of General Defense (the precursor of the Committee of Public Safety) and attacked Robespierre, who had accused him of having known and having kept secret Dumouriez's project of restoring the French Constitution of 1791.

Pétion's name was among those of the twenty-two Girondin deputies proscribed on 2 June 1793 (see Insurrection of 31 May – 2 June 1793). Pétion was one of those who escaped to Caen and raised the standard of provincial insurrection against the Convention; and, when the Norman rising failed, he fled with Marguerite-Élie Guadet, François Nicolas Leonard Buzot, Charles Jean Marie Barbaroux, Jean-Baptiste Salle and Jean-Baptiste Louvet de Couvrai to the Gironde, where they were sheltered by a wigmaker in Saint Emilion. At last, a month before Robespierre's fall on 27 July 1794, the escaped deputies felt themselves no longer safe, and deserted their asylum. Salle and Guadet were arrested on 18 June, taken to Bordeaux and guillotined the next day. Barbaroux was guillotined on 25 June after a botched suicide attempt on 18 June. The bodies of Pétion and Buzot, who had most likely succeeded in killing themselves on 18 June, were found in a field, half eaten by wolves, on 27 June. However, some historians disagree about how the two men actually died. H. Morse Stephens claims that they "blew out their brains" with a pistol, while Charles MacFarlane states that "whether they had committed suicide by poison or by other means, or whether they had perished of hunger" was impossible to say due to the decomposed state the bodies were found in.

Publications

See FA Aulard, Les Orateurs de la Constituante (Paris, 1882).

Notes

  1. History, Alpha (2 April 2015). "Jerome Pétion". French Revolution. Retrieved 13 December 2024.
  2. John Adolphus, Biographical Memoirs of the French Revolution (T. Cadell, jun. and W. Davies, 1799), 328.
  3. ^ Chisholm 1911.
  4. John Markoff, "Peasants Help Destroy an Old Regime and Defy a New One: Some Lessons from (and for) the Study of Social Movements", The American Journal of Sociology 102, 4 (Jan 1997): 1135.
  5. Glenn O. Phillips, "The Caribbean Collection at the Moorland-Spingarn Research Center, Howard University," Latin American Research Review 15, 2 (1980), 168.
  6. David A. Bell, "The Unbearable Lightness of Being French: Law, Republicanism and National Identity at the End of the Old Regime", The American Historical Review 106, 4 (Oct 2001), 1231.
  7. Adolphus, 330.
  8. Duthille, Rémy (2010). "1688–1789. Au carrefour des révolutions : les célébrations de la révolution anglaise de 1688 en Grande-Bretagne après 1789". In Cottret, Bernard; Henneton, Lauric (eds.). Du Bon Usage des commémorations : histoire, mémoire, identité, XVIe – XVIIIe siècles (in French). Rennes: Presses Universitaires de Rennes. pp. 107–120.
  9. David Andress, The Terror (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2005), 61.
  10. Chronicle of the French Revolution,Longman Group 1989 p.245
  11. Chronicle of the French Revolution, Longman Group 1989 p.271
  12. Chronicle of the French Revolution, Longman Group 1989 p.276
  13. Andress, 96.
  14. Chronicle of the French Revolution, Longman Group 1989 p.305
  15. Andress, 116.
  16. Lynn Hunt, Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution (Berkeley; Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1984, 2004), 129.
  17. Choosing terror: virtue, friendship, and authenticity in the French Revolution, Marisa Linton, p151
  18. Mémoires sur la Révolution Française By François Buzot, p. 108
  19. Stephens, H. Morse (1891). A History of the French Revolution. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 278.
  20. MacFarlane, Charles (1845). The French Revolution: Volume IV. London: Charles Knight & Co. p. 10.

References

  •  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Pétion de Villeneuve, Jerôme". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 305.
  • Adolphus, John. Biographical Memoirs of the French Revolution. T. Cadell, jun. and W. Davies, 1799.
  • Andress, David. The Terror. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2005.
  • Bell, David A. "The Unbearable Lightness of Being French: Law, Republicanism and National Identity at the End of the Old Regime." The American Historical Review 106, 4 (Oct 2001): 1215–1235.
  • Hunt, Lynn. Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution. Berkeley; Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1984, 2004.
  • Markoff, John. "Peasants Help Destroy an Old Regime and Defy a New One: Some Lessons from (and for) the Study of Social Movements." The American Journal of Sociology 102, 4 (Jan 1997): 1113–1142.
  • Phillips, Glenn O. "The Caribbean Collection at the Moorland-Spingarn Research Center, Howard University." Latin American Research Review 15, 2 (1980): 162–178.
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Other significant figures and factions
Patriotic Society of 1789
Feuillants
and monarchiens
Girondins
The Plain
Montagnards
Hébertists
and Enragés
Others
Figures
Factions
Influential thinkers
Cultural impact
Mayors of Paris
(1789–1794) Coat of arms of Paris
(1848)
(1870–1871)
(1977–present)
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