Revision as of 10:26, 27 October 2015 view source24.191.41.125 (talk) →Names← Previous edit | Latest revision as of 23:28, 13 December 2024 view source Ratnahastin (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users, New page reviewers, Pending changes reviewers, Rollbackers15,956 edits Restored revision 1260580183 by Billjones94 (talk): Rv socksTags: Twinkle Undo | ||
Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
{{ |
{{Short description|Special administrative region of China}} | ||
{{Redirect|HK}} | {{Redirect|HK||Hong Kong (disambiguation)|and|HK (disambiguation)}} | ||
{{pp- |
{{pp-semi-indef}} | ||
{{pp-move}} | |||
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2015}} | |||
{{Good article}} | |||
{{EngvarB|date=August 2014}} | |||
{{Use Hong Kong English|date = April 2022}} | |||
{{Infobox country | |||
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2024}} | |||
|conventional_long_name = Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China<!---- NOTE: This is the established decision on the talk page and is clearly substantiated by numerous Hong Kong government documents. This is also the convention in use in all other languages on Misplaced Pages. Please refrain from editing. ----> | |||
{{Infobox political division | |||
|native_name = {{nobold|中華人民共和國香港特別行政區}} | |||
| |
| name = Hong Kong | ||
| native_name = 香港 | |||
|image_flag = Flag of Hong Kong.svg | |||
| native_name_lang = zh-Hant-HK | |||
|alt_flag = A flag with a white 5-petalled flower design on solid red background | |||
| settlement_type = ] | |||
|image_coat = Hong Kong SAR Regional Emblem.svg | |||
| official_name = {{raise|0.2em|Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China}}{{collapsible list | |||
|alt_coat = A red circular emblem, with a white 5-petalled flower design in the centre, and surrounded by the words "Hong Kong" and "{{zh|t=中華人民共和國香港特別行政區|labels=no}}" | |||
| titlestyle = background:transparent; text-align:center; line-height:normal; font-size:90%; | |||
|symbol_type = Emblem | |||
| title = {{resize|1.0 em|Other official names}} | |||
|national_anthem = "]"<ref>] - ]</ref><br /><br /><center>]</center> | |||
| {{Infobox|subbox=yes|bodystyle=font-size:90%;font-weight:normal; | |||
|other_symbol_type = City flower | |||
| rowclass1 = mergedrow | label1=]:|data1={{lang|zh-hant|中華人民共和國香港特別行政區}} | |||
|other_symbol = '']'' (洋紫荊) | |||
| rowclass2 = mergedrow | label2=] ]: |data2=''Jūng'wàh Yàhnmàhn Guhng'wòhgwok Hēunggóng Dahkbiht Hàhngjingkēui'' | |||
|image_map = China Hong Kong 4 levels localisation.svg | |||
| rowclass3 = mergedrow | label3=] ]: |data3=''zung1 waa4 jan4 man4 gung6 wo4 gwok3 hoeng1 gong2 dak6 bit6 hang4 zing3 keoi1'' | |||
|map_caption = Location of Hong Kong | |||
|alt_map = Location of Hong Kong within China | |||
|map_width = 220px | |||
|status = {{nowrap|]}} | |||
|membership_type = ] | |||
|membership = ] | |||
|official_languages= <!---- DON'T CHANGE THE POSITION OF THE OFFICIAL LANGUAGES ---> | |||
{{hlist | |||
|] |]}} | |||
|regional_languages = ]<ref>Section 3(1) of the Official Languages Ordinance (Cap 5) provides that the "English and Chinese languages are declared to be the official languages of Hong Kong." The Ordinance does not explicitly specify the standard for "Chinese". While ] and ]s are used as the spoken and written standards in ], ] and ]s are the long-established ''de facto'' standards in Hong Kong.</ref> | |||
|ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list | |||
| 93.6% Chinese | |||
| 6.4% others | |||
}} | }} | ||
|religion = {{unbulleted list | |||
| 21.3% ] | |||
| 14.2% ] | |||
| 11.8% ] | |||
| 3.1% ] | |||
| 49.6% ] and others | |||
}} | }} | ||
| image_flag = Flag of Hong Kong.svg | |||
|demonym = | |||
| flag_size = 125px | |||
{{unbulleted list|] | ] | {{zh|c=香港人|labels=no}}}}<!--- DO NOT add in "Chinese". A demonym refers to the city, not the sovereign country. See articles like New York and Toronto for example, they don't add in "American" or "Canadian" --> | |||
| flag_alt = A flag with a white 5-petalled flower design on solid red background | |||
|government_type = {{nowrap|]}}{{ref label|govttype|a|}} | |||
| flag_link = Flag of Hong Kong | |||
|leader_title1 = ]<!--- DO NOT insert Head of State of PRC here; HK is not a sovereign state and the Hong Kong Government's website (http://www.gov.hk) indicates there is no such position as Head of State of Hong Kong. ---> | |||
| image_seal = Regional Emblem of Hong Kong.svg | |||
|leader_name1 = ] | |||
| seal_size = 85px | |||
|leader_title2 = ] | |||
| seal_alt = A red circular emblem, with a white 5-petalled flower design in the centre, and surrounded by the words "Hong Kong" and "{{lang|zh-hant|中華人民共和國香港特別行政區}}" | |||
|leader_name2 = ] | |||
| seal_type = Emblem | |||
|leader_title3 = ] | |||
| seal_link = Emblem of Hong Kong | |||
|leader_name3 = ] | |||
| image_map = Hong Kong in China (zoomed) (+all claims hatched).svg | |||
|leader_title4 = ] | |||
| map_alt = Location of Hong Kong | |||
|leader_name4 = ] | |||
| |
| map_caption = Location of Hong Kong within China | ||
| mapsize = 250px | |||
|sovereignty_type = ] | |||
| subdivision_type = ] | |||
|established_event1 = ] | |||
| subdivision_name = ] | |||
|established_date1 = 26 January 1841 | |||
| established_title = ] | |||
|established_event2 = ] | |||
| established_date = 26 January 1841 | |||
|established_date2 = 29 August 1842 | |||
| |
| established_title1 = ] | ||
| established_date1 = 29 August 1842 | |||
|established_date3 = 18 October 1860 | |||
| |
| established_title2 = ] | ||
| established_date2 = 24 October 1860 | |||
|established_date4 = 1 July 1898 | |||
| |
| established_title3 = ] | ||
| established_date3 = 9 June 1898 | |||
|established_date5 = {{nowrap|25 December 1941<br />to 15 August 1945}} | |||
| established_title4 = ] | |||
|established_event6 = {{nowrap|]<br />from the ]}} | |||
| established_date4 = 25 December 1941 to 30 August 1945 | |||
|established_date6 =<br />1 July 1997 | |||
| established_title5 = Re-designated as a ] | |||
|area_magnitude = 1 E9 | |||
| established_date5 = 1 January 1981 | |||
|area_km2 = 1,104 | |||
| established_title6= ] | |||
|area_rank = 179th | |||
| established_date6 = 19 December 1984 | |||
|area_sq_mi = 426 <!-- Do not remove as per WP:MOSNUM --> | |||
| established_title7 = ] | |||
|percent_water = 4.58 (50 km{{smallsup|2}}; 19 sq mi)<ref name="cia"/> | |||
| established_date7 = 1 July 1997 | |||
|population_estimate = 7,234,800<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.censtatd.gov.hk/press_release/pressReleaseDetail.jsp?charsetID=1&pressRID=3461 |title=Mid-year Population for 2014 |work=]|date=12 August 2014}}</ref> | |||
| official_languages = {{hlist|Chinese{{efn|name=chinese-varieties|No specific variety of Chinese is official in the territory. Residents predominantly speak ], the ''de facto'' regional standard.<ref>{{harvnb|Leung|2016}}.</ref><ref name="OfficialLanguagesOrd">{{harvnb|Official Languages Ordinance}}.</ref><ref name="2021By-CensusLanguages">{{harvnb|Population By-Census|2021|pp=31, 51–52}}</ref>}}|]{{efn|name=language-status|For all government use, documents written using ] are authoritative over ones inscribed with ].<ref>{{harvnb|Legislative Council Disclaimer and Copyright Notice}}</ref> English shares equal status with Chinese in all official proceedings.<ref name="ChineseInCourt">{{harvnb|Use of Chinese in Court Proceedings|2011}}</ref>}}}} | |||
|population_estimate_rank = 100th | |||
| capital_type = ] | |||
|population_estimate_year = 2014 | |||
| capital = ] | |||
|population_census = | |||
| largest_settlement_type = ] <br />{{nobold|by population}} | |||
|population_density_rank = | |||
| largest_settlement = ] | |||
|population_census_year = | |||
| languages_type = ] | |||
|population_density_km2 = 6,544<ref name="census1"/> | |||
| languages_sub = yes | |||
|population_density_sq_mi = 17,024 <!-- Do not remove as per WP:MOSNUM --> | |||
| languages = ]{{efn|name=chinese-varieties}} | |||
|GDP_PPP = $412.300 billion<ref name="imf2">{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2015/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=44&pr.y=20&sy=2015&ey=2015&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=532&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a= |title=Hong Kong |publisher=] |accessdate=2 November 2014}}</ref> | |||
| languages2_type = ]s | |||
|GDP_PPP_rank = 44th | |||
| languages2_sub = yes | |||
|GDP_PPP_year = 2015 | |||
| languages2 = ]{{efn|name=language-status}} <br />] | |||
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $56,428<ref name="imf2"/> | |||
| demonym = {{hlist|]|Hongkongese}} | |||
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 10th | |||
| ethnic_groups = 91.6% ] <br />2.7% ] <br />1.9% ] <br />0.8% ] <br />0.6% ] <br />0.4% ] <br />2% other<ref name="demographics">{{harvnb|Population By-Census|2021|p=46}}.</ref> | |||
|GDP_nominal = $310.074 billion<ref name="imf2"/> | |||
| ethnic_groups_year = 2021 | |||
|GDP_nominal_rank = 36th | |||
| government_type = ] ] government within a unitary one-party state<ref>{{cite web|title=China (People's Republic of) 1982 (rev. 2004)|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/China_2004?lang=en|publisher=Constitute project|access-date=25 August 2019|archive-date=17 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150717104412/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/China_2004?lang=en|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
|GDP_nominal_year = 2015 | |||
| leader_title1 = ]<!--- DO NOT insert Head of State of PRC here; HK is not a sovereign state and the Hong Kong Government's website (http://www.gov.hk) indicates there is no such position as Head of State of Hong Kong. | |||
|GDP_nominal_per_capita = $42,437<ref name="imf2"/> | |||
---> | |||
|GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 18th | |||
| leader_name1 = ] | |||
|Gini_year = 2007 | |||
| leader_title2 = ] | |||
|Gini_change = <!-- increase/decrease/steady --> | |||
| leader_name2 = ] | |||
|Gini = 43.4 <!-- number only --><!--- DO NOT USE CIA World Factbook. The Gini index is a parameter in calculating the HDI so the Gini index and the HDI should be from the same source, i.e. Human Development Report 2009. ---> | |||
| leader_title3 = ] | |||
|Gini_ref = <ref>{{cite web |url=http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/indicators/161.html|title=Human Development Report 2009 – Gini Index |publisher=] |accessdate=10 November 2009}}</ref> | |||
| leader_name3 = ] | |||
|Gini_rank = | |||
| leader_title4 = ] | |||
|HDI_year = 2013<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | |||
| leader_name4 = ] | |||
|HDI_change = steady <!-- increase/decrease/steady --> | |||
| legislature = ] | |||
|HDI = 0.891 <!-- number only --> | |||
| national_representation_type1 = ] | |||
|HDI_ref = <ref name="HDI">{{cite web |url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr14-summary-en.pdf |title=2014 Human Development Report Summary |date=2014 |accessdate=27 July 2014 |publisher=United Nations Development Programme | pages=21–25}}</ref> | |||
| national_representation1 = ] | |||
|HDI_rank = 15th | |||
| national_representation_type2 = ] | |||
|EF_year = 2007 | |||
| national_representation2 = 203 delegates<ref name="NationalReps">{{harvnb|Cheung|2017}}.</ref> | |||
|EF = {{decrease}} 8.0 gha<ref name="EF">{{cite web |url=http://www.footprintnetwork.org/images/uploads/Ecological_Footprint_Atlas_2010.pdf |title=Ecological Footprint Atlas 2010 |publisher=Global Footprint Network |accessdate=11 July 2011}}</ref> | |||
| area_km2 = 2,754.97<ref name="landsd area">{{cite web | title=Survey and Mapping Office – Circulars and Publications | url=https://www.landsd.gov.hk/en/resources/mapping-information/hk-geographic-data.html | publisher=Survey and Mapping Office | access-date=20 October 2020 | archive-date=31 March 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331083925/https://www.landsd.gov.hk/en/resources/mapping-information/hk-geographic-data.html | url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
|EF_rank = 6th | |||
| area_sq_mi = 1,063.7 <!-- Do not remove as per WP:MOSNUM --> | |||
|currency = ] (HK$) | |||
| area_rank = 168th | |||
|currency_code = HKD | |||
| area_label2 = Land | |||
|country_code = HKG | |||
| area_data2 = 1,114.35 km{{smallsup|2}} <br />(430.25 sq mi)<ref name="landsd area"/> <!-- Do not remove as per WP:MOSNUM --> | |||
|utc_offset = +8 | |||
| percent_water = 59.70% <br />(1,640.62 km{{smallsup|2}}; <br />633.45 sq mi)<ref name="landsd area"/> | |||
|time_zone_DST = {{nowrap|not observed}} | |||
| elevation_max_m = 957 | |||
|utc_offset_DST = +8 | |||
| elevation_max_point = ] | |||
|date_format = {{nowrap|dd-mm-yyyy}}<br />yyyy年mm月dd日 | |||
| elevation_min_m = 0 | |||
|calling_code = ] | |||
| elevation_min_point = ] | |||
|drives_on = ] | |||
| population_estimate = {{increaseNeutral}} 7,498,100<ref>{{cite press release |title=Mid-year population for 2023 |date=15 August 2023 |publisher=] |url=https://www.censtatd.gov.hk/en/press_release_detail.html?id=5265 |access-date=15 November 2023 |archive-date=15 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231115122540/https://www.censtatd.gov.hk/en/press_release_detail.html?id=5265 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
|iso3166code = HK | |||
| population_estimate_year = 2023 | |||
|cctld = {{nowrap|]{{nbsp|3}}]}} | |||
| population_estimate_rank = | |||
|footnote_a = {{note|govttype}} The political structure of SAR is a ]. | |||
| population_census = {{increaseNeutral}} 7,413,070<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.census2021.gov.hk/doc/media/Table(EN).pdf |title=Key statistics of the 2021 and 2011 Population Census |publisher=census2021.gov.hk |access-date=15 March 2022 |archive-date=13 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220313082407/https://www.census2021.gov.hk/doc/media/Table%28EN%29.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
}} | |||
| population_census_year = 2021 | |||
{{Infobox Chinese | |||
| population_density_km2 = 6,801<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.census2021.gov.hk/en/main_tables.html |title=Main Tables – 2021 Population Census |publisher=census2021.gov.hk |access-date=15 March 2022 |archive-date=14 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221114005052/https://www.census2021.gov.hk/en/main_tables.html |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
| pic = Hong Kong in Chinese 2.svg | |||
| population_density_sq_mi = 17,614 <!-- Do not remove as per WP:MOSNUM --> | |||
| picsize = 120px | |||
| population_density_rank = 4th | |||
| c = 香港 | |||
| GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $569.828 billion<ref name="IMFWEO.HK">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2024/October/weo-report?c=532,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2021&ey=2029&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2024 Edition. (HK) |publisher=] |website=IMF.org |date=22 October 2024 |access-date=11 November 2024 |archive-date=2 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240502221906/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2024/October/weo-report?c=532,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2021&ey=2029&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
| l = Fragrant Harbour | |||
| GDP_PPP_year = 2024 | |||
| ci = {{IPA-yue|hœ̂ːŋkɔ̌ːŋ|}} | |||
| GDP_PPP_rank = 50th | |||
| j = Hoeng<sup>1</sup>gong<sup>2</sup> | |||
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $75,407<ref name="IMFWEO.HK" /> | |||
| y = Hēunggóng | |||
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 17th | |||
| h = Hiong<sup>1</sup>gong<sup>3</sup><ref name="hkilang.org">It is Hong Kong Hakka language.http://www.hkilang.org/NEW_WEB/page/dict_hantzu HK Hakka-Punti-Cantonese Online Dictionary</ref> | |||
| GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $401.751 billion<ref name="IMFWEO.HK" /> | |||
| p = Xiānggǎng | |||
| GDP_nominal_year = 2024 | |||
| w = Hsiang<sup>1</sup>-kang<sup>3</sup> | |||
| GDP_nominal_rank = 41st | |||
| mi = {{IPA-cmn|ɕjáŋkàŋ|}} | |||
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{decrease}} $53,165<ref name="IMFWEO.HK" /> | |||
| wuu = shian<sup>平</sup>kaon<sup>上</sup> | |||
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 20th | |||
| poj = Hiong-kang | |||
| Gini = 39.7 <!-- number only --><!--- DO NOT USE CIA World Factbook. The Gini index is a parameter in calculating the HDI so the Gini index and the HDI should be from the same source, i.e. Human Development Report 2009. ---> | |||
| altname = Hong Kong Special Administrative Region | |||
| Gini_year = 2021 | |||
| t2 =香港特別行政區 (香港特區) | |||
| Gini_change = decrease <!-- increase/decrease/steady --> | |||
| s2 =香港特别行政区 (香港特区) | |||
| Gini_ref ={{efn|After adjustment for taxes and social transfers}}<ref name="GiniRef">{{harvnb|Household Income Distribution|2021|p=5}}</ref> | |||
| j2 = Hoeng<sup>1</sup>gong<sup>2</sup> Dak<sup>6</sup>bit<sup>6</sup>Hang<sup>4</sup>zing<sup>3</sup> Keoi<sup>1</sup> (or Hoeng<sup>1</sup>gong<sup>2</sup>Dak<sup>6</sup>keoi<sup>1</sup>) | |||
| HDI = 0.956 <!-- number only --> | |||
| h2 = Hiong<sup>1</sup>gong<sup>3</sup> Tet<sup>6</sup>piet<sup>6</sup> hang<sup>2</sup>zin<sup>4</sup>ki<sup>1</sup><ref name="hkilang.org"/><br />(or Hiong<sup>1</sup>gong<sup>3</sup> Tet<sup>6</sup>ki<sup>1</sup>) | |||
| HDI_year = 2022<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | |||
| w2= Hsiang<sup>1</sup>-kang<sup>3</sup> T'e<sup>4</sup>-pieh<sup>2</sup>Hsin<sup>2</sup>-cheng<sup>4</sup>-ch'ü<sup>1</sup> (or Hsiang<sup>1</sup>-kang<sup>3</sup> T'e<sup>4</sup>-ch'ü<sup>1</sup>) | |||
| HDI_change = decrease<!-- increase/decrease/steady --> | |||
| p2 = Xiānggǎng Tèbié Xíngzhèngqū (or Xiānggǎng Tèqū) | |||
| HDI_ref = <ref name="HDI">{{Cite web |date=13 March 2024 |title=Human Development Report 2023/2024 |url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2023-24reporten.pdf|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240313164319/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2023-24reporten.pdf |archive-date=13 March 2024 |access-date=13 March 2024 |publisher=] |language=en}}</ref> | |||
| wuu2 = shian<sup>平</sup>kaon<sup>上</sup> deh<sup>入</sup>bih<sup>入</sup> ghan<sup>平</sup>tsen<sup>去</sup>chiu<sup>平</sup> (or shian<sup>平</sup>kaon<sup>上</sup> deh<sup>入</sup>chiu<sup>平</sup>) | |||
| HDI_rank = 4th | |||
| poj2 = Hiong-kang Te̍k-pia̍t Hêng-chèng-khu (or Hiong-kang Te̍k-khu) | |||
| currency = ] (HK$) | |||
| currency_code = HKD | |||
| timezone = ] | |||
| utc_offset = +08:00 | |||
| date_format = dd/mm/yyyy <br />yyyy年mm月dd日 | |||
| electricity = 220 V–50 Hz | |||
| drives_on = Left{{efn|Except for the ], which drives on the right.<ref>{{harvnb|Technical Legislative Amendments on Traffic Arrangements for the Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Bridge|2017}}</ref>}} | |||
| calling_code = ] | |||
| blank_name_sec1 = ] | |||
| blank_info_sec1 = None for local vehicles, {{lang|zh-cn|粤Z}} for cross-boundary vehicles | |||
| iso_code = {{hlist|]|]}} | |||
| cctld = {{hlist|]|]}} | |||
}} | }} | ||
'''Hong Kong'''{{efn|{{bulleted list|{{IPAc-en|US|'|h|Q|N|k|Q|N}} or {{IPAc-en|UK|h|Q|N|'|k|Q|N}}; {{zh|t={{linktext|香港}}|j=Hoeng1 gong2|cy=Hēunggóng}}, {{small|]:}} {{IPA-yue|hœ́ːŋ.kɔ̌ːŋ||Yue-heung1gong2.ogg}}|Officially the '''Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China''' (] '''Hong Kong SAR''' or '''HKSAR'''; {{zh|t=中華人民共和國香港特別行政區|cy=Hēunggóng Dahkbiht Hàhngjingkēui}}).|Legally '''Hong Kong, China''' in international treaties and organizations.}}}} is a ] of ]. With 7.4 million residents of various nationalities{{efn|]s can be of any nationality. A person without Chinese nationality who has entered Hong Kong with a valid travel document, has ordinarily resided there for a continuous period not less than seven years, and is permanently domiciled in the territory would be legally recognised as a ].<ref name="BasicLawA24">{{harvnb|Basic Law Chapter III}} Article 24.</ref>}} in a {{convert|1104|km2|adj=on}} territory, Hong Kong is the ] in the world. | |||
'''Hong Kong''' ({{zh|c=]|l=Fragrant Harbour|labels=no}}), traditionally '''Hongkong''', officially '''Hong Kong ] of the People's Republic of China''', is an ] on the southern coast of ] at the ] and the ].<ref name="censtatd">{{cite web|url=http://www.censtatd.gov.hk/FileManager/EN/Content_810/geog.pdf | |||
|title=Geography and Climate, Hong Kong | |||
|publisher=Census and Statistics Department, Hong Kong Government | |||
|accessdate=10 January 2007}}</ref> Hong Kong is known for its skyline and deep natural harbour.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ash|first=Russell|authorlink=Russell Ash|title=The Top 10 of Everything 2007|publisher=] | |||
| isbn=0-600-61532-4| page=78| year=2006 }}</ref> It has an area of 1104 km<sup>2</sup> and shares its northern border with the ] of ]. With around 7.2 million ] of various nationalities{{refn|The identity of ] can be of any ], ], ], or others. A person not of Chinese nationality who has entered Hong Kong with a valid travel document, has ordinarily resided in Hong Kong for a continuous period of not less than 7 years and has taken Hong Kong as his or her place of permanent residence are legally recognized as a Hongkonger. See |group=note}}, Hong Kong is one of the ]. | |||
Hong Kong was established as a ] after the ] ceded ] in 1841–1842 as a consequence of losing the ]. The colony expanded to the ] in 1860 and was further extended when the United Kingdom obtained a ] of the ] in 1898. Hong Kong was ] by ] from ] to ] during ]. The territory was ] in 1997. Hong Kong maintains separate governing and economic systems from that of ] under the principle of ].{{Efn|However, decisions made by the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress override any territorial judicial process. Furthermore, the State Council may enforce national law in the region under specific circumstances.|name=|group=}} | |||
Originally a sparsely populated area of farming and fishing villages,<ref name="CarrollEarlyHistory">{{harvnb|Carroll|2007|pp=15–21}}.</ref>{{sfn|Ren|2010|p=221}} the territory is now one of the world's most significant ]s and commercial ports. Hong Kong is the world's ] (behind ] and ]), ninth-largest exporter, and eighth-largest importer. Its currency, the ], is the ] in the world. Home to the ] of any city in the world, Hong Kong has the largest number of ]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/10-cities-globally-most-high-net-worth-wealthy-people-2023-9 |title=The top 10 cities around the world with the most ultra-wealthy people |last=Kirschner |first=Kylie |date=10 September 2023 |website=Business Insider |access-date=15 November 2023 |archive-date=15 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231115120539/https://www.businessinsider.com/10-cities-globally-most-high-net-worth-wealthy-people-2023-9 |url-status=live }}</ref> Although the city has one of the highest ] in the world, severe ] exists among the population. Despite being ], ] is consistently in high ]. | |||
In the late 1970s, Hong Kong became a major ] in ]. The territory has developed into a major global trade hub and ], and is regarded as a ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.atkearney.com/documents/10192/4461492/Global+Cities+Present+and+Future-GCI+2014.pdf/3628fd7d-70be-41bf-99d6-4c8eaf984cd5 |title=2014 Global Cities Index and Emerging Cities Outlook |format=PDF |accessdate= April 2014}}</ref> The ] in the world,<ref name="Factbook">, ]</ref> Hong Kong ranks top 10 in ], but also has the ] among advanced economies. Hong Kong is one of the ] alongside ] and ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.longfinance.net/images/GFCI16_22September2014.pdf|title=The Global Financial Centres Index 16|date=September 2014|accessdate=10 December 2014|publisher=Long Finance}}</ref> The territory has a high ] and is ranked highly in the ].<ref name="GCI">{{cite web|url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/CSI/2012-13/GCR_Rankings_2012-13.pdf|title=Global Competitiveness Index 2012–2013|year=2012|accessdate=8 June 2013}}</ref> It has been named the freest market economy by the ] ].<ref>{{Cite web|title = Hong Kong Economy: Population, Facts, GDP, Business, Trade, Inflation|url = http://www.heritage.org/index/country/hongkong|website = www.heritage.org|accessdate = 22 May 2015}}</ref> The service economy, characterised by free trade and low taxation, has been regarded as one of the world's most ] economic policies, and the currency, the ], is the ].<ref name="bis.org">{{cite journal|url=http://www.bis.org/publ/rpfxf10t.pdf|title=Triennial Central Bank Survey: Report on global foreign exchange market activity in 2010|date=December 2010|work=Monetary and Economic Department|page=12|publisher=]|accessdate=15 October 2011}}</ref> Hong Kong is a member of ], ], ], ], ], ], and ], as ] authorizes the territory to develop relations with foreign states on its own in appropriate fields, including the economic, trade, financial and monetary, shipping, communications, tourism, cultural and sports fields.<ref></ref> | |||
Limited land created a dense infrastructure and the territory became a centre of modern ], and one of the world's most vertical cities.<ref name="timeout"/><ref name="skyscraper"/> Hong Kong has a highly developed ] network covering 90 per cent of the population, the highest in the world, and relies on mass transit by road or rail.<ref name="TD"/><ref name="pubtransport"/> ] remains a serious problem.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.numbeo.com/pollution/rankings.jsp|title=Pollution Index 2015|publisher=Numbeo|date=2015|accessdate=29 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.myhealthportal.hk/en/content/articles/18/Health_Effects_of_Air_Pollution_in_Hong_Kong/|title=Health Effects of Air Pollution in Hong Kong|publisher=|accessdate=7 October 2014}}</ref> Loose ] have resulted in a high level of ].<ref>http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/sites/default/files/epd/english/environmentinhk/air/studyrpts/files/final_report_mvtmpms_2012.pdf</ref> Nevertheless, Hongkongers enjoy the world's longest or second longest ].<ref name="Life Expectancy Around the World">{{cite web | url=http://www.livescience.com/22005-highest-and-lowest-life-expectancy-at-birth-infographic.html | title=Life Expectancy Around the World | publisher=LiveScience | date=1 August 2012}}</ref><ref name="Huffington Post">{{cite web |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/07/26/longest-life-expectancy-world-hong-kong-women-japan_n_1705606.html | title=Longest Life Expectancy In World: Women In Hong Kong Now Outlast Japan | publisher=Huffington Post | date=26 July 2012}}</ref> | |||
Hong Kong is a ] and has a ] (HDI) of 0.956, ] and currently the only place in Asia to be in the top 5. The city has the ], and a ] usage exceeding 90 per cent. | |||
{{TOC limit|limit=3}} | {{TOC limit|limit=3}} | ||
== |
== Etymology == | ||
{{Infobox Chinese | |||
<!-- ] redirects here --> | |||
| title = Hong Kong | |||
The name "Hong Kong" is an approximate phonetic rendering of the pronunciation of the spoken ] or ] name {{lang|zh-hant|香港}}, meaning "Fragrant Harbour".<ref name="etym">{{cite book | |||
| c = 香港 | |||
|last=Room |first=Adrian | |||
| l = "Fragrant Harbour"<ref name="HerbariumName">{{cite web |url=http://www.herbarium.gov.hk/SpecialTopicsDetails.aspx?oneId=10&SectionId=1 |title=Aquilaria sinensis and origin of the name of Hong Kong |publisher=] |access-date=21 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201040456/http://www.herbarium.gov.hk/SpecialTopicsDetails.aspx?oneId=10&SectionId=1 |archive-date=1 December 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="CarrollHKName">{{harvnb|Carroll|2007|p=1}}</ref> | |||
|title=Placenames of the World | |||
| ci = {{unbulleted list|{{IPA-yue|hœ́ːŋ.kɔ̌ːŋ|}}|''or''|{{IPA-yue|hœ̂ːŋ.kɔ̌ːŋ|}}}} | |||
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=M1JIPAN-eJ4C&pg=PA168&lpg=PA168&dq=hong+kong+etymology+fragrant+harbor | |||
| y = {{unbulleted list|{{Audio|Yue-heung1gong2.ogg|Hēunggóng|help=no}}|''or''|Hèunggóng}} | |||
|year=2005 | |||
| j = hoeng1 gong2 | |||
|publisher=] | |||
| gd = {{tone superscript|Hêng1gong2}} | |||
|isbn=0-7864-2248-3 |page=168 |accessdate=1 September 2011}}</ref> Before 1842, the name referred to a small inlet—now ] ({{lang|zh-hant|香港仔}} ''{{transl|zh-latin|hoeng<sup>1</sup>gong<sup>2</sup> zai<sup>2</sup>}}'', or ''Hiong<sup>1</sup>gong<sup>3</sup>zai<sup>3</sup>''<ref name="hkilang.org"/> in ], literally means "Little Hong Kong")—between ] and the south side of ], which was one of the first points of contact between British sailors and local fishermen.<ref>{{cite book | |||
| h = {{tone superscript|Hiong1gong3}} | |||
|last=Bishop|first=Kevin|last2=Roberts|first2=Annabel | |||
| p = Xiānggǎng | |||
|title=China's Imperial Way | |||
| w = {{tone superscript|Hsiang1-kang3}} | |||
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=1c0UyPNF_I0C&pg=PT216&lpg=PT216&dq=%22Heung+Gong+Tsai%22 | |||
| bpmf = ㄒㄧㄤ ㄍㄤˇ | |||
|year=1997|publisher=]|isbn=962-217-511-2|page=218|accessdate=1 September 2011}}</ref> | |||
| gr = Shianggaang | |||
| myr = Syānggǎng | |||
| mi = {{IPAc-cmn|x|iang|1|.|g|ang|3}} | |||
| wuu = shian<sup>平</sup>kaon<sup>上</sup> | |||
| poj = Hiong-káng | |||
| pic2 = Hong Kong in Chinese 2.svg | |||
| piccap2 = "Hong Kong" in Chinese characters | |||
| picupright2 = 0.45 | |||
| picsize2 = 100px | |||
| altname = Hong Kong Special Administrative Region | |||
| t2 = {{unbulleted list|香港特別行政區|(香港特區)}} | |||
| s2 = {{unbulleted list|香港特别行政区|(香港特区)}} | |||
| y2 = {{unbulleted list|Hēunggóng Dahkbiht Hàhngjingkēui|(Hēunggóng Dahkkēui)|''or''|Hèunggóng Dahkbiht Hàhngjingkēui|(Hèunggóng Dahkkēui)}} | |||
| j2 = {{unbulleted list|hoeng1 gong2 dak6 bit6 hang4 zing3 keoi1|(hoeng1 gong2 dak6 keoi1)}} | |||
| gd2 = {{unbulleted list|{{tone superscript|Hêng1gong2 Deg6bid6 Heng4jing3kêu1|(Hêng1gong2 Deg6kêu1)}}}} | |||
| ci2 = {{unbulleted list|{{IPA-yue|hœ́ːŋ.kɔ̌ːŋ tɐ̀k̚.pìːt̚ hɐ̏ŋ.tsēŋ.kʰɵ́y|}}|({{IPA-yue|hœ́ːŋ.kɔ̌ːŋ tɐ̀k̚.kʰɵ́y|}})|''or''|{{IPA-yue|hœ̂ːŋ.kɔ̌ːŋ tɐ̀k̚.pìːt̚ hɐ̏ŋ.tsēŋ.kʰɵ́y|}}|({{IPA-yue|hœ̂ːŋ.kɔ̌ːŋ tɐ̀k̚.kʰɵ́y|}})}} | |||
| h2 = {{unbulleted list|{{tone superscript|Hiong1gong3 Tet6piet6 Hang2zin4ki1|(Hiong1gong3 Tet6ki1)}}}} | |||
| w2 = {{unbulleted list|{{tone superscript|Hsiang1-kang3 T}}{{wg-apos}}{{tone superscript|e4-pieh2 Hsing2-cheng4-ch}}{{wg-apos}}{{tone superscript|ü1}}|{{tone superscript|(Hsiang1-kang3 T}}{{wg-apos}}{{tone superscript|e4-ch}}{{wg-apos}}{{tone superscript|ü1)}}}} | |||
| p2 = {{unbulleted list|Xiānggǎng Tèbié Xíngzhèngqū|(Xiānggǎng Tèqū)}} | |||
| gr2 = {{unbulleted list|Shianggaang Tehbye Shyngjenqchiu|(Shianggaang Tehchiu)}} | |||
| bpmf2 = {{unbulleted list|ㄒㄧㄤ ㄍㄤˇ|ㄊㄜˋ ㄅㄧㄝˊ|ㄒㄧㄥˊ ㄓㄥˋ ㄑㄩ|(ㄒㄧㄤ ㄍㄤˇ ㄊㄜˋ ㄑㄩ)}} | |||
| myr2 = {{unbulleted list|Syāngggǎng Tèbyé Syíngjèngchyū|(Syānggǎng Tèchyū)}} | |||
| mi2 = {{unbulleted list|{{IPAc-cmn|x|iang|1|.|g|ang|3|-|t|e|4|.|b|ie|2|-|x|ing|2|.|zh|eng|4|.|qu|1|}}|({{IPAc-cmn|x|iang|1|.|g|ang|3|-|t|e|4|.|q|u|1|}})}} | |||
| wuu2 = {{unbulleted list|shian<sup>平</sup>kaon<sup>上</sup> deh<sup>入</sup>bih<sup>入</sup>|ghan<sup>平</sup>tsen<sup>去</sup>chiu<sup>平</sup>|(shian<sup>平</sup>kaon<sup>上</sup> deh<sup>入</sup>chiu<sup>平</sup>)}} | |||
| poj2 = {{unbulleted list|Hiong-káng Te̍k-pia̍t Hêng-chèng-khu|(Hiong-káng Te̍k-khu)}} | |||
| showflag = jy | |||
}}{{Unreliable sources|date=November 2024}}<!-- ] redirects here --> | |||
The name of the territory, first ] as "He-Ong-Kong" in 1780,<ref>{{harvnb|Empson|1992|p=94}}.</ref> originally referred to a small inlet located between ] and the southern coast of Hong Kong Island. ] was an initial point of contact between British sailors and local fishermen.<ref>{{harvnb|Bishop|Roberts|1997|p=218}}.</ref> Although the source of the romanised name is unknown, it is generally believed to be an early phonetic rendering of the ] (or ]) phrase ''hēung góng''. The name translates as "fragrant harbour" or "incense harbour".<ref name="HerbariumName" /><ref name="CarrollHKName" /><ref name="etym">{{harvnb|Room|2005|p=168}}.</ref> "Fragrant" may refer to the sweet taste of the harbour's freshwater influx from the Pearl River or to the odour from incense factories lining the coast of northern ]. The incense was stored near Aberdeen Harbour for export before ] was developed.<ref name="etym" /> ] (the second colonial governor) offered an alternative origin; Davis said that the name derived from "Hoong-keang" ("red torrent"), reflecting the colour of soil over which a waterfall on the island flowed.<ref>{{harvnb|Davis|1841|p=6}}.</ref> | |||
The reference to fragrance may refer to the sweet taste of the harbour's fresh water estuarine influx of the ], or to the incense from factories, lining the coast to the north of Kowloon, which was stored near Aberdeen Harbour for export before the development of the ].<ref name=etym/> | |||
The simplified name ''Hong Kong'' was frequently used by 1810.<ref>{{harvnb|Empson|1992|p=96}}.</ref> The name was also commonly written as the single word ''Hongkong'' until 1926, when the government officially adopted the two-word name.<ref>{{harvnb|Hong Kong Government Gazette|1926}}, No. 479.</ref> Some corporations founded during the early colonial era still keep this name, including ], ], ] and ] (HSBC).<ref>{{harvnb|HSH Annual Report|2017|p=6}}.</ref><ref name="HSBC">{{harvnb|HSBC Annual Report|2011|p=2}}.</ref> | |||
] was inhabited from the stone age on. | |||
using its ], language | |||
== |
== History == | ||
{{Main|History of Hong Kong}} | |||
In English, the term "Cantonese" is ambiguous. Cantonese proper is the variety native to the city of Canton, which is the traditional English name of ]. This narrow sense may be specified as "Canton language" or "Guangzhou language" in English.<ref>Ramsey and Ethnologue, respectively</ref> | |||
{{For timeline|Timeline of Hong Kong history}} | |||
=== Prehistory and Imperial China === | |||
However, "Cantonese" may also refer to the primary branch of Cantonese that contains Cantonese proper as well as ] and ]; this broader usage may be specified as "Yue" ({{sup|]}}{{lang|zh-s|粤}}; {{sup|]}}{{lang|zh-t|粵}}). In this article, "Cantonese" is used for Cantonese proper. | |||
Earliest known human traces in what is now Hong Kong are dated by some to 35,000 and 39,000 years ago during the ] period. The claim is based on an archaeological investigation in ], ] in 2003. The archaeological works revealed ] ]s from deposits that were dated using optical ].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Davis|first1=Vin|last2=Ixer|first2=Rob|date=2009|title=The Petrology of the Wong Tei Tung Stone Tool Manufacturing Site, Sham Chung, Hong Kong Sar, China|url=http://intarch.ac.uk/journal/issue26/davisixer_index.html|journal=Internet Archaeology|issue=26|doi=10.11141/ia.26.8|access-date=8 June 2020|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326063250/https://intarch.ac.uk/journal/issue26/davisixer_index.html|url-status=live| issn = 1363-5387}}</ref> | |||
During the ] period, about 6,000 years ago, the region had been widely occupied by humans.<ref name="Meacham2">{{harvnb|Meacham|1999|p=2}}.</ref> Neolithic to ] Hong Kong settlers were semi-coastal people. Early inhabitants are believed to be ] in the Middle Neolithic period and later the ] people.<ref name="Meacham2" /> As hinted by the archaeological works in Sha Ha, Sai Kung, rice cultivation had been introduced since ] period.<ref name="Li38">{{harvnb|Li|2012|p=38}}.</ref> Bronze Age Hong Kong featured coarse pottery, hard pottery, quartz and stone jewelry, as well as small bronze implements.<ref name="Meacham2" /> | |||
Historically, speakers called this variety '''"Canton speech"''' or '''"Guangzhou speech"''' ({{sup|]}}{{lang|zh-s|广州话}}; {{sup|]}}{{lang|zh-t|廣州話}},<ref>]: gwong2 zau1 waa2; ]: Gwóngjàu Wah</ref>), although this term is now seldom used outside mainland China. In Guangdong province, people also call it '''"provincial capital speech"''' ({{sup|]}}{{lang|zh-s|省城话}}; {{sup|]}}{{lang|zh-t|省城話}})<ref>]: saang<sup>2</sup> sing<sup>4</sup> waa<sup>2</sup></ref> or '''"plain speech"''' ({{sup|]}}{{lang|zh-s|白话}}; {{sup|]}}{{lang|zh-t|白話}}).<ref>]: baak6 waa2</ref> | |||
]]] | |||
In Hong Kong and Macau, as well as among overseas Chinese communities, the language is referred to as '''"] speech"''' ({{sup|]}}{{lang|zh-s|广东话}}; {{sup|]}}{{lang|zh-t|廣東話}},<ref>]: gwong2 dung1 waa2; ]: Gwóngdūng Wah</ref>) or simply "Chinese" ({{lang|zh|中文}},<ref>]: zung1 man2; ]: Jūngmán</ref>).<ref>The Hong Kong Observatory is one of the examples of the Hong Kong Government officially adopting the name "廣東話": </ref> In mainland China, the term Guangdong speech is also increasingly being used. | |||
The ] incorporated the Hong Kong area into China for the first time in 214 BCE, after ].<ref>{{harvnb|Ban|Ban|Ban|111}}.</ref> The region was consolidated under the ] kingdom (a predecessor state of ]) after the Qin collapse<ref name="KeatGinOoi">{{harvnb|Keat|2004|p=932}}.</ref> and recaptured by China after the ].<ref>{{harvnb|Carroll|2007|p=9}}.</ref> During the ] in the 13th century, the ] court was briefly located in modern-day ] (the ] site) before its final defeat in the 1279 ] by the Yuan Dynasty.<ref name="Barber">{{harvnb|Barber|2004|p=48}}.</ref> By the end of the ], seven large families had settled in the region and owned most of the land. Settlers from nearby provinces migrated to Kowloon throughout the ].<ref>{{harvnb|Carroll|2007|p=10}}.</ref> | |||
The earliest European visitor was ] explorer ], who arrived in 1513.<ref>{{harvnb|Porter|1996|p=63}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Edmonds|2002|p=1}}.</ref> Portuguese merchants established a trading post called ] in Hong Kong waters and began regular trade with southern China. Although the traders were expelled after ] in the 1520s,<ref>{{harvnb|von Glahn|1996|p=116}}.</ref> Portuguese-Chinese trade relations were ]. Portugal acquired a ] for ] in 1887.<ref>{{harvnb|Wills|1998|pp=342–344}}.</ref> | |||
Due to its status as a ] among all the dialects of the Cantonese or Yue branch of Chinese varieties, it is often called "Standard Cantonese" ({{sup|]}}{{lang|zh-s|标准粤语}}; {{sup|]}}{{lang|zh-t|標準粵語}}).<ref>]: biu<sup>1</sup>zeon<sup>2</sup> jyut<sup>6</sup>jyu<sup>5</sup>; ]: biu<sup>1</sup> zên<sup>2</sup> yud<sup>6</sup> yu<sup>5</sup></ref> | |||
After the ], maritime trade was banned under the '']'' policies. From 1661 to 1683, the population of most of the area forming present day Hong Kong was cleared under the ], turning the region into a wasteland.<ref name="HK story">{{Cite web|url=http://www.lcsd.gov.hk/CE/Museum/History/download/the_hk_story_exhibition_materials_e.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090418213756/http://www.lcsd.gov.hk/CE/Museum/History/download/the_hk_story_exhibition_materials_e.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Hong Kong Museum of History: "The Hong Kong Story" Exhibition Materials|archivedate=18 April 2009}}</ref> The ] lifted the maritime trade prohibition, allowing foreigners to enter Chinese ports in 1684.<ref>{{harvnb|Zhihong|2006|pp=8–9}}.</ref> Qing authorities established the ] in 1757 to regulate trade more strictly, restricting non-Russian ships to the port of ].<ref>{{harvnb|Schottenhammer|2007|p=33}}.</ref> Although European demand for Chinese commodities like tea, silk, and porcelain was high, Chinese interest in European manufactured goods was insignificant, so that Chinese goods could only be bought with precious metals. To reduce the trade imbalance, the British sold large amounts of Indian ] to China. Faced with a drug crisis, Qing officials pursued ever more aggressive actions to halt the opium trade.<ref>{{harvnb|Chen|2011}}.</ref> | |||
It has also been called '''Guangfu''' and '''Metropolitan Cantonese'''.<ref name=LukBHKp48>Luk, Bernard H. K. "The Chinese Communities of Toronto: Their Languages and Mass Media." In: ''''. ]. Volume 15, 2000. Start p. . CITED: p. ().</ref> | |||
=== British colony === | |||
In 1842, the ] was signed and the name, Hong Kong, was first recorded on official documents to encompass the entirety of the island.<ref name="fairbank">{{cite book|last=Fairbank|first=John King|title=Trade and Diplomacy on the China Coast: The Opening of the Treaty Ports, 1842–1854|edition=2nd|publisher=]|year=1953|isbn=978-0-8047-0648-3|pages=123–128}}</ref> | |||
{{Main|British Hong Kong}} | |||
]]] | |||
In 1839, the ] rejected proposals to legalise and tax opium and ordered imperial commissioner ] to eradicate the opium trade. The commissioner destroyed opium stockpiles and halted all foreign trade,<ref>{{harvnb|Hoe|Roebuck|1999|pp=82, 87}}.</ref> triggering a British military response and the ]. The Qing surrendered early in the war and ceded Hong Kong Island in the ]. British forces began controlling Hong Kong shortly after the signing of the convention, from 26 January 1841.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.yearbook.gov.hk/2003/english/chapter21/21_02.html|title=Hong Kong 2003 – History|website=www.yearbook.gov.hk|access-date=26 June 2021|archive-date=25 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181025152631/https://www.yearbook.gov.hk/2003/english/chapter21/21_02.html|url-status=live}}</ref> However, both countries were dissatisfied and did not ratify the agreement.<ref>{{harvnb|Tsang|2007|p=12}}.</ref> After more than a year of further hostilities, Hong Kong Island was formally ceded to the ] in the 1842 ].<ref name="Courtauld">{{harvnb|Courtauld|Holdsworth|Vickers|1997|pp=38–58}}</ref> | |||
The name had often been written as the single word ''Hongkong'' until the ] adopted the current form in 1926.<ref>Hongkong Government Gazette, Notification 479, 3 September 1926</ref> Nevertheless, a number of century-old institutions still retain the single-word form, such as the ], ] and ]. | |||
Administrative infrastructure was quickly built by early 1842, but piracy, disease, and hostile Qing policies initially prevented the government from attracting commerce. Conditions on the island improved during the ] in the 1850s, when many Chinese refugees, including wealthy merchants, fled mainland turbulence and settled in the colony.<ref name="CarrollEarlyHistory" /> Further tensions between the British and Qing over the opium trade escalated into the ]. The Qing were again defeated and forced to give up ] and ] in the ].<ref name="SecondOpiumWar">{{harvnb|Carroll|2007|pp=21–24}}.</ref> By the end of this war, Hong Kong had evolved from a transient colonial outpost into a major ]. Rapid economic improvement during the 1850s attracted foreign investment, as potential stakeholders became more confident in Hong Kong's future.<ref>{{harvnb|Carroll|2007|p=30}}.</ref> | |||
The full official name, after 1997, is "Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China". This is the official title as mentioned in the ] and the Hong Kong Government's website;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gov.hk/en/residents/ |title=GovHK: Residents |publisher=] |accessdate=29 September 2010}}</ref> however, "Hong Kong Special Administrative Region" and "Hong Kong" are widely accepted. | |||
The colony was further expanded in 1898 when the United Kingdom obtained a 99-year lease of the New Territories.<ref name="NTLease">{{harvnb|Scott|1989|p=6}}.</ref> The ] was established in 1911 as the territory's first institution of higher education.<ref>{{harvnb|Chu|2005|p=90}}.</ref> ] began operation in 1924, and the colony avoided a prolonged economic downturn after the 1925–26 ].<ref name="KaiTak">{{harvnb|Wordie|2007|p=243}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Carroll|2007|p=103}}.</ref> At the start of the ] in 1937, Governor ] declared Hong Kong a neutral zone to safeguard its status as a free port.<ref>{{harvnb|Yanne|Heller|2009|p=71}}.</ref> The colonial government prepared for a possible attack, evacuating all British women and children in 1940.<ref>{{harvnb|Snow|2003|p=43}}.</ref> The ] ], the same morning as its ].<ref>{{harvnb|Snow|2003|pp=53–73}}.</ref> Hong Kong was ] for almost four years before the British resumed control on 30 August 1945.<ref>{{harvnb|Kwong|2015}}.</ref> | |||
Hong Kong has carried many nicknames: the most famous among those is the "Pearl of the Orient", which reflected the impressive night-view of the city's light decorations on the skyscrapers along both sides of the ]. The territory is also known as "]". | |||
] from 1959 to 1997]] | |||
==History== | |||
] in Tsim Sha Tsui in 1971]] | |||
{{main|History of Hong Kong|History of China}} | |||
Its population rebounded quickly after the war, as skilled Chinese migrants fled from the ] and more refugees crossed the border when the ] took control of mainland China in 1949.<ref name="Wiltshire">{{harvnb|Wiltshire|1997|p=148}}.</ref> Hong Kong became the first of the ] economies to industrialise during the 1950s.<ref>{{harvnb|Buckley|1997|pp=64, 92}}.</ref> With a rapidly increasing population, the colonial government attempted reforms to improve infrastructure and public services. The ], ], and ] were all established during the post-war decades to provide safer housing, integrity in the civil service, and more reliable transportation.<ref>{{harvnb|Carroll|2007|pp=145, 174–175}}.</ref><ref>{{cite AV media | people=Forsyth, Neil (Director) |year=1990 | title=Underground Pride | medium=Motion picture | location=Hong Kong | publisher=]}}</ref> | |||
Nevertheless, widespread public discontent resulted in multiple protests from the 1950s to 1980s, including pro-] and pro-] protests. In the ], pro-] protestors clashed with the British colonial government. As many as 51 were killed and 802 were injured in the violence, including dozens killed by the ] via beatings and shootings.<ref>Chu, Yingchi (2003). Hong Kong Cinema: Coloniser, Motherland and Self! Routledge Publishing. {{ISBN|0-7007-1746-3}}.</ref> | |||
===Pre-British Hong Kong=== | |||
{{Main|Prehistoric Hong Kong|History of Hong Kong under Imperial China}} | |||
] studies support human presence in the ] area (now ]) from 35,000 to 39,000 years ago and on ] from 6,000 years ago.<ref name=HKAS1>{{cite web|url=http://www.hkarch.org/en_news.html |title=The Trial Excavation at the Archaeological Site of Wong Tei Tung, Sham Chung, Hong Kong SAR |publisher=] |date=January 2006 |accessdate=21 August 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20090303144015/http://www.hkarch.org:80/en_news.html |archivedate=3 March 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://scitech.people.com.cn/BIG5/53757/4115149.html|script-title=zh:港現舊石器製造場 嶺南或為我發源地|trans_title=Paleolithic site appears in Hong Kong, Lingnan perhaps discovered our birthplace|newspaper=]|date=17 February 2006|accessdate=21 August 2010|language=Chinese}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Tang|first=Chung|url=http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/ics/ccaa/linkfile/cuhk_uc.pdf|script-title=zh:考古與香港尋根|language=Chinese|trans_title=Archaeologist help find Hong Kong's Roots|publisher=]|journal=New Asia Monthly|volume= 32|issue=6|year=2005|pages=6–8|accessdate=21 August 2010}}</ref> | |||
Although the territory's competitiveness in manufacturing gradually declined because of rising labour and property costs, it transitioned to a service-based economy. By the early 1990s, Hong Kong had established itself as a global ] and shipping hub.<ref>{{harvnb|Dodsworth|Mihaljek|1997|p=54}}.</ref> | |||
[[Wong | |||
bu Tei Tung]] and ] are the earliest sites of human habitation in Hong Kong during the ] Period. It is believed that the Three Fathom Cove was a river-valley settlement and ] was a lithic manufacturing site. Excavated ] artefacts suggested cultural differences from the ] of northern China and settlement by the ], prior to the migration of the ] (Viets) to Hong Kong.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://comonca.org.cn/LH/Doc/A07.pdf|script-title=zh:百越遺傳結構的一元二分跡象|last=Li|first=Hui|trans_title=The genetic structure of Baiyue divide in half|language=Chinese|year=2002|journal=Guangxi Ethnic Group Research|accessdate=21 August 2010|volume= 70|issue=4|pages=26–31}}</ref><ref name=HKAS2>{{cite web|url=http://www.hkarch.org/en_news.html |title=2005 Field Archaeology on Sham Chung Site |publisher=Hong Kong Archaeological Society |date=January 2006 |accessdate=21 August 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20090303144015/http://www.hkarch.org:80/en_news.html |archivedate=3 March 2009 }}</ref> Eight ]s, which dated to the ] in China, were discovered on the surrounding islands.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lcsd.gov.hk/ce/Museum/Monument/en/monuments_16.php|title=Declared Monuments in Hong Kong – New Territories |publisher=], Hong Kong Government|date=13 January 2010|accessdate=21 August 2010}}</ref> | |||
=== Chinese special administrative region === | |||
====Ancient China==== | |||
{{Further|Handover of Hong Kong}} | |||
In 214 BC, ], the first emperor of China, ] in ] (modern ] region and ]) and incorporated the territory into imperial China for the first time. Modern Hong Kong was assigned to the Nanhai ] (modern ]), near the commandery's capital city ].<ref name=NanhaiGov>{{cite web|url=http://www.investnanhai.gov.cn/en/hj.asp|title=Characteristic Culture|publisher=Invest Nanhai|accessdate=26 August 2010}}{{dead link|date=April 2011}}</ref><ref name=Han28>{{cite book|url=http://zh.wikisource.org/%E6%BC%A2%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B7028%E4%B8%8B|language=Chinese|title=Book of Han|last=Ban Biao|authorlink=Ban Biao|last2=Ban Gu|authorlink2=Ban Gu|last3=Ban Zhao|authorlink3=Ban Zhao|chapter=地理誌|trans_chapter=Treatise on geography|volume=Volume 28|accessdate=26 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Peng|first=Quanmin|url=http://d.wanfangdata.com.cn/Periodical_nfww200102008.aspx|script-title=zh:從考古材料看漢代深港社會|language=Chinese|trans_title=Archaeological material from the Shenzhen-Hong Kong Society of Han|accessdate=26 August 2010|year=2001|work=Relics From South}}</ref> In ], the territory was ruled by Panyu County(番禺縣) up till ]. | |||
] and ], 2007]] | |||
The colony faced an uncertain future as the end of the New Territories lease approached, and ] raised the question of Hong Kong's status with ] in 1979.<ref>{{harvnb|Carroll|2007|pp=176–178}}.</ref> Diplomatic negotiations with China resulted in the 1984 ], in which the United Kingdom agreed to the handover of the colony in 1997 and China would guarantee Hong Kong's economic and political systems for 50 years after the handover.<ref name="Carroll181">{{harvnb|Carroll|2007|p=181}}.</ref> The impending handover triggered a ] as residents feared an erosion of civil rights, the rule of law, and quality of life.<ref>{{harvnb|Wong|1992|p=9}}.</ref> Over half a million people left the territory during the peak migration period, from 1987 to 1996.<ref name="2002Pop">{{harvnb|Population Policy Report|2002|pp=27–28}}</ref> The Legislative Council became a ] for the first time in 1995 and extensively expanded its functions and organisations throughout the last years of the colonial rule.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gargan |first1=Edward A. |title=Pro-China Party Appears Big Loser in Hong Kong Election |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/09/18/world/pro-china-party-appears-big-loser-in-hong-kong-election.html |work=The New York Times |date=18 September 1995 |access-date=20 November 2020 |archive-date=8 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508195434/https://www.nytimes.com/1995/09/18/world/pro-china-party-appears-big-loser-in-hong-kong-election.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The handover of Hong Kong to China was at midnight on 1 July 1997, after 156 years of British rule.<ref name="NYTHandover">{{harvnb|Gargan|1997}}.</ref> | |||
The area of Hong Kong was consolidated under the kingdom of ] (Southern Viet), founded by general ] in 204 BC after the collapse of the short-lived ].<ref name="KeatGinOoi">{{cite book|title=Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia|publisher=]|last=Keat|first=Gin Ooi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA932|isbn=1-57607-770-5|year=2004|page=932|accessdate=1 September 2011}}</ref> When ] by the ] in 111 BC, Hong Kong was assigned to the ] commandery. Archaeological evidence indicates that the population increased and early salt production flourished in this time period. ] on the ] is believed to have been built during the Han dynasty.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.yearbook.gov.hk/2005/en/21_02.htm|title=Archaeological Background|work=Hong Kong Yearbook |volume= 21|publisher=Hong Kong Government|year=2005|accessdate=27 August 2010}}</ref> | |||
Immediately after the handover, Hong Kong was severely affected by several crises. The Hong Kong government was forced to use substantial ] to maintain the Hong Kong dollar's currency peg during the ],<ref name="Wiltshire" /> and the recovery from this was muted by an ] outbreak<ref>{{harvnb|Carroll|2007|p=218}}</ref> and a housing surplus.<ref>{{harvnb|Cheung|Ho|2013}}.</ref> This was followed by the ], during which the territory experienced its most serious economic downturn.<ref>{{harvnb|Lee|2006|pp=63–70}}.</ref> | |||
====Imperial China==== | |||
Started from ] to early period of ], the territory that now comprises Hong Kong was governed by ] (寶安縣). In Tang dynasty, the Guangdong region flourished as an international trading center. The Tuen Mun region in what is now Hong Kong's New Territories served as a port, naval base, salt production centre and later, base for the exploitation of pearls. Lantau Island was also a salt production centre, where the salt smugglers riots broke out against the government. | |||
Chinese communists portrayed the return of Hong Kong as key moment in the PRC's rise to ] status.<ref name=":172">{{Cite book |last=Crean |first=Jeffrey |title=The Fear of Chinese Power: an International History |date=2024 |publisher=] |isbn=978-1-350-23394-2 |edition= |series=New Approaches to International History series |location=London, UK}}</ref>{{Rp|page=51}} | |||
Under the ], the Guangdong (Canton) region flourished as a regional trading centre. In 736 AD, ] established a military stronghold in ] in western Hong Kong to defend the coastal area of the region.<ref name="SiuKK">{{cite journal|last=Siu Kwok-kin|script-title=zh:唐代及五代時期屯門在軍事及中外交通上的重要性|trans_title=The importance of Tuen Mun during Tang and Five Dynasties period for foreign traffic and military|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100829/http://www.edb.gov.hk/FileManager/TC/Content_3419/CH_S1-3_AV_12.doc|url=http://www.edb.gov.hk/FileManager/TC/Content_3419/CH_S1-3_AV_12.doc|journal=From Sui to Ming|publisher=], Hong Kong Government|pages=40–45|archivedate=29 August 2010|accessdate=29 August 2010|language=Chinese}}</ref> The first village school, ], was established around 1075 AD in the modern-day ] under the ].<ref name="Sweeting">{{cite book|last=Sweeting|first=Anthony|year=1990|title=Education in Hong Kong, Pre-1841 to 1941: Fact and Opinion|publisher=Hong Kong University Press|page=93|isbn=962-209-258-6}}</ref> After their defeat by the Mongols, the Southern Song court briefly moved to modern-day ] (the ] site), before its final defeat at the ].<ref name="Barber">{{cite book|last=Barber|first=Nicola|year=2004|title=Hong Kong|publisher=]|page=48|isbn=978-0-8368-5198-4}}</ref> | |||
], August 2019]] | |||
From the mid-] to early ], the territory that now comprises Hong Kong was governed by ] (東莞縣/ 東官縣). In ], the area was governed by ] (新安縣) before it was colonized by the ]. The ] of what is now Hong Kong are identified with several ethnicities, including ], ], ]) and ]. | |||
Political debates after the handover have centred around the region's ] and the ]'s adherence to the "one country, two systems" principle. After reversal of the last colonial era Legislative Council ] following the handover,<ref>{{harvnb|Carroll|2007|p=200}}.</ref> the regional government unsuccessfully attempted to enact ] pursuant to ].<ref>{{harvnb|Carroll|2007|pp=226, 233}}.</ref> The central government decision to implement ] before allowing ] triggered a series of ] which became known as the Umbrella Revolution.<ref>{{harvnb|Kaiman|2014}}.</ref> Discrepancies in the electoral registry and disqualification of elected legislators after the ]<ref>{{harvnb|Bland|2016}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Haas|2017}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Huang|2016}}.</ref> and enforcement of national law in the ] raised further concerns about the region's autonomy.<ref>{{harvnb|Siu|Chung|2017}}.</ref> In June 2019, ] in response to a ] permitting the extradition of fugitives to mainland China. The protests are the largest in Hong Kong's history,<ref name="EconomistRestoreCalm">{{harvnb|"To restore calm in Hong Kong, try democracy", ''The Economist''}}</ref> with organisers claiming to have attracted more than three million Hong Kong residents. | |||
The Hong Kong regional government and Chinese central government responded to the protests with a number of administrative measures to quell dissent. In June 2020, the Legislative Council passed the ], which criminalised "insults to the national anthem of China".<ref>{{cite web |title=CE signs National Anthem Ordinance (with photos) |url=https://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/202006/11/P2020061100793.htm |website=HKSAR Government Press Releases |access-date=12 June 2020 |archive-date=12 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200612041953/https://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/202006/11/P2020061100793.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The Chinese central government meanwhile enacted the ] to help quell protests in the region.<ref name="cnn20200630">{{cite web|last=Regan|first=Helen|date=29 June 2020|title=China passes sweeping Hong Kong national security law: report|url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/06/29/china/hong-kong-national-security-law-passed-intl-hnk/index.html|access-date=29 June 2020|publisher=]|archive-date=1 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200701113134/https://www.cnn.com/2020/06/29/china/hong-kong-national-security-law-passed-intl-hnk/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Nine months later, in March 2021, the Chinese central government introduced ], which included the reduction of directly elected seats in the Legislative Council and the requirement that all candidates be vetted and approved by a Beijing-appointed ].<ref name="france2420210311">{{cite news |date=11 March 2021 |title=China approves plan to veto Hong Kong election candidates |url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20210311-china-approves-plan-to-veto-hong-kong-election-candidates |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210312063804/https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20210311-china-approves-plan-to-veto-hong-kong-election-candidates |archive-date=12 March 2021 |access-date=6 September 2022 |work=]}}</ref> | |||
The earliest European visitor on record was ], a Portuguese explorer who arrived in 1513.<ref>{{cite book|first=Jonathan|last=Porter|title=Macau, the Imaginary City: Culture and Society, 1557 to the Present|publisher=]|year=1996|page=63|isbn=978-0-8133-2836-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Richard L.|last=Edmonds|title=China and Europe Since 1978: A European Perspective|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2002|page=1|isbn=978-0-521-52403-2}}</ref> Having founded an establishment in ] by 1557, Portuguese merchants began trading in southern China. However, subsequent ] led to the expulsion of all Portuguese merchants from the rest of China. | |||
In May 2023, the Legislative Council also introduced legislation to reduce the number of directly elected seats in the district councils, and a ] was similarly established to vet candidates.<ref name="dc2023_freepress01">{{cite news|url=https://hongkongfp.com/2023/07/06/hong-kong-cuts-directly-elected-district-council-seats-as-overhaul-unanimously-approved/|title=Hong Kong cuts directly elected District Council seats as overhaul unanimously approved|publisher=Hong Kong Free Press|date=6 July 2023}}</ref><ref name="dc2023_gld01">{{cite web|url=https://www.gld.gov.hk/egazette/pdf/20232745e/egn2023274569.pdf|title=Ordinance passed and promulgated|publisher=Hong Kong Government Gazette|date=10 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230710090226/https://www.gld.gov.hk/egazette/pdf/20232745e/egn2023274569.pdf|archive-date=10 July 2023|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="dc2023_gld02">{{cite web|url=https://www.gld.gov.hk/egazette/pdf/20232745e/es12023274519.pdf|title=District Councils (Amendment) Ordinance 2023—Ordinance No. 19 of 2023|publisher=Hong Kong Government Gazette|date=10 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230710090315/https://www.gld.gov.hk/egazette/pdf/20232745e/es12023274519.pdf|archive-date=10 July 2023|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
In the mid-16th century, the ] order (closed-door, isolation policy) was enforced and it strictly forbade all maritime activities in order to prevent contact from foreigners by sea.<ref name="Barber"/> From 1661 to 1669, Hong Kong was directly affected by the ] of the ], who required the evacuation of coastal areas of Guangdong. About 16,000 people from Hong Kong and ] were forced to emigrate inland; 1,648 of those who evacuated were said to have returned after the evacuation was rescinded in 1669.<ref name="historiography">{{cite journal|url=http://hkjo.lib.hku.hk/archive/files/1456f650fd5455b7f60085907e5fc462.pdf|last=Hayes|first=James|authorlink=James W. Hayes|title=The Hong Kong Region: Its Place in Traditional Chinese Historiography and Principal Events Since the Establishment of Hsin-an County in 1573|work=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society Hong Kong Branch|volume= 14|year=1974|pages=108–135|accessdate=25 April 2015}}</ref><ref name="HK story">{{cite web|url=http://www.lcsd.gov.hk/CE/Museum/History/download/the_hk_story_exhibition_materials_e.pdf |title=Hong Kong Museum of History: "The Hong Kong Story" Exhibition Materials |publisher=] |accessdate=30 August 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20090418213756/http://www.lcsd.gov.hk:80/CE/Museum/History/download/the_hk_story_exhibition_materials_e.pdf |archivedate=18 April 2009 }}</ref> | |||
== Government and politics == | |||
===British Crown Colony: 1842-1941=== | |||
{{ |
{{Main|Government of Hong Kong|Politics of Hong Kong|Elections in Hong Kong|Separation of powers in Hong Kong}} | ||
] ].]] | |||
In 1839, the refusal of ] authorities to support opium imports caused the outbreak of the ] between the British Empire and the Qing Empire. Qing's defeat resulted in the occupation of ] by British forces on 20 January 1841. It was initially ceded under the ], as part of a ceasefire agreement between Captain ] and Governor ]. While a dispute between high-ranking officials of both countries led to the failure of the treaty's ratification, on 29 August 1842, Hong Kong Island was formally ceded in perpetuity to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland under the ].<ref name="Courtauld">{{cite book|last=Courtauld|first=Caroline|last2=Holdsworth|first2=May|last3=Vickers|first3=Simon|year=1997|title=The Hong Kong Story|publisher=]|pages=38–58|isbn=978-0-19-590353-9}}</ref> The British officially established a ] and founded the ] in the following year.<ref name="HoeRoebuck">{{cite book|last=Hoe|first=Susanna|last2=Roebuck|first2=Derek|year=1999|title=The Taking of Hong Kong: Charles and Clara Elliot in China Waters|publisher=]|page=203|isbn=978-0-7007-1145-1}}</ref> | |||
Hong Kong is a ], with executive, legislative, and judicial powers ] from the ].<ref>{{harvnb|Tam|Chan|Choi Kwan|Leung|2012|p=80}}</ref> The Sino-British Joint Declaration provided for economic and administrative continuity through the handover,<ref name="Carroll181" /> resulting in an ] governing system largely inherited from the territory's history as a British colony.<ref name="BasicLaw15">{{harvnb|Tam|Chan|Choi Kwan|Leung|2012|pp=66, 80–81}}</ref> Under these terms and the "one country, two systems" principle, the ] is the regional constitution.<ref>{{harvnb|''Ng Ka Ling and Another v the Director of Immigration''}}</ref> The regional government is composed of three branches: | |||
The population of Hong Kong Island was 7,450 when the ] raised over ] on 26 January 1841. It mostly consisted of ] fishermen and ] ], whose settlements scattered along several coastal hamlets. In the 1850s, a large number of Chinese immigrants crossed the then-free border to escape from the ]. Other natural disasters, such as flooding, typhoons and famine in ] would play a role in establishing Hong Kong as a place for safe shelter.<ref name=thomson>John Thomson 1837–1921,, Illustrations of China and Its People (London,1873–1874)</ref><ref>Info Gov HK. "." ''History of Hong Kong.'' Retrieved on 16 February 2007. {{wayback|url=http://www.info.gov.hk/police/hkp-text/english/history/history_01.htm |date=20131017002146 }}</ref> | |||
* ''Executive:'' The ] is responsible for enforcing regional law,<ref name="BasicLaw15" /> can force reconsideration of legislation,<ref>{{harvnb|Tam|Chan|Choi Kwan|Leung|2012|p=77}}</ref> and appoints ] members and ].<ref>{{harvnb|Young|Cullen|2010|p=39}}.</ref> Acting with the Executive Council, the ] can propose new bills, issue ], and has authority to ] the legislature.<ref>{{harvnb|Adaptation of Laws Guidelines|1998|p=7}}</ref> In ] or public danger, the Chief Executive-in-Council is further empowered to enact any regulation necessary to restore public order.<ref>{{harvnb|Emergency Regulations Ordinance}}.</ref> | |||
* ''Legislature:'' The unicameral ] enacts regional law, approves budgets, and has the power to ] a sitting chief executive.<ref>{{harvnb|Tam|Chan|Choi Kwan|Leung|2012|p=73}}</ref> | |||
* '']:'' The ] and lower courts interpret laws and overturn those inconsistent with the Basic Law.<ref name="Gittings150">{{harvnb|Gittings|2009|p=150}}.</ref> Judges are appointed by the chief executive on the advice of a recommendation commission.<ref>{{harvnb|Gittings|2009|p=153}}.</ref> | |||
The chief executive is the ] and serves for a maximum of two five-year terms. The ] (led by the ]) appoints the chief executive after nomination by the ], which is composed of 1500 business, community, and government leaders.<ref>{{harvnb|Young|Cullen|2010|pp=13–16}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Basic Law Chapter IV}} Article 45.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Amendment to the Basic Law Annex I}}</ref> | |||
Further conflicts over the opium trade between Britain and Qing quickly escalated into the ]. Following the Anglo-French victory, the Crown Colony was expanded to include ] (south of Boundary Street) and ], both of which were ceded to the British in perpetuity under the ] in 1860. | |||
The Legislative Council has 90 members, each serving a four-year term. Twenty are directly elected from ], thirty-five represent ] (FC), and forty are chosen by an ] consisting of representatives appointed by the Chinese central government.<ref name="overhaul_HK">{{cite news|title=China moves to overhaul Hong Kong politics, squeezing democratic opposition|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-parliament-hongkong/chinas-parliament-moves-to-overhaul-hong-kongs-electoral-system-idUSKBN2B30RC|date=11 March 2021|work=Reuters|access-date=6 September 2022|archive-date=12 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210312063854/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-parliament-hongkong/chinas-parliament-moves-to-overhaul-hong-kongs-electoral-system-idUSKBN2B30RC|url-status=live}}</ref> Thirty FC councillors are selected from limited electorates representing sectors of the economy or special interest groups,<ref name="LegCoVoting">{{harvnb|Guidelines on the Legislative Council Election|2016|pp=3–4}}</ref> and the remaining five members are nominated from sitting ] members and selected in region-wide ]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Guidelines on the Legislative Council Election|2016|pp=3, 52–53}}</ref> All popularly elected members are chosen by ]. The 30 limited electorate functional constituencies fill their seats using ] or ] voting.<ref name="LegCoVoting" /> | |||
In 1898, Britain obtained a 99-year lease from Qing under the ], in which Hong Kong obtained a 99-year lease of the ], the area north of ] in Kowloon up to ] and over 200 other outlying islands.<ref name="Wiltshire">{{cite book|first=Trea|last=Wiltshire|title=Old Hong Kong|volume=Volume II: 1901–1945|page=148|publisher=FormAsia Books|edition=5th|year=1997|isbn=962-7283-13-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.globaltimes.cn/www/english/life/travel/chinamap/2010-07/548745.html |title=History of Hong Kong |newspaper=] |date=6 July 2010 |accessdate=31 August 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20100723195834/http://www.globaltimes.cn:80/www/english/life/travel/chinamap/2010-07/548745.html |archivedate=23 July 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Political change and the crisis of legitimacy in Hong Kong|first=Ian|last=Scott|year=1989|publisher=]|page=6|isbn=978-0-8248-1269-0}}</ref> | |||
Twenty-two political parties had representatives elected to the Legislative Council in the ].<ref>{{harvnb|LegCo and DC Member Political Affiliations|2017}}</ref> These parties have aligned themselves into three ideological groups: the ] (the current government), the ], and ].<ref>{{harvnb|Bush|Whelan-Wuest|2017}}.</ref> The Chinese Communist Party does not have an official political presence in Hong Kong, and its members do not run in local elections.<ref>{{harvnb|Sala|2016}}.</ref> Hong Kong is represented in the ] by 36 deputies chosen through an electoral college and 203 delegates in the ] appointed by the central government.<ref name="NationalReps" /> | |||
Hong Kong soon became a major ] thanks to its ] status, attracting new immigrants to settle from both China and Europe alike. The society, however, remained ] and polarised under British colonial policies. Despite the rise of a British-educated Chinese upper-class by the late-19th century, race laws such as the ] prevented ethnic Chinese in Hong Kong from acquiring houses in reserved areas, such as the ]. At this time, the majority of the Chinese population in Hong Kong had no political representation in the British colonial government. There were, however, a small number of Chinese elites whom the British governors relied on, such as ] and ], who served as communicators and mediators between the government and local population. | |||
] formerly housed the ] and the ].]] | |||
] | |||
] does not generally apply in the region, and Hong Kong is treated as a separate jurisdiction.<ref name="Gittings150" /> Its judicial system is based on ], continuing the legal tradition established during British rule.<ref>{{harvnb|Tam|Chan|Choi Kwan|Leung|2012|pp=80–81}}</ref> Local courts may refer to precedents set in ] and overseas jurisprudence.<ref>{{harvnb|Gittings|2009|p=148}}.</ref> However, ] applies to cases investigated by the ].<ref name="NPC Observer">{{cite web |title=Legislation Summary: Hong Kong National Security Law |url=https://npcobserver.com/2020/06/30/legislation-summary-hong-kong-national-security-law/ |website=NPC Observer |date=30 June 2020 |access-date=2 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200702162405/https://npcobserver.com/2020/06/30/legislation-summary-hong-kong-national-security-law/ |archive-date=2 July 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Interpretative and amending power over the Basic Law and jurisdiction over acts of state lie with the central authority, making regional courts ultimately subordinate to the mainland's ] ] system.<ref>{{harvnb|Jordan|1997|p=335}}.</ref> Decisions made by the ] override any territorial judicial process.<ref name="HCAL185/2016">{{harvnb|''Chief Executive of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region and Another v the President of the Legislative Council''}}</ref> Furthermore, in circumstances where the Standing Committee declares a state of emergency in Hong Kong, the State Council may enforce national law in the region.<ref name="BasicLawA18">{{harvnb|Basic Law Chapter II}} Article 18.</ref> | |||
The territory's jurisdictional independence is most apparent in its ] and taxation policies. The ] issues ] which differ from those of the mainland or Macau,<ref>{{harvnb|Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Passports Ordinance}}</ref> and the region maintains a ] with the rest of the country. All travellers between Hong Kong and China and Macau must pass through border controls, regardless of nationality.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.immd.gov.hk/eng/contactus/control_points.html |title=Control Point Locations |publisher=] |access-date=18 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171122092430/http://www.immd.gov.hk/eng/contactus/control_points.html |archive-date=22 November 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> Mainland Chinese citizens do not have ] and are subject to immigration controls.<ref>{{harvnb|Basic Law Chapter II}} Article 22.</ref> Public finances are handled separately from the national government; taxes levied in Hong Kong do not fund the central authority.<ref>{{harvnb|Basic Law Chapter V}} Article 106.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Public Finance Facts|2018}}.</ref> | |||
Hong Kong continued to experience modest growth during the first half of the 20th century. The ] was established in 1911 as the territory's oldest higher education institute. While there was an exodus of 60,000 residents for fear of a German attack on the British colony during the ], Hong Kong remained peaceful. Its population increased from 530,000 in 1916 to 725,000 in 1925 and reached 1.6 million by 1941.<ref>Linda Pomerantz-Zhang (1992). "''''". Hong Kong University Press. p.8. ISBN 962-209-287-X</ref> | |||
The ] of the ] is responsible for the region's defence.<ref>{{harvnb|Lendon|2017}}.</ref> Although the ] is ] of the armed forces,<ref>{{harvnb|Constitution of the People's Republic of China}} Chapter 3 § 4 (93).</ref> the regional government may request assistance from the garrison.<ref>{{harvnb|Basic Law Chapter II}} Article 14.</ref> Hong Kong residents are not required to perform military service, and current law has no provision for local enlistment, so its defence is composed entirely of non-Hongkongers.<ref>{{harvnb|Mok|Lee|2015}}.</ref> | |||
In 1925, ] became the 17th ]. Fluent in Cantonese and without a need for translator, Clementi introduced the first ethnic Chinese, ], into the Executive Council as an unofficial member. Under his tenure, ] entered operation for the ] and several aviation clubs. In 1937, the ] broke out when the ] expanded its territories from northeastern China into the mainland proper. To safeguard Hong Kong as a freeport, Governor ] declared the Crown Colony as a neutral zone. | |||
The central government and ] handle diplomatic matters, but Hong Kong retains the ability to maintain separate economic and cultural ].<ref>{{harvnb|Basic Law Chapter VII}} Article 152.</ref> The territory actively participates in the ], the ] forum, the ], and many ] agencies.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.unicef.org.hk/en/ |title=Hong Kong Committee for UNICEF |publisher=] |access-date=27 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171228171638/https://www.unicef.org.hk/en/ |archive-date=28 December 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unhcr.org/hk/en/ |title=UNHCR Hong Kong |publisher=] |access-date=27 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171228054213/http://www.unhcr.org/hk/en/ |archive-date=28 December 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.doj.gov.hk/eng/laws/interlaw.html |title=List of Treaties in Force and Applicable to the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region |publisher=] |date=25 October 2017 |access-date=27 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171228054117/http://www.doj.gov.hk/eng/laws/interlaw.html |archive-date=28 December 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> The regional government maintains ] in ] and other nations.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gov.hk/en/about/govdirectory/oohk.htm |title=Offices Outside Hong Kong |publisher=Hong Kong Government |access-date=18 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180614040108/https://www.gov.hk/en/about/govdirectory/oohk.htm |archive-date=14 June 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref> | |||
===Japanese occupation: 1941-45=== | |||
{{Main|Japanese occupation of Hong Kong}} | |||
] in Hong Kong commemorates those who died in service in WWI and WWII.<ref name="grade I"></ref>]] | |||
The imposition of the ] by the ] in June 2020 resulted in the suspension of bilateral extradition treaties by the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Finland, and Ireland.<ref name=rgmsus/> The United States ended its preferential economic and trade treatment of Hong Kong in July 2020 because it was no longer able to distinguish Hong Kong as a separate entity from the People's Republic of China.<ref name="rgmsus">{{cite news |title=Ireland suspends its extradition treaty with Hong Kong |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/world/article-ireland-suspends-its-extradition-treaty-with-hong-kong/ |agency=Reuters |publisher=The Globe and Mail Inc |date=23 October 2020 |access-date=23 October 2020 |archive-date=23 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023235610/https://www.theglobeandmail.com/world/article-ireland-suspends-its-extradition-treaty-with-hong-kong/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="bbcpref">{{cite news |title=Trump ends preferential economic treatment for Hong Kong |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-53412598 |publisher=BBC |date=15 July 2020 |access-date=23 October 2020 |archive-date=17 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201117140801/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-53412598 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2024, the ] was passed by the Legislative Council to grant officials "even more powers to crack down on opposition to ] and the Hong Kong government" and includes penalties such as life imprisonment for political crimes such as ] and ]. Critics state that this expansion "will strike a lasting blow to the partial autonomy the city had been promised by China ]]."<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-03-20 |title=Hong Kong Adopts Sweeping Security Laws, Bowing to Beijing – The New York Times |website=] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/03/19/world/asia/hong-kong-security-law-article-23.html |access-date=2024-03-21 |archive-date=20 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240320033023/https://www.nytimes.com/2024/03/19/world/asia/hong-kong-security-law-article-23.html |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> | |||
As part of its ] during ], the ] moved south from ] of ] and attacked Hong Kong on 8 December 1941.<ref>{{cite web|first=Klemen |last=L |url=http://www.dutcheastindies.webs.com/december2.html |title=Chronology of the Dutch East Indies, 7 December 1941 – 11 December 1941 |date=1999–2000 |work=Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941–1942}}</ref> The ] ended with the British and Canadian defenders surrendering control of Hong Kong to Japan on 25 December 1941 in what was regarded by locals as Black Christmas.<ref>{{cite web|first=Klemen |last=L |url=http://www.dutcheastindies.webs.com/december5.html |title=Chronology of the Dutch East Indies, 25 December 1941 – 31 December 1941 |date=1999–2000 |work=Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941–1942}}</ref> | |||
=== Administrative divisions === | |||
During the ], the Japanese army committed atrocities against civilians and ]s, such as the ]. Local residents also suffered widespread food shortages, limited rationing and hyper-inflation arising from the forced exchange of currency from Hong Kong Dollars to ]. The initial ratio of 2:1 was gradually devalued to 4:1 and ownership of Hong Kong Dollars was declared illegal and punishable by harsh torture. Due to starvation, mass executions, and forced deportation for slave labour to mainland China, the population of Hong Kong had dwindled from 1.6 million in 1941 to 600,000 in 1945, when Britain resumed control of the colony on 30 August 1945.<ref name="NYTime05">{{cite news|last=Bradsher|first=Keith|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2005/04/17/international/asia/17cnd-hong.html|title=Thousands March in Anti-Japan Protest in Hong Kong|newspaper=]|date=17 April 2005|accessdate=20 October 2010}}</ref> | |||
{{Main|Areas of Hong Kong|Districts of Hong Kong|List of towns in Hong Kong}} | |||
Hong Kong's administrative divisions are divided into three levels: ] (區域), ] (地區), and Sub-districts (分區).<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=各區域及地區 AREAS AND DISTRICTS |url=https://www.rvd.gov.hk/doc/tc/hkpr15/06.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220424161628/https://www.rvd.gov.hk/doc/tc/hkpr15/06.pdf |archive-date=2022-04-24 |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=Rating and Valuation Department, Government of Hong Kong}}</ref> Hong Kong is administratively divided into three areas: ], ], and the ]. They are further divided into 18 districts. The area of Hong Kong Island has four districts, the area of Kowloon has five districts, and the area of the New Territories has nine districts.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":02">{{Cite web |title=Home Affairs Department - My Districts |url=https://www.had.gov.hk/en/18_districts/my_map.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240901161227/https://www.had.gov.hk/en/18_districts/my_map.htm |archive-date=2024-09-01 |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=Home Affairs Department, Government of Hong Kong}}</ref> Each district is represented by a ]. The district councils advise the government on local issues such as public facility provisioning, community programme maintenance, cultural promotion, and environmental policy.<ref name="district">{{harvnb|District Administration Facts|2016}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{harvnb|District Councils Ordinance}}.</ref><ref name="dc2023_gld01" /> | |||
===Resumption of British rule and Industrialisation: 1945-97=== | |||
{{Main|British Hong Kong|1950s in Hong Kong|1960s in Hong Kong|1970s in Hong Kong|1980s in Hong Kong|1990s in Hong Kong}} | |||
] from 1959–1997]] | |||
{{As of|2024|post=,}} there are a total of 470 district council seats, 88 of which are directly elected.<ref>{{Cite web |title=2023 District Council Ordinary Election - Election Brief |url=https://www.elections.gov.hk/dc2023/eng/ebrief.html#6 |access-date=2024-10-15 |website=www.elections.gov.hk}}</ref> In May 2023, the government proposed ] which further cut the number of directly elected seats from 452 to 88, and total seats from 479 to 470. A requirement that district council candidates be vetted and approved by the ] was also proposed. The Legislative Council approved the reforms in July 2023.<ref name="dc2023_freepress01" /><ref name="dc2023_gld01" /><ref name="dc2023_gld02" /> | |||
Hong Kong's population recovered quickly after the war, as a wave of skilled migrants from China flooded in for refuge from the ]. When the ] gained control of mainland China in 1949, even more skilled migrants fled across the open border for fear of persecution.<ref name="Wiltshire"/> Many newcomers, especially those who had been based in the major port cities of ] and ], established corporations and small- to medium-sized businesses and shifted their base operations to British Hong Kong.<ref name="Wiltshire"/> The Chinese Communist Party's establishment of a socialist state in China on 1 October 1949 caused the British colonial government to reconsider Hong Kong's open border to mainland China. In 1951, a ] was demarked as a buffer zone against potential military attacks from communist China. Border posts in the north of Hong Kong began operation in 1953 to regulate the movement of people and goods into and out of British Hong Kong. | |||
{{Hong Kong districts imagemap}} | |||
], 1953]] | |||
=== Political reforms and sociopolitical issues === | |||
In the 1950s, Hong Kong became the first of the ] under rapid industrialisation driven by textile exports, manufacturing industries and re-exports of goods to China. As the population grew, with labour costs remaining low, living standards began to rise steadily.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=cxxGJ7c10noC&pg=PA48&dq=textiles+growth+hong+kong&q=textiles%20growth%20hong%20kong|title=The growth and structure of international trade since the Second World War | |||
{{Main|Democratic development in Hong Kong|Human rights in Hong Kong}} | |||
| first=Lynden |last=Moore |year=1985 | |||
] during the ]]] | |||
| page=48 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-46979-1 |accessdate=1 September 2011}}</ref> The construction of the ] in 1953 marked the beginning of the ] to provide shelter for the less privileged and to cope with the influx of immigrants. | |||
Hong Kong is governed by a ] that is not fully ] of the population. ] members elected by functional constituencies composed of professional and special interest groups are accountable to these narrow corporate electorates and not the general public. This electoral arrangement has guaranteed a ] majority in the legislature since the handover. Similarly, the chief executive is selected by establishment politicians and corporate members of the Election Committee rather than directly elected.<ref name="hybridregime">{{harvnb|Cheng|2016|p=387}}.</ref> Despite ] being established as ultimate goals for the election of the chief executive and all members of the Legislative Council in ] and 68 of the basic law,<ref>{{harvnb|Basic Law Chapter IV}} Articles 45, 68.</ref> the legislature is only partially directly elected, and the executive continues to be nominated by an unrepresentative body.<ref name="hybridregime" /> The government has been repeatedly petitioned to introduce direct elections for these positions, but has not introduced these direct elections as of 2024.<ref>{{harvnb|Wong|Lim|2017}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Ming|2006}}.</ref> | |||
Under ], 25th ] (1971–82), a series of reforms improved the public services, environment, housing, welfare, education and infrastructure of Hong Kong. MacLehose was British Hong Kong's longest-serving governor and, by the end of his tenure, had become one of the most popular and well-known figures in the Crown Colony. MacLehose laid the foundation for Hong Kong to establish itself as a key ] in the 1980s and early 1990s. | |||
Ethnic minorities (except those of European ancestry) have marginal representation in government and often experience discrimination in housing, education, and employment.<ref>{{harvnb|Ngo|Cheung|2016}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Zhao|2015}}.</ref> Employment vacancies and public service appointments frequently have language requirements which minority job seekers do not meet, and language education resources remain inadequate for Chinese learners.<ref>{{harvnb|Chao|2013}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Lhatoo|2015}}.</ref> ], mostly women from the Philippines and Indonesia, have little protection under regional law.<ref>{{cite web |last=Raquel Carvalho and Peace Chiu |date=25 February 2018 |title=Fed up with human trafficking, Hong Kong migrant workers hold vigil demanding justice |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/law-crime/article/2134591/fed-human-trafficking-hong-kong-migrant-workers-hold-vigil |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230428161445/https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/law-crime/article/2134591/fed-human-trafficking-hong-kong-migrant-workers-hold-vigil |archive-date=28 April 2023 |access-date=24 June 2020 |website=]}}</ref> Although they live and work in Hong Kong, these workers are not treated as ordinary residents and do not have the right of abode in the territory.<ref>{{harvnb|"Meanings of Right of Abode and Other Terms", Immigration Department}}</ref> ] is also an issue,<ref>{{cite web |last=Tony Read |date=8 July 2016 |title=Hong Kong must lead the fight against human trafficking, rather than just do the bare minimum |url=https://www.scmp.com/comment/insight-opinion/article/1986535/hong-kong-must-lead-fight-against-human-trafficking-rather |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230428161532/https://www.scmp.com/comment/insight-opinion/article/1986535/hong-kong-must-lead-fight-against-human-trafficking-rather |archive-date=28 April 2023 |access-date=24 June 2020 |website=South China Morning Post}}</ref> local, mainland Chinese, and foreign women have been trafficked for sex in ], homes, and businesses in the city.<ref>{{cite web |last=Astrid Zweynert |date=22 October 2015 |title=New ways to help Hong Kong's human trafficking victims |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Making-a-difference/Change-Agent/2015/1022/New-ways-to-help-Hong-Kong-s-human-trafficking-victims |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230428161341/https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Making-a-difference/Change-Agent/2015/1022/New-ways-to-help-Hong-Kong-s-human-trafficking-victims |archive-date=28 April 2023 |access-date=24 June 2020 |website=] |publisher=] |quote=The US State Department's 2014 Trafficking in Persons report said people from mainland China, the Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam, Nepal, Cambodia, and other Southeast Asian countries as well as Colombia, Chad, and Uganda had become victims of sex trafficking and forced labor in Hong Kong.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Jason Wordie |date=16 January 2016 |title=Human trafficking in Hong Kong: hidden in plain sight |url=https://www.scmp.com/magazines/post-magazine/article/1901109/human-trafficking-hong-kong-hidden-plain-sight |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230428161241/https://www.scmp.com/magazines/post-magazine/article/1901109/human-trafficking-hong-kong-hidden-plain-sight |archive-date=28 April 2023 |access-date=24 June 2020 |website=] |quote=Likewise, legions of mainland prostitutes form a highly visible yet officially clandestine workforce in certain parts of Hong Kong. Many of these women, according to informed sources within the sex-worker sorority, have been trafficked.}}</ref> | |||
] in 1986|alt=A sky view of Hong Kong Island]] | |||
The Joint Declaration guarantees the ] for 50 years after the handover.<ref name="Carroll181" /> It does not specify how Hong Kong will be governed after 2047, and the central government's role in determining the territory's future system of government is the subject of political debate and speculation. Hong Kong's political and judicial systems may be integrated with China's at that time, or the territory may continue to be administered separately.<ref>{{harvnb|Cheung|2016}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Cheung|2015}}.</ref> However, in response to ], the ] passed the controversial ].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hernández |first1=Javier C. |title=Harsh Penalties, Vaguely Defined Crimes: Hong Kong's Security Law Explained |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/30/world/asia/hong-kong-security-law-explain.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200701032003/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/30/world/asia/hong-kong-security-law-explain.html |archive-date=1 July 2020 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |website=The New York Times |access-date=2 July 2020 |date=30 June 2020}}</ref> The law criminalises secession, subversion, terrorism and collusion with foreign elements and establishes the Office for Safeguarding National Security of the CPG in the HKSAR, an investigative office under Central People's Government authority immune from HKSAR jurisdiction. Some of the aforementioned acts were previously considered protected speech under Hong Kong law.<ref name="NPC Observer" /><ref>{{cite web |title=Hong Kong National Security Law Promulgated, Came into Effect June 30, 2020 |url=https://www.mofo.com/resources/insights/200701-hong-kong-national-security-law.html |website=] |access-date=2 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200702163941/https://www.mofo.com/resources/insights/200701-hong-kong-national-security-law.html |archive-date=2 July 2020 |date=1 July 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> The United Kingdom considers the law to be a serious violation of the Joint Declaration.<ref>{{cite web |last1=James |first1=William |title=UK says China's security law is serious violation of Hong Kong treaty |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-hongkong-protests-britain/uk-says-chinas-security-law-is-serious-violation-of-hong-kong-treaty-idUSKBN2425LL |website=Reuters |access-date=2 July 2020 |date=1 July 2020 |archive-date=2 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200702015311/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-hongkong-protests-britain/uk-says-chinas-security-law-is-serious-violation-of-hong-kong-treaty-idUSKBN2425LL |url-status=live }}</ref> In October 2020, the Hong Kong Police arrested seven pro-] politicians over tussles with pro-Beijing politicians in the Legislative Council in May. They were charged with contempt and interfering with members of the council, while none of the pro-Beijing lawmakers were detained.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-54768209|title=Hong Kong pro-democracy politicians arrested|work=BBC News|date=November 2020|access-date=1 November 2020|archive-date=1 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101110236/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-54768209|url-status=live}}</ref> Annual commemorations of the ] were also cancelled amidst fears of violating the national security law.<ref>{{cite news |title=Hong Kong churches drop Tiananmen tributes after 33 years amid arrest fears |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/may/30/hong-kong-churches-drop-tiananmen-tributes-after-33-years-amid-arrest-fears |access-date=31 May 2022 |work=Agence France-Presse |via=The Guardian |date=30 May 2022 |language=en |archive-date=30 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220530185147/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/may/30/hong-kong-churches-drop-tiananmen-tributes-after-33-years-amid-arrest-fears |url-status=live }}</ref> In March 2021, the Chinese central government unilaterally ] and established the ], which would be tasked with screening and evaluating political candidates for their "patriotism", effectively crushing the remainder of the ].<ref name="france2420210311"/> | |||
To resolve traffic congestion and to provide a more reliable means of crossing the ], a rapid transit railway system (metro), the ], was planned from the 1970s onwards. The ] (Hong Kong Island), ] (Kowloon Peninsula and East Kowloon) and ] (Kowloon and urban New Territories) opened in the early 1980s.<ref>Forsyth, Neil, dir. ''Underground Pride''. Mass Transit Railway Corporation, 1990. Film. 21 November 2013</ref> | |||
== Geography == | |||
Hong Kong's competitiveness in manufacturing gradually declined due to rising labour and property costs, as well as new development in southern China under the ] introduced in 1978 which opened up China to foreign business. Nevertheless, towards the early 1990s, Hong Kong had established itself as a global financial centre along with ] and ], a regional hub for logistics and freight, one of the fastest-growing economies in Asia and the world's exemplar of ] market policy.<ref name="Dodsworth">{{cite book|title=Hong Kong, China: Growth, Structural Change, and Economic Stability During the Transition|publisher=International Monetary Fund|year=1997|page=54|isbn=1-55775-672-4|first=John|last=Dodsworth|first2=Dubravko|last2=Mihaljek}}</ref> | |||
{{Main|Geography of Hong Kong|Environment of Hong Kong}} | |||
] | |||
Hong Kong is on China's southern coast, {{convert|60|km|mi|abbr=on}} east of Macau, on the east side of the mouth of the ]. It is surrounded by the ] on all sides except the north, which neighbours the ] city of ] along the ]. The territory's {{convert|1110.18|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Survey and Mapping Office – Circulars and Publications|url=https://www.landsd.gov.hk/mapping/en/publications/total.htm|access-date=9 March 2021|website=www.landsd.gov.hk|archive-date=8 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308210534/https://www.landsd.gov.hk/mapping/en/publications/total.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> area (2,754.97 km<sup>2</sup><ref name=":0" /> if the maritime area is included) consists of ], the ], the ], ], and over 200 other islands. Of the total area, {{convert|1073|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} is land and {{convert|35|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} is water.<ref name="cia">{{cite web |title=Hong Kong |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/hong-kong/ |access-date=2 October 2018 |work=] |publisher=] |archive-date=10 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210610100924/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/hong-kong/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The territory's highest point is ], {{convert|957|m|ft}} above sea level.<ref>{{harvnb|Owen|Shaw|2007|p=13}}.</ref> Urban development is concentrated on the Kowloon Peninsula, Hong Kong Island, and in ] throughout the New Territories.<ref>{{harvnb|Population By-Census|2021|pp=34–35}}</ref> Much of this is built on ]; {{convert|70|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} (6% of the total land or about 25% of developed space in the territory) is reclaimed from the sea.<ref name="reclamation">{{harvnb|Land Policy Report|2017|p=1}}.</ref> | |||
====The Hong Kong question==== | |||
Facing the uncertain future of Hong Kong, Governor MacLehose raised the question in the late 1970s. In 1983, the United Kingdom reclassifed Hong Kong as a ] (now British Overseas Territory) when reorganising global territories of the British Empire. Talks and negotiations began with China and concluded with the 1984 ]. Both countries agreed to transfer Hong Kong's sovereignty to the ] on 1 July 1997, when Hong Kong would remain autonomous as a ''Special Administrative Region'' and be able to retain its free-market economy, British common law through the ], independent representation in international organisations (e.g. ] and ]), treaty arrangements and policy-making except foreign diplomacy and military defence.<ref name="Wiltshire"/> It stipulated that Hong Kong would retain its laws and be guaranteed a high degree of autonomy for at least 50 years after the transfer. The Hong Kong Basic Law, based on ], would serve as the constitutional document after the transfer. It was ratified in 1990.<ref name="Wiltshire"/> Nevertheless, the expiry of the 1898 lease on the New Territories in 1997 created problems for business contracts, property leases and confidence among foreign investors. | |||
Undeveloped terrain is hilly to mountainous, with very little flat land, and consists mostly of grassland, woodland, shrubland, or farmland.<ref>{{harvnb|Owen|Shaw|2007|p=2}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|"Land Use in Hong Kong 2017", Planning Department}}</ref> About 40% of the remaining land area is ] and nature reserves.<ref>{{harvnb|Morton|Harper|1995|p=9}}.</ref> The territory has a diverse ecosystem; over 3,000 species of ]s occur in the region (300 of which are native to Hong Kong), and thousands of insect, avian, and marine species.<ref>{{harvnb|Hu|2003}}.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gov.hk/en/residents/environment/conservation/naturalenvplantsanimals.htm |title=The Natural Environment, Plants & Animals in Hong Kong |publisher=Hong Kong Government |access-date=15 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115215525/https://www.gov.hk/en/residents/environment/conservation/naturalenvplantsanimals.htm |archive-date=15 November 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
===Handover and Hong Kong SAR=== | |||
{{Main|Transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong|2000s in Hong Kong}} | |||
=== |
=== Climate === | ||
Hong Kong has a ] (] ''Cwa''), characteristic of southern China, despite being located south of the ], although closely bordering on a ]. Summers are long, hot and humid, with occasional showers and thunderstorms and warm air from the southwest. The humid nature of Hong Kong exacerbates the warmth of summer. ]s occur most often then, sometimes resulting in floods or landslides. Also rarely occurring are ]s and ]es, which occurred at Hong Kong International Airport on 26 September 2020 and at Victoria Harbour on 28 September 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-09-26 |title=Small tornado spotted at Hong Kong airport, but no damage reported |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/health-environment/article/3103172/small-tornado-spotted-hong-kong-airport-rare |access-date=2024-09-28 |website=South China Morning Post |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-09-28 |title=Waterspout spotted over Hong Kong's Victoria Harbour for first time |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/society/article/3280343/waterspout-spotted-over-hong-kongs-victoria-harbour-weather-forecaster |access-date=2024-09-28 |website=South China Morning Post |language=en}}</ref> Winters are short, mild and usually sunny at the beginning, becoming cloudy towards February. Frequent cold fronts bring strong, cooling winds from the north and occasionally result in chilly weather. Autumn is the sunniest season, whilst spring is generally cloudy.<ref name="HKClimate">{{cite web |url=http://www.hko.gov.hk/wxinfo/climat/climahk.htm |title=Climate of Hong Kong |publisher=] |access-date=5 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170602080336/http://www.hko.gov.hk/wxinfo/climat/climahk.htm |archive-date=2 June 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> Snowfall has been extremely rare in Hong Kong; the last reported instance was on ] in 1975.<ref>{{cite web |title=Last time it snowed in Hong Kong |url=https://www.hko.gov.hk/en/education/climate/general-climatology/00247-last-time-it-snowed-in-hong-kong.html |website=www.hko.gov.hk |language=en |access-date=12 December 2023 |archive-date=12 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212060956/https://www.hko.gov.hk/en/education/climate/general-climatology/00247-last-time-it-snowed-in-hong-kong.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Hong Kong averages 1,709 hours of sunshine per year.<ref>{{harvnb|Geography and Climate|2010}}.</ref> Historic temperature extremes at the ] are {{convert|36.6|°C|°F|sigfig=3}} on 22 August 2017 and {{convert|0.0|°C|°F|sigfig=3}} on 18 January 1893.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hko.gov.hk/cis/extreme/mon_extreme_e.htm |title=Extreme Values and Dates of Occurrence of Extremes of Meteorological Elements between 1884 and 1939 and 1947–2017 for Hong Kong |publisher=] |access-date=25 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180324065716/http://www.hko.gov.hk/cis/extreme/mon_extreme_e.htm |archive-date=24 March 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> The highest and lowest recorded temperatures in all of Hong Kong are {{convert|39.0|°C|°F|sigfig=3}} at ] on 22 August 2017,<ref>{{harvnb|"HK records hottest day before typhoon", ''EJ Insight''}}</ref> and {{convert|−6.0|°C|°F|sigfig=3}} at ] ].<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Automatic Weather Observations yearly Extract|url=https://www.hko.gov.hk/en/cis/awsYearlyExtract.htm|access-date=17 January 2021|website=Hong Kong Observatory|language=en|archive-date=10 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310193538/https://www.hko.gov.hk/en/cis/awsYearlyExtract.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
]]] | |||
{{Weather box | |||
On 1 July 1997, the transfer of sovereignty of Hong Kong from the United Kingdom to the People's Republic of China took place, officially marking the end of Hong Kong's 156 years under British colonial governance. As the last Crown Colony of the United Kingdom, the loss of Hong Kong also represented the end of the ]. At the same time, Hong Kong switched its country of administration overnight to become China's first Special Administrative Region. ], a pro-Beijing business tycoon, was elected Hong Kong's first ] by a selected electorate of 800 in a televised ceremony. | |||
|location = Hong Kong (]), normals 1991–2020,{{efn|Mean monthly maxima and minima (i.e. the expected highest and lowest temperature readings at any point during the year or given month) calculated based on data in Hong Kong from 1991 to 2020.}} extremes 1884–1939 and 1947–present | |||
|metric first = Y | |||
====Transition to Chinese rule==== | |||
|single line = Y | |||
Soon after Hong Kong's reversion to China, the city suffered an economic double-blow from the ] and the pandemic of ]; in December 1997, officials had to destroy 1.4 million chickens and ducks to contain the virus from spreading.<ref name="Wiltshire"/> Subsequently, mismanagement of Tung's housing policy disrupted the market supply, sent properties prices in Hong Kong tumbling and caused many homeowners to become bankrupt due to ]. In 2003, Hong Kong was gravely affected by the outbreak of ].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://english.people.com.cn/200401/16/eng20040116_132721.shtml |title=Links between SARS, human genes discovered |newspaper=People's Daily |date=16 January 2004 |accessdate=1 February 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=SARS in China and Hong Kong|first=S. H.|last=Lee|publisher=Nova Publishers|pages=63–70|year=2006|isbn=978-1-59454-678-5}}</ref> The ] reported 1,755 infected and 299 deaths in Hong Kong.<ref name="WHO">{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/csr/sars/country/table2004_04_21/en/index.html|title=Summary of probable SARS cases with onset of illness from 1 November 2002 to 31 July 2003|date=31 December 2003|publisher=]|accessdate=4 October 2010}}</ref> An estimated 380 million Hong Kong dollars (US$48.9 million) in contracts were lost as a result of the epidemic.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/chinese/news/newsid_2944000/29441642.stm|publisher=BBC News|date=28 May 2003|script-title=zh:疫情衝擊香港經濟損失巨大|trans_title=The impact of economic losses in the great epidemic|accessdate=24 August 2010|language=Chinese}}</ref> | |||
|collapsed = Y | |||
|Jan record high C = 26.9 | |||
Distrust of the ] remained strong in the initial years of Chinese rule. A legacy of the democratic reforms by ], China refused to recognise the legitimacy of the ] after its 1994 direct election. The "Provisional" Legislative Council of Hong Kong (1997–99), which was unable to draft any new bills or authorise new legislation, completed its five-year term in 1999. The ] (LegCo) resumed its full function after the 1999 LegCo election. | |||
|Feb record high C = 28.3 | |||
|Mar record high C = 31.5 | |||
Despite the unopposed re-election of Tung in July 2002, the government's attempt to complete legislation of the Basic Law's Article 23 (National Security) aroused strong suspicion among Hong Kong citizens. This was due to the Article granting the police force right of access to private property, under the reason of 'safeguarding national security', without court warrants. Coupled with years of economic hardships and deflation following the Asian Financial Crisis, ]. This hastened the resignations of two government ministers and, eventually, that of Tung on 10 March 2005.<ref>{{cite news|last = Yau|first = Cannix|title = Tung's gone. What next?|newspaper=]|date = 11 March 2005|url =http://www.thestandard.com.hk/news_detail.asp?pp_cat=&art_id=4513&sid=&con_type=1&d_str=20050311&sear_year=2005|accessdate =17 September 2010}}</ref> | |||
|Apr record high C = 33.4 | |||
|May record high C = 36.1 | |||
], the then-] and ex-official of the British Hong Kong government, entered the ] uncontested and was appointed by Beijing as the second Chief Executive of Hong Kong on 21 June 2005. Tsang also won a second term in office following the ] under managed voting.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.news.gov.hk/en/category/administration/070325/html/070325en01002.htm|publisher=Hong Kong Government|title=Donald Tsang wins Chief Executive election|date=25 March 2007|accessdate=17 September 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080526043407/http://www.news.gov.hk/en/category/administration/070325/html/070325en01002.htm|archivedate=26 May 2008}}</ref> In 2009, Hong Kong hosted the ], in which nine national teams competed. The Games were the first and largest international multi-sport event ever organised and hosted by the city.<ref name="kmt">{{cite news|publisher=]|url=http://www.kmt.org.tw/english/page.aspx?type=article&mnum=112&anum=7341|title=Chinese Taipei Wins God Medal in Men's 400-Meter Relay|date=14 December 2009|accessdate=17 September 2010}}</ref> Major infrastructure and tourist projects also began under Sir Tsang's second term, including ], ] (for ] and ] (new metro line) had their inaugurations and a new cultural complex, the ]. | |||
|Jun record high C = 35.6 | |||
{{multiple image | |||
|Jul record high C = 36.1 | |||
| align =center | |||
|Aug record high C = 36.6 | |||
| direction = horizontal | |||
|Sep record high C = 35.9 | |||
| footer_align =right | |||
|Oct record high C = 34.6 | |||
| image1 = Hong Kong Brand banner 8473.JPG | |||
|Nov record high C = 31.8 | |||
| width1 = 150 | |||
|Dec record high C = 28.7 | |||
| caption1 = "Hong Kong" branded as "Asia's World City". | |||
|year record high C = 36.6 | |||
| image2 = Overlook Hong Kong Island north coast, Victoria Harbour and Kowloon from middle section of Lugard Road at daytime (enlarged version and better contrast, revised).jpg | |||
|Jan avg record high C = 24.0 | |||
| width2 = 350 | |||
|Feb avg record high C = 25.1 | |||
| caption2 = Overlook ] north coast, ] and ] from middle section of ] at daytime. | |||
|Mar avg record high C = 27.5 | |||
|Apr avg record high C = 30.2 | |||
|May avg record high C = 32.3 | |||
|Jun avg record high C = 33.6 | |||
|Jul avg record high C = 34.1 | |||
|Aug avg record high C = 34.2 | |||
|Sep avg record high C = 33.4 | |||
|Oct avg record high C = 31.3 | |||
|Nov avg record high C = 28.4 | |||
|Dec avg record high C = 25.1 | |||
|year avg record high C = 34.7 | |||
|Jan high C = 18.7 | |||
|Feb high C = 19.4 | |||
|Mar high C = 21.9 | |||
|Apr high C = 25.6 | |||
|May high C = 28.8 | |||
|Jun high C = 30.7 | |||
|Jul high C = 31.6 | |||
|Aug high C = 31.3 | |||
|Sep high C = 30.5 | |||
|Oct high C = 28.1 | |||
|Nov high C = 24.5 | |||
|Dec high C = 20.4 | |||
|year high C = 26.0 | |||
|Jan mean C = 16.5 | |||
|Feb mean C = 17.1 | |||
|Mar mean C = 19.5 | |||
|Apr mean C = 23.0 | |||
|May mean C = 26.3 | |||
|Jun mean C = 28.3 | |||
|Jul mean C = 28.9 | |||
|Aug mean C = 28.7 | |||
|Sep mean C = 27.9 | |||
|Oct mean C = 25.7 | |||
|Nov mean C = 22.2 | |||
|Dec mean C = 18.2 | |||
|year mean C = 23.5 | |||
|Jan low C = 14.6 | |||
|Feb low C = 15.3 | |||
|Mar low C = 17.6 | |||
|Apr low C = 21.1 | |||
|May low C = 24.5 | |||
|Jun low C = 26.5 | |||
|Jul low C = 26.9 | |||
|Aug low C = 26.7 | |||
|Sep low C = 26.1 | |||
|Oct low C = 23.9 | |||
|Nov low C = 20.3 | |||
|Dec low C = 16.2 | |||
|year low C = 21.6 | |||
|Jan avg record low C = 9.1 | |||
|Feb avg record low C = 10.2 | |||
|Mar avg record low C = 12.2 | |||
|Apr avg record low C = 16.3 | |||
|May avg record low C = 20.7 | |||
|Jun avg record low C = 23.6 | |||
|Jul avg record low C = 24.2 | |||
|Aug avg record low C = 24.3 | |||
|Sep avg record low C = 23.5 | |||
|Oct avg record low C = 20.1 | |||
|Nov avg record low C = 15.3 | |||
|Dec avg record low C = 10.1 | |||
|year avg record low C = 7.8 | |||
|Jan record low C = 0.0 | |||
|Feb record low C = 2.4 | |||
|Mar record low C = 4.8 | |||
|Apr record low C = 9.9 | |||
|May record low C = 15.4 | |||
|Jun record low C = 19.2 | |||
|Jul record low C = 21.7 | |||
|Aug record low C = 21.6 | |||
|Sep record low C = 18.4 | |||
|Oct record low C = 13.5 | |||
|Nov record low C = 6.5 | |||
|Dec record low C = 4.3 | |||
|year record low C = 0.0 | |||
|rain colour = green | |||
|Jan rain mm = 33.2 | |||
|Feb rain mm = 38.9 | |||
|Mar rain mm = 75.3 | |||
|Apr rain mm = 153.0 | |||
|May rain mm = 290.6 | |||
|Jun rain mm = 491.5 | |||
|Jul rain mm = 385.8 | |||
|Aug rain mm = 453.2 | |||
|Sep rain mm = 321.4 | |||
|Oct rain mm = 120.3 | |||
|Nov rain mm = 39.3 | |||
|Dec rain mm = 28.8 | |||
|year rain mm = 2431.2 | |||
|unit rain days = 0.1 mm | |||
|Jan rain days = 5.70 | |||
|Feb rain days = 7.97 | |||
|Mar rain days = 10.50 | |||
|Apr rain days = 11.37 | |||
|May rain days = 15.37 | |||
|Jun rain days = 19.33 | |||
|Jul rain days = 18.43 | |||
|Aug rain days = 17.50 | |||
|Sep rain days = 14.90 | |||
|Oct rain days = 7.83 | |||
|Nov rain days = 5.70 | |||
|Dec rain days = 5.30 | |||
|year rain days = 139.90 | |||
|Jan humidity = 74 | |||
|Feb humidity = 79 | |||
|Mar humidity = 82 | |||
|Apr humidity = 83 | |||
|May humidity = 83 | |||
|Jun humidity = 82 | |||
|Jul humidity = 81 | |||
|Aug humidity = 81 | |||
|Sep humidity = 78 | |||
|Oct humidity = 73 | |||
|Nov humidity = 72 | |||
|Dec humidity = 70 | |||
|year humidity = 78 | |||
| Jan dew point C = 11.7 | |||
| Feb dew point C = 13.2 | |||
| Mar dew point C = 16.1 | |||
| Apr dew point C = 19.7 | |||
| May dew point C = 23.0 | |||
| Jun dew point C = 24.9 | |||
| Jul dew point C = 25.2 | |||
| Aug dew point C = 25.1 | |||
| Sep dew point C = 23.6 | |||
| Oct dew point C = 20.2 | |||
| Nov dew point C = 16.7 | |||
| Dec dew point C = 12.4 | |||
| year dew point C = 19.3 | |||
|Jan sun = 145.8 | |||
|Feb sun = 101.7 | |||
|Mar sun = 100.0 | |||
|Apr sun = 113.2 | |||
|May sun = 138.8 | |||
|Jun sun = 144.3 | |||
|Jul sun = 197.3 | |||
|Aug sun = 182.1 | |||
|Sep sun = 174.4 | |||
|Oct sun = 197.8 | |||
|Nov sun = 172.3 | |||
|Dec sun = 161.6 | |||
|year sun = 1829.3 | |||
|Jan percentsun = 43 | |||
|Feb percentsun = 32 | |||
|Mar percentsun = 27 | |||
|Apr percentsun = 30 | |||
|May percentsun = 34 | |||
|Jun percentsun = 36 | |||
|Jul percentsun = 48 | |||
|Aug percentsun = 46 | |||
|Sep percentsun = 47 | |||
|Oct percentsun = 55 | |||
|Nov percentsun = 52 | |||
|Dec percentsun = 48 | |||
|year percentsun = 41 | |||
|source 1 = ]<ref name="met_norms">{{cite web |url=https://www.hko.gov.hk/en/cis/normal/1991_2020/normals.htm |title=Monthly Meteorological Normals for Hong Kong (1991–2020) |publisher=Hong Kong Observatory |access-date=7 February 2021 |archive-date=8 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210208043254/https://www.hko.gov.hk/en/cis/normal/1991_2020/normals.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="extremeshko">{{cite web |url=http://www.weather.gov.hk/en/cis/extreme/mon_extreme.htm |title=Extreme Values and Dates of Occurrence of Extremes of Meteorological Elements between 1884–1939 and 1947–2020 for Hong Kong) |publisher=Hong Kong Observatory |access-date=7 February 2021 |archive-date=8 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210208053745/http://www.weather.gov.hk/en/cis/extreme/mon_extreme.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="meanmaxmin">{{cite web |url=https://www.hko.gov.hk/en/cis/monthlyElement.htm |title=Monthly Data for Single Element |publisher=Hong Kong Observatory |access-date=16 February 2022 |archive-date=9 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209091006/https://www.hko.gov.hk/en/cis/monthlyElement.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
}} | }} | ||
=== Architecture === | |||
====Tensions with mainland China==== | |||
{{Main| |
{{Main|Architecture of Hong Kong}} | ||
], a famous group of residential buildings in ]]] | |||
Hong Kong has the world's ], with 554 towers taller than {{convert|150|m|ft}},<ref name="SkyscraperCenter">{{cite web |title=Hong Kong |url=https://www.skyscrapercenter.com/city/hong-kong |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171111114955/http://www.skyscrapercenter.com/city/hong-kong |archive-date=11 November 2017 |access-date=15 January 2018 |website=The Skyscraper Center |publisher=]}}</ref> and the third-largest number of high-rise buildings in the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.emporis.com/statistics/skyline-ranking |title=Skyline Ranking |publisher=] |access-date=24 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180623034606/https://www.emporis.com/statistics/skyline-ranking |archive-date=23 June 2018 |url-status=usurped }}</ref> The lack of available space restricted development to high-density residential ]s and commercial complexes packed closely together on buildable land.<ref>{{harvnb|Tong|Wong|1997}}.</ref> ]s are uncommon and generally only found in outlying areas.<ref>{{harvnb|Forrest|La Grange|Yip|2004|pp=215, 222}}</ref> The ] and ] are the ] and are among the tallest in the Asia-Pacific region.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.emporis.com/statistics/worlds-tallest-buildings |title=The World's Tallest Buildings |publisher=] |access-date=24 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180624121309/https://www.emporis.com/statistics/worlds-tallest-buildings |archive-date=24 June 2018 |url-status=usurped }}</ref> Other distinctive buildings lining the Hong Kong Island skyline include the ], the ]-topped triangular ], the circular ], and the sharp-edged ].<ref name="FengShui">{{harvnb|Kohlstedt|2016}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Hollingsworth|Zheng|2017}}.</ref> | |||
Since Hong Kong's reunification with China, there has been increasing social tension between Hong Kong residents and mainland Chinese due to cultural and linguistic differences, as well as accusations of unruly behaviour and spending habits of mainland Chinese visitors to the territory.<ref> Ko, Vanessa. '''TIME''', 24 June 2012.</ref> A 2011 survey (with a sample base of 541) in Hong Kong shows that 17% respondents considered themselves as "Chinese citizens", while 38% considered themselves just "Hong Kong citizens".<ref></ref> | |||
Demand for new construction has contributed to frequent demolition of older buildings, freeing space for modern high-rises.<ref>{{harvnb|Zheng|2017}}.</ref> However, many examples of European and ] are still found throughout the territory. Older government buildings are examples of colonial architecture. The 1846 ], the former residence of the ], is the oldest Western-style building in Hong Kong.<ref>{{harvnb|McKercher|Ho|du Cros|2004}}.</ref> Some buildings, such as the ] and the ] retain their original functions, and others have been ]; the ] was redeveloped into a commercial and retail complex,<ref name="TourismFacts">{{harvnb|Tourism Facts|2016}}.</ref> and ] (built in 1875 as a ]) houses the ].<ref>{{harvnb|Béthanie|2015|p=3}}.</ref> The ], dedicated to the sea goddess ] (originally built in 1012 and rebuilt in 1266), is the territory's oldest existing structure.<ref>{{harvnb|Ingham|2007|p=225}}.</ref> The ] has architectural examples of several imperial Chinese dynasties, including the ] (Hong Kong's only remaining pagoda).<ref>{{harvnb|Declared Monuments|2007|pp=5–6}}.</ref> | |||
In 2012 Chief Executive elections saw the Beijing backed candidate ] elected with 689 votes from a committee panel of 1,200 selected representatives, and assumed office on 1 July 2012. | |||
'']'', mixed-use tenement buildings constructed during the colonial era, blended southern Chinese architectural styles with European influences. These were especially prolific during the immediate post-war period, when many were rapidly built to house large numbers of Chinese migrants.<ref>{{harvnb|Xue|2016|p=99}}.</ref> Examples include ], the ] in ], and the ] in ]. Mass-produced ], built since the 1960s, are mainly constructed in ].<ref>{{harvnb|Xue|2016|p=41}}.</ref> | |||
Social conflicts also influenced the mass ] in 2014, primarily caused by the Chinese government's proposal on ]. The debates over China's vision of granting Hong Kong full democracy have escalated into diplomatic rows between China and the United Kingdom.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eiu.com/index.asp?layout=VWPrintVW3&article_id=1222907707&printer=printer&rf=0 |title=Hong Kong politics: China sets reform timetable |date=2 January 2008|author=The Economist Intelligence Unit|work=The Economist |accessdate=6 September 2010}}</ref> | |||
{{wide image|Hong Kong at night.jpg|1150px|align-cap=center|alt=Skyline at night, with building lights reflected in water|The Hong Kong Island skyline, viewed from the ] waterfront}} | |||
==Governance== | |||
{{wide image|Kowloon Panorama by Ryan Cheng 2010.jpg|1600px|align-cap=center|City view of Kowloon, Hong Kong Island, and the Hong Kong skyline}} | |||
{{Main|Politics of Hong Kong|Hong Kong Government|Elections in Hong Kong}} | |||
] used to house the ]. It became the home to ] (dubbed "Legco") from 1985 to 2011, spanning across the British and the Chinese rule. However, as the Legco has moved to a new complex in 2011, the building will revert to a judicial function, housing the ] from 2015 onwards.|alt=The grey dome and front gable of a granite neo-classical building, with a skyscraper in the background against a clear blue sky.]] | |||
Hong Kong enjoys a high degree of autonomy, as its political and judicial systems operate independently from those of mainland China. In accordance with the Sino-British Joint Declaration, and the underlying principle of ], Hong Kong has a "high degree of autonomy as a special administrative region in all areas except defence and foreign affairs".{{refn|Section 3(2) of the ''Sino-British Joint Declaration'' states in part: "The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region will enjoy a high degree of autonomy, except in foreign and defence affairs which, are the responsibilities of the Central People's Government."|group=note}} The declaration stipulates that the region maintain its ] economic system and guarantees the rights and freedoms of its people for at least 50 years after the 1997 handover.{{refn|Section 3(5) of the ''Sino-British Joint Declaration'' states that the social and economic systems and lifestyle in Hong Kong will remain unchanged, and mentions rights and freedoms ensured by law. Section 3(12) states in part: "The above-stated basic policies of the People's Republic of China ... will remain unchanged for 50 years."|group=note}} The guarantees over the territory's autonomy and the individual rights and freedoms are enshrined in the ], the territory's constitutional document, which outlines the system of governance of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, but which is subject to the interpretation of the ] (NPCSC).<ref name="BasicLawC8">{{cite web|url=http://www.basiclaw.gov.hk/en/basiclawtext/chapter_8.html|title=Basic Law, Chapter VIII|publisher=Basic Law Promotion Steering Committee|accessdate=10 November 2009}}</ref><ref name="ChenWenmin">{{cite book|last=Chen|first=Wenmin|first2=H. L.|last2=Fu|first3=Yash P.|last3=Ghai|title=Hong Kong's Constitutional Debate: Conflict Over Interpretation|year=2000|publisher=Hong Kong University Press|isbn=978-962-209-509-0|pages=235–236}}</ref> | |||
== Demographics == | |||
The primary ] are the ], the ], the ], and the ]. The Executive Council is headed by the ] who is elected by the ] and then appointed by the ].<ref name="BasicLawC4S6">{{cite web|url=http://www.basiclaw.gov.hk/en/basiclawtext/chapter_4.html#section_6|title=Basic Law, Chapter IV, Section 6|publisher=Basic Law Promotion Steering Committee|accessdate=10 November 2009}}</ref><ref name="CivilServiceFactSheet">{{cite web|url=http://www.gov.hk/en/about/abouthk/factsheets/docs/civil_service.pdf|title=Civil Service|publisher=], Hong Kong Government|date=June 2009|accessdate=6 September 2010}}</ref> The civil service is a politically neutral body that implements policies and provides government services, where public servants are appointed based on meritocracy.<ref name="BasicLawC4S1">{{cite web|url=http://www.basiclaw.gov.hk/en/basiclawtext/chapter_4.html#section_1|title=Basic Law, Chapter IV, Section 1|publisher=Basic Law Promotion Steering Committee|accessdate=10 November 2009}}</ref><ref name="Burns">{{cite book|last=Burns|first=John P.|title=Government Capacity and the Hong Kong Civil Service|year=2004|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-590597-7|page=114}}</ref> The Legislative Council has 70 members, 40 seats are directly elected by universal suffrage by ] according to five ] and a ]. 30 seats from ] are directly elected by a smaller electorate, which consists of corporate bodies and persons from various stipulated functional sectors. The entire council is headed by the ] who serves as the ].<ref name="BasicLawC4S3">{{cite web|url=http://www.basiclaw.gov.hk/en/basiclawtext/chapter_4.html#section_3|title=Basic Law, Chapter IV, Section 3|publisher=Basic Law Promotion Steering Committee|accessdate=10 November 2009}}</ref><ref name="Madden">{{cite book|last=Madden|first=Frederick|title=The End of Empire: Dependencies since 1948. Part 1: The West Indies, British Honduras, Hong Kong, Fiji, Cyprus, Gibraltar, and the Falklands|year=2000|publisher=Greenwood Publishing|isbn=978-0-313-29072-5|pages=188–196|volume=Volume VIII: Select Documents on the Constitutional History of the British Empire and Commonwealth}}</ref> Judges are appointed by the Chief Executive on the recommendation of an independent commission.<ref name="BasicLawC4S4"/><ref name="Gaylord">{{cite book|first=Mark S.|last=Gaylord|first2=Danny|last2=Gittings|first3=Harold|last3=Traver|title=Introduction to Crime, Law and Justice in Hong Kong|year=2009|publisher=Hong Kong University Press|isbn=978-962-209-978-4|page=153}}</ref> | |||
{{Main|Demographics of Hong Kong|Hong Kong people}} | |||
{| class="wikitable sortable floatright" | |||
|+ style="text-align: right;" | Death rates (No. of Deaths per 100,000 Population) by leading causes of death, based on ICD 10th Revision.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.chp.gov.hk/en/statistics/data/10/27/117.html | title=Death Rates by Leading Causes of Death, 2001 – 2021 | access-date=8 April 2023 | archive-date=8 April 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408181119/https://www.chp.gov.hk/en/statistics/data/10/27/117.html | url-status=live }}</ref> <span style="color:crimson">Red</span>: increased compared with 2001. Deaths from ] increased more than 5 times from 2001 to 2021. | |||
! Cause of Death !! 2001 !! 2011 !! 2021 | |||
|- | |||
| 1. Malignant neoplasms || 169.9 || 187.2 || <span style="color:crimson">203.8</span> | |||
|- | |||
| 2. Pneumonia || 45.1 || 87.8 || <span style="color:crimson">'''132.6'''</span> | |||
|- | |||
| 3. Diseases of heart || 70 || 89.6 || <span style="color:crimson">89</span> | |||
|- | |||
| 4. Cerebrovascular || 46.6 || 47.2 || 42.2 | |||
|- | |||
| 5. External causes of <br />morbidity and mortality || 27.5 || 22.2 || 26.7 | |||
|- | |||
| 6. Nephritis, nephrotic <br />syndrome and nephrosis || 15.7 || 21.8 || <span style="color:crimson">24</span> | |||
|- | |||
| 7. '''Dementia''' || 3.8 || 10.6 || <span style="color:crimson">'''20.2'''</span> | |||
|- | |||
| 8. Septicaemia || 6.3 || 10.8 || <span style="color:crimson">16.8</span> | |||
|- | |||
| 9. Chronic lower <br />respiratory diseases || 31.5 || 27.8 || 14.3 | |||
|- | |||
| 10. Diabetes mellitus || 10.1 || 6.5 || 7.4 | |||
|- | |||
| All other causes || 69.7 || 85 || <span style="color:crimson">118.1</span> | |||
|- | |||
| All causes || 496 || 596.6 ||<span style="color:crimson" >695.2</span> | |||
|} | |||
]]] | |||
The ] estimated Hong Kong's population at 7,413,070 in 2021. The overwhelming majority (91.6%) is ],<ref name="demographics" /> most of whom are ], ], ], and other ]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Fan|1974}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Carroll|2007|pp=144–147}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Yu|2013}}.</ref> The remaining 8.4% are non-ethnic Chinese minorities, primarily ], ], and ].<ref name="demographics" /><ref>{{harvnb|Erni|Leung|2014|pp=18, 22}}.</ref> However, most Filipinos and Indonesians in Hong Kong are short-term workers. According to a 2021 thematic report by the Hong Kong government, after excluding foreign domestic helpers, the real number of non-Chinese ethnic minorities in the city was 301,344, or 4% of Hong Kong's population.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Statistical Product|url=https://www.censtatd.gov.hk/en/EIndexbySubject.html?pcode=B1120100&scode=459|access-date=28 November 2021|website=www.censtatd.gov.hk|archive-date=7 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407171137/https://www.censtatd.gov.hk/en/EIndexbySubject.html?pcode=B1120100&scode=459|url-status=live}}</ref> About half the population have ], a legacy of colonial rule; 3.4 million residents have ] status, and 260,000 British citizens live in the territory.<ref>{{harvnb|FCO Written Evidence|2014}}.</ref> The vast majority also hold ], automatically granted to all ethnic Chinese residents at the handover.<ref>{{harvnb|Standing Committee Interpretation Concerning Implementation of Chinese Nationality Law in Hong Kong}}</ref> Headline ] exceeds 7,060 people/km<sup>2</sup>, and is the ] in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.POP.DNST?locations=HK|title=Population density (people per sq km of land area) – Hong Kong SAR, China|work=]|access-date=6 August 2022|archive-date=16 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200516120537/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.POP.DNST?locations=HK|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
The implementation of the Basic Law, including how and when the universal suffrage promised therein is to be achieved, has been a major issue of political debate since the transfer of sovereignty. In 2002, the government's proposed anti-subversion bill pursuant to ], which required the enactment of laws prohibiting acts of treason and subversion against the Chinese government, was met with fierce opposition, and eventually shelved.<ref name="BasicLawC2">{{cite web|url=http://www.basiclaw.gov.hk/en/basiclawtext/chapter_2.html|title=Basic Law, Chapter II|publisher=Basic Law Promotion Steering Committee|accessdate=10 November 2009}}</ref><ref name="immd"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hkhrm.org.hk/english/reports/present_abode.html|title=Presentation to Legislative Council on Right of Abode Issue|work=]|date=10 May 1999|accessdate=20 January 2007}}</ref> Debate between pro-Beijing groups, which tend to support the Executive branch, and the ] characterises Hong Kong's political scene, with the latter supporting a faster ], and the principle of ].<ref name="Cohen">{{cite book|last=Cohen|first=Warren I.|last2=Li|first2=Zhao|year=1997|title=Hong Kong Under Chinese Rule: The Economic and Political Implications of Reversion|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-62761-0|pages=220–235}}</ref> | |||
The predominant language is ], a ] originating in Guangdong. It is spoken by 93.7% of the population, 88.2% as a first language and 5.5% as a second language.<ref name="2021By-CensusLanguages"/> Slightly over half the population (58.7%) speaks ], the other official language;<ref name="OfficialLanguagesOrd" /> 4.6% are native speakers, and 54.1% speak English as a second language.<ref name="2021By-CensusLanguages" /> ], mixing English and Cantonese in informal conversation, is common among the bilingual population.<ref>{{harvnb|Lee|2012}}.</ref> Post-handover governments have promoted ], which is currently about as prevalent as English; 54.2% of the population speak Mandarin, with 2.3% native speakers and 51.9% as a second language.<ref name="2021By-CensusLanguages" /> ] are used in writing, rather than the ] used in the ].<ref>{{harvnb|Developing a Supplementary Guide to the Chinese Language Curriculum for Non-Chinese Speaking Students|2008|p=9}}</ref> | |||
In 2004 the government failed to gain pan-democrat support to pass its so-called "district council model" for political reform.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Legitimacy Problem and Democratic Reform in Hong Kong|last=Ming|first=Sing|journal=Journal of Contemporary China|volume= 15|issue=48|date=August 2006|pages=517–532|publisher=]|doi=10.1080/10670560600736558}}</ref> In 2009, the government reissued the proposals as the "'']''". The document proposed the enlargement of the Election Committee, Hong Kong's electoral college, from 800 members to 1,200 in 2012 and expansion of the legislature from 60 to 70 seats. The ten new legislative seats would consist of five geographical constituency seats and five functional constituency seats, to be voted in by elected district council members from among themselves.<ref name=consult2012>{{cite web|url=http://www.cmab-cd2012.gov.hk/doc/consultation_document_en.pdf|title=Public Consultation on the Methods for Selecting the Chief Executive and for Forming the Legislative Council in 2012|date=11 June 2010|publisher=Hong Kong Government|accessdate=5 September 2010}}</ref> The proposals were destined for rejection by pan-democrats once again, but a significant breakthrough occurred after the Central Government in Beijing accepted a counter-proposal by the ]. In particular, the Pan-democracy camp was split when the proposal to directly elect five newly created functional seats was not acceptable to two constituent parties. The Democratic Party sided with the government for the first time since the handover and passed the proposals with a vote of 46–12.<ref>{{cite web|last=Balfour|first=Frederik|last2=Lui|first2=Marco|date=25 June 2010|url=http://www.businessweek.com/news/2010-06-25/hong-kong-lawmakers-approve-tsang-s-election-plan.html|title=Hong Kong Lawmakers Approve Tsang's Election Plan|work=Businessweek|publisher=Bloomberg|accessdate=6 October 2010}}</ref> | |||
] is dedicated to the ] deity ].]] | |||
On 31 August 2014, China disapproved a full democracy in Hong Kong by ruling that three candidates could run for elections as leader in 2017, and they would be chosen by a nomination committee.<ref name="HongKongChina">{{cite news|title=Hopes for full democracy in Hong Kong dealt blow by Beijing|url=http://www.hongkongherald.com/index.php/sid/225274003|date=31 August 2014|accessdate=1 September 2014|publisher=''Hong Kong Herald''}}</ref> | |||
Among the religious population, the traditional "]" of China, ], ], and ], have the most adherents (20%), followed by ] (12%) and ] (4%).<ref name="religionFacts">{{harvnb|Religion and Custom Facts|2016}}.</ref> Followers of other religions, including ], ], and ], generally originate from regions where their religion predominates.<ref name="religionFacts" /> | |||
Life expectancy in Hong Kong was 81.3 years for males and 87.2 years for females in 2022, one of the highest in the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.chp.gov.hk/en/statistics/data/10/27/111.html |title=Life Expectancy at Birth (Male and Female), 1971 – 2022 |publisher=Hong Kong Government Centrer of Health Protection |access-date=16 August 2023 |archive-date=16 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230816122342/https://www.chp.gov.hk/en/statistics/data/10/27/111.html |url-status=live }}</ref> ], ], ], ], and accidents are the territory's five leading causes of death.<ref name="2017HealthFacts">{{harvnb|Health Facts|2017}}.</ref> The ] is funded by general-tax revenue, and treatment is highly subsidised; on average, 95% of healthcare costs are covered by the government.<ref>{{harvnb|Wong|Yeoh|Chau|Yam|2015|p=262}}.</ref> | |||
===Legal system and judiciary=== | |||
{{Main|Law of Hong Kong|Judiciary of Hong Kong}} | |||
] or ], armed with sword and ] (], ], Hong Kong). She is the personification of justice balancing the scales of truth and fairness.]] | |||
The city has a severe amount of income inequality,<ref>{{cite web |title=Country Comparison: GDP (Purchasing Power Parity) |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2001rank.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604195034/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2001rank.html |archive-date=4 June 2011 |access-date=15 January 2018 |work=] |publisher=]}}</ref> which has risen since the handover, as the region's ageing population has gradually added to the number of nonworking people.<ref>{{harvnb|Household Income Distribution|2021|p=3}}</ref> Although median household income steadily increased during the decade to 2021, the wage gap remained high;<ref name="IncomeDistribution">{{harvnb|Household Income Distribution|2021|p=50}}</ref> the 90th percentile of earners receive 41% of all income.<ref name="IncomeDistribution" /> The city has the most billionaires per capita, with one billionaire per 109,657 people,<ref>{{harvnb|Desjardins|2018}}.</ref> as well as the ] of any city in the world,<ref>{{cite web |author=Grosser |first=Annika |date=30 April 2024 |title=The Cities With The Most Billionaires 2024 |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/annikagrosser/2024/04/26/the-cities-with-the-most-billionaires-2024/ |access-date=8 June 2024 |work=Forbes}}</ref> the highest number of billionaires of any city in Asia, and the largest concentration of ]s of any city in the world.<ref>{{harvnb|Liu|2018}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Frank|2018}}.</ref> Despite government efforts to reduce the growing disparity,<ref>{{harvnb|Household Income Distribution|2021|p=4}}</ref> median income for the top 10% of earners is 57 times that of the bottom 10%.<ref>{{harvnb|Hung|Ma|2023}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Household Income Distribution|2021|p=40}}</ref> | |||
Hong Kong's legal system is completely independent from the ]. In contrast to mainland China's ] system, Hong Kong continues to follow the ] tradition established under British rule.<ref name=doj>{{cite web|url=http://www.doj.gov.hk/eng/legal/index.htm |title=The Legal System in Hong Kong |publisher=], Hong Kong Government |accessdate=20 September 2008 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20080913063628/http://www.doj.gov.hk:80/eng/legal/index.htm |archivedate=13 September 2008 }}</ref> The essence of English common law is that it is made by ]s sitting in ]s, applying ] ('']'') to the facts before them. For example, ] is a common law crime rather than one established by an Act of Parliament. Common law can be amended or repealed by Parliament; murder, for example, now carries a mandatory life sentence rather than the ]. According to {{dead link|date=October 2013}} of the Basic Law, Hong Kong's courts may refer to decisions rendered by courts of other common law jurisdictions as precedents,<ref name="BasicLawC4S4"/><ref name="AshRob">{{cite book|last=Ash|first=Robert F.|title=Hong Kong in Transition: One Country, Two Systems|year=2003|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-29954-1|pages=161–188|volume=Volume 11: RoutledgeCurzon Studies in the Modern History of Asia}}</ref> and judges from other common law jurisdictions, most commonly England, ] and ], are allowed to sit as non-permanent judges of the ].<ref name="BasicLawC4S4"/><ref name="AshRob"/> | |||
== Economy == | |||
Structurally, the court system consists of the Court of Final Appeal, the ], which is made up of the ] and the ], and the ], which includes the ].<ref name="jud"/> Other adjudicative bodies include the ], the ], the Juvenile Court, the Coroner's Court, the Labour Tribunal, the Small Claims Tribunal, and the Obscene Articles Tribunal.<ref name="jud">{{cite web|url=http://www.judiciary.gov.hk/en/crt_services/pphlt/html/guide.htm|title=Introduction |publisher=]|accessdate=20 September 2008}}</ref> Justices of the Court of Final Appeal are appointed by Hong Kong's Chief Executive.<ref name="BasicLawC4S4"/><ref name="AshRob"/> The Court of Final Appeal has the power of final adjudication with respect to the law of Hong Kong as well as the power of final interpretation over local laws including the power to strike down local ordinances on the grounds of inconsistency with the Basic Law.<ref>http://www.doj.gov.hk/eng/public/basiclaw/basic13_2.pdf</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.doj.gov.hk/eng/public/basiclaw/basic10_3.pdf |title=Basic Law Bulletin Issue No. 10 Part 3 |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=14 May 2014}}</ref> | |||
{{Main|Economy of Hong Kong|Tourism in Hong Kong}} | |||
] is one of the world's ].]] | |||
One of the world's most significant financial centres and commercial ports,<ref>{{harvnb|Global Financial Centres Index|2017}}</ref> Hong Kong has a ] focused on ], characterised by ], minimal government market intervention, and an established international financial market.<ref>{{harvnb|Jiang|Tang|Law|Sze|2003}}.</ref> It is the world's ], with a ] of approximately US$407 billion.<ref name="IMFWEO.HK" /> Hong Kong's economy ranked at the top of ]'s ] index between 1995 and 2021.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201201/12/P201201120303.htm |title=Hong Kong ranked world's freest economy for 18th consecutive year |publisher=Hong Kong Government |date=12 January 2012 |access-date=28 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121028215314/http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201201/12/P201201120303.htm |archive-date=28 October 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Top 10 Countries |publisher=The Heritage Foundation |url=http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/topten.cfm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080124041217/http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/topten.cfm|archive-date=24 January 2008|access-date=1 February 2008}}</ref> However, Hong Kong was removed from the index by the Heritage Foundation in 2021, with the Foundation citing a "loss of political freedom and autonomy{{nbsp}}... almost indistinguishable in many respects from other major Chinese commercial centers like Shanghai and Beijing".<ref>{{cite web |last1=Feulner |first1=Edwin |title=Hong Kong Is No Longer What It Was |url=https://www.heritage.org/asia/commentary/hong-kong-no-longer-what-it-was |website=The Heritage Foundation |access-date=13 September 2022 |language=en |archive-date=12 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220912185725/https://www.heritage.org/asia/commentary/hong-kong-no-longer-what-it-was |url-status=live }}</ref> Hong Kong is highly developed, and ranks fourth on the ].<ref name="cia" /> The ] is the ], with a market capitalisation of HK$30.4 trillion (US$3.87 trillion) {{As of|2018|12|lc=y}}.<ref>{{harvnb|HKSE Market Statistics|2018|p=2}}.</ref> Hong Kong is ranked as the 18th most innovative territory in the ] in 2024,<ref>{{Cite book |author=] |year=2024 |title=Global Innovation Index 2024: Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship |url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2024/en/ |access-date=2024-10-06 |website=www.wipo.int |page=18 |publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization |language=en |doi=10.34667/tind.50062 |isbn=978-92-805-3681-2}}</ref> and 3rd in the ].<ref name="GFCI">{{cite web |date=March 2022 |title=The Global Financial Centres Index 31 |url=https://www.longfinance.net/media/documents/GFCI_31_Report_2022.03.24_v1.0.pdf |access-date=24 March 2022 |publisher=Long Finance |archive-date=24 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220324124055/https://www.longfinance.net/media/documents/GFCI_31_Report_2022.03.24_v1.0.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The city is sometimes referred to as "Silicon Harbor",<ref name="Tech Monitor 1999">{{cite web | title=US Bank Leads Development of Hong Kong's "Silicon Harbor" | website=Tech Monitor | date=8 July 1999 | url=https://techmonitor.ai/technology/us_bank_leads_development_of_hong_kongs_silicon_harbor | access-date=6 July 2022 | archive-date=1 October 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001231008/https://techmonitor.ai/technology/us_bank_leads_development_of_hong_kongs_silicon_harbor | url-status=live }}</ref> a nickname derived from ] in ]. Hong Kong hosts several ] and ] companies,<ref name="Rohwer 2001 p. 168">{{cite book | last=Rohwer | first=J. | title=Remade in America: How Asia Will Change Because America Boomed | publisher=Crown | year=2001 | isbn=978-0-609-50412-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_IyjcoJ1BtMC&pg=PT168 | access-date=6 July 2022 | page=168 | archive-date=10 February 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240210235434/https://books.google.com/books?id=_IyjcoJ1BtMC&pg=PT168#v=onepage&q&f=false | url-status=live }}</ref> including several multinational companies.<ref name="Bloomberg 1991">{{cite web | author=Pete Engardio | title=How Motorola Took Asia By The Tail | website=Bloomberg | date=12 April 1989 | url=https://www.csmonitor.com/1989/0412/fhong.html | access-date= | archive-date=6 July 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220706071811/https://www.csmonitor.com/1989/0412/fhong.html | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Cragg 1993 p. 85">{{cite book | last=Cragg | first=C. | title=Hunting with the Tigers: Doing Business with Hong Kong, Indonesia, South Korea, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand, and Vietnam | publisher=Pfeiffer | year=1993 | isbn=978-0-89384-204-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QhVWl7-NcY8C&pg=PA85 | access-date=6 July 2022 | page=85 | archive-date=10 February 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240210235517/https://books.google.com/books?id=QhVWl7-NcY8C&pg=PA85#v=onepage&q&f=false | url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
The ] is responsible for handling legal matters for the government. Its responsibilities include providing legal advice, criminal prosecution, civil representation, legal and policy drafting and reform, and international legal co-operation between different jurisdictions.<ref name=doj/> Apart from prosecuting criminal cases, lawyers of the Department of Justice act on behalf of the government in all civil and administrative lawsuits against the government.<ref name=doj/> As protector of the ], the department may apply for ]s and may intervene in any cases involving the greater public interest.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.doj.gov.hk/eng/about/sjo.htm |title=About Us: Organisation chart of the Secretary for Justice's Office |publisher=Department of Justice, Hong Kong Government |accessdate=5 September 2008 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20080904122425/http://www.doj.gov.hk:80/eng/about/sjo.htm |archivedate=4 September 2008 }}</ref> The Basic Law protects the Department of Justice from any interference by the government when exercising its control over criminal prosecution.<ref name="BasicLawC4S2">{{cite web|url=http://www.basiclaw.gov.hk/en/basiclawtext/chapter_4.html#section_2|title=Basic Law, Chapter IV, Section 2|publisher=Basic Law Promotion Steering Committee|accessdate=10 November 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Weisenhaus|first=Doreen|first2=Jill|last2=Cottrell|first3=Mei Ning|last3=Yan|title=Hong Kong Media Law: A Guide for Journalists and Media Professionals|year=2007|publisher=Hong Kong University Press|isbn=978-962-209-808-4|page=74}}</ref> | |||
Hong Kong is the ninth largest trading entity in ] and eighth largest in ] (2021),<ref name="CIAExports">{{cite web |title=Country Comparison: Exports |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2078rank.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190427111612/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2078rank.html |archive-date=27 April 2019 |access-date=16 June 2019 |work=] |publisher=]}}</ref><ref name="CIAImports">{{cite web |title=Country Comparison: Imports |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/Publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2087rank.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081004070323/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook//rankorder/2087rank.html |archive-date=4 October 2008 |access-date=16 June 2019 |work=] |publisher=]}}</ref> trading more goods in value than its gross domestic product.<ref name="CIAExports" /><ref name="CIAImports" /> Over half of its cargo throughput consists of ]s (goods travelling through Hong Kong). Products from mainland China account for about 40% of that traffic.<ref name="LegcoEconomy">{{harvnb|Economic Statistical Highlights|2017}}</ref> The city's location allowed it to establish a transportation and logistics infrastructure which includes the world's seventh-busiest container port<ref>{{harvnb|Park|2019}}.</ref> and the busiest airport for international cargo.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aci.aero/Data-Centre/Annual-Traffic-Data/Cargo/2016-final-summary |title=Cargo Traffic 2016 |publisher=] |date=1 January 2018 |access-date=7 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612141937/http://www.aci.aero/Data-Centre/Annual-Traffic-Data/Cargo/2016-final-summary |archive-date=12 June 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> The territory's largest export markets are mainland China and the United States.<ref name="cia" /> Hong Kong is a key part of the ].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lam|first1=Jasmine Siu Lee|last2=Cullinane|first2=Kevin Patrick Brendan|last3=Lee|first3=Paul Tae-Woo|title=The 21st-century Maritime Silk Road: challenges and opportunities for transport management and practice|volume=38|issue=4|pages=413–415|date=3 May 2018|doi=10.1080/01441647.2018.1453562|journal=Transport Reviews|publisher=]|s2cid=158856945 |doi-access=free}}</ref> It has little arable land and few natural resources, importing most of its food and raw materials. More than 90% of Hong Kong's food is imported, including nearly all of its meat and rice.<ref>{{harvnb|Kong|2013}}.</ref> Agricultural activity is 0.1% of GDP and consists of growing premium food and flower varieties.<ref>{{harvnb|Agriculture and Fisheries Facts|2017}}</ref> | |||
===Foreign relations=== | |||
{{Main|Foreign relations of Hong Kong}} | |||
Hong Kong continues to play an active role in the international arena and maintains close contact with its international partners. Under the Basic Law, Hong Kong is exclusively in charge of its external relations, whilst the Government of the ] is responsible for its foreign affairs. According to the Basic Law, Hong Kong may on its own, using the name "Hong Kong, China", maintain and develop relations and conclude and implement agreements with foreign states and regions and relevant international organisations in the appropriate fields, including the economic, trade, financial and monetary, shipping, communications, ], cultural and sports fields.<ref>Article 151, ]</ref> | |||
Although the territory had one of Asia's largest manufacturing economies during the latter half of the colonial era, Hong Kong's economy is now dominated by the service sector. The sector generates 92.7% of economic output, with the public sector accounting for about 10%.<ref>{{harvnb|Economy Facts|2016}}.</ref> Between 1961 and 1997 Hong Kong's gross domestic product increased by a factor of 180, and per capita GDP increased by a factor of 87.<ref>{{harvnb|Preston|Haacke|2003}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Yeung|2008|p=16}}.</ref> The territory's GDP relative to mainland China's peaked at 27% in 1993; it fell to less than 3% in 2017, as the mainland developed and liberalised its economy.<ref>{{harvnb|"HK vs China GDP: A sobering reality", ''EJ Insight''}}</ref> Economic and infrastructure integration with China has increased significantly since the 1978 start of ] on the mainland. Since resumption of ] in 1979, many rail and road links have been improved and constructed, facilitating trade between regions.<ref>{{harvnb|Lung|Sung|2010|p=5}}.</ref><ref name="HZMBridge">{{harvnb|Griffiths|Lazarus|2018}}.</ref> The ] formalised a policy of free trade between the two areas, with each jurisdiction pledging to remove remaining obstacles to trade and cross-boundary investment.<ref name="MainlandCEPA">{{cite web |url=https://www.tid.gov.hk/english/cepa/legaltext/cepa_legaltext.html |title=Mainland and Hong Kong Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement (CEPA) |publisher=] |date=31 October 2017 |access-date=26 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171226131207/https://www.tid.gov.hk/english/cepa/legaltext/cepa_legaltext.html |archive-date=26 December 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> A similar economic partnership with Macau details the liberalisation of trade between the special administrative regions.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tid.gov.hk/english/ita/fta/hkmacao/index.html |title=Hong Kong Special Administrative Region and Macao Special Administrative Region Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement (HK-Macao CEPA) |publisher=] |date=17 November 2017 |access-date=28 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171229113132/https://www.tid.gov.hk/english/ita/fta/hkmacao/index.html |archive-date=29 December 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> Chinese companies have expanded their economic presence in the territory since the handover. Mainland firms represent over half of the ] value, up from 5% in 1997.<ref>{{harvnb|Baldwin|Lee|Jim|2014}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Lam|Qiu|2017}}.</ref> | |||
As a separate customs territory, Hong Kong maintains and develops relations with foreign states and regions, and plays an active role in such international organisations as ] (WTO), the ] (APEC), ] (IOC), and ] (FIFA) in its own right under the name of Hong Kong, China. Under such special status, Hong Kong's international partners usually exercise particular policies to maintain relations with Hong Kong. Examples include ]. | |||
]]] | |||
There is a large ] in Hong Kong, including 59 consulates-general, 62 consulates and 5 officially recognised international bodies, such as Office of ].<ref>Chapter 1, Hong Kong Year Book 2011</ref> Due to Hong Kong's unique status, some countries' consulates-general operate independently of their embassies in Beijing, the Chinese capital. For example, the US Consulate General to Hong Kong is not under the jurisdiction of the ], and reports directly to the ]. The ] also reports directly to the ], instead of going through the British Embassy in Beijing.<ref>''Hong Kong Economic Journal'', 3 July 2007, Page 34.</ref> | |||
As the mainland liberalised its economy, Hong Kong's shipping industry faced intense competition from other Chinese ports. Half of China's trade goods were routed through Hong Kong in 1997, dropping to about 13% by 2015.<ref name="Commons5R18">{{harvnb|House of Commons Foreign Affairs Committee Tenth Report|2015|p=18}}</ref> The territory's minimal taxation, common law system, and civil service attract overseas corporations wishing to establish a presence in Asia.<ref name="Commons5R18" /> The city has the second-highest number of corporate headquarters in the Asia-Pacific region.<ref>{{harvnb|Cushman & Wakefield RHQ Report|2016|p=8}}</ref> Hong Kong is a gateway for ] in China, giving investors open access to mainland Chinese markets through direct links with ] and ]. The territory was the first market outside mainland China for ], and is one of the largest hubs for offshore ] trading.<ref>{{harvnb|House of Commons Foreign Affairs Committee Tenth Report|2015|pp=18–19}}</ref> In November 2020, Hong Kong's Financial Services and the Treasury Bureau proposed a new law that will restrict cryptocurrency trading to professional investors only, leaving amateur traders (93% of Hong Kong's trading population) out of the market.<ref>{{Cite web|last=MUIR|first=PAUL|date=17 February 2021|title=Crypto body warns new HK law will backfire|url=https://asiatimes.com/2021/02/hk-crypto-body-warns-new-law-will-backfire/|access-date=24 February 2021|archive-date=22 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210222034554/https://asiatimes.com/2021/02/hk-crypto-body-warns-new-law-will-backfire/|url-status=live}}</ref> The ], the local currency, is the eighth most traded currency in the world.<ref>{{harvnb|Triennial Central Bank Survey|2016|p=10}}</ref> Due to extremely compact house sizes and the extremely high ], the city has the ] market in the world.<ref>{{Cite news |date=24 November 2021 |title=Hong Kong conundrum: sky-high prices and flats the size of parking spaces |work=Financial Times |url=https://www.ft.com/content/e4fb2779-44c0-466f-a3e7-0ff61d5e61f9 |url-access=subscription |access-date=3 September 2022 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/e4fb2779-44c0-466f-a3e7-0ff61d5e61f9 |archive-date=10 December 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Saiidi |first=Uptin |date=10 April 2017 |title=Here's why Hong Kong housing is so expensive |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2017/04/09/heres-why-hong-kong-housing-is-so-expensive.html |access-date=3 September 2022 |website=CNBC |language=en |archive-date=3 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220903092809/https://www.cnbc.com/2017/04/09/heres-why-hong-kong-housing-is-so-expensive.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Chan |first1=Vanesse |last2=Molloy |first2=Claire |date=22 July 2021 |title=Why rent in Hong Kong is so high, even though there's undeveloped land |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/hong-kong-most-expensive-housing-market-in-the-world-2021-7 |access-date=3 September 2022 |website=Business Insider |language=en-US |archive-date=3 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220903092811/https://www.businessinsider.com/hong-kong-most-expensive-housing-market-in-the-world-2021-7 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
The government has had a passive role in the economy. Colonial governments had little ] and implemented almost no ]. Under the doctrine of "]", post-war administrations deliberately avoided the direct allocation of resources; active intervention was considered detrimental to economic growth.<ref name="ceo">{{cite press release |url=https://www.ceo.gov.hk/archive/2012/eng/press/oped.htm |title=Big Market, Small Government |first=Donald |last=Tsang |date=18 September 2006 |publisher=Hong Kong Government |access-date=8 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612235339/https://www.ceo.gov.hk/archive/2012/eng/press/oped.htm |archive-date=12 June 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> While the economy transitioned to a service basis during the 1980s,<ref name="ceo" /> late colonial governments introduced interventionist policies. Post-handover administrations continued and expanded these programmes, including ] guarantees, a ], a ], ]s, and a state mortgage backer<!--Hong Kong Mortgage Corporation-->.<ref name="EconomistEnd">{{harvnb|"End of an experiment", ''The Economist''}}</ref> | |||
===Human rights=== | |||
{{main|Human rights in Hong Kong}} | |||
The Hong Kong government generally respects the human rights of its citizens. However, suffrage is not universal.{{clarify|reason=who is allowed to vote is better, not who isn't|date=October 2015}} There are restrictions on freedom of the press and freedom of assembly.<ref name=con>{{cite web|url=http://hongkong.usconsulate.gov/ushk_hr_2009022501.html |title=2008 Human Rights Report: China (Hong Kong) |work=US Department of State |accessdate=2 March 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100123204017/http://hongkong.usconsulate.gov/ushk_hr_2009022501.html<!--Added by H3llBot--> |archivedate=23 January 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://familyclic.hk/en/topics/Matrimonial-matters/Marriage-and-co-habitant-issues/Same-sex-marriage-civil-partnership/|title=Same-Sex Marriage / Civil partnership|publisher=FamilyCLIC.hk|accessdate=25 September 2015}}</ref> 200,000 migrant workers cannot make complaints against their employers since they face deportation if dismissed from their jobs. A 2008 law against racial discrimination does not cover mainlanders, immigrants or migrant workers.<ref name=free>{{cite web|url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=22&year=2009&country=7741|title=Country Report 2009 |work=Freedom House |accessdate=14 December 2009}}</ref> The police have been accused of using heavy-handed tactics toward protesters in public rallies,<ref name=ps>{{cite web|url=http://www.straitstimes.com/BreakingNews/Asia/Story/STIStory_478501.html |title=Protest against HK rail link |date=17 January 2010 |work=The Straits Times |accessdate=6 April 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20130724024537/http://www.straitstimes.com/BreakingNews/Asia/Story/STIStory_478501.html |archivedate=24 July 2013 }}</ref> and there is controversy regarding the extensive powers of the police.<ref name=jt>http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr03-04/english/counmtg/hansard/cm0428ti-translate-e.pdf</ref> Covert surveillance is another major concern.<ref name=hkp> {{wayback|url=http://hk.news.yahoo.com/article/100225/4/gqsm.html |date=20150405102859 }}</ref> | |||
Tourism is a major part of the economy, accounting for 5% of GDP.<ref name="TourismFacts" /> In 2016, 26.6 million visitors contributed HK$258 billion (US$32.9 billion) to the territory, making Hong Kong the ]. It is the most popular Chinese city for tourists, receiving over 70% more visitors than its closest competitor (Macau).<ref>{{harvnb|WTO|2017|p=6}}.</ref> The city is ranked as one of the ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mercer.com/newsroom/cost-of-living-2017.html |title=Despite worldwide changes, multinationals focus on mobile workforces to support career growth and ensure competitiveness |publisher=] |location=New York |date=21 June 2017 |access-date=26 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180113110140/https://www.mercer.com/newsroom/cost-of-living-2017.html |archive-date=13 January 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mercer.com/costoflivingpr#Top_50 |title=Worldwide Cost of Living survey 2009 |date=29 June 2010 |publisher=] |access-date=25 August 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725215323/http://www.mercer.com/costoflivingpr |archive-date=25 July 2011 }}</ref> However, since 2020, there has been a sharp decline in incoming visitors due to tight COVID-19 travel restrictions. Additionally, due to the closure of the Russian airspace in 2022, multiple airlines decided to cease their operations in Hong Kong.<ref>{{Cite news |date=5 October 2022 |title=Virgin Atlantic drops Hong Kong route after nearly 30 years |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/aerospace-defense/virgin-atlantic-drops-hong-kong-route-after-nearly-30-years-2022-10-05/ |access-date=10 October 2022 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326033254/https://www.reuters.com/business/aerospace-defense/virgin-atlantic-drops-hong-kong-route-after-nearly-30-years-2022-10-05/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In an attempt to attract tourists back to Hong Kong, the Hong Kong government announced plans to give away 500,000 free airline tickets in 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |author1=Goh Chiew Tong |author2=Vivian Kam |title=Hong Kong will give away half a million plane tickets. Here's who can get them first |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2023/02/03/hong-kong-to-give-away-half-a-million-air-tickets-to-boost-tourism.html |access-date=22 February 2023 |website=CNBC |date=3 February 2023 |language=en |archive-date=3 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203103636/https://www.cnbc.com/2023/02/03/hong-kong-to-give-away-half-a-million-air-tickets-to-boost-tourism.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Hong Kong was ] in the Asia-Pacific in 2023, with over 2 million more international visitors than its closest competitor, ].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-13 |title=Euromonitor International's report reveals world's Top 100… |url=https://www.euromonitor.com/press/press-releases/dec-2023/euromonitor-internationals-report-reveals-worlds-top-100-city-destinations-for-2023 |access-date=2024-02-29 |website=Euromonitor |archive-date=1 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240301091019/https://www.euromonitor.com/press/press-releases/dec-2023/euromonitor-internationals-report-reveals-worlds-top-100-city-destinations-for-2023 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
Hong Kong has a higher age-of-consent and harsher punishments for homosexual acts.<ref name=g>{{cite web|url=http://www.hkhrm.org.hk/PR/sexualorientationpaper.htm |title=Sexual Orientation and Human Rights in Hong Kong|work=Hong Kong Human Rights Monitor |accessdate=2 March 2010}}</ref> | |||
{{wide image|Hong Kong Skyline view from the peak 2017.jpg|800px|] is a major tourist attraction that offers views of ] and ].}} | |||
] operates under different principles and regulations from those of ].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/5.06/china_pr.html |title=The Great Firewall of China |publisher=Wired.com |date=1 February 1996 |accessdate=2 November 2011 |first1=Geremie R. |last1=Barme |first2=Sang |last2=Ye}}</ref> | |||
== Infrastructure == | |||
===Regions and Districts=== | |||
=== Transport === | |||
{{Main|List of cities and towns in Hong Kong|Districts of Hong Kong}} | |||
{{Main|Transport in Hong Kong}} | |||
Hong Kong consists of three regions: ], ], and the ]. The regions are subdivided into 18 geographic districts, each represented by a ] which advises the government on local matters such as public facilities, community programmes, cultural activities, and environmental improvements.<ref name=district>{{cite web|url=http://www.gov.hk/en/about/abouthk/factsheets/docs/district_admin.pdf|title=Hong Kong– The Facts: District Administration |publisher=Hong Kong Government |accessdate=31 August 2008}}</ref> | |||
] in ], ]]] | |||
Hong Kong has a highly developed, sophisticated transport network. Over 90% of the daily trips made by its residents are made with public transport, the highest percentage in the world.<ref name="pubtransport">{{harvnb|Public Transport Strategy Study|2017|p=1}}</ref> The ], a ] ] ] card made for Hong Kong, is widely accepted on railways, trams, buses and ferries, and can be used for payment in most retail stores.<ref>{{harvnb|Poon|Chau|2001|p=102}}.</ref> Alternative payments such as ], ], ] and ] have also been gradually introduced to public transports.<ref>{{Cite web |title=MTR > Ticket Purchase and Usage |url=https://www.mtr.com.hk/en/customer/buy_tickets/payment_method.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716005653/https://www.mtr.com.hk/en/customer/buy_tickets/payment_method.html |archive-date=2024-07-16 |access-date=2024-07-30 |website=www.mtr.com.hk |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hong Kong Tramways – Schedules and Fares |url=https://www.hktramways.com/en/schedules-fares |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240616021916/https://www.hktramways.com/en/schedules-fares |archive-date=16 June 2024 |access-date=2024-07-30 |website=www.hktramways.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Schedule & Fares {{!}} StarFerry |url=https://www.starferry.com.hk/en/Fares |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231203123111/https://www.starferry.com.hk/en/Fares |archive-date=3 December 2023 |access-date=2024-07-30 |website=www.starferry.com.hk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=E-payment System |url=https://www.citybus.com.hk/en/uploadedFiles/app_promote/eps/EPS-ENG-1.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231007133906/https://www.citybus.com.hk/en/uploadedFiles/app_promote/eps/EPS-ENG-1.html |archive-date=7 October 2023 |access-date=2024-07-30 |website=www.citybus.com.hk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Kowloon Motor Bus Co. (1933) Ltd 九龍巴士(一九三三) |url=https://www.kmb.hk/payment.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240501021600/https://kmb.hk/payment.html |archive-date=1 May 2024 |access-date=2024-07-30 |website=www.kmb.hk}}</ref> | |||
There are a total of 541 district council seats, 412 of which are elected; the rest are appointed by the Chief Executive and 27 ''ex officio'' chairmen of rural committees.<ref name=district/> The ] communicates government policies and plans to the public through the district offices.<ref name="HAD">{{cite web|url=http://www.had.gov.hk/en/about_us/mission/mission.htm|title=Mission|publisher=], Hong Kong Government |date=30 June 2009|accessdate=10 November 2009}}</ref> Hong Kong has a ] system of government; no local government has existed since the two municipal councils were abolished in 2000. As such there is no formal definition for its ]. | |||
The ], Hong Kong's first public transport system, has provided ] rail transport between ] and ] since 1888.<ref>{{harvnb|Mok|2018}}.</ref> | |||
{{multiple image | |||
| align = left | |||
| image1 = Hong_Kong_HK_Island.svg | |||
| width1 = 25% | |||
| caption1 = Hong Kong Island | |||
| image2 = Hong_Kong_Kowloon.svg | |||
| width2 = 25% | |||
| caption2 = Kowloon | |||
| image3 = Hong_Kong_New_Territories.svg | |||
| width3 = 25% | |||
| caption3 = New Territories | |||
| image4 = Map of Hong Kong 18 Districts en.svg | |||
| width4 = 25% | |||
| caption4 = 18 Administrative Districts: 1. ], 2. ], 3. ], 4. ], 5. ], 6. ], 7. ], 8. ], 9. ], 10. ], 11. ], 12. ], 13. ], 14. ], 15. ], 16. ], 17. ], 18. ]}} | |||
{{Clear}} | |||
The ] has an extensive system of escalators and ], which being the ], the world's longest outdoor covered escalator system.<ref>{{harvnb|Gold|2001}}.</ref> | |||
===Military=== | |||
{{Main|People's Liberation Army Hong Kong Garrison}} | |||
] | |||
]’ tram network covers a portion of Hong Kong Island, covering from ] to ], with a branch to ]. It operates 6 routes and has had a rideship of 42,558 in 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Public Transport {{!}} Annual transport digest 2023 |url=https://www.td.gov.hk/mini_site/atd/2023/en/section5-13.html |access-date=2024-07-30 |website=www.td.gov.hk |archive-date=30 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240730122832/https://www.td.gov.hk/mini_site/atd/2023/en/section5-13.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hong Kong Tramways – Schedules and Fares |url=https://www.hktramways.com/en/schedules-fares |access-date=2024-07-30 |website=www.hktramways.com |language=en |archive-date=16 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240616021916/https://www.hktramways.com/en/schedules-fares |url-status=live }}</ref> It began servicing Hong Kong since 1904.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hong Kong Tramways: fun facts about the century-old Ding Ding {{!}} Hong Kong Tourism Board |url=https://www.discoverhongkong.com/eng/explore/attractions/hong-kong-tramways.html |access-date=2024-07-30 |website=Discover Hong Kong |language=en}}</ref> Hong Kong Tramways currently holds the Guinness World Record as the "Largest double-decker tram fleet in service", certified on 30 July 2021, with a fleet of 165 double-decker trams.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 July 2021 |title=Largest double-decker tram fleet in service |url=https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/593163-largest-double-decker-tram-fleet-in-operation |access-date=30 July 2024 |website=Guinness World Records |archive-date=30 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240730054734/https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/593163-largest-double-decker-tram-fleet-in-operation |url-status=live }}</ref> The fleet of trams were mostly built by ]. | |||
When Hong Kong's sovereignty transferred to People's Republic of China on 1 July 1997, the British barracks were replaced by a ], comprising ground, naval, and air forces, who come under the command of the Chinese ]. | |||
The ] (MTR) is an extensive passenger rail network, connecting 99 ] stations and 68 ] stops throughout the territory.<ref name="RailwayFacts">{{harvnb|Railway Network Facts|2018}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transport Department – Railways |url=https://www.td.gov.hk/en/transport_in_hong_kong/public_transport/railways/index.html |access-date=2024-07-30 |website=www.td.gov.hk |archive-date=26 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230626124121/https://www.td.gov.hk/en/transport_in_hong_kong/public_transport/railways/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> With a daily ridership of almost five million, the system serves 41% of all public transit passengers in the city<ref name="LegcoTransport">{{harvnb|Transport Statistical Highlights|2016}}</ref> and has an on-time rate of 99.9%.<ref>{{harvnb|Report on Rail Service|2014|p=1}}.</ref> Cross-boundary train service to Shenzhen is offered by the ], and longer-distance ] ], ], and ] are operated from ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mtr.com.hk/en/customer/services/cbs_introduction_tourist.html |title=Cross Boundary Train Services |publisher=] |access-date=20 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171119030307/http://www.mtr.com.hk/en/customer/services/cbs_introduction_tourist.html |archive-date=19 November 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> This train service has however been suspended since the ], and officially closed by the ] on 31 July 2024, as announced by the ], citing that ] have effectively met the travel needs of passengers between the mainland and Hong Kong.<ref>{{Cite web |title=MTR > Intercity Passenger Services |url=https://www.mtr.com.hk/en/customer/services/intercity_index.html |access-date=2024-07-30 |website=www.mtr.com.hk |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-29 |title='End of an era' for Hong Kong's cross-border through-train services |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/hong-kong-economy/article/3175918/end-era-hong-kong-mtrs-cross-border-through-train |access-date=2024-07-30 |website=South China Morning Post |language=en |archive-date=16 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240316064243/https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/hong-kong-economy/article/3175918/end-era-hong-kong-mtrs-cross-border-through-train |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=海關總署公告2024年第96號(關於關閉北京西站、上海站、廣州、東莞等4個鐵路口岸的公告) |url=http://gdfs.customs.gov.cn/customs/302249/2480148/6013329/index.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240731135355/http://gdfs.customs.gov.cn/customs/302249/2480148/6013329/index.html |archive-date=31 July 2024 |access-date=31 July 2024 |website=General Administration of Customs of the People's Republic of China}}</ref> ] to the ] is provided at ].<ref>{{harvnb|Kwok|2018}}.</ref> | |||
The ] protects local civil affairs against any interference by the garrison; members of the garrison are subject to Hong Kong laws. The Hong Kong Government remains responsible for the maintenance of public order; however, it may ask the PRC government for assistance from the garrison in maintaining public order and in disaster relief. The PRC government is now responsible for the costs of maintaining the garrison.<ref name="BasicLawC2"/><ref name="Rioni2">{{cite book|last=Rioni|first=S. G.|title=Hong Kong in Focus: Political and Economic Issues|year=2002|publisher=Nova Publishers|isbn=978-1-59033-237-5|pages=154–163}}</ref> | |||
Although public transport systems handle most passenger traffic, there are over 500,000 private vehicles registered in Hong Kong.<ref>{{harvnb|Vehicle Registration and Licensing|2018}}</ref> Automobiles drive ] (unlike in mainland China), because of historical influence of the British Empire.<ref>{{harvnb|Labarre|2010}}.</ref> Vehicle traffic is extremely congested in urban areas, exacerbated by limited space to expand roads and an increasing number of vehicles.<ref>{{harvnb|Traffic Congestion Study|2014|pp=2–3}}</ref> More than 18,000 ], easily identifiable by their bright colours and taxi lights, are licensed to carry riders in the territory.<ref>{{harvnb|Transport Facts|2016}}.</ref> Unlicensed ride-hailing services such as ] also exists in Hong Kong, with some operating with licensed taxis to legitimise their business in ride-sharing. Unlicensed drivers have been targeted by the government and taxi drivers in the past, mainly due to the lack of ] on passengers and taxi drivers fearing the competition from drivers of these ride-hailing services.<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 May 2017 |title='Ridesharing should not be a crime': Uber criticises Hong Kong's outdated traffic laws following arrests |url=https://hongkongfp.com/2017/05/23/ridesharing-not-crime-uber-criticises-hong-kongs-outdated-traffic-laws-following-arrests/ |access-date=4 August 2024 |website=Hong Kong Free Press}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-05-21 |title=Uber vs Hong Kong taxis: why is the government allowing the quarrel to fester? |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/hong-kong-economy/article/3263415/uber-vs-hong-kong-taxis-why-government-allowing-quarrel-fester-and-let-customers-lose |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=South China Morning Post |language=en |archive-date=18 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718142137/https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/hong-kong-economy/article/3263415/uber-vs-hong-kong-taxis-why-government-allowing-quarrel-fester-and-let-customers-lose |url-status=live }}</ref> The government in 2024 has looked into legalising these services.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-05 |title=Hong Kong to require permits for ride-hailing services including Uber |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/transport/article/3269375/hong-kong-require-private-hire-car-permits-ride-hailing-services-including-uber |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=South China Morning Post |language=en |archive-date=16 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716100342/https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/transport/article/3269375/hong-kong-require-private-hire-car-permits-ride-hailing-services-including-uber |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
In January 2015, Hong Kong Army Cadets Association was formed for Hong Kong children over 6 years old. The inauguration ceremony was held at a ] naval base in Hong Kong; only pro-Beijing press was invited into the venue.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/article/1681760/mystery-surrounds-new-hong-kong-army-cadet-force-which-was|title=Mystery surrounds new Hong Kong army cadet force inaugurated at PLA base|date=15 January 2015|work=SCMP Hong Kong}}</ref> | |||
] operate more than 700 routes across the territory,<ref name="LegcoTransport" /> with smaller ]es (also known as minibuses) serving areas standard buses do not reach as frequently or directly.<ref>{{harvnb|Cullinane|2002}}.</ref> Expressways and truck roads, organised with the ], connect all major areas of the territory.<ref>{{cite map |title=Hong Kong Strategic Route Map |url=http://www.td.gov.hk/mini_site/hksrens/2008/EN/images/diagram.pdf |publisher=] |access-date=29 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180615112730/http://www.td.gov.hk/mini_site/hksrens/2008/EN/images/diagram.pdf |archive-date=15 June 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> The ] provides a direct route to the western side of the Pearl River estuary.<ref name="HZMBridge" /> | |||
==Geography and climate== | |||
{{Main|Geography of Hong Kong|Ecology of Hong Kong|Climate of Hong Kong}} | |||
] | |||
]]] | |||
Hong Kong is located on China's south coast, {{convert|60|km|mi|abbr=on}} east of ] on the opposite side of the ]. It is surrounded by the ] on the east, south, and west, and borders the Guangdong city of ] to the north over the Shenzhen River. The territory's {{convert|1104|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} area consists of ], the ], the ], and over 200 offshore islands, of which the largest is ]. Of the total area, {{convert|1054|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} is land and {{convert|50|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} is inland water. Hong Kong claims territorial waters to a distance of {{convert|3|nmi|km|abbr=out}}. Its land area makes Hong Kong the ] in the world.<ref name="cia">{{cite web | |||
] is the territory's primary airport, replacing ] that ended its operation in 1998.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-06 |title='Goodbye Kai Tak': 25 years since Hong Kong's old airport turned off its lights |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/transport/article/3226610/hong-kongs-old-kai-tak-airport-closes-well-miss-you-scmp-archive |access-date=2024-05-31 |website=South China Morning Post |language=en}}</ref> Over 100 airlines operate flights from the airport, including locally based ] (]), ], low-cost airline ] and cargo airline ].<ref>{{harvnb|HKIA Annual Report|2017|p=152}}.</ref> It was the ]<ref>{{harvnb|NY/NJ Port Authority Airport Traffic|2017|p=32}}</ref> pre-COVID and handles ].<ref>{{harvnb|NY/NJ Port Authority Airport Traffic|2017|p=58}}</ref> Most private recreational aviation traffic flies through ], under the supervision of the ].<ref>{{harvnb|Wordie|2007|p=242}}.</ref> | |||
|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/hk.html | |||
|title=Hong Kong | |||
|work=The World Factbook | |||
|publisher=CIA | |||
|date=23 August 2010 | |||
|accessdate=17 September 2010}}</ref><ref name="censtatd"/> In comparison to ]n cities, Hong Kong is tiny yet heavily populated. An example could be the city ], with a metro population of about 1.4 Million, making the city considerably smaller in population than Hongkong's 7.4 Million. However, Edmonton's metro area totals nearly {{convert|10000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} making the city almost ten times larger than Hong kong. Also, The ] area is over {{convert|87000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}, and with 18 million residents, has an incredibly low density when compared to Hong Kong and is 79 times larger in area. | |||
The ] operates two lines across Victoria Harbour for its 53,000 daily passengers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.starferry.com.hk/en/operationalInfo |title=Operational Information |publisher=] |access-date=20 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171130062543/http://www.starferry.com.hk/en/operationalInfo |archive-date=30 November 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> Ferries also serve outlying islands inaccessible by other means. Smaller ] boats serve the most remote coastal settlements.<ref>{{harvnb|Cushman|1993|p=57}}.</ref> Ferry travel to Macau and mainland China is also available.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gov.hk/en/residents/transport/crossboundary/ferryservices.htm |title=Ferry Services to Macau and the Mainland Ports |publisher=Hong Kong Government |access-date=20 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171119151136/https://www.gov.hk/en/residents/transport/crossboundary/ferryservices.htm |archive-date=19 November 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> ], once common in Hong Kong waters, are no longer widely available and are used privately and for tourism.<ref>{{harvnb|Tatlow|2017}}.</ref> | |||
] | |||
The large size of the port gives Hong Kong the classification of Large-Port Metropolis.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Roberts |first1=Toby |last2=Williams |first2=Ian |last3=Preston |first3=John |date=19 May 2021 |title=The Southampton system: a new universal standard approach for port-city classification |journal=Maritime Policy & Management |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=530–542 |doi=10.1080/03088839.2020.1802785 |s2cid=225502755 |issn=0308-8839|doi-access=free }}</ref> | |||
=== Utilities === | |||
As much of Hong Kong's terrain is hilly to mountainous with steep slopes, less than 25% of the territory's landmass is developed, and about 40% of the remaining land area is reserved as ] and ].<ref>{{cite book|title=An Introduction to the Cape d'Aguilar Marine Reserve, Hong Kong|first=Brian|last=Morton|first2=Elizabeth|last2=Harper|publisher=]|page=9|isbn=9789622093881|year=1995}}</ref> Low altitude vegetation in Hong Kong is dominated by ] ]s, as the primary forest was mostly cleared during the Second World War, and higher altitudes are dominated by ]s. Most of the territory's ] exists on Kowloon peninsula, along the northern edge of Hong Kong Island, and in scattered settlements throughout the New Territories.<ref name="Census2006">{{cite web | |||
{{Main|Energy in Hong Kong|Electricity sector in Hong Kong|Water supply and sanitation in Hong Kong}} | |||
|url=http://www.bycensus2006.gov.hk/FileManager/EN/Content_962/06bc_mainrpt_v1.pdf | |||
], October 2019]] | |||
|title=2006 Population By-census | |||
|publisher=Census and Statistics Department, Hong Kong Government | |||
|accessdate=13 November 2009}}</ref> The highest elevation in the territory is at ], {{convert|957|m|ft}} ].<ref>{{cite web | |||
|url=http://www.afcd.gov.hk/english/country/cou_vis/cou_vis_cou/cou_vis_cou_tms/cou_vis_cou_tms.html | |||
|title=Tai Mo Shan Country Park | |||
|date=17 March 2006 | |||
|publisher=], Hong Kong Government | |||
|accessdate=8 November 2009}}</ref> Hong Kong's long and irregular coast provides it with many bays, rivers and ].<ref>{{cite web | |||
|url=http://www.ocasia.org/NOCS/NocCountries.aspx?Nocs=12 | |||
|title= Hong Kong | |||
|publisher=] | |||
|accessdate=14 November 2009 }}{{dead link|date=October 2013}}</ref> | |||
On 18 September 2011, ] listed the ] as part of its ]. Hong Kong Geopark is made up of eight Geo-Areas distributed across the ] Volcanic Rock Region and Northeast New Territories Sedimentary Rock Region.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.geopark.gov.hk/publications/Geopark_Leaflet.pdf |title=Geopark leaflet|format=PDF |accessdate=26 October 2013}}</ref> | |||
Hong Kong generates most of its electricity locally.<ref name="energystats2016p1">{{harvnb|Energy Statistics Report|2017|p=1}}</ref> The vast majority of this energy comes from fossil fuels, with 46% from coal and 47% from petroleum.<ref>{{harvnb|Energy Statistics Report|2017|p=9}}</ref> The rest is from other imports, including nuclear energy generated in mainland China.<ref>{{harvnb|Energy Statistics Report|2017|p=29}}</ref> Renewable sources account for a negligible amount of energy generated for the territory.<ref>{{harvnb|Energy Statistics Report|2017|p=6}}</ref> Small-scale wind-power sources have been developed,<ref name="energystats2016p1" /> and a small number of private homes and public buildings have installed solar panels.<ref>{{harvnb|Chan|2017}}.</ref> | |||
Despite Hong Kong's reputation of being intensely urbanised, the territory has tried to promote a green environment,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hktrader.net/200111/200104/200104s1.htm |title=Chief Executive pledges a clean, green, world-class city|publisher=]|date=November 2001|accessdate=17 September 2010}}</ref> and recent growing public concern has prompted the severe restriction of further ] from Victoria Harbour.<ref name="BBCHarbor">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3381827.stm|title=HK harbour reclamation reprieve|publisher=BBC News|date=9 January 2004|accessdate=4 October 2010}}</ref> Awareness of the environment is growing as Hong Kong suffers from increasing pollution compounded by its geography and tall buildings. Approximately 80% of the ] originates from other parts of the Pearl River Delta.<ref>{{cite news | |||
|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/22/world/asia/22hongkong.html?ex=1332216000&en=d298556ccd753714&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt | |||
|title=Dirty Air Becomes Divisive Issue in Hong Kong Vote | |||
|newspaper=The New York Times |date=5 November 2006 | |||
|accessdate=1 February 2008|first=Keith|last=Bradsher}}</ref> | |||
With few natural lakes and rivers, high population density, inaccessible groundwater sources, and extremely seasonal rainfall, the territory does not have a reliable source of freshwater. The ] in Guangdong supplies 70% of the city's water,<ref name="LeeWater">{{harvnb|Lee|2013}}.</ref> and the remaining demand is filled by harvesting rainwater locally.<ref>{{harvnb|Water Supply Facts|2016}}.</ref> Toilets in most built-up areas of the territory flush with seawater which reduces freshwater use.<ref name="LeeWater" /> | |||
Though it is situated just south of the ], Hong Kong has a ] (] ''Cwa''). Summer is hot and humid with occasional showers and thunderstorms, and warm air coming from the southwest. ] most often occur in summer. They sometimes result in flooding or landslides. Winters are mild and usually start sunny, becoming cloudier towards February; the occasional cold front brings strong, cooling winds from the north. The most temperate seasons are spring, which can be changeable, and autumn, which is generally sunny and dry.<ref name="HKClimate">{{cite web | |||
|url=http://www.hko.gov.hk/wxinfo/climat/climahk.htm | |||
|title=Climate of Hong Kong | |||
|publisher=] | |||
|date=4 May 2003 | |||
|accessdate=2 August 2007}}</ref> Hong Kong averages 1,948 hours of sunshine per year,<ref name="sunshine"> | |||
{{cite web | |||
|url=http://www.censtatd.gov.hk/products_and_services/products/publications/statistical_report/general_statistical_digest/index_cd_B1010006_dt_latest.jsp | |||
|title=Hong Kong in Figures 2008 Edition | |||
|publisher=Census and Statistics Department, Hong Kong Government | |||
|date=27 February 2008 | |||
|accessdate=7 May 2008}}</ref> while the highest and lowest ever recorded temperatures at the ] are {{convert|36.3|and|0.0|°C|°F|sigfig=3}}, respectively.<ref name="extremeshko"/><ref name="HKO all-time record high"/> | |||
{{Hong Kong weatherbox|collapsed=Y}} | |||
Broadband Internet access is widely available, with 92.6% of households connected. Connections over ] are increasingly prevalent,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ofca.gov.hk/en/media_focus/data_statistics/key_stat/ |title=Key Communications Statistics |publisher=] |access-date=8 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620153354/https://www.ofca.gov.hk/en/media_focus/data_statistics/key_stat/ |archive-date=20 June 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> contributing to the high regional average connection speed of 21.9 Mbit/s (the world's fourth-fastest).<ref>{{harvnb|Akamai's State of the Internet|2017|p=54}}</ref> Mobile-phone use is ubiquitous;<ref>{{harvnb|IT and Internet Usage|2017|p=9}}.</ref> there are almost 22 million ] registered in Hong Kong,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hong Kong (China) mobile cellular subscriptions 2000-2022 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/498360/number-of-mobile-cellular-subscriptions-in-hong-kong-china/#:~:text=The%20number%20of%20mobile-cellular,in%202021,%20to%2021.9%20million. |access-date=2024-10-15 |website=Statista |language=en}}</ref> which is almost triple the territory's population. | |||
==Economy== | |||
{{Main|Economy of Hong Kong}} | |||
] in ], an integrated commercial development in Central|alt=A brightly lit tall skyscraper at night]] | |||
== Culture == | |||
As one of the world's leading international ]s, Hong Kong has a major ] ] characterised by low taxation and ]. The currency, ], is the eighth most traded currency in the world as of 2010.<ref name="bis.org"/> Hong Kong was once described by ] as the world's greatest experiment in ] capitalism, but has since instituted a regime of regulations including a ].<ref name=EconomistEnd>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/node/16591088|title=End of an experiment|work=The Economist|date=15 July 2010|accessdate=5 September 2010}}</ref> It maintains a highly developed capitalist economy, ranked the freest in the world by the ] every year since 1995.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201201/12/P201201120303.htm|title=Hong Kong ranked world's freest economy for 18th consecutive year |publisher=Government of Hong Kong|date=12 January 2012|accessdate=28 May 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/ |title=2008 Index of Economic Freedom |publisher=The Heritage Foundation |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080201022352/http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/|archivedate=1 February 2008 |accessdate=1 February 2008}} {{Clarify|date=August 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Top 10 Countries |publisher=The Heritage Foundation |url=http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/topten.cfm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080124041217/http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/topten.cfm|archivedate=24 January 2008|accessdate=1 February 2008}}</ref> It is an important centre for international finance and trade, with one of the greatest concentrations of corporate headquarters in the Asia-Pacific region,<ref>{{cite book|title=How to Invest in Offshore Real Estate and Pay Little Or No Taxes|first=Hubert|last=Bromma|publisher=]|year=2007|page=161|isbn=978-0-07-147009-4}}</ref> and is known as one of the ] for its high growth rates and rapid development from the 1960s to the 1990s. Between 1961 and 1997 Hong Kong's ] grew 180 times while per-capita GDP increased 87 times over.<ref>{{cite book|first=Peter Wallace|last=Preston|first2=Jürgen|last2=Haacke|title=Contemporary China: The Dynamics of Change at the Start of the New Millennium|publisher=Psychology Press|year=2003|pages=80–107|isbn=978-0-7007-1637-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Rikkie|last=Yeung|title=Moving Millions: The Commercial Success and Political Controversies of Hong Kong's Railways|publisher=Hong Kong University Press|year=2008|page=16|isbn=978-962-209-963-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zyen.com/Knowledge/Research/GFCI%201%20March%202007%20Executive%20Summary.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070605112931/http://www.zyen.com/Knowledge/Research/GFCI+1+March+2007+Executive+Summary.pdf|archivedate=5 June 2007|title=The Global Financial Centres Index 1 Executive Summary|publisher=]|date=March 2007|page=6|accessdate=12 April 2007}}</ref> | |||
{{Main|Culture of Hong Kong}} | |||
{{See also|Cantonese culture}} | |||
Hong Kong is characterised as a hybrid of ] and ]. Traditional Chinese values emphasising family and education blend with Western ideals, including economic liberty and the rule of law.<ref>{{harvnb|Carroll|2007|p=169}}.</ref> Although the vast majority of the population is ethnically Chinese, Hong Kong has developed a distinct identity. The territory diverged from the mainland through its long period of colonial administration and a different pace of economic, social, and cultural development. Mainstream culture was derived from immigrants originating from various parts of China; it was then influenced by British-style education, a separate political system, and the territory's rapid development during the late 20th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Carroll|2007|pp=167–172}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|He|2013}}.</ref> Most migrants of that era fled poverty and war, reflected in the prevailing attitude toward wealth; Hongkongers would tend to link self-image and decision-making to material benefits.<ref>{{harvnb|Tam|2017}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Lam|2015}}.</ref> Residents' sense of local identity has increased post-handover: polling in December 2022 had 32% of respondents identifying as "Hongkongers", 34.1% identifying as "Hongkongers in China" 45.9% purporting a "Mixed Identity", 20.5% identifying as "Chinese" and 11.9% identifying as "Chinese in Hong Kong".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-09 |title=Categorical Ethnic Identity – HKPORI – 香港民意研究所 |url=https://www.pori.hk/pop-poll/ethnic-identity-en/q001.html?lang=en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240305222442/https://www.pori.hk/pop-poll/ethnic-identity-en/q001.html?lang=en |archive-date=2024-03-05 |website=] |language=en}}</ref> | |||
The ] is the seventh largest in the world and has a market capitalisation of US$2.3 trillion as of December 2009.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.world-exchanges.org/statistics/ytd-monthly|title=World Federation of Exchanges – Statistics/Monthly|publisher=]|accessdate=17 September 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100821044315/http://www.world-exchanges.org/statistics/ytd-monthly <!--Added by H3llBot-->|archivedate=21 August 2010}}</ref> In that year, Hong Kong raised 22 percent of worldwide ] (IPO) capital, making it the largest centre of IPOs in the world <ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=aI3U6ahtfIyo|title=Hong Kong IPOs May Raise Record $48 Billion in 2010, E&Y Says|publisher=Bloomberg|accessdate=17 September 2010|date=21 December 2009}}</ref> and the easiest place to raise capital. The Hong Kong dollar has been ] to the US dollar since 1983.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.hkma.gov.hk/media/eng/publication-and-research/background-briefs/hkmalin/full_e.pdf|title= Hong Kong's Linked Exchange Rate System|page=33|publisher=]|accessdate=6 October 2010}}</ref> | |||
Traditional Chinese family values, including ], ], and a ], are prevalent.<ref>{{harvnb|Family Survey|2013|pp=12–13}}.</ref> ] are the most common households, although multi-generational and extended families are not unusual.<ref>{{harvnb|Population By-Census|2021|p=77}}.</ref> Spiritual concepts such as '']'' are observed; large-scale construction projects often hire consultants to ensure proper building positioning and layout. The degree of its adherence to ''feng shui'' is believed to determine the success of a business.<ref name="FengShui" /> '']'' mirrors are regularly used to deflect evil spirits,<ref>{{harvnb|Fowler|Fowler|2008|p=263}}.</ref> and buildings often lack ];<ref>{{harvnb|Xi|Ingham|2003|p=181}}.</ref> the number has a similar sound to the word for "die" in Cantonese.<ref>{{harvnb|Chan|Chow|2006|p=3}}.</ref> | |||
The Hong Kong Government has traditionally played a mostly passive role in the economy, with little by way of ] and almost no ]. Market forces and the private sector were allowed to determine practical development. Under the official policy of "]", Hong Kong is often cited as an example of laissez-faire capitalism. Following the Second World War, Hong Kong industrialised rapidly as a manufacturing centre driven by exports, and then underwent a rapid transition to a service-based economy in the 1980s.<ref name=ceo>{{cite press release|url=http://www.ceo.gov.hk/eng/press/oped.htm |title=Big Market, Small Government |first=Donald |last=Tsang |date=18 September 2006 |publisher=Hong Kong Government |accessdate=6 October 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20081205021241/http://www.ceo.gov.hk:80/eng/press/oped.htm |archivedate=5 December 2008 }}</ref> Since then, it has grown to become a leading centre for management, financial, IT, business consultation and professional services. | |||
=== Cuisine === | |||
Hong Kong matured to become a financial centre in the 1990s, but was greatly affected by the Asian financial crisis in 1998, and again in 2003 by the SARS outbreak. A revival of external and domestic demand has led to a strong recovery, as cost decreases strengthened the competitiveness of Hong Kong exports and a long deflationary period ended.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://info.hktdc.com/econforum/tdc/tdc071201.htm |title=Hong Kong's Export Outlook for 2008: Maintaining Competitiveness through Supply Chain Management|publisher=Hong Kong Trade Development Council |date=6 December 2007|accessdate=30 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hkdf.org/newsarticles.asp?show=newsarticles&newsarticle=126 |title=HKDF –Has Hong Kong Lost its Competitiveness?|publisher=Hong Kong Democratic Foundation|accessdate=14 November 2009 }}</ref> Government intervention, initiated by the later colonial governments and continued since 1997, has steadily increased, with the introduction of ] guarantees, a ], a minimum wage, ]s, and a state mortgage backer<!--Hong Kong Mortgage Corporation-->.<ref name=EconomistEnd/> | |||
{{Main|Hong Kong cuisine}} | |||
{{Multiple image | |||
|direction=horizontal |align=right |caption_align=center |total_width=350 | |||
|image1=Dim Sum Breakfast.jpg |height1=600 |width1=800 | |||
|alt1=An assortment of items in a Dim Sum breakfast meal | |||
|image2=Cha Chaan Teng.jpg |height2=1200 |width2=1600 | |||
|alt2=French Toast on left, Milk Tea on right | |||
|footer=Typical fare at a dim sum restaurant (left); '']'' breakfast food with ] (right) | |||
}} | |||
Food in Hong Kong is primarily based on ], despite the territory's exposure to foreign influences and its residents' varied origins. Rice is the staple food, and is usually served plain with other dishes.<ref name="LongHKFood">{{harvnb|Long|2015|p=271}}.</ref> Freshness of ingredients is emphasised. Poultry and seafood are commonly sold live at ]s, and ingredients are used as quickly as possible when still fresh.<ref>{{harvnb|Curry|Hanstedt|2014|pp=9–12}}.</ref> There are up to five daily meals: breakfast, lunch, afternoon tea, dinner, and '']''.<ref>{{harvnb|Long|2015|p=272}}.</ref> ], as part of '']'' (brunch), is a dining-out tradition with family and friends. Dishes include ], '']'', '']'', ]s, and ]. Local versions of Western food are served at '']'' (Hong Kong-style cafes). Common ''cha chaan teng'' menu items include macaroni in soup, deep-fried French toast, and ].<ref name="LongHKFood" /> | |||
The territory has little arable land and few natural resources, so it imports most of its food and raw materials. Imports account for more than 90% of Hong Kong's food supply, including nearly all of the meat and rice available there.<ref>{{cite web|last=Kong|first=Daniel |url=http://modernfarmer.com/2013/08/hong-kong-imports-over-90-of-its-food-can-it-learn-to-grow/ |title=Hong Kong Imports Over 90% of Its Food. Can It Learn to Grow?|publisher=] |date=8 August 2013 |accessdate=26 October 2013}}</ref> Agricultural activity—relatively unimportant to Hong Kong's economy and contributing just 0.1% of its GDP—primarily consists of growing premium food and flower varieties. Hong Kong is the world's eleventh largest trading entity,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.info.gov.hk/info/hkbrief/eng/ahk.htm|title=About Hong Kong|publisher=Hong Kong government|date=April 2006|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080119053435/http://www.info.gov.hk/info/hkbrief/eng/ahk.htm|archivedate=19 January 2008|accessdate=1 February 2008}}</ref> with the total value of imports and exports exceeding its gross domestic product. It is the world's largest re-export centre.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=15014282|title=The Panama Canal: A plan to unlock prosperity|work=The Economist |date=3 December 2009|accessdate=4 December 2009}}</ref> Much of Hong Kong's exports consist of re-exports,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thestandard.com.hk/news_detail.asp?pp_cat=1&art_id=34998&sid=11525347&con_type=1|title=Growth in exports defies predictions|newspaper=The Standard|first=Gita|last=Dhungana|date=29 December 2006|accessdate=4 October 2010}}</ref> which are products made outside of the territory, especially in mainland China, and distributed via Hong Kong. Its physical location has allowed the city to establish a transportation and logistics infrastructure that includes the world's second busiest container port and the world's busiest airport for international cargo. Even before the transfer of sovereignty, Hong Kong had established extensive trade and investment ties with the mainland, which now enable it to serve as a point of entry for investment flowing into the mainland. At the end of 2007, there were 3.46 million people employed full-time, with the unemployment rate averaging 4.1% for the fourth straight year of decline.<ref>''Hong Kong Monthly Digest of Statistics'', Hong Kong Government, March 2008</ref> Hong Kong's economy is dominated by the service sector, which accounts for over 90% of its GDP, while industry constitutes 9%. Inflation was at 2.5% in 2007.<ref name="UNPub">{{cite book|title=Economic and Social Survey of Asia and the Pacific 2009: Addressing Triple Threats to Development|pages=94–99|year=2009|publisher=United Nations Publications|isbn=978-92-1-120577-0}}</ref> Hong Kong's largest export markets are mainland China, the United States, and Japan.<ref name="cia"/> | |||
=== Cinema === | |||
As of 2010 Hong Kong is the eighth ], falling from fifth position in the previous year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mercer.com/costoflivingpr#Top_50|title=Worldwide Cost of Living survey 2009 |publisher=]|date=29 June 2010|accessdate=25 August 2010}}</ref> Hong Kong is ranked fourth in terms of the highest percentage of millionaire households, behind Switzerland, ], and ] with 8.5 percent of all households owning at least one million US dollars.<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.financetwitter.com/2011/06/top-twenty-countries-with-highest-proportion-of-millionaires.html |date=31 May 2011 |title= Global Wealth Continues Its Strong Recovery with $9 Trillion Gain, but Pressures on Wealth Managers Persist, Says Study by The Boston Consulting Group |publisher=Finance Twitter}}</ref> In 2011, Hong Kong was ranked second in the ], behind Singapore.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.doingbusiness.org/ExploreEconomies/?economyid=43|title=Explore Economies|publisher=]|year=2010|accessdate=31 August 2010}}</ref> | |||
{{Main|Cinema of Hong Kong}} | |||
], a tribute to the city's film industry]] | |||
Hong Kong developed into a filmmaking hub during the late 1940s as a wave of Shanghai filmmakers migrated to the territory, and these movie veterans helped build the colony's entertainment industry over the next decade.<ref>{{harvnb|Fu|2008|pp=381, 388–389}}.</ref> By the 1960s, the city was well known to overseas audiences through films such as '']''.<ref>{{harvnb|Carroll|2007|p=148}}.</ref> When ]'s '']'' was released in 1972, local productions became popular outside Hong Kong. During the 1980s, films such as '']'', '']'', and '']'' expanded global interest beyond ]s; locally made gangster films, romantic dramas, and supernatural fantasies became popular.<ref>{{harvnb|Carroll|2007|p=168}}.</ref> | |||
Hong Kong is ranked No. 1 in the world in the ] Index by the Economist.<ref>http://www.economist.com/news/international/21599041-countries-where-politically-connected-businessmen-are-most-likely-prosper-planet,</ref> | |||
Hong Kong cinema continued to be internationally successful over the following decade with critically acclaimed dramas such as '']'', '']'', and '']''. The city's martial arts film roots are evident in the roles of the most prolific Hong Kong actors. ], ], ], ], and ] frequently play action-oriented roles in foreign films. Hong Kong films have also grown popular in oversea markets such as Japan, South Korea, and Southeast Asia, earning the city the moniker "Hollywood of the East".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Chu |first=Karen |date=16 February 2023 |title=Berlin Spotlight: How Hong Kong's Film Industry Made a Surprise Comeback |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-features/hong-kong-film-industry-comeback-berlin-1235326295/ |access-date=22 February 2023 |website=The Hollywood Reporter |language=en-US}}</ref> At the height of the local movie industry in the early 1990s, over 400 films were produced each year; since then, industry momentum shifted to mainland China. The number of films produced annually has declined to about 60 in 2017.<ref>{{harvnb|Ge|2017}}.</ref> | |||
In 2014, Hong Kong was the eleventh ] among countries and territories worldwide, with a total of 27.7 million visitors contributing a total of 38,376 US$ million in international tourism receipts.<ref>(Press release). UNWTO. 25 June 2015. Retrieved 14 September 2015.</ref> | |||
{{clear left}} | |||
=== |
=== Music === | ||
{{Main| |
{{Main|Music of Hong Kong}} | ||
{{Multiple image | |||
] has more than 150 stations in its network.|alt=A map of the Mass Transit Railway network.]] | |||
|direction=horizontal |align=right |caption_align=center |total_width=280 | |||
]]] | |||
|image1=Leslie Cheung in Madame Tussauds Hong Kong (cropped).jpg |width1=300|alt1=Leslie Cheung with a microphone | |||
] | |||
|image2=Andy Lau 刘德华, Beijing International Film Festival 北京电影节, 2013 (cropped).jpg |width2=420|alt2=A serious-looking Andy Lau, seated and wearing a suit | |||
|footer=] (left) is considered a pioneering Cantopop artist, and ] has been an icon of Hong Kong music and film for several decades as a member of the Four Heavenly Kings. | |||
}} | |||
] is a genre of Cantonese popular music which emerged in Hong Kong during the 1970s. Evolving from Shanghai-style '']'', it is also influenced by ] and Western pop.<ref>{{harvnb|Chu|2017|pp=1–9, 24–25}}.</ref> Local media featured songs by artists such as ], ], ], and ]; during the 1980s, exported films and shows exposed Cantopop to a global audience.<ref>{{harvnb|Chu|2017|pp=77–85}}.</ref> The genre's popularity peaked in the 1990s, when the ] dominated Asian record charts.<ref>{{harvnb|Chu|2017|pp=107–116}}.</ref> Despite a general decline since late in the decade,<ref>{{harvnb|Chu|2017|pp=9–10}}.</ref> Cantopop remains dominant in Hong Kong; contemporary artists such as ], ], and ] are popular in and beyond the territory.<ref>{{harvnb|Chu|2017|pp=159–164}}.</ref> | |||
Hong Kong's transportation network is highly developed. Over 90% of daily travels (11 million) are on public transport,<ref name="TD">{{cite web|url=http://www.td.gov.hk/transport_in_hong_kong/public_transport/introduction/index.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080707095241/http://www.td.gov.hk/transport_in_hong_kong/public_transport/introduction/index.htm|archivedate=7 July 2008|title=Public Transport Introduction|publisher=], Hong Kong Government|accessdate=13 July 2008}}</ref> the highest such percentage in the world.<ref name="pubtransport">{{cite book|first=William H. K.|last=Lam|first2=Michael G. H.|last2=Bell|year=2003|title=Advanced Modeling for Transit Operations and Service Planning |publisher=]|page=231|isbn=978-0-08-044206-8}}</ref> Payment can be made using the ], a stored value system introduced by the ], which is widely accepted on railways, buses and ferries, and accepted like cash at other outlets.<ref name="octopus">{{cite web|url=http://www.octopuscards.com/consumer/products/en/index.jsp|title=Octopus Card Information|publisher=]|accessdate=10 December 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Octopus: The Growing E-payment System in Hong Kong|last=Poon|first=Simpson|journal=Electronic Markets|last2=Chau|first2=Patrick|doi=10.1080/101967801300197016|volume= 11|issue=2|date=February 2001|pages=97–106|publisher=Informa}}</ref> | |||
Western classical music has historically had a strong presence in Hong Kong and remains a large part of local musical education.<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|Moir|Brennan|Rambarran|2017|p=101}}</ref> The publicly funded ], the territory's oldest professional symphony orchestra, frequently hosts musicians and conductors from overseas. The ], composed of ], is the leading Chinese ensemble and plays a significant role in promoting traditional music in the community.<ref>{{harvnb|Ho|2011|p=147}}.</ref> | |||
The city's main railway company (]) was merged with MTR in 2007, creating a comprehensive rail network for the whole territory (also called MTR).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/200604/11/P200604110236.htm|title=Press Release: Government has reached understanding with MTRCL on the terms for merging the MTR and KCR systems|publisher=Hong Kong Government|date=11 April 2006|accessdate=17 November 2007}}</ref> The MTR ] system has 152 stations which serve 3.4 million people a day.<ref name="mtr">{{cite web|url=http://www.mtr.com.hk/eng/whatsnew/tourist_intro.html |title=Tourist Information |publisher=Mass Transit Railway |accessdate=29 April 2008 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20080416103736/http://www.mtr.com.hk:80/eng/whatsnew/tourist_intro.html |archivedate=16 April 2008 }}</ref> ], which has served the territory since 1904, covers the northern parts of Hong Kong Island.<ref name="trams">{{cite web|url=http://www.hktramways.com/en/company/index.html|title=The Company|publisher=]|accessdate=29 April 2008|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080410081756/http://www.hktramways.com/en/company/index.html<!--Added by H3llBot-->|archivedate=10 April 2008}}</ref> | |||
Hong Kong has never had a separate national anthem to the country that controlled it; its current official national anthem is therefore that of the People's Republic of China, '']''. The song '']'' has been used by ] as an unofficial anthem of the city.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://qz.com/1707883/glory-to-hong-kong-is-citys-new-unofficial-anthem/|title=Singing showdowns in Hong Kong pit the city's unofficial new anthem against China's|author=Vivienne Chow|date=12 September 2019|work=Quartz|access-date=15 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190913230100/https://qz.com/1707883/glory-to-hong-kong-is-citys-new-unofficial-anthem/|archive-date=13 September 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |title=Listen to the Song That Hong Kong's Youthful Protesters Are Calling Their 'National Anthem' |url=https://time.com/5672018/glory-to-hong-kong-protests-national-anthem/ |accessdate=16 November 2022 |magazine=TIME |date=12 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220124103722/https://time.com/5672018/glory-to-hong-kong-protests-national-anthem/ |archive-date=24 January 2022}}</ref> | |||
Hong Kong's bus service is franchised and run by private operators.{{Why|date=August 2013}} Five privately owned companies provide franchised bus service across the territory, together operating more than 700 routes. The largest are ], providing 402 routes in Kowloon and New Territories, and ], operating 154 routes on Hong Kong Island; both run cross-harbour services. ]es were introduced to Hong Kong in 1949, and are now almost exclusively used; single-decker buses remain in use for routes with lower demand or roads with lower load capacity. ]es serve most parts of Hong Kong, particularly areas where standard bus lines cannot reach or do not reach as frequently, quickly, or directly.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The relationship between car ownership and public transport provision: a case study of Hong Kong|last=Cullinane|first=S.|date=January 2002|volume= 9|issue=1|pages=29–39|journal=Transport Policy| doi = 10.1016/S0967-070X(01)00028-2}}</ref> | |||
=== Sport and recreation === | |||
The ] service, founded in 1888, operates two lines across ] and provides scenic views of Hong Kong's skyline for its 53,000 daily passengers.<ref name="ferryyears">{{cite news|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/11/10/news/ferry.php |last=Ng |first=Tze-wei |title=Not even HK's storied Star Ferry can face down developers |newspaper=] |date=10 November 2006 |accessdate=1 September 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20100826163252/http://www.iht.com:80/articles/2006/11/10/news/ferry.php |archivedate=26 August 2010 }}</ref> It acquired iconic status following its use as a setting on '']''. Travel writer Ryan Levitt considered the main Tsim Sha Tsui to Central route one of the most picturesque in the world.<ref name="worldferry">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/cornwall/3755270.stm|title=Ferry is amongst the world's best|work=BBC News |date=19 October 2004|accessdate=29 April 2008}}</ref> Other ferry services are provided by operators serving ], new towns, Macau, and cities in mainland China. Hong Kong is famous for its ] traversing the harbour, and small ] ferries that serve remote coastal settlements.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/travel/cityguide/article/0,31489,1850110_1850124_1850315,00.html|title=Hong Kong: 10 Things to Do in 24 Hours|first=Liam|last=Fitzpatrick|work=Time |accessdate=31 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Fields from the sea: Chinese junk trade with Siam during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries|first=Jennifer Wayne|last=Cushman|year=1993|page=57|publisher=SEAP Publications|isbn=0-87727-711-7}}</ref> The ] is a busy deepwater port, specialising in container shipping.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hit.com.hk|title=HIT:: Hongkong International Terminals|accessdate=22 February 2011}}</ref> | |||
{{Main|Sport in Hong Kong}} | |||
], considered the premier tournament of the ], is played each spring.]] | |||
Hong Kong Island's steep, hilly terrain was initially served by ]s.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite book|title=Illustrations of China and Its People|first=John|last=Thomson|year=1873|page=96|publisher=Sampson Low, Marston, Low, and Searle}}</ref> The ], the first public transport system in Hong Kong, has provided vertical rail transport between Central and Victoria Peak since 1888.<ref name="old lady">{{cite news |first=Eric |last=Cavaliero |url=http://www.thestandard.com.hk/news_detail.asp?pp_cat=&art_id=52189&sid=&con_type=1&d_str=19970724&sear_year=1997 |title=Grand old lady to turn 110 |newspaper=The Standard |date=24 July 1997|accessdate=1 September 2010}}</ref> In ], there is an extensive system of escalators and ]s, including the longest outdoor covered escalator system in the world, the ].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2001/07/06/style/06iht-trhk_ed2_.html?scp=7&sq=hong%20kong%20escalator%20System%20Stairway&st=cse|title=Hong Kong's Mile-Long Escalator System Elevates the Senses: A Stairway to Urban Heaven|first=Anne|last=Gold|newspaper=The New York Times|date=6 July 2001|accessdate=22 October 2010}}</ref> | |||
] is a leading air passenger gateway and logistics hub in Asia and one of the world's busiest airports in terms of international passenger and cargo movement, serving more than 47 million passengers and handling 3.74 million tonnes (4.12 million tons) of cargo in 2007.<ref name="airportnumbers">{{cite web|url=http://www.hongkongairport.com/eng/aboutus/index.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070821101759/http://www.hongkongairport.com/eng/aboutus/index.html|title=About Us|publisher=] |archivedate=21 August 2007|accessdate=28 April 2008}}</ref> It replaced the overcrowded ] in Kowloon in 1998, and has been rated as the world's best airport in a number of surveys.<ref name="bestairport">{{cite web |url=http://www.airlinequality.com/news/080807-Awards.htm |title=International travellers have voted Hong Kong the best airport in the world |publisher=] |date=8 August 2007 |accessdate=28 April 2008}}</ref> Over 85 airlines operate at the two-terminal airport and it is the primary hub of ], ], ], ], and ].<ref name="airportnumbers"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hongkongairport.com/eng/pdf/business/about-the-airport/air-cargo/AirCsid=argo_brochure.pdf |title=Air Cargo and Aviation Logistic Services |publisher=Hong Kong International Airport |page=1 |accessdate=31 August 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20150219080240/http://www.hongkongairport.com/eng/pdf/business/about-the-airport/air-cargo/AirCsid=argo_brochure.pdf |archivedate=19 February 2015 }}</ref> | |||
Providing an adequate ] for Hong Kong has always been difficult because the region has few natural lakes and rivers, inadequate ] sources (inaccessible in most cases due to the hard ] ] found in most areas in the territory), a high population density, and extreme seasonable variations in rainfall. Thus about 70 percent of water demand is met by importing water from the ] in neighbouring ] province. In addition, freshwater demand is curtailed by the use of seawater for toilet flushing, using a separate distribution system.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Lee | first1 = N. K. | title = The Changing Nature of Border, Scale and the Production of Hong Kong's Water Supply System since 1959 | doi = 10.1111/1468-2427.12060 | journal = International Journal of Urban and Regional Research | pages = | year = 2013 | pmid = | pmc = }}</ref> | |||
==Demographics== | |||
{{main|Demographics of Hong Kong}} | |||
] | |||
], on ], Hong Kong]] | |||
]]] | |||
], Catholic cathedral in Hong Kong]] | |||
The territory's population in 2011 is 7.07 million, with an average annual growth rate of 0.6% over the previous 5 years.<ref name="census1"/> The current population of Hong Kong comprises 93.6% ethnic Chinese.<ref name="census1">{{Cite report|date=February 2012|title=2011 Population Census – Summary Results|url=http://www.census2011.gov.hk/pdf/summary-results.pdf |publisher=] |accessdate=5 September 2013|format=PDF}}</ref> A major part of Hong Kong's ] originated from the neighbouring ] province,<ref name="cicred">{{cite journal|url=http://www.cicred.org/Eng/Publications/pdf/c-c21.pdf|last=Fan Shuh Ching|title=The Population of Hong Kong|work=World Population Year|publisher=]|year=1974|pages=18–20|accessdate=25 August 2010}}</ref> from where many fled during the ], the ], and the ].<ref>{{cite web |title =A history of refugees in Hong Kong |publisher = Time Out Hong Kong | date = 18 June 2013 | url =http://www.timeout.com.hk/feature-stories/features/59040/a-history-of-refugees-in-hong-kong.html | accessdate =9 September 2013 | quote = The first wave of refugees came to Hong Kong in the 1930s to escape from the Chinese Civil War and the Sino-Japanese War, but it wasn't until 1949, during the Chinese exodus, when an estimated one million-plus mainland Chinese started coming into the territory via the northern borders. Many people, mostly anti-communist Kuomintang officials and capitalists, rushed to Hong Kong in search of refuge. }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title = Lonely Planet Hong Kong | publisher = ] | edition =10th | year =2002 | page = 16 | isbn =1864502304 |quote = The turmoil on the mainland, leading to the defeat of the Nationalists and takeover by the Communists in 1949, unleashed a torrent of refugees – both rich and poor -into Hong Kong. }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title =Veterans who fled mainland for Hong Kong in 1970s tell their stories |newspaper = ] |url =http://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/article/1120852/veterans-who-fled-mainland-hong-kong-1970s-tell-their-stories | accessdate = 9 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Carroll | first = John | title =A Concise History of Hong Kong| publisher = Rowman & Littlefield | year =2007 | page = 127 | isbn =978-0742534223 }}</ref> | |||
Residents from mainland China do not have the ], nor are they allowed to enter the territory freely.<ref name="immd">{{cite web|url=http://www.immd.gov.hk/ehtml/hksarvepid.htm|title= Right of Abode in HKSAR—Verification of Eligibility for Permanent Identity Card|publisher=], Hong Kong Government|date=5 June 2007|accessdate=1 February 2008|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080119033446/http://www.immd.gov.hk/ehtml/hksarvepid.htm<!--Added by H3llBot-->|archivedate=19 January 2008}}</ref> However, the influx of immigrants from mainland China, approximating 45,000 per year, is a significant contributor to its population growth – a daily quota of 150 Mainland Chinese with family ties in Hong Kong are granted a "one way permit".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hkclic.org/en/topics/immigration/for_non_residents/q1.shtml |title=Who is entitled to sponsor family members to come to live in Hong Kong? If I am a lawful resident of Hong Kong, can my family members in the Mainland (or elsewhere) apply to immigrate to Hong Kong? |publisher=Community Legal Information Centre |accessdate=4 November 2009}}</ref> Life expectancy in Hong Kong is 79.16 years for males and 84.79 years for females as of 2009, making it the highest life expectancy in the world.<ref name="cia"/> | |||
About 93.6% of the people of Hong Kong are of Chinese descent,<ref name="census1"/> the majority of whom are ], ], other ], and ]. Hong Kong's Han majority originate mainly from the Guangzhou and ] regions in Guangdong province.<ref name="cicred"/> The remaining 6.4% of the population is composed of non-ethnic Chinese.<ref name=census1/> There is a ] population of Indians, Pakistanis and ]ese; some ] have become permanent residents of Hong Kong. There are also ], ], ], ], and ] working in the city's commercial and financial sector.{{refn|The results of the 2006 census showed that the "white" population had declined from 46,584 in 2001 to 36,384, a decline of 22 percent.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.globalautoindustry.com/article.php?id=2764&jaar=2008&maand=7&target=China|title=Counting Expat Numbers a Complex Task (Hong Kong)|date=July 2008|publisher=Global Auto Industry|accessdate=30 August 2010}}</ref>|group=note}} In 2008, there were an estimate of 252,500 ] from ] and the ] working in Hong Kong.<ref>{{cite book|title=Application of International Labour Standards 2009 (I)|author=International Labour Office|year=2009|publisher=]|isbn=92-2-120634-3|page=640}}</ref> | |||
Despite its small area, the territory is home to a variety of sports and recreational facilities. The city has hosted numerous major sporting events, including the ], the ], and the ].<ref name="ShenKee">{{harvnb|Shen|Kee|2017|p=247}}.</ref> The territory regularly hosts the ], ], ] and ], and hosted the inaugural ] and the ].<ref>{{harvnb|Ghoshal|2011}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Horne|Manzenreiter|2002|p=128}}.</ref> | |||
Hong Kong's ''de facto'' official language is ], a ] originating from Guangdong province to the north of Hong Kong.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jmsc.hku.hk/hkstories/content/view/97/35/|last=Westra|first=Nick|date=5 June 2007|title=Hong Kong as a Cantonese speaking city |publisher=], University of Hong Kong|accessdate=14 November 2009 }}</ref> English is also an official language, and according to a 1996 by-census is spoken by 3.1 percent of the population as an everyday language and by 34.9 percent of the population as a second language.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ucl.ac.uk/english-usage/ice/icehk.htm|title=ICE Hong Kong|publisher=]|accessdate=1 February 2008}}</ref> Signs displaying both Chinese and English are common throughout the territory. Since the 1997 Handover, an increase in immigrants from communist China and greater interaction with the mainland's economy have brought an increasing number of ] speakers to Hong Kong.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.swarthmore.edu/SocSci/Linguistics/Papers08/Yum.pdf|last=Yum|first=Cherry|title=Which Chinese? Dialect Choice in Philadelphia's Chinatown|year=2007|publisher=]|accessdate=25 August 2010}}</ref> | |||
Hong Kong represents itself separately from mainland China, with its own sports teams in international competitions.<ref name="ShenKee"/> The territory has participated in almost every Summer Olympics since 1952 and has earned ]. ] won the territory's first Olympic gold medal at the ],<ref>{{harvnb|Lam|Chang|2005|p=141}}.</ref> and ] won the second one in ].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Shum |first1=Michael |last2=Chow |first2=Carine |title=FENCE-TASTIC! Cheung Ka-long wins gold for HK |url=https://www.thestandard.com.hk/section-news/section/11/232551/Fence-tastic! |access-date=27 July 2021 |work=] |date=27 July 2021}}</ref> Hong Kong athletes have won ] and ]. No longer part of the ], the city's last appearance in the latter was in ].<ref>{{harvnb|Lam|Chang|2005|p=99}}.</ref> | |||
===Religion=== | |||
{{main||Religion in Hong Kong}} | |||
A majority of residents of Hong Kong have no religious affiliation, professing a form of agnosticism or atheism.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bmm.org/BMM/WhereWeServe/Asia/hongkong.htm |title=Hong Kong|publisher=Bmm.org |date=1 July 1997 |accessdate=2 November 2011}}</ref> According to the US Department of State 43 percent of the population practices some form of religion.<ref name="state.gov">{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2010/148863.htm#hong_kong |title=China (Includes Tibet, Hong Kong, Macau) |publisher=State.gov |accessdate=2 November 2011}}</ref> Some figures put it higher, according to a Gallup poll, 64% of Hong Kong residents do not believe in any religion,<ref>{{Cite journal|first=Marita |last=Carballo|title=RELIGION IN THE WORLD AT THE END OF THE MILLENNIUM|url=http://www.gallup-international.com/ContentFiles/millennium15.asp|publisher=]|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720050317/http://www.gallup-international.com/ContentFiles/millennium15.asp|archivedate=20 July 2011 |accessdate=11 May 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.countdown.org/end/apostasy_04.htm |title=Apostasy |publisher=Countdown.org |accessdate=2 November 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20110725200439/http://www.countdown.org/end/apostasy_04.htm |archivedate=25 July 2011 }}</ref> and possibly 80% of Hong Kong claim no religion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.slidefinder.net/h/hong_kong_youth_know_practice/7539973 |title=Do Hong Kong youth know how to practice safe sex? |publisher=Slidefinder.net |date=14 January 2010 |accessdate=2 November 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20111007195631/http://www.slidefinder.net/h/hong_kong_youth_know_practice/7539973 |archivedate=7 October 2011 }}</ref> In Hong Kong teaching ] won out in curriculum dispute about whether to teach other explanations, and that creationism and intelligent design will form no part of the senior secondary biology curriculum.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nature.com/news/2009/090708/full/460163a.html|title=Evolution wins out in Hong Kong curriculum dispute|publisher=Nature.com |accessdate=2 November 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.inmediahk.net/node/1003730 |title=Victory for Darwin – Creationism rejected in new guidelines on the biology curriculum | 香港獨立媒體|publisher=Inmediahk.net |accessdate=2 November 2011}}</ref> | |||
] races originated as a religious ceremony conducted during the annual ]. The race was revived as a modern sport as part of the ]'s efforts to promote Hong Kong's image abroad. The first modern competition was organised in 1976, and overseas teams began competing in the first international race in 1993.<ref>{{harvnb|Sofield|Sivan|2003}}.</ref> | |||
Hong Kong enjoys a high degree of religious freedom, guaranteed by the Basic Law. Hong Kong's main religions are ]; a local religious scholar in contact with major denominations estimates there are approximately 1.5 million Buddhists and Taoists.<ref name="state.gov"/> A Christian community of around 833,000 forms about 11.7% of the total population;<ref name="Hong Kong 2010">{{cite web|url=http://www.yearbook.gov.hk/2010/en/pdf/E18.pdf |title=Hong Kong Year Book (2010): Chapter 18 – Religion and Custom |format=PDF |accessdate=26 October 2013}}</ref> Protestants forms a larger number than ] at a rate of 4:3, although smaller Christian communities exist, including the ]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lds.org/temples/main/0,11204,1912-1-84-0,00.html|title=Hong Kong China Temple|publisher=]|accessdate=30 September 2010}}</ref> and ].<ref>{{cite book|title=2015 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses|publisher=Watch Tower Society|page=184}}</ref> The ] and Roman Catholic churches each freely appoint their own ], unlike in mainland China. There are also ], ], Jewish, ] and ] communities.<ref name = "onnxty">{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90133.htm#hk|title=International Religious Freedom Report 2007 – Hong Kong|publisher=]|year=2007|accessdate=16 May 2009}}</ref> The practice of ] is tolerated.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71338.htm#hongkong|title=International Religious Freedom Report 2006 – Hong Kong|year=2006|publisher=United States Department of State|accessdate=6 October 2010}}</ref> | |||
The ], the territory's largest taxpayer,<ref name="JockeyClub">{{harvnb|Littlewood|2010|pp=16–17}}.</ref> has a monopoly on gambling and provides over 7% of government revenue.<ref>{{harvnb|Inland Revenue Annual Report|2017|p=4}}</ref> Three forms of gambling are legal in Hong Kong: lotteries, horse racing, and football.<ref name="JockeyClub" /> | |||
===Personal income=== | |||
Statistically Hong Kong's ] is the greatest in Asia Pacific. According to a report by the United Nations Human Settlements Programme in 2008, Hong Kong's ], at 0.53, was the highest in Asia and "relatively high by international standards".<ref>{{cite news | |||
|last=Piboontanasawat |first=Nipa | |||
|url=http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=a7.igvdrfs5g |title=Hong Kong Has Highest Income Disparity in Asia, UN Report Says | |||
|publisher=Bloomberg | |||
|date=23 October 2008 | |||
|accessdate=25 August 2010}}</ref><ref> | |||
{{cite press release | |||
|url=http://www.unhabitat.org/downloads/docs/presskitsowc2008/PR%201.pdf | |||
|title=State of the World's Cities 2008/2009 | |||
|publisher=] | |||
|year=2009 | |||
|accessdate=31 August 2010}}</ref> However, the government has stressed that income disparity does not equate to worsening of the poverty situation, and that the Gini coefficient is not strictly comparable between regions. The government has named economic restructuring, changes in household sizes, and the increase of high-income jobs as factors that have skewed the Gini coefficient.<ref>{{cite journal | |||
|url=http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr04-05/english/hc/sub_com/hs51/minutes/hs510623.pdf | |||
|title=Subcommittee to Study the Subject of Combating Poverty | |||
|date=23 June 2005 | |||
|publisher=] | |||
|accessdate=30 August 2010}}</ref><ref> | |||
{{cite journal | |||
|url=http://www.legco.gov.hk/lcsearch/showdoc.htm?mylink=/search/marker?s=21&o=2&t=2&a=30&r=2&k=1,&g=0&PROPERTY=2;&MERGEFIELD=-&CODECONVERT=-&SORTFIELDS=-&SIM_START=1&SIM_NUM=10&REL_START=1&REL_NUM=10&LINK=-&REDIRECTTO=-&PATHLINK=-&p=%22gini%20coefficient%22&c=17,1&i=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.legco.gov.hk%2Fyr04-05%2Fenglish%2Fhc%2Fsub_com%2Fhs51%2Fpapers%2Fhs510125cb2-cop1-e.pdf&j=5398&v=&n=&link=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.legco.gov.hk%2Fyr04-05%2Fenglish%2Fhc%2Fsub_com%2Fhs51%2Fpapers%2Fhs510125cb2-cop1-e.pdf | |||
|title=Policies in Assisting Low-income Employees | |||
|work=Commission on Poverty | |||
|date=23 January 2006 | |||
|publisher=Legislative Council of Hong Kong | |||
|accessdate=30 August 2010}}{{dead link|date=October 2013}}</ref> | |||
== |
== Education == | ||
{{Main|Education in Hong Kong}} | {{Main|Education in Hong Kong}} | ||
]| |
], the first school established in the colonial era]] | ||
Hong Kong's education system used to roughly follow the ],<ref name="HKUChan">{{cite book|last=Chan|first=Shun-hing|last2=Leung|first2=Beatrice|year=2003|title=Changing Church and State Relations in Hong Kong, 1950–2000|publisher=]|page=24|isbn=962-209-612-3}}</ref> although international systems exist. The government maintains a policy of "mother tongue instruction" ({{zh|t=母語教學|links=no}}) in which the ] is Cantonese,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.edb.gov.hk/index.aspx?nodeID=1909&langno=2 |script-title=zh:母語教學小冊子 |trans_title=Mother Tongue Instruction Handbook |language=Chinese |publisher=Education Bureau, Hong Kong Government |accessdate=4 November 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20090209100914/http://www.edb.gov.hk:80/index.aspx?nodeID=1909&langno=2 |archivedate=9 February 2009 }}</ref> with written Chinese and English, while some of the schools are using English as the teaching language. In secondary schools, 'biliterate and trilingual' proficiency is emphasised, and ]-language education has been increasing.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.edb.gov.hk/index.aspx?nodeID=1901&langno=1 |title=Policy for Secondary Schools -Medium of Instruction Policy for Secondary Schools |publisher=Education Bureau, Hong Kong Government |accessdate=4 November 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20090111005741/http://www.edb.gov.hk:80/index.aspx?nodeid=1901&langno=1 |archivedate=11 January 2009 }}</ref> The ] ranked Hong Kong's education system as the second best in the world.<ref name="OECD">{{cite web|url=http://www.pisa.oecd.org/document/2/0,3343,en_32252351_32236191_39718850_1_1_1_1,00.html|title=PISA 2006 Science Competencies for Tomorrow's World|year=2006|publisher=]|accessdate=14 December 2007}}</ref> | |||
Hong Kong |
Education in Hong Kong is largely modelled on ], particularly the ].<ref>{{harvnb|Chan|Leung|2003|p=24}}.</ref> Children are required to attend school from age 6 until completion of secondary education, generally at age 18.<ref name=nss>{{cite web |url=http://www.edb.gov.hk/en/edu-system/primary-secondary/secondary/highlights/index.html |title=Programme Highlights |publisher=Hong Kong Government |access-date=20 October 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130824010442/http://www.edb.gov.hk/en/edu-system/primary-secondary/secondary/highlights/index.html |archive-date=24 August 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="HKEduLi">{{cite web |url=http://news.gov.hk/en/category/ontherecord/050518/html/050518en11001.htm |title=Creating a better education system |last=Li |first=Arthur |date=18 May 2005 |publisher=Hong Kong Government |access-date=17 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080303190339/http://www.news.gov.hk/en/category/ontherecord/050518/html/050518en11001.htm |archive-date=3 March 2008}}</ref> At the end of secondary schooling, all students take a public examination and are awarded the ] upon successful completion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hkeaa.edu.hk/en/hkdse/ |title=HKDSE |date=12 October 2010 |publisher=Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority |access-date=20 October 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101016060315/http://www.hkeaa.edu.hk/en/HkDSE |archive-date=16 October 2010 }}</ref> | ||
Of residents aged 15 and older, 81% completed lower-secondary education, 66% graduated from an upper secondary school, 32% attended a non-degree tertiary program, and 24% earned a bachelor's degree or higher.<ref>{{harvnb|Women and Men in Hong Kong Key Statistics|2017|p=66}}</ref> | |||
Most comprehensive schools in Hong Kong fall under three categories: the rarer public schools; the more common subsidised schools, including government aids-and-grant schools; and private schools, often run by Christian organisations and having admissions based on academic merit rather than on financial resources. Outside this system are the schools under the ] and private ]s.<ref name="HKEduLi"/> | |||
Mandatory education has contributed to an adult literacy rate of 95.7%.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.socialindicators.org.hk/en/indicators/education/7.7 |title=Adult literacy rate |publisher=] |access-date=27 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171228172415/https://www.socialindicators.org.hk/en/indicators/education/7.7 |archive-date=28 December 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> The literacy rate is lower than that of other developed economies because of the influx of refugees from mainland China during the post-war colonial era; much of the elderly population were not formally educated because of war and poverty.<ref>{{harvnb|Cheng|Lum|Lam|Fung|2013}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|UNESCO Literacy Rates|2017|p=8}}.</ref> | |||
There are eight public and one private ] in Hong Kong, the oldest being the ] (HKU), established in 1910–1912.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hku.hk/about/university-history/the-early-years.html|title=History of HKU}}</ref> The ] was founded in 1963 to fulfill the need for a university with a medium of instruction of Chinese.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Report of the Fulton Commission, 1963: Commission to Advise on the Creation of a Federal-Type Chinese University in Hong Kong|journal=Minerva|date=Summer 1963|volume= 1|issue= 4|pages=493–507 |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Report_of_the_Fulton_Commission_1963.html?id=ZjU4AAAAMAAJ |deadurl=no |accessdate=30 April 2014}}</ref> Competition among students to receive an offer for an undergraduate programme is fierce as the annual number of intakes is limited, especially when some disciplines are offered by select ], like ] which is provided by merely two ]s in the territory, the ] at the University of Hong Kong and the ] of the Chinese University of Hong Kong. In addition to the public post-secondary institutions there are also a number of ] which offer higher diplomas and associate degree courses for those who fail to enter a college for a degree study so as to boost their qualification of education, some of whom can have a second chance of getting into a university if they have a good performance in these sub-degree courses.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.businessweek.com/news/2013-06-05/hong-kong-says-international-schools-can-t-meet-primary-demand|title=Hong Kong Says International Schools Can't Meet Primary Demand|first=Hwee Ann|last=Tan|date=5 June 2013|publisher=]|accessdate=9 June 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Global Tourism Higher Education: Past, Present, and Future|isbn=9781136448478|first=Cathy|last=Hsu|date=12 November 2012|publisher=]|pages=139–142}}</ref> | |||
Comprehensive schools fall under three categories: public schools, which are government-run; subsidised schools, including government aid-and-grant schools; and private schools, often those run by religious organisations and that base admissions on academic merit. These schools are subject to the curriculum guidelines as provided by the Education Bureau. Private schools subsidised under the ] and international schools fall outside of this system and may elect to use differing curricula and teach using other languages.<ref name="HKEduLi"/> | |||
===Health=== | |||
{{main|Health in Hong Kong}} | |||
There are 13 private hospitals and more than 40 public hospitals in Hong Kong.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.ha.org.hk/visitor/ha_visitor_index.asp?Content_ID=10084&Lang=ENG&Dimension=100&Parent_ID=10042 | title=Clusters, Hospitals & Institutions | publisher=Hospital Authority | accessdate=9 May 2013}}</ref> There is little interaction between public and private healthcare.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lonelyplanet.com/china/hong-kong/practical-information/health |title=Health & safety | publisher=Lonely Planet | accessdate=10 May 2013}}</ref> The hospitals offer a wide range of healthcare services, and some of the territory's private hospitals are considered to be world class.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.healthcareawards2012.theneweconomy.com/private-hospitals-in-hong-kong/ |title=Private Hospitals in Hong Kong | publisher=The New Economy | accessdate=9 May 2013}}</ref> According to UN estimates, Hong Kong has one of the longest ] of any country or territory in the world.<ref name="Life Expectancy Around the World"/> As of 2012, Hong Kong women are the ] demographic group in the world.<ref name="Huffington Post"/> | |||
=== Medium of instruction === | |||
There are two medical schools in the territory, one based at the Chinese University of Hong Kong and the other at the University of Hong Kong.<ref name="Milestones"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.med.hku.hk/v1/education/ | title=Education | publisher=University of Hong Kong | accessdate=10 May 2013}}</ref> Both have links with public sector hospitals.<ref name="Milestones">{{cite web|url=http://www.med.cuhk.edu.hk/v7/p5_10_10.htm |title=Milestones |publisher=Chinese University of Hong Kong |accessdate=10 May 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20120923160319/http://www.med.cuhk.edu.hk/v7/p5_10_10.htm |archivedate=23 September 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.med.hku.hk/v1/education/internship/educational-objectives/ |title=Educational objectives | publisher=University of Hong Kong | accessdate=10 May 2013}}</ref> With respect to postgraduate education, traditionally many doctors in Hong Kong have looked overseas for further training, and many took British Royal College exams such as the MRCP(UK) and the MRCS(UK). However, Hong Kong has been developing its own postgraduate medical institutions, in particular the Hong Kong Academy of Medicine, and this is gradually taking over the responsibility for all postgraduate medical training in the territory. | |||
At primary and secondary school levels, the government maintains a policy of "mother tongue instruction"; most schools use Cantonese as the ], with written education in both Chinese and English. Other languages being used as medium of instruction in non-international school education include English and ] (Standard Mandarin Chinese). Secondary schools emphasise "bi-literacy and tri-lingualism", which has encouraged the proliferation of spoken Mandarin language education.<ref>{{harvnb|Lee|Leung|2012}}.</ref> | |||
English is the official medium of instruction and assessments for most university programmes in Hong Kong, although use of Cantonese is predominant in informal discussions among local students and professors.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 April 2010 |title=Teaching and Learning {{!}} HKU Teaching and Learning |url=https://tl.hku.hk/tl/ |access-date=17 May 2023 |website=HKU Teaching and Learning {{!}} Teaching and Learning in The University of Hong Kong}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Proof of English as Medium of Instruction {{!}} HKUST – Academic Registry |url=https://registry.hkust.edu.hk/resource-library/proof-english-medium-instruction |access-date=17 May 2023 |website=registry.hkust.edu.hk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=University Language Policy {{!}} HKBU AR |url=https://ar.hkbu.edu.hk/quality-assurance/university-policy-and-guidelines/lang-policy |access-date=17 May 2023 |website=ar.hkbu.edu.hk |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Languages of instruction |url=https://www.hkmu.edu.hk/admissions/taught-postgraduate/non-local/postgraduate-programmes-at-hkmu/languages-of-instruction/ |access-date=17 May 2023 |website=Hong Kong Metropolitan University |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Study@PolyU |url=https://www51.polyu.edu.hk/eprospectus/ug/international/programme-features |access-date=17 May 2023 |website=www51.polyu.edu.hk |archive-date=17 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230517015558/https://www51.polyu.edu.hk/eprospectus/ug/international/programme-features |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Res – Frequently Asked Questions on Applications for Transcript/Letter of Certification/Report on Curriculum Details |url=http://www.res.cuhk.edu.hk/en-gb/applications/graduates-of-full-time-undergraduate-programmes/transcript-certifying-letter-report-on-curriculum-details/faq-transcript-certifyingletter-curriculum-details |access-date=17 May 2023 |website=www.res.cuhk.edu.hk}}</ref> | |||
Since 2011, there have been growing concerns that mothers-to-be from mainland China, in a bid to obtain the right of abode in Hong Kong and the benefits that come with it, have saturated the neonatal wards of the city's hospitals both public and private. This has led to protest from local pregnant women for the government to remedy the issue, as they have found difficulty in securing a bed space for giving birth and routine check-ups. Other concerns in the decade of 2001–2010 relate to the workload medical staff experience; and medical errors and mishaps, which are frequently highlighted in local news.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/23/world/asia/mainland-chinese-flock-to-hong-kong-to-have-babies.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0|title=Mainland Chinese Flock to Hong Kong to Give Birth|first=Sharon|last=LaFraniere|date=22 February 2012|newspaper=]|accessdate=9 June 2013}}</ref> | |||
=== Tertiary education === | |||
==Culture== | |||
{{ |
{{Main|Higher education in Hong Kong}} | ||
] main building]] | |||
], a marine mammal park, oceanarium, animal theme park and amusement park in Hong Kong.]] | |||
] on the ], a tribute to the city's ]]] | |||
Hong Kong has twelve universities. The ] (HKU) was founded as the city's first institute of higher education during the early colonial period in 1911.<ref>{{harvnb|Carroll|2007|pp=84–86}}.</ref> The ] (CUHK) was established in 1963 to fill the need for a university that taught using Chinese as its primary language of instruction.<ref>{{harvnb|Fulton Commission|1963}}.</ref> Along with the ] (HKUST) established in 1991, these universities are consistently ranked among the top 50 or top 100 universities worldwide.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=4 October 2022 |title=World University Rankings |url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings/2023/world-ranking |access-date=2 December 2022 |website=Times Higher Education (THE) |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=QS World University Rankings 2023: Top Global Universities |url=https://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/2023 |access-date=2 December 2022 |website=Top Universities |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=2022–2023 Best Global Universities Rankings |url=https://www.usnews.com/education/best-global-universities/rankings}}</ref> | |||
Hong Kong is frequently described as a place where "East meets West", reflecting the culture's mix of the territory's Chinese roots with influences from its time as a British colony.<ref name="cnntravel">{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2009/TRAVEL/03/06/24hours.hongkong/index.html?eref=rss_travel|title=24 hours in Hong Kong: Urban thrills where East meets West |publisher=CNN|date=8 March 2009 |accessdate=27 May 2009}}</ref> Concepts like '']'' are taken very seriously, with expensive construction projects often hiring expert consultants, and are often believed to make or break a business.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://globalnation.inquirer.net/propertyfocus/propertyfocus/view/20090217-189707/Feng-shui-used-in-90-of-RP-businesses |title=Feng shui used in 90% of RP businesses|newspaper=]|date=17 February 2009|accessdate=14 November 2009}}</ref> Other objects like ] mirrors are still regularly used to deflect evil spirits,<ref>{{cite book|title=Chinese Religions: Beliefs and Practices|first=Jeaneane D.|last=Fowler|first2=Merv|last2=Fowler|publisher=]|year=2008|page=263|isbn=978-1-84519-172-6}}</ref> and buildings often lack any floor ] in it,<ref>{{cite book|title=City Voices: Hong Kong writing in English, 1945–present|publisher=Hong Kong University Press|last=Xi|first=Xu|first2=Mike|last2=Ingham|year=2003|page=181|isbn=978-962-209-605-9}}</ref> due to its similarity to the word for "die" in Cantonese.<ref>{{cite book|title=Death, Dying and Bereavement: a Hong Kong Chinese Experience|volume=Volume 1|publisher=Hong Kong University Press|first=Cecilia|last=Chan|first2=Amy|last2=Chow|year=2006|page=3|isbn=978-962-209-787-2}}</ref> The fusion of east and west also characterises Hong Kong's cuisine, where ], ], and ] restaurants coexist with ].<ref>{{cite book|title=Hong Kong and Macau|publisher=]|page=7|isbn=978-1-74104-665-6|last=Stone|first=Andrew|last2=Chow|first2=Chung Wah|last3=Ho|first3=Reggie|date=15 January 2008}}</ref> | |||
The ] (PolyU)<ref>{{harvnb|The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Ordinance}}</ref> and ] (CityU), both granted university status in 1994, are consistently ranked among the top 100 or top 200 universities worldwide.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> The ] (HKBU) was granted university status in 1994<ref>{{harvnb|Hong Kong Baptist University Ordinance}}</ref> and is a liberal arts institution. ] (formerly as Open University of Hong Kong prior to 2021) (attaining status in 1997),<ref>{{harvnb|The Open University of Hong Kong Ordinance}}</ref> ] (in 1999),<ref>{{harvnb|Lingnan University Ordinance}}.</ref> ] (in 2006),{{sfn|LegCo Grant to Shue Yan University|2007}} ] (in 2016), ] (in 2018) and ] (in 2024)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Saint Francis University – Press Release – Caritas Institute of Higher Education granted the university title and renamed Saint Francis University 2024-01-9 |url=https://www.sfu.edu.hk/en/media/press-release/index_id_774.html |access-date=2024-07-26 |website=www.sfu.edu.hk}}</ref> all attained full university status in subsequent years. | |||
Hong Kong is a recognised global centre of trade and calls itself an "entertainment hub".<ref name=M&C>{{cite news|url=http://www.monstersandcritics.com/movies/news/article_1281858.php/Hong_Kong_calls_itself_Asia_s_entertainment_hub|title=Hong Kong calls itself Asia's entertainment hub | |||
| publisher=]|date=23 March 2007}}</ref> Its ] film genre gained a high level of popularity in the late 1960s and 1970s. Several Hollywood performers, notable actors and martial artists have originated from Hong Kong cinema, notably ], ], ], ], ] and ]. A number of Hong Kong film-makers have achieved widespread fame in Hollywood, such as ], ], and ].<ref name=M&C/> Homegrown films such as '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'' and '']'' have gained international recognition. Hong Kong is the centre for ] music, which draws its influence from other forms of ] and Western genres, and has a multinational fanbase.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/musicgoesglobal/asia/mcantopop.html |title=Hong Kong music circles the globe with its easy-listening hits and stars |first=Richard |last=Corliss|work=Time|accessdate=4 November 2009 | date=24 September 2001}}</ref> | |||
== Media == | |||
The Hong Kong government supports cultural institutions such as the ], the ], the ], and the ]. The government's ] subsidises and sponsors international performers brought to Hong Kong. Many international cultural activities are organised by the government, consulates, and privately.<ref name="HeritageGovHK">{{cite web|url=http://www.heritagemuseum.gov.hk/english/gen_info.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20041116010450/http://www.heritagemuseum.gov.hk/english/gen_info.htm|archivedate=16 November 2004|title=General Information|date=15 October 2009|publisher=Leisure and Cultural Services Department, Hong Kong Government |accessdate=31 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lcsd.gov.hk/ce/Museum/Arts/english/aboutus/aboutus.html |title=About the Museum |date=25 May 2010 |publisher=Leisure and Cultural Services Department, Hong Kong Government |accessdate=31 August 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20100820034132/http://www.lcsd.gov.hk:80/ce/Museum/Arts/english/aboutus/aboutus.html |archivedate=20 August 2010 }}</ref> | |||
{{Main|Media of Hong Kong}} | |||
], headquarters of Hong Kong's first over-the-air television station]] | |||
Most of the newspapers in Hong Kong are written in Chinese but there are also a few English-language newspapers. The major one being the '']'', with '']'' serving as a business-oriented alternative. A variety of Chinese-language newspapers are published daily; the most prominent are '']'' and '']''. Local publications are often politically affiliated, with pro-Beijing or pro-democracy sympathies. The central government has a print-media presence in the territory through the state-owned '']'' and '']''.<ref>{{harvnb|"Hong Kong media profile", ''BBC News''}}</ref> Several international publications have regional operations in Hong Kong, including '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', and '']''.<ref>{{harvnb|Media Facts|2017}}.</ref> | |||
Hong Kong has two licensed ] – ] and ]. There are three local and a number of foreign suppliers of ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cedb.gov.hk/ctb/eng/broad/licences.htm |title=Broadcasting: Licences|publisher=], Hong Kong Government|accessdate=4 November 2009}}</ref> The production of Hong Kong's soap dramas, comedy series, and variety shows reach audiences throughout the Chinese-speaking world. Magazine and newspaper publishers in Hong Kong distribute and print in both Chinese and English, with a focus on sensationalism and celebrity gossip.<ref>{{cite book|title=Global Media Spectacle: News War Over Hong Kong|first=Jinquan|last=Li|publisher=]|year=2002|pages=69–74|isbn=978-0-7914-5472-5}}</ref> The ] is relatively free from official interference ], although the '']'' points to signs of self-censorship by media whose owners have close ties to or business interests in the People's Republic of China and states that even ] are not immune to growing Chinese economic power.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.feer.com/politics/2009/october54/Chinas-Export-of-Censorship|title=China's Export of Censorship |first=Christopher |last=Walker|last2=Cook|first2=Sarah|date=12 October 2009 |accessdate=4 November 2009|work=]}}</ref> | |||
Four ] television broadcasters operate in the territory; ], ], ] and ] air eight ] channels.<ref name="broadcasterList">{{harvnb|Licensed Broadcasting Services|2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Frequency Table for Digital Terrestrial Television Broadcasting Services in Hong Kong |url=https://www.ofca.gov.hk/filemanager/ofca/en/content_1087/tv_frequency_digital_en.pdf |access-date=26 July 2024}}</ref> TVB, Hong Kong's dominant television network, has an 80% viewer share.<ref>{{harvnb|Chow|2017}}.</ref> ] operated by ] offer hundreds of additional channels and cater to a variety of audiences.<ref>{{cite web|title=A List of Licensed Broadcasting Services in Hong Kong (As at 18 June 2024)|url=https://www.ofca.gov.hk/filemanager/ofca/en/content_108/channel_list_eng.pdf|website=Office of the Communications Authority|location=Hong Kong}}</ref> ] is the public broadcaster, providing seven radio channels and six ] television channels.<ref>{{harvnb|RTHK Budget|2018|pp=806, 809}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=RADIO TELEVISION HONG KONG ANNUAL REPORT 2021 – 2022 |url=https://www.rthk.hk/about/pdf/rthk_annual_report_202122_eng.pdf |access-date=26 July 2024 |website=rthk.hk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title= 香港電台網站|url=https://www.rthk.hk/timetable/tv36}}</ref> Ten non-domestic broadcasters air programming for the territory's foreign population.<ref name="broadcasterList" /> Access to media and information over the Internet is not subject to mainland Chinese regulations, including the ], yet local control applies.<ref>{{harvnb|"Hong Kong Activists Stare Down 'Great Firewall of China'", ''NBC News''}}</ref> | |||
Hong Kong offers wide recreational and competitive sport opportunities despite its limited land area. It sends delegates to international competitions such as the Olympic Games and ], and played host to the equestrian events during the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.beijing2008.cn/venues/equ/index.shtml |title=Hong Kong Olympic Equestrian Venue (Beas River & Shatin)|publisher=]|accessdate=4 November 2009}}</ref> There are major multipurpose venues like ] and MacPherson Stadium. Hong Kong's steep terrain and extensive trail network with expansive views attracts hikers, and its rugged coastline provides ] for swimming.<ref>{{cite book|title=National Geographic Traveler: Hong Kong|edition=2nd|first=Phil|last=Macdonald|publisher=]|year=2006|page=263|isbn=978-0-7922-5369-3}}</ref> | |||
== |
== See also == | ||
{{ |
{{portal bar|Hong Kong|China|}} | ||
* ] | |||
] is considered the premier tournament on the IRB Sevens World Series rugby sevens competition and is held annually in Hong Kong on a weekend in late March.]] | |||
* ] | |||
{{Clear}} | |||
== Notes == | |||
Sports in Hong Kong are a significant part of its culture. Due mainly to British influence going as far back as the late 19th century, Hong Kong had an earlier introduction to Western athletics compared to other Asia regions. Football, basketball, swimming, badminton, table tennis, cycling and running have the most participants and spectators. In 2009, Hong Kong successfully organised the ]. Other major international sporting events including the ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ] are also held in the territory. As of 2010, there were 32 Hong Kong athletes from seven sports ranking in world's Top 20, 29 athletes in six sports in Asia top 10 ranking. Moreover, Hong Kong athletes with disabilities are equally impressive in their performance as of 2009, having won four world championships and two Asian Championships.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr10-11/english/panels/ha/papers/ha1020cb2-67-1-e.pdf|title=Legislative Council Panel on Home Affairs Sports Development Policy and Objectives|publisher=]|date=October 2010|accessdate=8 June 2013}}</ref> | |||
{{Notelist}} | |||
== |
== References == | ||
{{Main|Architecture of Hong Kong}} | |||
{{See also|List of tallest buildings in Hong Kong}} | |||
=== Citations === | |||
According to ], there are 1,223 skyscrapers in Hong Kong, which puts the city at the ].<ref>{{cite web | |||
{{Reflist}} | |||
|url=http://www.emporis.com/statistics/most-skyscraper-cities-worldwide | |||
|title=Cities with the most skyscrapers | |||
|publisher=] | |||
|accessdate=14 June 2012}}</ref> | |||
It has more buildings taller than {{convert|500|ft|m}} than any other city. | |||
The high ] and tall skyline of Hong Kong's urban area is due to a lack of available ] space, with the average distance from the harbour front to the steep hills of Hong Kong Island at {{convert|1.3|km|mi|abbr=on|sigfig=2}},<ref>{{cite journal | |||
|last=Tong|first=C. O.|last2=Wong|first2=S. C. | |||
|date=August 1997 | |||
|title=The advantages of a high density, mixed land use, linear urban development | |||
|journal=] | |||
|volume= 24|issue=3|pages=295–307 | |||
|doi=10.1023/A:1004987422746 | |||
}}</ref> much of it ]. This lack of space causes demand for dense, high-rise offices and housing. Thirty-six of the world's 100 tallest residential buildings are in Hong Kong.<ref>{{cite web | |||
|url=http://www.emporis.com/statistics/tallest-residential | |||
|title=World's Tallest Residential Towers | |||
|publisher=Emporis | |||
|accessdate=24 May 2009}}</ref> More people in Hong Kong live or work above the 14th floor than anywhere else on Earth, making it the world's most vertical city.<ref name="timeout">{{cite web|url=http://www.timeout.com/newyork/kids/events/things-to-do/112841/2384561/vertical-cities |title=Vertical Cities: Hong Kong/New York.|work=]|date=3 August 2008 |accessdate=25 August 2010|archiveurl =https://web.archive.org/web/20110116062733/http://newyorkkids.timeout.com/events/things-to-do/112841/2384561/vertical-cities|archivedate = 16 January 2011}}</ref><ref name="skyscraper">{{cite web|url=http://www.skyscraper.org/home.htm|title=Home page|publisher=]|date=14 July 2008|accessdate=25 August 2010}}</ref> | |||
=== Sources === | |||
As a result of the lack of space and demand for construction, few older buildings remain, and the city is becoming a centre for modern architecture. The ] (ICC), at {{convert|484|m|ft|abbr=on}} high, is the tallest building in Hong Kong and the third tallest in the world, by height to roof measurement.<!-- do not remove specification. There are different criteria used to rank the 'tallest buildings'. --><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.emporis.com/en/wm/bu/?id=101555 | |||
|title=International Commerce Centre | |||
|publisher=Emporis | |||
|accessdate=2 September 2008}}</ref> The tallest building prior to the ICC is ], at {{convert|415|m|ft|abbr=on}} high.<ref>{{cite web | |||
|url=http://www.emporis.com/en/wm/bu/?id=2internationalfinancecentre-hongkong-china | |||
|title=Two International Finance Centre | |||
|publisher=Emporis | |||
|accessdate=24 May 2009}}</ref> Other recognisable skyline features include the ], the triangular-topped ] with its pyramid-shaped spire, ] with its night-time multi-coloured neon light show; ] and ]'s ] with its sharp, angular façade. According to the Emporis website, the city skyline has the biggest visual impact of all world cities.<ref>{{cite web | |||
|url=http://www.emporis.com/en/bu/sk/st/sr/ | |||
|title=Emporis Skyline Ranking | |||
|publisher=Emporis | |||
|accessdate=24 May 2009}}</ref> Also, Hong Kong's ] is often regarded to be the best in the world,<ref>{{cite web|title=The world's top 20 city skylines, CNNGo.com|url=http://www.cnngo.com/explorations/play/worlds-top-20-skylines-691351|accessdate=1 March 2011}}</ref> with the surrounding mountains and ] complementing the skyscrapers.<ref>{{cite web|title=Best Skyline Poll|url=http://www.snappoll.com/view_results.php?poll_id=159740|accessdate=8 February 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The World's Best Skylines |url=http://homepages.ipact.nl/~egram/skylines.html |first1=Egbert |last1=Gramsbergen |author2=Paul Kazmierczak|accessdate=8 February 2008}}</ref> Most of the ], including the ], the ], and the remains of ] were constructed during the 19th and early 20th centuries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lcsd.gov.hk/ce/Museum/Monument/en/monuments_53.php|title=Declared Monuments in Hong Kong – Hong Kong Island|publisher=Leisure and Cultural Services Department, Hong Kong Government|date=13 January 2010|accessdate=31 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.amo.gov.hk/en/monuments_43.php |title=Declared Monuments in Hong Kong – Kowloon Island |publisher=Leisure and Cultural Services Department, Hong Kong Government|date=13 January 2010 |accessdate=31 August 2010}}</ref><ref name="Sinn">{{cite journal|last=Sinn |first=Elizabeth |title=Kowloon Walled City: Its Origin and Early History |journal=Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society |volume=27 |pages=30–31 |year=1990 |url=http://sunzi.lib.hku.hk/hkjo/view/4401608.pdf |accessdate=20 June 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20131024133633/http://sunzi.lib.hku.hk/hkjo/view/4401608.pdf |archivedate=24 October 2013 }}</ref> | |||
==== Print ==== | |||
There are many development plans in place, including the construction of ],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.admwing.gov.hk/tamar/eng/background.htm |title=Tamar Development Project |publisher=Hong Kong Government |date=23 April 2010 |accessdate=17 September 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20100528160824/http://www.admwing.gov.hk:80/tamar/eng/background.htm |archivedate=28 May 2010 }}</ref> waterfront redevelopment in Central,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://centralwaterfront.designinghongkong.com/index.php?lang=eng |title=Central Waterfront Design Competition |publisher=Designing Hong Kong |accessdate=26 April 2008}}</ref> and a series of projects in ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hab.gov.hk/wkcd/pe/eng/intro.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080411091817/http://www.hab.gov.hk/wkcd/pe/eng/intro.htm|archivedate=11 April 2008 |title=West Kowloon Cultural District Public Engagement Exercise |publisher=], Hong Kong Government |date=26 August 2008|accessdate=6 October 2010}}</ref> More high-rise development is set to take place on the other side of Victoria Harbour in Kowloon, as the 1998 closure of the nearby ] lifted strict height restrictions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/199807/10/0710062.htm |title=Kai Tak building height restrictions lifted |publisher=Hong Kong Government |date=10 July 1998|accessdate=26 April 2008}}</ref> The ] is highly active in demolishing older areas, including the razing and redevelopment of ] town centre, an approach which has been criticised for its impact on the ] of the city and on lower-income residents. | |||
{{refbegin|35em}} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Ban |first1=Biao 班彪 |author-link=Ban Biao |last2=Ban |first2=Gu 班固 |author-link2=Ban Gu |last3=Ban |first3=Zhao 班昭 |author-link3=Ban Zhao |script-chapter=zh:地理志 |trans-chapter=Treatise on geography |title=Book of Han |url=http://zh.wikisource.org/%E6%BC%A2%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B7028%E4%B8%8B |year=111 |language=zh |volume=28 |oclc=4342548 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Barber |first=Nicola |year=2004 |title=Hong Kong |publisher=] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xY3y9kR5EOgC |isbn=978-0-8368-5198-4 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Bishop |first1=Kevin |last2=Roberts |first2=Annabel |title=China's Imperial Way |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1c0UyPNF_I0C |year=1997 |publisher=Odyssey Publications |isbn=978-962-217-511-2 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Buckley |first=Roger |url=https://archive.org/details/hongkongroadto190000buck |url-access=registration |title=Hong Kong: The Road to 1997 |year=1997 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-521-46979-1 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Carroll |first=John |title=A Concise History of Hong Kong |year=2007 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D37ijXG-FykC |isbn=978-0-7425-3422-3 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Chan |first1=Cecilia |last2=Chow |first2=Amy |title=Death, Dying and Bereavement: a Hong Kong Chinese Experience |publisher=] |year=2006 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tzUvGEw7Z0AC |isbn=978-962-209-787-2 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Chan |first1=Shun-hing |last2=Leung |first2=Beatrice |title=Changing Church and State Relations in Hong Kong, 1950–2000 |year=2003 |publisher=] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tY_sAQAAQBAJ |isbn=962-209-612-3 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Chu |first=Cindy Yik-yi |date=2005 |title=Foreign Communities in Hong Kong, 1840s–1950s |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PUfHAAAAQBAJ |publisher=] |isbn=978-1-4039-8055-7 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Chu |first=Yiu-wai |date=2017 |title=Hong Kong Cantopop: A Concise History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=62I2DwAAQBAJ |publisher=] |isbn=978-988-8390-58-8 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Courtauld |first1=Caroline |last2=Holdsworth |first2=May |last3=Vickers |first3=Simon |year=1997 |title=The Hong Kong Story |publisher=] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g6pwAAAAMAAJ |isbn=978-0-19-590353-9 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Curry |first1=Janel |last2=Hanstedt |first2=Paul |title=Reading Hong Kong, Reading Ourselves |year=2014 |publisher=City University of Hong Kong Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eRH4AwAAQBAJ |isbn=978-962-937-235-4 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Cushman |first=Jennifer Wayne |title=Fields from the Sea: Chinese Junk Trade with Siam During the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries |year=1993 |publisher=Cornell Southeast Asia Program |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t3x-HixYwa0C |isbn=978-0-87727-711-8 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Davis |first=Sir John Francis |author-link=John Francis Davis |title=Sketches of China: partly during an inland journey of four months, between Peking, Nanking, and Canton; with notices and observations relative to the present war |volume=1 |date=1841 |publisher=Charles Knight & Co. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dTQOAAAAYAAJ |oclc=491627420 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Dodsworth |first1=John |last2=Mihaljek |first2=Dubravko |title=Hong Kong, China: Growth, Structural Change, and Economic Stability During the Transition |publisher=] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6csHC4xlmFAC |year=1997 |isbn=978-1-55775-672-5 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Edmonds |first=Richard L. |title=China and Europe Since 1978: A European Perspective |publisher=] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mXoFscQ2QwsC |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-521-52403-2 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Empson |first=Hal |title=Mapping Hong Kong: A Historical Atlas |date=1992 |publisher=Government Information Services |oclc=29939947 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Erni |first1=John Nguyet |last2=Leung |first2=Lisa Yuk-ming |title=Understanding South Asian Minorities in Hong Kong |date=2014 |publisher=] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VjWdAwAAQBAJ |isbn=978-988-8208-34-0 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Fowler |first1=Jeaneane D. |last2=Fowler |first2=Merv |title=Chinese Religions: Beliefs and Practices |year=2008 |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rpJNfIAZltoC |isbn=978-1-84519-172-6 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Gittings |first=Danny |chapter=Hong Kong Judiciary |pages=147–168 |editor1-last=Gaylord |editor1-first=Mark S. |editor2-last=Gittings |editor2-first=Danny |editor3-last=Traver |editor3-first=Harold |title=Introduction to Crime, Law and Justice in Hong Kong |year=2009 |publisher=] |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G12Umf-puSkC |isbn=978-962-209-978-4 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Ho |first1=Wai-chung |year=2011 |title=School Music Education and Social Change in mainland China, Hong Kong and Taiwan |publisher=] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7VieYfjWRV0C |isbn=978-90-04-18917-1 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Hoe |first1=Susanna |last2=Roebuck |first2=Derek |year=1999 |title=The Taking of Hong Kong: Charles and Clara Elliot in China Waters |publisher=] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qYZqvwNUR_gC |isbn=978-0-7007-1145-1 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Horne |first1=John |last2=Manzenreiter |first2=Wolfram |title=Japan, Korea and the 2002 World Cup |publisher=] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7YD7PWVCABAC |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-415-27563-7 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Hu |first=Qi-ming |date=2003 |title=Rare and Precious Plants of Hong Kong |publisher=] |url=http://www.herbarium.gov.hk/PublicationsPreface.aspx?BookNameId=1&SectionId=1&ContentId=1 |chapter-url=http://www.herbarium.gov.hk/PublicationsPreface.aspx?BookNameId=1&SectionId=2&ContentId=2 |chapter=Preface |isbn=978-988-201-616-3 |oclc=491712858 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Ingham |first=Michael |title=Hong Kong: A Cultural History |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-19-531496-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kwcSDAAAQBAJ |date=2007 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Keat |first=Ooi Gin |title=Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia |publisher=] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC |isbn=978-1-57607-770-2 |year=2004 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Lam |first1=S.F. |last2=Chang |first2=Julian W. |date=2005 |title=The Quest for Gold: Fifty Years of Amateur Sports in Hong Kong, 1947–1997 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y45FBAAAQBAJ |publisher=] |isbn=978-962-209-765-0 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Lam |first=Wai-man |title=Understanding the Political Culture of Hong Kong: The Paradox of Activism and Depoliticization: The Paradox of Activism and Depoliticization |year=2015 |publisher=Routledge |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YhXICQAAQBAJ |isbn=978-1-317-45301-7 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Lee |first=S.H. |title=SARS in China and Hong Kong |publisher=Nova Science Publishers |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7YgpNtIL1VwC |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-59454-678-5 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Leung |first=Julian Y.M. |chapter=Education in Hong Kong and China: Towards Convergence? |editor1-last=Chan |editor1-first=Ming K. |editor2-last=Postiglione |editor2-first=Gerard A. |title=The Hong Kong Reader: Passage to Chinese Sovereignty: Passage to Chinese Sovereignty |publisher=] |isbn=978-1-315-48835-6 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SckYDQAAQBAJ |date=2016 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Li |first=Guo |date=<!-- to stop citation bot from breaking referencing -->2012 |chapter=A Site Catchment Analysis of Hong Kong's Neolithic Subsistence |editor1-last=Cheng |editor1-first=Pei-kai |editor2-last=Fan |editor2-first=Ka Wai |title=New Perspectives on the Research of Chinese Culture |pages=17–43 |publisher=Springer |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hQ6lGvyMZMMC |isbn=978-981-4021-77-7 |doi=10.1007/978-981-4021-78-4_2 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Littlewood |first=Michael |title=Taxation Without Representation: The History of Hong Kong's Troublingly Successful Tax System |year=2010 |publisher=] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_7eiOi2lbOkC |isbn=978-962-209-099-6 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Long |first=Lucy M. |title=Ethnic American Food Today: A Cultural Encyclopedia |year=2015 |publisher=] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DBzYCQAAQBAJ |isbn=978-1-4422-2730-9 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Morton |first1=Brian |last2=Harper |first2=Elizabeth |title=An Introduction to the Cape d'Aguilar Marine Reserve, Hong Kong |publisher=] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LNCYHVVcM8IC |isbn=978-962-209-388-1 |year=1995 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Owen |first1=Bernie |last2=Shaw |first2=Raynor |date=2007 |title=Hong Kong Landscapes: Shaping the Barren Rock |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4sO5vlJ7ETcC |publisher=] |isbn=978-962-209-847-3 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Porter |first=Jonathan |title=Macau, the Imaginary City: Culture and Society, 1557 to the Present |publisher=] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gsC6AAAAIAAJ |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-8133-2836-2 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Preston |first1=Peter Wallace |last2=Haacke |first2=Jürgen |title=Contemporary China: The Dynamics of Change at the Start of the New Millennium |year=2003 |publisher=RoutledgeCurzon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q79VGofCqIgC |isbn=978-0-7007-1637-1 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Ren |first1=Hai |title=Neoliberalism and Culture in China and Hong Kong: The Countdown of Time |date=4 October 2010 |publisher=Routledge |location=Oxford |isbn=978-1-136-92364-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NAvGBQAAQBAJ |language=en}} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Schottenhammer |first=Angela |title=The East Asian Maritime World 1400–1800: Its Fabrics of Power and Dynamics of Exchanges |isbn=978-3-447-05474-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ga-5mPOr2-wC |year=2007 |publisher=] }} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Room |first=Adrian |title=Placenames of the World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M1JIPAN-eJ4C |year=2005 |publisher=McFarland & Company |isbn=978-0-7864-2248-7 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Scott |first=Ian |title=Political Change and the Crisis of Legitimacy in Hong Kong |year=1989 |publisher=] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w7NuSICc0lYC |isbn=978-0-8248-1269-0 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Shen |first1=Jianfa |last2=Kee |first2=Gordon |date=2017 |title=Development and Planning in Seven Major Coastal Cities in Southern and Eastern China |publisher=Springer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2UhxDQAAQBAJ |isbn=978-3-319-46420-6 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-46421-3 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Gareth Dylan |last2=Moir |first2=Zack |last3=Brennan |first3=Matt |last4=Rambarran |first4=Shara |last5=Kirkman |first5=Phil |date=2017 |title=The Routledge Research Companion to Popular Music Education |publisher=] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JColDwAAQBAJ |isbn=978-1-4724-6498-9 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Snow |first=Philip |title=The Fall of Hong Kong: Britain, China and the Japanese Occupation |year=2003 |publisher=] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Um5eZLwurzoC |isbn=978-0-300-10373-1 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Tam |first1=Maria Wai-chu |last2=Chan |first2=Eugene Kin-keung |last3=Choi Kwan |first3=Janice Wing-kum |last4=Leung |first4=Gloria Chi-kin |last5=Lo |first5=Alexandra Dak-wai |last6=Tang |first6=Simon Shu-pui |publisher=Working Group on Overseas Community of the Basic Law Promotion Steering Committee |chapter=Basic Law – the Source of Hong Kong's Progress and Development |title=The Basic Law and Hong Kong – The 15th Anniversary of Reunification with the Motherland |chapter-url=http://www.basiclaw.gov.hk/en/publications/book/15anniversary_reunification_ch2_2.pdf |date=2012 |oclc=884571397 |access-date=3 January 2018 |archive-date=12 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612205720/http://www.basiclaw.gov.hk/en/publications/book/15anniversary_reunification_ch2_2.pdf |url-status=dead }} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Tsang |first=Steve |author-link=Steve Tsang |date=2007 |title=A Modern History of Hong Kong |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7JC856mG72EC |publisher=I.B. Tauris |isbn=978-1-84511-419-0 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last=von Glahn |first=Richard |title=Fountain of Fortune: Money and Monetary Policy in China, 1000–1700 |year=1996 |publisher=] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DNlv4f9tV_AC |isbn=978-0-520-91745-3 }} | |||
* Wasserstrom, Jeffrey. ''Vigil: Hong Kong on the Brink'' (2020) | |||
* {{cite book |last=Wills |first=John E. |chapter=Relations with Maritime Europe, 1514–1662 |editor1-last=Twitchett |editor1-first=Denis |editor2-last=Mote |editor2-first=Frederick W. |title=The Cambridge History of China: Volume 8, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644 |volume=2 |pages=333–375 |year=1998 |publisher=] |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tVhvh6ibLJcC |isbn=978-0-521-24333-9 |doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521243339.009 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Wiltshire |first=Trea |title=Old Hong Kong Volume II: 1901–1945 |publisher=FormAsia Books |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0fhjrgEACAAJ |edition=5th |year=1997 |isbn=978-962-7283-13-3 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Wong |first=Siu Lun |title=Emigration and stability in Hong Kong |date=1992 |publisher=] |url=https://hub.hku.hk/bitstream/10722/42565/1/07.pdf |isbn=978-962-7558-09-5 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Wordie |first=Jason |title=Streets: Exploring Kowloon |publisher=] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AyfPeYnp3-oC |year=2007 |isbn=978-962-209-813-8 }} | |||
* {{cite book |title=UNWTO Tourism Highlights: 2017 Edition |date=2017 |publisher=] |doi=10.18111/9789284419029 |isbn=978-92-844-1901-2 |url=https://tede.ufrrj.br/jspui/handle/jspui/5202 |ref={{harvid|WTO|2017}} |last1=Magalhães |first1=Bianca dos Santos }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Xi |first1=Xu |last2=Ingham |first2=Mike |title=City Voices: Hong Kong writing in English, 1945–present |publisher=] |year=2003 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2f3IAQAAQBAJ |isbn=978-962-209-605-9 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Xue |first=Charlie Q.L. |title=Hong Kong Architecture 1945–2015: From Colonial to Global |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-981-10-1003-3 |doi=10.1007/978-981-10-1004-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5xZkDAAAQBAJ |date=2016 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Yanne |first1=Andrew |last2=Heller |first2=Gillis |date=2009 |title=Signs of a Colonial Era |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DpOQrEVBcX4C |publisher=] |isbn=978-962-209-944-9 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Yeung |first=Rikkie |title=Moving Millions: The Commercial Success and Political Controversies of Hong Kong's Railways |publisher=] |year=2008 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VUfqAQAAQBAJ |isbn=978-962-209-963-0 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Young |first1=Simon N.M. |last2=Cullen |first2=Richard |title=Electing Hong Kong's Chief Executive |publisher=] |year=2010 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Px1WflAKjwEC |isbn=978-988-8028-39-9 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Zhihong |first=Shi |chapter=China's Overseas Trade Policy and Its Historical Results: 1522–1840 |pages=4–23 |editor1-last=Latham |editor1-first=A.J.H. |editor2-last=Kawakatsu |editor2-first=Heita |editor-link=Heita Kawakatsu |title=Intra-Asian Trade and the World Market |year=2006 |publisher=] |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mLBgaa8d4aMC |isbn=978-0-415-37207-7 }} | |||
{{refend}} | |||
===== Legislation and case law ===== | |||
<center> | |||
{{refbegin|35em}} | |||
{| | |||
* {{wikicite |reference=Amendment to the Basic Law Annex I () |ref={{sfnref|Amendment to the Basic Law Annex I}}}} | |||
|- | |||
* {{wikicite |reference=Basic Law |ref={{sfnref|Basic Law Chapter II}}}} | |||
| ] | |||
* {{wikicite |reference=Basic Law |ref={{sfnref|Basic Law Chapter III}}}} | |||
| ] | |||
* {{wikicite |reference=Basic Law |ref={{sfnref|Basic Law Chapter IV}}}} | |||
|} | |||
* {{wikicite |reference=Basic Law |ref={{sfnref|Basic Law Chapter V}}}} | |||
* {{wikicite |reference=Basic Law |ref={{sfnref|Basic Law Chapter VII}}}} | |||
* {{wikicite |reference={{Cite Hong Kong case |litigants=Chief Executive of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region and Another v the President of the Legislative Council |list=HCAL |number=185 |year=2016 |id=106799 |pinpoint=20}} |ref={{sfnref|''Chief Executive of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region and Another v the President of the Legislative Council''}}}} | |||
* {{wikicite |reference=Constitution of the People's Republic of China () |ref={{sfnref|Constitution of the People's Republic of China}}}} | |||
* {{wikicite |reference={{cite Hong Kong ordinance|name=District Councils Ordinance|547}} Schedule 3 |ref={{sfnref|District Councils Ordinance}}}} | |||
* {{wikicite |reference={{cite Hong Kong ordinance|name=Emergency Regulations Ordinance|241}} |ref={{sfnref|Emergency Regulations Ordinance}}}} | |||
* {{wikicite |reference={{cite Hong Kong ordinance |name=Hong Kong Baptist University Ordinance |1126}} |ref={{sfnref|Hong Kong Baptist University Ordinance}}}} | |||
* {{wikicite |reference={{cite Hong Kong ordinance|name=Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Passports Ordinance|539}} |ref={{sfnref|Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Passports Ordinance}}}} | |||
* {{wikicite |reference={{cite Hong Kong ordinance |name=Lingnan University Ordinance |1165}} |ref={{sfnref|Lingnan University Ordinance}}}} | |||
* {{wikicite |reference={{Cite Hong Kong case |litigants=Ng Ka Ling and Another v the Director of Immigration |list=FACV |number=14 |year=1998 |id=34052 |pinpoint=63}} |ref={{sfnref|''Ng Ka Ling and Another v the Director of Immigration''}}}} | |||
* {{wikicite |reference={{cite Hong Kong ordinance |name=Official Languages Ordinance |5|3|1}} |ref={{sfnref|Official Languages Ordinance}}}} | |||
* {{wikicite |reference=Sino-British Joint Declaration () |ref={{sfnref|Sino-British Joint Declaration}}}} | |||
* {{wikicite |reference=Standing Committee Interpretation Concerning Implementation of Chinese Nationality Law in Hong Kong () |ref={{sfnref|Standing Committee Interpretation Concerning Implementation of Chinese Nationality Law in Hong Kong}}}} | |||
* {{wikicite |reference={{cite Hong Kong ordinance |name=The Education University of Hong Kong Ordinance |444}} |ref={{sfnref|The Education University of Hong Kong Ordinance}}}} | |||
* {{wikicite |reference={{cite Hong Kong ordinance |name=The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Ordinance |1075}} |ref={{sfnref|The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Ordinance}}}} | |||
* {{wikicite |reference={{cite Hong Kong ordinance |name=The Open University of Hong Kong Ordinance |1145}} |ref={{sfnref|The Open University of Hong Kong Ordinance}}}} | |||
{{refend}} | |||
==== Academic publications ==== | |||
{{wide image|Kowloon_Panorama_by_Ryan_Cheng_2010.jpg|1600px|City view of Kowloon, Hong Kong Island and the Hong Kong Skyline}} | |||
{{refbegin|35em}} | |||
* {{cite journal |last=Chen |first=Li |year=2011 |title=Universalism and Equal Sovereignty as Contested Myths of International Law in the Sino-Western Encounter |journal=Journal of the History of International Law |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=75–116 |doi=10.1163/157180511X552054 }} | |||
* {{cite journal |last=Cheng |first=Edmund W. |title=Street Politics in a Hybrid Regime: The Diffusion of Political Activism in Post-colonial Hong Kong |journal=The China Quarterly |date=June 2016 |volume=226 |pages=383–406 |doi=10.1017/S0305741016000394 |doi-access=free }} | |||
* {{cite journal |last1=Cheng |first1=Sheung-Tak |last2=Lum |first2=Terry |last3=Lam |first3=Linda C. W. |last4=Fung |first4=Helene H. |year=2013 |title=Hong Kong: Embracing a Fast Aging Society With Limited Welfare |journal=The Gerontologist |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=527–533 |doi=10.1093/geront/gnt017 |pmid=23528290 |doi-access= }} | |||
* {{cite journal |last=Cullinane |first=S. |title=The relationship between car ownership and public transport provision: a case study of Hong Kong |year=2002 |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=29–39 |journal=Transport Policy |doi=10.1016/S0967-070X(01)00028-2 }} | |||
* {{cite journal |last=Fan |first=Shuh Ching |title=The Population of Hong Kong |year=1974 |journal=World Population Year |pages=1–2 |url=http://www.cicred.org/Eng/Publications/pdf/c-c21.pdf |oclc=438716102 }} | |||
* {{cite journal |last1=Forrest |first1=Ray |last2=La Grange |first2=Adrienne |last3=Yip |first3=Ngai-ming |title=Hong Kong as a Global City? Social Distance and Spatial Differentiation |journal=] |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=207–227 |year=2004 |doi=10.1080/0042098032000155759 |bibcode=2004UrbSt..41..207F |citeseerx=10.1.1.1032.5974 |s2cid=154042413 }} | |||
* {{cite journal |last=Fu |first=Poshek |title=Japanese Occupation, Shanghai Exiles, and Postwar Hong Kong Cinema |journal=The China Quarterly |year=2008 |volume=194 |issue=194 |pages=380–394 |doi=10.1017/S030574100800043X |jstor=20192203|s2cid=154730809 }} | |||
* {{cite journal |author=Fulton Commission |title=Report of the Fulton Commission, 1963: Commission to Advise on the Creation of a Federal-Type Chinese University in Hong Kong |journal=Minerva |year=1963 |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=493–507 |jstor=41821589 |doi=10.1007/bf01107190 |s2cid=189763965 }} | |||
* {{cite journal |last=Jordan |first=Ann D. |title=Lost in the Translation: Two Legal Cultures, the Common Law Judiciary and the Basic Law of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region |journal=] |url=https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1401&context=cilj |volume=30 |issue=2 |year=1997 |pages=335–380 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Lee |first=John |title=2012 International Conference on Asian Language Processing |chapter=A Corpus-Based Analysis of Mixed Code in Hong Kong Speech |date=2012 |pages=165–168 |doi=10.1109/IALP.2012.10 |isbn=978-1-4673-6113-2|s2cid=16210378 }} | |||
* {{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Kwai Sang |last2=Leung |first2=Wai Mun |title=The status of Cantonese in the education policy of Hong Kong |journal=Multilingual Education |volume=2 |issue=2 |page=2 |year=2012 |doi=10.1186/2191-5059-2-2 |doi-access=free |hdl=10397/98877 |hdl-access=free }} | |||
* {{cite journal |last=Lee |first=Nelson K. |title=The Changing Nature of Border, Scale and the Production of Hong Kong's Water Supply System since 1959 |journal=International Journal of Urban and Regional Research |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=903–921 |year=2013 |doi=10.1111/1468-2427.12060 |doi-access=free }} | |||
* {{cite journal |last1=McKercher |first1=Bob |last2=Ho |first2=Pamela S.Y. |last3=du Cros |first3=Hilary |title=Attributes of Popular Attractions in Hong Kong |journal=Annals of Tourism Research |volume=31 |issue=2 |year=2004 |pages=393–407 |doi=10.1016/j.annals.2003.12.008 |hdl=10397/29409 }} | |||
* {{cite journal |last=Meacham |first=William |title=Neolithic to Historic in the Hong Kong Region |journal=Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association Bulletin |volume=18 |issue=2 |year=1999 |pages=121–128 |doi=10.7152/bippa.v18i0.11707 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |eissn=0156-1316 |url=http://journals.lib.washington.edu/index.php/BIPPA/article/viewFile/11707/10336 |hdl=10722/208530 |hdl-access=free }} | |||
* {{cite journal |last=Ming |first=Sing |title=The Legitimacy Problem and Democratic Reform in Hong Kong |journal=Journal of Contemporary China |volume=15 |issue=48 |year=2006 |pages=517–532 |doi=10.1080/10670560600736558 |s2cid=154949190 }} | |||
* {{cite journal |last1=Poon |first1=Simpson |last2=Chau |first2=Patrick |title=Octopus: The Growing E-payment System in Hong Kong |journal=Electronic Markets |volume=11 |issue=2 |year=2001 |pages=97–106 |url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f800/672c1448f0233ae7982444a85cf6d806b774.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180627034146/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f800/672c1448f0233ae7982444a85cf6d806b774.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=27 June 2018 |doi=10.1080/101967801300197016 |s2cid=18766585 }} | |||
* {{cite journal |last1=Sofield |first1=Trevor H.B. |last2=Sivan |first2=Atara |title= From Cultural Festival to International Sport – The Hong Kong Dragon Boat Races |journal=Journal of Sport & Tourism |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=9–20 |year=2003 |doi=10.1080/14775080306242 |s2cid=144106613 }} | |||
* {{cite journal |last1=Tong |first1=C. O.|last2=Wong |first2=S. C. |year=1997 |title=The advantages of a high density, mixed land use, linear urban development |journal=Transportation |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=295–307 |doi=10.1023/A:1004987422746 |s2cid=152365622}} | |||
* {{cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=Eliza L.Y. |last2=Yeoh |first2=Eng-kiong |last3=Chau |first3=Patsy Y.K. |last4=Yam |first4=Carrie H.K. |last5=Cheung |first5=Annie W.L. |last6=Fung |first6=Hong |title=How shall we examine and learn about public-private partnerships (PPPs) in the health sector? Realist evaluation of PPPs in Hong Kong |journal=] |volume=147 |year=2015 |pages=261–269 |doi=10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.11.012 |doi-access=free |pmid=26605970 }} | |||
{{refend}} | |||
==== Institutional reports ==== | |||
</center> | |||
{{refbegin|35em}} | |||
* {{cite report |title=A List of Licensed Broadcasting Services in Hong Kong |publisher=] |date=1 June 2018 |url=https://www.ofca.gov.hk/filemanager/ofca/en/content_108/channel_list_eng.pdf |ref={{harvid|Licensed Broadcasting Services|2018}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=Adaptation of Laws Programme – Guiding Principles and Guideline Glossary of Terms |publisher=] |date=November 1998 |url=http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr98-99/english/bc/bc55/papers/p739e1.pdf |ref={{harvid|Adaptation of Laws Guidelines|1998}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=Agriculture and Fisheries |work=Hong Kong: The Facts |publisher=Hong Kong Government |date=May 2017 |url=https://www.gov.hk/en/about/abouthk/factsheets/docs/agriculture.pdf |ref={{harvid|Agriculture and Fisheries Facts|2017}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=Airport Traffic Report |publisher=] |date=14 April 2017 |url=http://www.panynj.gov/airports/pdf-traffic/ATR2016.pdf |ref={{harvid|NY/NJ Port Authority Airport Traffic|2017}} |access-date=20 November 2017 |archive-date=25 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525172312/http://www.panynj.gov/airports/pdf-traffic/ATR2016.pdf |url-status=dead }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=Akamai's State of the Internet – Q1 2017 Report |publisher=] |year=2017 |url=https://www.akamai.com/us/en/multimedia/documents/state-of-the-internet/q1-2017-state-of-the-internet-connectivity-report.pdf |ref={{harvid|Akamai's State of the Internet|2017}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=Annual Report 2016/17 |publisher=] |date=12 June 2017 |url=http://www.hongkongairport.com/iwov-resources/file/airport-authority/publications/annual-and-interim-reports/en/16_17/1617_Annual_Report_EN.pdf |ref={{harvid|HKIA Annual Report|2017}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=Annual Report 2016–17 |publisher=] |year=2017 |url=https://www.ird.gov.hk/dar/2016-17/table/en/ar_1617.pdf |ref={{harvid|Inland Revenue Annual Report|2017}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=Annual Report 2017 |publisher=] |year=2017 |url=https://www.hshgroup.com/-/media/Files/HSH/Financial-Reports/2017/EW00045-2017-Annual-Report.ashx |format=PDF |ref={{harvid|HSH Annual Report|2017}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=Annual Report and Accounts 2011 |publisher=] |year=2011 |url=https://www.hsbc.com.hk/content/dam/hsbc/hk/docs/legal/regulatory-disclosures/report-and-accounts-11.pdf |ref={{harvid|HSBC Annual Report|2011}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=APAC Regional Headquarters |publisher=] |date=April 2016 |url=http://www.cushmanwakefield.com/~/media/reports/china/Cushman%20%20Wakefield%20RHQ%20Report_2016_F4.pdf |ref={{harvid|Cushman & Wakefield RHQ Report|2016}} |access-date=7 June 2018 |archive-date=12 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612143118/http://www.cushmanwakefield.com/~/media/reports/china/Cushman%20%20Wakefield%20RHQ%20Report_2016_F4.pdf |url-status=dead }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=Béthanie – The Academy's Landmark Heritage Campus |publisher=] |date=September 2015 |url=https://www.hkapa.edu/files/guide/media-publications/Bethanie-Booklet.pdf |ref={{harvid|Béthanie|2015}} |access-date=25 June 2018 |archive-date=1 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801204158/https://www.hkapa.edu/files/guide/media-publications/Bethanie-Booklet.pdf |url-status=dead }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=Developing a Supplementary Guide to the Chinese Language Curriculum for Non-Chinese Speaking Students |publisher=] |date=January 2008 |url=http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr07-08/english/panels/ed/papers/ed0229cb2-1238-1-e.pdf |ref={{harvid|Developing a Supplementary Guide to the Chinese Language Curriculum for Non-Chinese Speaking Students|2008}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=District Administration |work=Hong Kong: The Facts |publisher=Hong Kong Government |date=April 2016 |url=http://www.gov.hk/en/about/abouthk/factsheets/docs/district_admin.pdf |ref={{harvid|District Administration Facts|2016}} |access-date=18 November 2008 |archive-date=7 September 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080907000229/http://www.gov.hk/en/about/abouthk/factsheets/docs/district_admin.pdf |url-status=dead }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=Economic development: Statistical Highlights |publisher=] |date=26 April 2017 |url=https://www.legco.gov.hk/research-publications/english/1617issh25-port-of-hong-kong-20170426-e.pdf |ref={{harvid|Economic Statistical Highlights|2017}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=Family Survey 2013 |publisher=] |date=July 2014 |url=https://www.legco.gov.hk/yr13-14/english/panels/ws/papers/ws0609cb2-2288-2-e.pdf |ref={{harvid|Family Survey|2013}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=The UK's relations with Hong Kong: 30 years after the Joint Declaration |publisher=] |date=6 March 2015 |url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201415/cmselect/cmfaff/649/649.pdf |ref={{harvid|House of Commons Foreign Affairs Committee Tenth Report|2015}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |author=Foreign and Commonwealth Office |author-link=Foreign and Commonwealth Office |title=Written evidence from Foreign and Commonwealth Office |publisher=] |date=October 2014 |url=http://data.parliament.uk/writtenevidence/committeeevidence.svc/evidencedocument/foreign-affairs-committee/the-uks-relations-with-hong-kong-30-years-after-the-joint-declaration/written/14357.pdf |ref={{harvid|FCO Written Evidence|2014}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=Geography and Climate |publisher=] |year=2010 |url=https://www.censtatd.gov.hk/FileManager/EN/Content_810/geog.pdf |ref={{harvid|Geography and Climate|2010}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=Guidelines on the Legislative Council Election |publisher=] |year=2016 |url=https://www.eac.gov.hk/pdf/legco/2016lc_guide/en/lc_full_guide.pdf |ref={{harvid|Guidelines on the Legislative Council Election|2016}} |access-date=22 June 2018 |archive-date=22 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181122213234/https://www.eac.gov.hk/pdf/legco/2016lc_guide/en/lc_full_guide.pdf |url-status=dead }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=Health Facts of Hong Kong: 2017 Edition |publisher=] |year=2017 |url=http://www.dh.gov.hk/english/statistics/statistics_hs/files/Health_Statistics_pamphlet_E.pdf |ref={{harvid|Health Facts|2017}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=Hong Kong as a Service Economy |work=Hong Kong: The Facts |publisher=Hong Kong Government |date=April 2016 |url=https://www.gov.hk/en/about/abouthk/factsheets/docs/service_economy.pdf |ref={{harvid|Economy Facts|2016}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=Hong Kong Energy Statistics – 2016 Annual Report |publisher=] |date=April 2017 |url=http://www.statistics.gov.hk/pub/B11000022016AN16B0100.pdf |ref={{harvid|Energy Statistics Report|2017}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=The Hong Kong Government Gazette |via=] |date=3 September 1926 |url=http://sunzi.lib.hku.hk/hkgro/view/g1926/100085.pdf |ref={{harvid|Hong Kong Government Gazette|1926}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=Human Development Indices and Indicators – Statistical Update 2018 |publisher=] |year=2018 |url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/2018_human_development_statistical_update.pdf |ref={{harvid|UN Human Development Indices and Indicators|2018}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |last1=Jiang |first1=Guorong |last2=Tang |first2=Nancy |last3=Law |first3=Eve |last4=Sze |first4=Angela |title=The Profitability of the Banking Sector in Hong Kong |publisher=] |date=September 2003 |url=http://www.hkma.gov.hk/media/eng/publication-and-research/quarterly-bulletin/qb200309/fa1.pdf }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=June 2019 |work=Hong Kong Monthly Digest of Statistics |publisher=] |date=June 2019 |url=https://www.censtatd.gov.hk/en/data/stat_report/product/B1010002/att/B10100022019MM06B0100.pdf |ref={{harvid|Monthly Statistics for June|2019}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=List of Political Affiliations of LegCo Members and DC Members |publisher=] |date=19 June 2017 |url=http://www.districtcouncils.gov.hk/south/sc_chi/activities/files/Political_Affiliation_20170620_TC.pdf |ref={{harvid|LegCo and DC Member Political Affiliations|2017}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=Literacy Rates Continue to Rise from One Generation to the Next |publisher=] |date=September 2017 |url=https://uis.unesco.org/sites/default/files/documents/fs45-literacy-rates-continue-rise-generation-to-next-en-2017.pdf |ref={{harvid|UNESCO Literacy Rates|2017}} |access-date=30 December 2019 |archive-date=29 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200329020745/http://uis.unesco.org/sites/default/files/documents/fs45-literacy-rates-continue-rise-generation-to-next-en-2017.pdf |url-status=dead }} | |||
* {{cite report |last1=Lung |first1=Charles C P |last2=Sung |first2=Y F |title=A Century of Railway Development – The Hong Kong Story |publisher=Institution of Railway Signal Engineers |year=2010 |url=http://www.irse.org/knowledge/publicdocuments/1.07%20Lung%20-%20Century%20of%20Railway%20Development%20Hong%20Kong.pdf |access-date=26 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411223254/http://www.irse.org/knowledge/publicdocuments/1.07%20Lung%20-%20Century%20of%20Railway%20Development%20Hong%20Kong.pdf |archive-date=11 April 2019 |url-status=dead }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=Main Results |work=2021 Population By-Census |publisher=] |year=2021 |url=https://www.census2021.gov.hk/doc/pub/21c-main-results.pdf |ref={{harvid|Population By-Census|2021}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=Market Statistics 2018 |publisher=] |year=2018 |url=https://www.hkex.com.hk/-/media/HKEX-Market/News/News-Release/2018/181221news/181221news.pdf?la=en |ref={{harvid|HKSE Market Statistics|2018}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |author=Panel on Education |title=Grant to the Hong Kong Shue Yan University for Establishing a General Development Fund |publisher=] |date=8 January 2007 |url=http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr06-07/english/panels/ed/papers/ed0108cb2-757-4-e.pdf |ref={{harvid|LegCo Grant to Shue Yan University|2007}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |author=Panel on Home Affairs |chapter=List of Historical Buildings Declared as Monuments from 1997 to 2006 |title=The Queen's Pier |publisher=] |date=June 2007 |chapter-url=http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr06-07/english/panels/ha/papers/ha0601cb2-2102-1-e.pdf |ref={{harvid|Declared Monuments|2007}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=Public Finance |work=Hong Kong: The Facts |publisher=Hong Kong Government |date=May 2018 |url=https://www.gov.hk/en/about/abouthk/factsheets/docs/public_finance.pdf |ref={{harvid|Public Finance Facts|2018}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=Public Transport Strategy Study |publisher=] |date=June 2017 |url=http://www.td.gov.hk/filemanager/en/publication/ptss_final_report_eng.pdf |ref={{harvid|Public Transport Strategy Study|2017}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=Radio Television Hong Kong |work=The 2018–2019 Budget |publisher=Hong Kong Government |year=2018 |url=https://www.budget.gov.hk/2018/eng/pdf/head160.pdf |ref={{harvid|RTHK Budget|2018}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=Railway Network |work=Hong Kong: The Facts |publisher=Hong Kong Government |date=April 2018 |url=https://www.gov.hk/en/about/abouthk/factsheets/docs/railway.pdf |ref={{harvid|Railway Network Facts|2018}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=Registration and Licensing of Vehicles by Class of Vehicles |publisher=] |date=January 2018 |url=http://www.td.gov.hk/filemanager/en/content_281/table41a.pdf |ref={{harvid|Vehicle Registration and Licensing|2018}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=Religion and Custom |work=Hong Kong: The Facts |publisher=Hong Kong Government |date=May 2016 |url=https://www.gov.hk/en/about/abouthk/factsheets/docs/religion.pdf |ref={{harvid|Religion and Custom Facts|2016}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |author=Subcommittee on Matters Relating to Railways |title=Follow-ups on the Service Suspension of Tseung Kwan O Line and Part of Kwun Tong Line on 16 December 2013, and Report on Subsequent Major Incidents on East Rail Line and Light Rail |publisher=] |year=2014 |url=http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr13-14/english/panels/tp/tp_rdp/papers/tp_rdp0228cb1-980-5-e.pdf |ref={{harvid|Report on Rail Service|2014}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=Reclamation Outside Victoria Harbour |publisher=] |year=2017 |url=https://www.devb.gov.hk/filemanager/en/content_1054/Paper_07_2017.pdf |ref={{harvid|Land Policy Report|2017}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=Report of the Task Force on Population Policy |publisher=Hong Kong Government |year=2002 |url=http://www.info.gov.hk/info/population/eng/pdf/report_eng.pdf |ref={{harvid|Population Policy Report|2002}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=The Global Financial Centres Index 22 |date=September 2017 |publisher=] |url=http://www.longfinance.net/images/gfci/gfci_22.pdf |ref={{harvid|Global Financial Centres Index|2017}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=The Media |work=Hong Kong: The Facts |publisher=Hong Kong Government |date=December 2017 |url=https://www.gov.hk/en/about/abouthk/factsheets/docs/media.pdf |ref={{harvid|Media Facts|2017}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=Thematic Report: Household Income Distribution in Hong Kong |work=2021 Population By-Census |publisher=] |date=May 2023 |url=https://www.censtatd.gov.hk/en/data/stat_report/product/B1120108/att/B11201082021XXXXB0100.pdf |ref={{harvid|Household Income Distribution|2021}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=Tourism |work=Hong Kong: The Facts |publisher=Hong Kong Government |date=May 2016 |url=https://www.gov.hk/en/about/abouthk/factsheets/docs/tourism.pdf |ref={{harvid|Tourism Facts|2016}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=Transport |work=Hong Kong: The Facts |publisher=Hong Kong Government |date=May 2016 |url=https://www.gov.hk/en/about/abouthk/factsheets/docs/transport.pdf |ref={{harvid|Transport Facts|2016}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=Report on Study of Road Traffic Congestion in Hong Kong |publisher=] |date=December 2014 |url=http://www.thb.gov.hk/eng/boards/transport/land/Full_Eng_C_cover.pdf |ref={{harvid|Traffic Congestion Study|2014}} |access-date=21 November 2017 |archive-date=23 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220423133342/https://www.thb.gov.hk/eng/boards/transport/land/Full_Eng_C_cover.pdf |url-status=dead }} | |||
* {{cite report |author=Transport and Housing Bureau |author-link=Transport and Housing Bureau |title=Technical Legislative Amendments on Traffic Arrangements for the Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Bridge |publisher=] |date=19 April 2017 |url=https://www.legco.gov.hk/yr16-17/english/subleg/brief/2017ln060-065_brf.pdf |ref={{harvid|Technical Legislative Amendments on Traffic Arrangements for the Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Bridge|2017}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=Transport: Statistical Highlights |publisher=] |date=28 October 2016 |url=https://www.legco.gov.hk/research-publications/english/1617issh06-public-transport-20161028-e.pdf |ref={{harvid|Transport Statistical Highlights|2016}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=Triennial Central Bank Survey: Foreign exchange turnover in April 2016 |publisher=] |date=September 2016 |url=http://www.bis.org/publ/rpfx16fx.pdf |ref={{harvid|Triennial Central Bank Survey|2016}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=Usage of Information Technology and the Internet by Hong Kong Residents, 2000 to 2016 |publisher=] |date=November 2017 |url=http://www.statistics.gov.hk/pub/B71711FB2017XXXXB0100.pdf |ref={{harvid|IT and Internet Usage|2017}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=Use of Chinese in Court Proceedings |publisher=] |year=2011 |url=http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr11-12/english/sec/library/1112in17-e.pdf |ref={{harvid|Use of Chinese in Court Proceedings|2011}} |access-date=16 November 2017 |archive-date=9 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809065252/https://www.legco.gov.hk/yr11-12/english/sec/library/1112in17-e.pdf |url-status=dead }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=Water Supplies |work=Hong Kong: The Facts |publisher=Hong Kong Government |date=May 2016 |url=https://www.gov.hk/en/about/abouthk/factsheets/docs/water_supplies.pdf |ref={{harvid|Water Supply Facts|2016}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |title=Women and Men in Hong Kong Key Statistics |publisher=] |date=July 2017 |url=http://www.statistics.gov.hk/pub/B11303032017AN17B0100.pdf |ref={{harvid|Women and Men in Hong Kong Key Statistics|2017}} }} | |||
* {{cite report |last1=Yu |first1=Jian Zhen |last2=Huang |first2=Hilda |last3=Ng |first3=Wai Man |title=Final Report for Provision of Service for Fine Particulate Matter (PM<sub>2.5</sub>) Sample Chemical Analysis |publisher=] |date=June 2013 |url=http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/sites/default/files/epd/english/environmentinhk/air/studyrpts/files/final_report_mvtmpms_2012.pdf }} | |||
{{refend}} | |||
==== News and magazine articles ==== | |||
{{Panorama | |||
{{refbegin|35em}} | |||
| image = File:Hong Kong Skyline Panorama - Dec 2008.jpg | |||
* {{cite news |last1=Baldwin |first1=Clare |author1-link=Clare Baldwin |last2=Lee |first2=Yimou |last3=Jim |first3=Clare |date=30 December 2014 |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-hongkong-china-economy-specialreport/special-report-the-mainlands-colonization-of-the-hong-kong-economy-idUSKBN0K901320141231 |title=Special Report: The mainland's colonisation of the Hong Kong economy |work=] |access-date=26 December 2017 }} | |||
| fullwidth = 1920 | |||
* {{cite news |last=Bland |first=Ben |date=31 July 2016 |title=Hong Kong ban on pro-independence candidates sparks backlash |newspaper=] |url=https://www.ft.com/content/c6e07268-56fd-11e6-9f70-badea1b336d4 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/c6e07268-56fd-11e6-9f70-badea1b336d4 |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=26 June 2018 }} | |||
| fullheight = 354 | |||
* {{cite news |last=Chan |first=Bernice |date=17 July 2017 |title=Hong Kong villagers using solar energy to help power their homes – and show its potential as a source of electricity for city |url=http://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/article/2102674/hong-kong-villagers-using-solar-energy-help-power-their-homes-and-show-its |newspaper=] |access-date=25 November 2017 }} | |||
| caption = <center>A ] view of the ] skyline at night</center> | |||
* {{cite news |last=Chao |first=York |date=25 May 2013 |title=Racist Hong Kong is still a fact |url=http://www.scmp.com/comment/insight-opinion/article/1245226/racist-hong-kong-still-fact |newspaper=] |access-date=18 November 2017 }} | |||
| alt = Night time city skyline with Victoria Harbour in front and low hills behind | |||
* {{cite news |last=Cheung |first=Stephanie |date=23 March 2015 |title=The case for extending Hong Kong's 2047 deadline |newspaper=] |url=http://www.scmp.com/comment/insight-opinion/article/1742930/case-extending-hong-kongs-2047-deadline |access-date=22 May 2018 }} | |||
| height = 275 | |||
* {{cite news |last=Cheung |first=Tony |date=10 May 2016 |title=Too soon to talk about 2047? Legal experts split on when Hong Kong should debate its future |newspaper=] |url=http://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/politics/article/1943075/too-soon-talk-about-2047-legal-experts-split-when-hong-kong |access-date=22 May 2018 }} | |||
}} | |||
* {{cite news |last=Cheung |first=Tony |date=28 February 2017 |title=Who goes there? Hong Kong's participation in China's 'two sessions' explained |url=http://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/politics/article/2074786/who-goes-there-chinas-annual-two-sessions-event-explained |newspaper=] |access-date=27 November 2017 }} | |||
{{Clear}} | |||
* {{cite news |last1=Cheung |first1=Tony |last2=Ho |first2=Lauren |date=19 January 2013 |title=CY Leung insists housing policy won't cause property crash |newspaper=] |url=http://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/article/1131216/cy-leung-insists-housing-policy-wont-cause-property-crash |access-date=14 November 2017 }} | |||
* {{cite magazine |last=Chow |first=Vivienne |date=16 March 2017 |title=Hong Kong's TVB Targeting New Revenues With OTT Platform, Productions |magazine=] |url=https://variety.com/2017/tv/asia/hong-kong-tvb-new-ott-platform-productions-1202010080/ |access-date=6 June 2018 }} | |||
* {{cite magazine|last=Darrach|first=Amanda|date=14 June 2019|title=How many really marched in Hong Kong? And how should we best guess crowd size?|magazine=]|url=https://www.cjr.org/analysis/how-many-marched-protests-hong-kong-how-guess-crowd-size.php|access-date=23 October 2019}} | |||
* {{cite news |title=End of an experiment |newspaper=] |date=15 July 2010 |url=https://www.economist.com/briefing/2010/07/15/end-of-an-experiment |access-date=5 September 2010 |ref={{sfnref|"End of an experiment", ''The Economist''}} }} | |||
* {{cite news |last=Frank |first=Robert |date=5 September 2018 |title=Hong Kong topples New York as world's richest city |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2018/09/05/hong-kong-topples-new-york-as-worlds-richest-city.html |publisher=] |access-date=21 April 2019 }} | |||
* {{cite news |last=Gargan |first=Edward A. |date=1 July 1997 |title=China Resumes Control of Hong Kong, Concluding 156 Years of British Rule |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/07/01/world/china-resumes-control-of-hong-kong-concluding-156-years-of-british-rule.html |newspaper=] |access-date=5 January 2018 }} | |||
* {{cite news |last=Ge |first=Celine |date=28 July 2017 |title=It's fade out for Hong Kong's film industry as China moves into the spotlight |url=http://www.scmp.com/business/article/2104540/its-fade-out-hong-kongs-film-industry-china-moves-spotlight |newspaper=] |access-date=28 May 2018 }} | |||
* {{cite news |last=Gold |first=Anne |date=6 July 2001 |title=Hong Kong's Mile-Long Escalator System Elevates the Senses: A Stairway to Urban Heaven |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/07/06/style/hong-kongs-milelong-escalator-system-elevates-the-senses-a-stairway-to.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170322100224/http://www.nytimes.com/2001/07/06/style/hong-kongs-milelong-escalator-system-elevates-the-senses-a-stairway-to.html |archive-date=22 March 2017 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |newspaper=] |access-date=22 October 2010 }} | |||
* {{cite news |last1=Griffiths |first1=James |last2=Lazarus |first2=Sarah |date=22 October 2018 |title=World's longest sea-crossing bridge opens between Hong Kong and China |publisher=CNN |url=https://www.cnn.com/2018/10/21/world/hong-kong-zhuhai-macau-bridge-intl/index.html |access-date=15 February 2019 }} | |||
* {{cite news |last=Haas |first=Benjamin |date=14 July 2017 |title=Hong Kong pro-democracy legislators disqualified from parliament |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/jul/14/hong-kong-pro-democracy-legislators-disqualified-parliament |newspaper=] |access-date=5 July 2018 }} | |||
* {{cite news |last=He |first=Huifeng |date=13 January 2013 |title=Forgotten stories of the great escape to Hong Kong |url=http://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/1126786/forgotten-stories-huge-escape-hong-kong |newspaper=] |access-date=27 December 2017 }} | |||
* {{cite news |last1=Hollingsworth |first1=Julia |last2=Zheng |first2=Sarah |date=27 March 2017 |title=Top 10 Hong Kong skyscraper nicknames, from the Big Syringe to the Hong Kong Finger |url=http://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/article/2081852/top-10-hong-kong-skyscraper-nicknames-big-syringe-hong-kong-finger |newspaper=] |access-date=26 June 2018 }} | |||
* {{cite news |last=Huang |first=Echo |date=15 November 2016 |title=A Hong Kong court has disqualified two legislators who refused to take their oath "correctly" |url=https://qz.com/837562/a-hong-kong-court-has-disqualifed-yau-wia-ching-and-baggio-leung-from-the-legco-for-refusing-to-take-their-oath-correctly/ |newspaper=] |access-date=5 July 2018 }} | |||
* {{cite news |last=Kaiman |first=Jonathan |date=30 September 2014 |title=Hong Kong's umbrella revolution – the Guardian briefing |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/sep/30/-sp-hong-kong-umbrella-revolution-pro-democracy-protests |newspaper=] |access-date=3 February 2018 }} | |||
* {{cite magazine |last=Kong |first=Daniel |date=8 August 2013 |title=Hong Kong Imports Over 90% of Its Food. Can It Learn to Grow? |url=http://modernfarmer.com/2013/08/hong-kong-imports-over-90-of-its-food-can-it-learn-to-grow/ |magazine=] |access-date=26 October 2013 |archive-date=29 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029191633/http://modernfarmer.com/2013/08/hong-kong-imports-over-90-of-its-food-can-it-learn-to-grow/ |url-status=dead }} | |||
* {{cite news |last=Kwok |first=Donny |date=22 September 2018 |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-hongkong-china-train/all-aboard-hong-kong-bullet-train-signals-high-speed-integration-with-china-idUSKCN1M301T |title=All aboard: Hong Kong bullet train signals high-speed integration with China |work=] |access-date=26 September 2018 }} | |||
* {{cite magazine |last=Labarre |first=Suzanne |date=15 June 2010 |title=Ingenious Flipper Bridge Melds Left-Side Drivers With Right-Side Drivers |url=https://www.fastcompany.com/1660258/ingenious-flipper-bridge-melds-left-side-drivers-right-side-drivers |magazine=] |access-date=25 March 2018 }} | |||
* {{cite news |last=Lendon |first=Brad |date=29 June 2017 |title=China makes its military more visible in Hong Kong |url=http://www.cnn.com/2017/06/27/asia/china-military-hong-kong/index.html |publisher=CNN |access-date=22 December 2017 }} | |||
* {{cite news |last=Lhatoo |first=Yonden |date=17 September 2015 |title=Racism is rife in Hong Kong and the Equal Opportunities Commission is a toothless hamster to tackle it |url=http://www.scmp.com/comment/insight-opinion/article/1859049/racism-rife-hong-kong-and-equal-opportunities-commission |newspaper=] |access-date=18 November 2017 }} | |||
* {{cite news |last=Liu |first=Alfred |date=5 September 2018 |title=These Are the Cities With the Most Ultra-Rich People |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-09-06/hong-kong-passes-new-york-as-home-to-the-most-ultra-rich-people |newspaper=] |access-date=21 April 2019 }} | |||
* {{cite news |last=Mok |first=Danny |date=14 February 2018 |title=Going up! Prices for Hong Kong's famous Peak Tram to increase for second time in less than two years |url=http://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/community/article/2133393/going-prices-hong-kongs-famous-peak-tram-increased-second |newspaper=] |access-date=2 July 2018 }} | |||
* {{cite news |last1=Mok |first1=Danny |last2=Lee |first2=Eddie |date=4 March 2015 |title=Let Hongkongers serve in China's People's Liberation Army, says top military official |url=http://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/article/1729129/let-hongkongers-serve-chinas-peoples-liberation-army-says-top |newspaper=] |access-date=27 November 2017 }} | |||
* {{cite news |last1=Ngo |first1=Jennifer |last2=Cheung |first2=Elizabeth |date=16 March 2016 |title=A case for inclusion: Carrie Lam pledges to tout list of 16 ethnic minority Hongkongers for government advisory positions |url=http://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/politics/article/1928626/case-inclusion-carrie-lam-pledges-tout-list-16-ethnic |newspaper=] |access-date=18 November 2017 }} | |||
* {{cite news |last=Park |first=Kyunghee |date=23 January 2019 |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-01-23/hong-kong-port-falls-to-lowest-position-in-at-least-40-years |title=Once the World's Greatest Port, Hong Kong Sinks in Global Ranking |newspaper=] |access-date=14 February 2019 }} | |||
* {{cite news |last=Sala |first=Ilaria Maria |date=1 September 2016 |title=As Hong Kong goes to the polls, why isn't the Communist Party on the ballot? |url=https://qz.com/770620/as-hong-kong-prepares-to-go-to-the-polls-why-isnt-the-communist-party-on-the-ballot/ |newspaper=] |access-date=18 November 2017 }} | |||
* {{cite news |last1=Siu |first1=Phila |last2=Chung |first2=Kimmy |date=27 December 2017 |title=Controversial joint checkpoint plan approved for high-speed rail link as Hong Kong officials dismiss concerns over legality |newspaper=] |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/politics/article/2125820/chinas-top-body-approves-plan-enforce-mainland-laws-joint |access-date=5 July 2018 }} | |||
* {{cite news |last=Tam |first=Luisa |date=11 September 2017 |title=Self-centred, demanding, materialistic and arrogant: how to steer clear of the Kong Girls |url=http://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/article/2110645/self-centred-demanding-materialistic-and-arrogant-how-steer-clear |newspaper=] |location=Hong Kong |access-date=27 December 2017 }} | |||
* {{cite news |last=Tatlow |first=Didi Kirsten |date=2 February 2017 |title=On Deck With China's Last Junk Builders, Masters of an Ebbing Craft |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/02/world/asia/china-junk-builders-hong-kong.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220102/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/02/world/asia/china-junk-builders-hong-kong.html |archive-date=2 January 2022 |url-access=limited |url-status=live |newspaper=] |access-date=31 May 2018 }}{{cbignore}} | |||
* {{cite news |title=To restore calm in Hong Kong, try democracy |newspaper=] |date=20 June 2019 |url=https://www.economist.com/leaders/2019/06/20/to-restore-calm-in-hong-kong-try-democracy |access-date=23 October 2019 |ref={{sfnref|"To restore calm in Hong Kong, try democracy", ''The Economist''}} }} | |||
* {{cite news |last1=Wong |first1=Joshua |last2=Lim |first2=Emily |date=23 February 2017 |title=We must resist until China gives Hong Kong a say in our future |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/feb/23/we-must-resist-until-china-gives-hong-kong-a-say-in-our-future |newspaper=] |access-date=16 November 2017 }} | |||
* {{cite news |last1=Hung |first1=Emily |last2=Ma |first2=Jess |date=19 September 2023 |title= | |||
Hong Kong's poorest struggle to benefit from post-pandemic recovery with wealth gap at its worst in over 10 years, Oxfam warns |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/society/article/3235101/hong-kongs-poorest-households-struggle-benefit-post-pandemic-recovery-wealth-divide-reaches-worst |newspaper=] |access-date=8 June 2024 }} | |||
* {{cite news |last=Yu |first=Verna |date=6 January 2013 |title=Veterans who fled mainland for Hong Kong in 1970s tell their stories |newspaper=] |url=http://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/article/1120852/veterans-who-fled-mainland-hong-kong-1970s-tell-their-stories |access-date=9 September 2013 }} | |||
* {{cite news |last=Zhao |first=Shirley |date=6 September 2015 |title='If you tell them you are Pakistani, they won't give you the flat': Finding a Hong Kong home is battle against prejudice for ethnic minorities |url=http://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/article/1855629/if-you-tell-them-you-are-pakistani-they-wont-give-you-flat-finding |newspaper=] |access-date=18 November 2017 }} | |||
* {{cite news |last=Zheng |first=Sarah |date=14 January 2017 |title=Hong Kong's heritage sites face continued threat despite government grading system |url=http://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/education-community/article/2062004/hong-kongs-heritage-sites-face-continued-threat |newspaper=] |location=Hong Kong |access-date=5 March 2018 }} | |||
{{refend}} | |||
== |
==== Websites ==== | ||
{{refbegin|35em}} | |||
{{portal|Hong Kong|China}} | |||
* {{cite web |last1=Bush |first1=Richard C. |last2=Whelan-Wuest |first2=Maeve |date=29 March 2017 |title=Another Hong Kong election, another pro-Beijing leader—why it matters |url=https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2017/03/29/another-hong-kong-election-another-pro-beijing-leader-why-it-matters |website=Brookings Institution |access-date=18 November 2017 }} | |||
* ] | |||
* {{cite web |last=Desjardins |first=Jeff |date=14 March 2018 |title=These 25 countries have the most billionaires |website=] |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/these-25-countries-have-the-most-billionaires-2018-3 |access-date=3 April 2018 }} | |||
{{clear}} | |||
* {{cite web |title=Disclaimer and Copyright Notice |url=http://www.legco.gov.hk/english/disclaim.htm |website=] |access-date=27 November 2017 |ref={{sfnref|Legislative Council Disclaimer and Copyright Notice}} }} | |||
* {{cite web |last=Ghoshal |first=Amoy |date=1 July 2011 |title=Asian Cup: Know Your History – Part One (1956–1988) |url=http://www.goal.com/en/news/8/main/2011/01/07/2293901/asian-cup-know-your-history-part-one-1956-1988 |website=] |access-date=5 March 2018 }} | |||
* {{cite web |title=HK records hottest day before typhoon |date=23 August 2017 |website=EJ Insight |url=http://www.ejinsight.com/20170823-hk-records-hottest-day-before-typhoon/ |access-date=29 August 2018 |ref={{sfnref|"HK records hottest day before typhoon", ''EJ Insight''}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180729141559/http://www.ejinsight.com/20170823-hk-records-hottest-day-before-typhoon/ |archive-date=29 July 2018 |url-status=dead }} | |||
* {{cite web |title=HK vs China GDP: A sobering reality |date=9 June 2017 |website=EJ Insight |url=http://www.ejinsight.com/20170609-hk-versus-china-gdp-a-sobering-reality/ |access-date=29 January 2018 |ref={{sfnref|"HK vs China GDP: A sobering reality", ''EJ Insight''}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180829090354/http://www.ejinsight.com/20170609-hk-versus-china-gdp-a-sobering-reality/ |archive-date=29 August 2018 |url-status=dead }} | |||
* {{cite web |title=Hong Kong Activists Stare Down 'Great Firewall of China' |date=29 September 2014 |publisher=] |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/hong-kong-protests/hong-kong-activists-stare-down-great-firewall-china-n213911 |access-date=21 June 2018 |ref={{sfnref|"Hong Kong Activists Stare Down 'Great Firewall of China'", ''NBC News''}} }} | |||
* {{Cite news |title=Hong Kong profile – Media |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-16525992 |date=5 March 2018 |work=BBC News |access-date=29 May 2018 |ref={{sfnref|"Hong Kong media profile", ''BBC News''}} }} | |||
* {{cite web |last=Kohlstedt |first=Kurt |date=5 September 2016 |title=Here Be Dragons: How Feng Shui Shapes the Skyline of Hong Kong |url=https://99percentinvisible.org/article/dragons-feng-shui-shapes-skyline-hong-kong/ |website=] |access-date=23 June 2018 }} | |||
* {{cite web |last=Kwong |first=Chi Man |date=9 September 2015 |title=Hong Kong during World War II: A Transnational Battlefield |url=http://theasiadialogue.com/2015/09/09/hong-kong-during-world-war-ii-a-transnational-battlefield/ |publisher=] |access-date=22 January 2018 |archive-date=27 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180627034106/http://theasiadialogue.com/2015/09/09/hong-kong-during-world-war-ii-a-transnational-battlefield/ |url-status=dead }} | |||
* {{cite news |last1=Lam |first1=Eric |last2=Qiu |first2=Yue |date=23 June 2017 |title=Hong Kong's Stock Market Tells the Story of China's Growing Dominance |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2017-hang-seng-index/ |website=] |access-date=26 December 2017 }} | |||
* {{cite web |title=Land Use in Hong Kong 2017 |url=http://www.pland.gov.hk/pland_en/info_serv/statistic/landu.html |website=] |access-date=1 September 2018 |ref={{sfnref|"Land Use in Hong Kong 2017", Planning Department}} |archive-date=19 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019212830/http://www.pland.gov.hk/pland_en/info_serv/statistic/landu.html |url-status=dead }} | |||
* {{cite web |title=Meanings of Right of Abode and Other Terms |url=http://www.immd.gov.hk/eng/services/roa/term.html |website=] |access-date=18 November 2017 |ref={{sfnref|"Meanings of Right of Abode and Other Terms", Immigration Department}} }} | |||
{{refend}} | |||
== |
== External links == | ||
{{Notelist|group=note}} | |||
== References == | |||
=== Citations === | |||
{{Reflist|30em}} | |||
=== Sources === | |||
; Primary sources | |||
* Bard, Solomon, ed. ''Voices from the Past: Hong Kong, 1842-1918'' (Hong Kong University Press, 2002) | |||
* {{cite book |last=Endacott |first=G. B.|authorlink=George Beer Endacott |title = An Eastern Entrepot: A Collection of Documents Illustrating the History of Hong Kong |publisher=] |year=1964 |page=293 |oclc= 632495979 |asin=B0007J07G6 }} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Hanstedt|first=Paul |title=Hong Konged: One Modern American Family's (Mis)adventures in the Gateway to China |year=2012 |publisher=Adams Media |location=Avon, Massachusetts |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Tj6cOGvc7ecC&printsec=frontcover |ISBN = 9781440540738}} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Tsang |first=Steve |title=Government and Politics: A Documentary History of Hong Kong|publisher=Hong Kong University Press |year=1995 |page=312 |ISBN = 962-209-392-2 |url = https://www.questia.com/library/1936663/government-and-politics-a-documentary-history-of}} | |||
== Further reading == | |||
* Barrett, Dean, Hangman's Point, Hong Kong & southern China in 1857, Village East Books, ISBN 0-9661899-1-4, 1998 | |||
* Callick, Rowan. ''Comrades & Capitalists: Hong Kong since the Handover'' (University of New South Wales Press, 1998) | |||
* {{cite book |last=Fu|first=Poshek|last2=Deser|first2=David|title=The Cinema of Hong Kong: History, Arts, Identity|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2002|page=346|isbn=978-0-521-77602-8}} | |||
* Lee, James. ''Housing, Home Ownership and Social Change in Hong Kong'' (1999) | |||
* {{cite book |title=Forts and Pirates – A History of Hong Kong|first=Adam Yuen-chung|last=Lui|publisher=Hong Kong History Society|year=1990|isbn=962-7489-01-8|page=114}} | |||
* {{cite book|first=Shuyong|last=Liu|first2=Wenjiong|last2=Wang|first3=Mingyu|last3=Chang|title=An Outline History of Hong Kong|publisher=Foreign Languages Press|year=1997|page=291|isbn=978-7-119-01946-8}} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Ngo|first=Tak-Wing|title=Hong Kong's History: State and Society Under Colonial Rule|publisher=Routledge|year= 1999|isbn=978-0-415-20868-0}} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Tsang|first=Steve|title=A Modern History of Hong Kong|publisher=I. B. Tauris|year=2007|isbn=978-1-84511-419-0}} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Welsh|first=Frank|title=A Borrowed place: the history of Hong Kong|page=624 |publisher=Kodansha International|year=1993|isbn=978-1-56836-002-7}} | |||
==External links== | |||
{{Sister project links|voy=Hong Kong|d=Q8646|Hong Kong}} | {{Sister project links|voy=Hong Kong|d=Q8646|Hong Kong}} | ||
* |
* . '']''. ]. | ||
* |
* from ] | ||
* from ] | |||
* {{CIA World Factbook link|hk|Hong Kong}} | |||
* , an open access photographic archive of recent Hong Kong history | |||
* {{dmoz|Regional/Asia/Hong_Kong}} | |||
'''Government''' | |||
* from the ] | |||
* Hong Kong SAR government portal | |||
* Official site of the tourism board | |||
'''Trade''' | |||
* | |||
'''Maps''' | |||
* {{Wikiatlas|Hong Kong}} | * {{Wikiatlas|Hong Kong}} | ||
* {{OSM relation|913110}} | * {{OSM relation|913110}} | ||
* from ] | |||
; Government | |||
* Hong Kong SAR Government portal | |||
* – Official site of the Hong Kong Tourism Board | |||
;Trade | |||
* | |||
{{Hong Kong topics}} | |||
<!-- Please do not use all-enclosing navbox, as it will cause the template limits to be exceeded, breaking display of navboxes --> | |||
{{Pearl River Delta}} | |||
{{Major cities along the Pearl River}} | |||
{{Province-level divisions of the People's Republic of China}} | |||
{{Prefectural-level divisions of the People's Republic of China}} | |||
{{Navboxes | {{Navboxes | ||
| title = International membership | |||
| list = | | list = | ||
{{Countries of Asia}} | |||
{{East Asian topics}} | |||
{{Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation}} | {{Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation}} | ||
{{World Trade Organization}} | {{World Trade Organization}} | ||
}} | }} | ||
{{Navboxes | |||
| title = Languages | |||
| list = | |||
{{English official language clickable map}} | |||
}} | |||
{{Navboxes | |||
| title = Population | |||
| list = | |||
{{Metropolitan cities of China}} | |||
{{Most populous cities in the People's Republic of China}} | |||
{{World's most populous metropolitan areas}} | |||
{{World's most populous urban areas}} | |||
}} | |||
{{Province-level divisions of the People's Republic of China}} | |||
{{Countries of Asia}} | |||
{{Good article}} | |||
{{coord|22.3|114.2|type:adm1st_region:HK_dim:30000|display=title}} | |||
{{Authority control}} | {{Authority control}} | ||
{{coord|22.3|114.2|type:adm1st_region:HK_dim:30000|format=dms|display=title}} | |||
] | ] | ||
] | ] | ||
] | ] | ||
] | ] | ||
] | ] | ||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | ] | ||
] | ] | ||
] | |||
] | ] | ||
] | ] | ||
] | |||
] | ] | ||
] | |||
] | ] | ||
] | |||
] |
Latest revision as of 23:28, 13 December 2024
Special administrative region of China "HK" redirects here. For other uses, see Hong Kong (disambiguation) and HK (disambiguation).Special administrative region in China
Hong Kong香港 | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Special administrative region | |||||||
Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China
Other official names
| |||||||
Flag Emblem | |||||||
Location of Hong Kong within China | |||||||
Sovereign state | China | ||||||
British possession | 26 January 1841 | ||||||
Treaty of Nanking | 29 August 1842 | ||||||
Convention of Peking | 24 October 1860 | ||||||
New Territories lease | 9 June 1898 | ||||||
Imperial Japanese occupation | 25 December 1941 to 30 August 1945 | ||||||
Re-designated as a British Dependent Territory | 1 January 1981 | ||||||
Sino-British Joint Declaration | 19 December 1984 | ||||||
Handover to China | 1 July 1997 | ||||||
Administrative centre | Tamar | ||||||
Largest district by population | Sha Tin | ||||||
Official languages |
| ||||||
Regional language | Cantonese | ||||||
Official scripts | Traditional Chinese English alphabet | ||||||
Ethnic groups (2021) | 91.6% Chinese 2.7% Filipino 1.9% Indonesian 0.8% White 0.6% Indian 0.4% Nepalese 2% other | ||||||
Demonym(s) |
| ||||||
Government | Devolved executive-led government within a unitary one-party state | ||||||
• Chief Executive | John Lee | ||||||
• Chief Secretary | Eric Chan | ||||||
• Council President | Andrew Leung | ||||||
• Chief Justice | Andrew Cheung | ||||||
Legislature | Legislative Council | ||||||
National representation | |||||||
• National People's Congress | 36 deputies | ||||||
• Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference | 203 delegates | ||||||
Area | |||||||
• Total | 2,754.97 km (1,063.70 sq mi) (168th) | ||||||
• Water (%) | 59.70% (1,640.62 km; 633.45 sq mi) | ||||||
• Land | 1,114.35 km (430.25 sq mi) | ||||||
Highest elevation (Tai Mo Shan) | 957 m (3,140 ft) | ||||||
Lowest elevation (South China Sea) | 0 m (0 ft) | ||||||
Population | |||||||
• 2023 estimate | 7,498,100 | ||||||
• 2021 census | 7,413,070 | ||||||
• Density | 6,801/km (17,614.5/sq mi) (4th) | ||||||
GDP (PPP) | 2024 estimate | ||||||
• Total | $569.828 billion (50th) | ||||||
• Per capita | $75,407 (17th) | ||||||
GDP (nominal) | 2024 estimate | ||||||
• Total | $401.751 billion (41st) | ||||||
• Per capita | $53,165 (20th) | ||||||
Gini (2021) | 39.7 medium | ||||||
HDI (2022) | 0.956 very high · 4th | ||||||
Currency | Hong Kong dollar (HK$) (HKD) | ||||||
Time zone | UTC+08:00 (HKT) | ||||||
Date format | dd/mm/yyyy yyyy年mm月dd日 | ||||||
Mains electricity | 220 V–50 Hz | ||||||
Driving side | Left | ||||||
Calling code | +852 | ||||||
ISO 3166 code | |||||||
Internet TLD | |||||||
Number plate prefixes | None for local vehicles, 粤Z for cross-boundary vehicles |
Hong Kong is a special administrative region of China. With 7.4 million residents of various nationalities in a 1,104-square-kilometre (426 sq mi) territory, Hong Kong is the fourth most densely populated region in the world.
Hong Kong was established as a colony of the British Empire after the Qing dynasty ceded Hong Kong Island in 1841–1842 as a consequence of losing the First Opium War. The colony expanded to the Kowloon Peninsula in 1860 and was further extended when the United Kingdom obtained a 99-year lease of the New Territories in 1898. Hong Kong was occupied by Japan from 1941 to 1945 during World War II. The territory was handed over from the United Kingdom to China in 1997. Hong Kong maintains separate governing and economic systems from that of mainland China under the principle of one country, two systems.
Originally a sparsely populated area of farming and fishing villages, the territory is now one of the world's most significant financial centres and commercial ports. Hong Kong is the world's third-ranked global financial centre (behind New York City and London), ninth-largest exporter, and eighth-largest importer. Its currency, the Hong Kong dollar, is the ninth most traded currency in the world. Home to the seventh-highest number of billionaires of any city in the world, Hong Kong has the largest number of ultra high-net-worth individuals. Although the city has one of the highest per capita incomes in the world, severe income inequality exists among the population. Despite being the city with the most skyscrapers in the world, housing in Hong Kong is consistently in high demand.
Hong Kong is a highly developed territory and has a Human Development Index (HDI) of 0.956, ranking fourth in the world and currently the only place in Asia to be in the top 5. The city has the highest life expectancy in the world, and a public transport usage exceeding 90 per cent.
Etymology
Hong Kong | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
"Hong Kong" in Chinese characters | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Chinese | 香港 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Jyutping | hoeng1 gong2 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Cantonese Yale |
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Literal meaning | "Fragrant Harbour" | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Hong Kong Special Administrative Region | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Traditional Chinese |
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Simplified Chinese |
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Jyutping |
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Cantonese Yale |
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Some of this article's listed sources may not be reliable. Please help improve this article by looking for better, more reliable sources. Unreliable citations may be challenged and removed. (November 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this message) |
The name of the territory, first romanised as "He-Ong-Kong" in 1780, originally referred to a small inlet located between Aberdeen Island and the southern coast of Hong Kong Island. Aberdeen was an initial point of contact between British sailors and local fishermen. Although the source of the romanised name is unknown, it is generally believed to be an early phonetic rendering of the Cantonese (or Tanka Cantonese) phrase hēung góng. The name translates as "fragrant harbour" or "incense harbour". "Fragrant" may refer to the sweet taste of the harbour's freshwater influx from the Pearl River or to the odour from incense factories lining the coast of northern Kowloon. The incense was stored near Aberdeen Harbour for export before Victoria Harbour was developed. Sir John Davis (the second colonial governor) offered an alternative origin; Davis said that the name derived from "Hoong-keang" ("red torrent"), reflecting the colour of soil over which a waterfall on the island flowed.
The simplified name Hong Kong was frequently used by 1810. The name was also commonly written as the single word Hongkong until 1926, when the government officially adopted the two-word name. Some corporations founded during the early colonial era still keep this name, including Hongkong Land, Hongkong Electric Company, Hongkong and Shanghai Hotels and the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation (HSBC).
History
Main article: History of Hong Kong For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Hong Kong history.Prehistory and Imperial China
Earliest known human traces in what is now Hong Kong are dated by some to 35,000 and 39,000 years ago during the Paleolithic period. The claim is based on an archaeological investigation in Wong Tei Tung, Sai Kung in 2003. The archaeological works revealed knapped stone tools from deposits that were dated using optical luminescence dating.
During the Middle Neolithic period, about 6,000 years ago, the region had been widely occupied by humans. Neolithic to Bronze Age Hong Kong settlers were semi-coastal people. Early inhabitants are believed to be Austronesians in the Middle Neolithic period and later the Yue people. As hinted by the archaeological works in Sha Ha, Sai Kung, rice cultivation had been introduced since Late Neolithic period. Bronze Age Hong Kong featured coarse pottery, hard pottery, quartz and stone jewelry, as well as small bronze implements.
The Qin dynasty incorporated the Hong Kong area into China for the first time in 214 BCE, after conquering the indigenous Baiyue. The region was consolidated under the Nanyue kingdom (a predecessor state of Vietnam) after the Qin collapse and recaptured by China after the Han conquest. During the Mongol conquest of China in the 13th century, the Southern Song court was briefly located in modern-day Kowloon City (the Sung Wong Toi site) before its final defeat in the 1279 Battle of Yamen by the Yuan Dynasty. By the end of the Yuan dynasty, seven large families had settled in the region and owned most of the land. Settlers from nearby provinces migrated to Kowloon throughout the Ming dynasty.
The earliest European visitor was Portuguese explorer Jorge Álvares, who arrived in 1513. Portuguese merchants established a trading post called Tamão in Hong Kong waters and began regular trade with southern China. Although the traders were expelled after military clashes in the 1520s, Portuguese-Chinese trade relations were re-established by 1549. Portugal acquired a permanent lease for Macau in 1887.
After the Qing conquest, maritime trade was banned under the Haijin policies. From 1661 to 1683, the population of most of the area forming present day Hong Kong was cleared under the Great Clearance, turning the region into a wasteland. The Kangxi Emperor lifted the maritime trade prohibition, allowing foreigners to enter Chinese ports in 1684. Qing authorities established the Canton System in 1757 to regulate trade more strictly, restricting non-Russian ships to the port of Canton. Although European demand for Chinese commodities like tea, silk, and porcelain was high, Chinese interest in European manufactured goods was insignificant, so that Chinese goods could only be bought with precious metals. To reduce the trade imbalance, the British sold large amounts of Indian opium to China. Faced with a drug crisis, Qing officials pursued ever more aggressive actions to halt the opium trade.
British colony
Main article: British Hong KongIn 1839, the Daoguang Emperor rejected proposals to legalise and tax opium and ordered imperial commissioner Lin Zexu to eradicate the opium trade. The commissioner destroyed opium stockpiles and halted all foreign trade, triggering a British military response and the First Opium War. The Qing surrendered early in the war and ceded Hong Kong Island in the Convention of Chuenpi. British forces began controlling Hong Kong shortly after the signing of the convention, from 26 January 1841. However, both countries were dissatisfied and did not ratify the agreement. After more than a year of further hostilities, Hong Kong Island was formally ceded to the United Kingdom in the 1842 Treaty of Nanking.
Administrative infrastructure was quickly built by early 1842, but piracy, disease, and hostile Qing policies initially prevented the government from attracting commerce. Conditions on the island improved during the Taiping Rebellion in the 1850s, when many Chinese refugees, including wealthy merchants, fled mainland turbulence and settled in the colony. Further tensions between the British and Qing over the opium trade escalated into the Second Opium War. The Qing were again defeated and forced to give up Kowloon Peninsula and Stonecutters Island in the Convention of Peking. By the end of this war, Hong Kong had evolved from a transient colonial outpost into a major entrepôt. Rapid economic improvement during the 1850s attracted foreign investment, as potential stakeholders became more confident in Hong Kong's future.
The colony was further expanded in 1898 when the United Kingdom obtained a 99-year lease of the New Territories. The University of Hong Kong was established in 1911 as the territory's first institution of higher education. Kai Tak Airport began operation in 1924, and the colony avoided a prolonged economic downturn after the 1925–26 Canton–Hong Kong strike. At the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, Governor Geoffry Northcote declared Hong Kong a neutral zone to safeguard its status as a free port. The colonial government prepared for a possible attack, evacuating all British women and children in 1940. The Imperial Japanese Army attacked Hong Kong on 8 December 1941, the same morning as its attack on Pearl Harbor. Hong Kong was occupied by Japan for almost four years before the British resumed control on 30 August 1945.
Its population rebounded quickly after the war, as skilled Chinese migrants fled from the Chinese Civil War and more refugees crossed the border when the Chinese Communist Party took control of mainland China in 1949. Hong Kong became the first of the Four Asian Tiger economies to industrialise during the 1950s. With a rapidly increasing population, the colonial government attempted reforms to improve infrastructure and public services. The public-housing estate programme, Independent Commission Against Corruption, and Mass Transit Railway were all established during the post-war decades to provide safer housing, integrity in the civil service, and more reliable transportation.
Nevertheless, widespread public discontent resulted in multiple protests from the 1950s to 1980s, including pro-Republic of China and pro-Chinese Communist Party protests. In the 1967 Hong Kong riots, pro-PRC protestors clashed with the British colonial government. As many as 51 were killed and 802 were injured in the violence, including dozens killed by the Royal Hong Kong Police via beatings and shootings.
Although the territory's competitiveness in manufacturing gradually declined because of rising labour and property costs, it transitioned to a service-based economy. By the early 1990s, Hong Kong had established itself as a global financial centre and shipping hub.
Chinese special administrative region
Further information: Handover of Hong KongThe colony faced an uncertain future as the end of the New Territories lease approached, and Governor Murray MacLehose raised the question of Hong Kong's status with Deng Xiaoping in 1979. Diplomatic negotiations with China resulted in the 1984 Sino-British Joint Declaration, in which the United Kingdom agreed to the handover of the colony in 1997 and China would guarantee Hong Kong's economic and political systems for 50 years after the handover. The impending handover triggered a wave of mass emigration as residents feared an erosion of civil rights, the rule of law, and quality of life. Over half a million people left the territory during the peak migration period, from 1987 to 1996. The Legislative Council became a fully elected legislature for the first time in 1995 and extensively expanded its functions and organisations throughout the last years of the colonial rule. The handover of Hong Kong to China was at midnight on 1 July 1997, after 156 years of British rule.
Immediately after the handover, Hong Kong was severely affected by several crises. The Hong Kong government was forced to use substantial foreign exchange reserves to maintain the Hong Kong dollar's currency peg during the 1997 Asian financial crisis, and the recovery from this was muted by an H5N1 avian-flu outbreak and a housing surplus. This was followed by the 2003 SARS epidemic, during which the territory experienced its most serious economic downturn.
Chinese communists portrayed the return of Hong Kong as key moment in the PRC's rise to great power status.
Political debates after the handover have centred around the region's democratic development and the Chinese central government's adherence to the "one country, two systems" principle. After reversal of the last colonial era Legislative Council democratic reforms following the handover, the regional government unsuccessfully attempted to enact national security legislation pursuant to Article 23 of the Basic Law. The central government decision to implement nominee pre-screening before allowing chief executive elections triggered a series of protests in 2014 which became known as the Umbrella Revolution. Discrepancies in the electoral registry and disqualification of elected legislators after the 2016 Legislative Council elections and enforcement of national law in the West Kowloon high-speed railway station raised further concerns about the region's autonomy. In June 2019, mass protests erupted in response to a proposed extradition amendment bill permitting the extradition of fugitives to mainland China. The protests are the largest in Hong Kong's history, with organisers claiming to have attracted more than three million Hong Kong residents.
The Hong Kong regional government and Chinese central government responded to the protests with a number of administrative measures to quell dissent. In June 2020, the Legislative Council passed the National Anthem Ordinance, which criminalised "insults to the national anthem of China". The Chinese central government meanwhile enacted the Hong Kong national security law to help quell protests in the region. Nine months later, in March 2021, the Chinese central government introduced amendments to Hong Kong's electoral system, which included the reduction of directly elected seats in the Legislative Council and the requirement that all candidates be vetted and approved by a Beijing-appointed Candidate Eligibility Review Committee.
In May 2023, the Legislative Council also introduced legislation to reduce the number of directly elected seats in the district councils, and a District Council Eligibility Review Committee was similarly established to vet candidates.
Government and politics
Main articles: Government of Hong Kong, Politics of Hong Kong, Elections in Hong Kong, and Separation of powers in Hong KongHong Kong is a special administrative region of China, with executive, legislative, and judicial powers devolved from the national government. The Sino-British Joint Declaration provided for economic and administrative continuity through the handover, resulting in an executive-led governing system largely inherited from the territory's history as a British colony. Under these terms and the "one country, two systems" principle, the Basic Law of Hong Kong is the regional constitution. The regional government is composed of three branches:
- Executive: The Chief Executive is responsible for enforcing regional law, can force reconsideration of legislation, and appoints Executive Council members and principal officials. Acting with the Executive Council, the Chief Executive-in-Council can propose new bills, issue subordinate legislation, and has authority to dissolve the legislature. In states of emergency or public danger, the Chief Executive-in-Council is further empowered to enact any regulation necessary to restore public order.
- Legislature: The unicameral Legislative Council enacts regional law, approves budgets, and has the power to impeach a sitting chief executive.
- Judiciary: The Hong Kong Court of Final Appeal and lower courts interpret laws and overturn those inconsistent with the Basic Law. Judges are appointed by the chief executive on the advice of a recommendation commission.
The chief executive is the head of government and serves for a maximum of two five-year terms. The State Council (led by the Premier of China) appoints the chief executive after nomination by the Election Committee, which is composed of 1500 business, community, and government leaders.
The Legislative Council has 90 members, each serving a four-year term. Twenty are directly elected from geographical constituencies, thirty-five represent functional constituencies (FC), and forty are chosen by an election committee consisting of representatives appointed by the Chinese central government. Thirty FC councillors are selected from limited electorates representing sectors of the economy or special interest groups, and the remaining five members are nominated from sitting district council members and selected in region-wide double direct elections. All popularly elected members are chosen by proportional representation. The 30 limited electorate functional constituencies fill their seats using first-past-the-post or instant-runoff voting.
Twenty-two political parties had representatives elected to the Legislative Council in the 2016 election. These parties have aligned themselves into three ideological groups: the pro-Beijing camp (the current government), the pro-democracy camp, and localist groups. The Chinese Communist Party does not have an official political presence in Hong Kong, and its members do not run in local elections. Hong Kong is represented in the National People's Congress by 36 deputies chosen through an electoral college and 203 delegates in the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference appointed by the central government.
Chinese national law does not generally apply in the region, and Hong Kong is treated as a separate jurisdiction. Its judicial system is based on common law, continuing the legal tradition established during British rule. Local courts may refer to precedents set in English law and overseas jurisprudence. However, mainland criminal procedure law applies to cases investigated by the Office for Safeguarding National Security of the CPG in the HKSAR. Interpretative and amending power over the Basic Law and jurisdiction over acts of state lie with the central authority, making regional courts ultimately subordinate to the mainland's socialist civil law system. Decisions made by the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress override any territorial judicial process. Furthermore, in circumstances where the Standing Committee declares a state of emergency in Hong Kong, the State Council may enforce national law in the region.
The territory's jurisdictional independence is most apparent in its immigration and taxation policies. The Immigration Department issues passports for permanent residents which differ from those of the mainland or Macau, and the region maintains a regulated border with the rest of the country. All travellers between Hong Kong and China and Macau must pass through border controls, regardless of nationality. Mainland Chinese citizens do not have right of abode in Hong Kong and are subject to immigration controls. Public finances are handled separately from the national government; taxes levied in Hong Kong do not fund the central authority.
The Hong Kong Garrison of the People's Liberation Army is responsible for the region's defence. Although the Chairman of the Central Military Commission is supreme commander of the armed forces, the regional government may request assistance from the garrison. Hong Kong residents are not required to perform military service, and current law has no provision for local enlistment, so its defence is composed entirely of non-Hongkongers.
The central government and Ministry of Foreign Affairs handle diplomatic matters, but Hong Kong retains the ability to maintain separate economic and cultural relations with foreign nations. The territory actively participates in the World Trade Organization, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum, the International Olympic Committee, and many United Nations agencies. The regional government maintains trade offices in Greater China and other nations.
The imposition of the Hong Kong national security law by the central government in Beijing in June 2020 resulted in the suspension of bilateral extradition treaties by the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Finland, and Ireland. The United States ended its preferential economic and trade treatment of Hong Kong in July 2020 because it was no longer able to distinguish Hong Kong as a separate entity from the People's Republic of China. In 2024, the Safeguarding National Security Ordinance was passed by the Legislative Council to grant officials "even more powers to crack down on opposition to Beijing and the Hong Kong government" and includes penalties such as life imprisonment for political crimes such as treason and insurrection. Critics state that this expansion "will strike a lasting blow to the partial autonomy the city had been promised by China ."
Administrative divisions
Main articles: Areas of Hong Kong, Districts of Hong Kong, and List of towns in Hong KongHong Kong's administrative divisions are divided into three levels: Areas (區域), Districts (地區), and Sub-districts (分區). Hong Kong is administratively divided into three areas: Hong Kong Island, Kowloon, and the New Territories. They are further divided into 18 districts. The area of Hong Kong Island has four districts, the area of Kowloon has five districts, and the area of the New Territories has nine districts. Each district is represented by a district council. The district councils advise the government on local issues such as public facility provisioning, community programme maintenance, cultural promotion, and environmental policy.
As of 2024, there are a total of 470 district council seats, 88 of which are directly elected. In May 2023, the government proposed reforms to the District Council electoral system which further cut the number of directly elected seats from 452 to 88, and total seats from 479 to 470. A requirement that district council candidates be vetted and approved by the District Council Eligibility Review Committee was also proposed. The Legislative Council approved the reforms in July 2023.
Political reforms and sociopolitical issues
Main articles: Democratic development in Hong Kong and Human rights in Hong KongHong Kong is governed by a hybrid regime that is not fully representative of the population. Legislative Council members elected by functional constituencies composed of professional and special interest groups are accountable to these narrow corporate electorates and not the general public. This electoral arrangement has guaranteed a pro-Beijing camp majority in the legislature since the handover. Similarly, the chief executive is selected by establishment politicians and corporate members of the Election Committee rather than directly elected. Despite universal suffrage being established as ultimate goals for the election of the chief executive and all members of the Legislative Council in Articles 45 and 68 of the basic law, the legislature is only partially directly elected, and the executive continues to be nominated by an unrepresentative body. The government has been repeatedly petitioned to introduce direct elections for these positions, but has not introduced these direct elections as of 2024.
Ethnic minorities (except those of European ancestry) have marginal representation in government and often experience discrimination in housing, education, and employment. Employment vacancies and public service appointments frequently have language requirements which minority job seekers do not meet, and language education resources remain inadequate for Chinese learners. Foreign domestic helpers, mostly women from the Philippines and Indonesia, have little protection under regional law. Although they live and work in Hong Kong, these workers are not treated as ordinary residents and do not have the right of abode in the territory. Sex trafficking is also an issue, local, mainland Chinese, and foreign women have been trafficked for sex in brothels, homes, and businesses in the city.
The Joint Declaration guarantees the Basic Law of Hong Kong for 50 years after the handover. It does not specify how Hong Kong will be governed after 2047, and the central government's role in determining the territory's future system of government is the subject of political debate and speculation. Hong Kong's political and judicial systems may be integrated with China's at that time, or the territory may continue to be administered separately. However, in response to large-scale protests in 2019 and 2020, the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress passed the controversial Hong Kong national security law. The law criminalises secession, subversion, terrorism and collusion with foreign elements and establishes the Office for Safeguarding National Security of the CPG in the HKSAR, an investigative office under Central People's Government authority immune from HKSAR jurisdiction. Some of the aforementioned acts were previously considered protected speech under Hong Kong law. The United Kingdom considers the law to be a serious violation of the Joint Declaration. In October 2020, the Hong Kong Police arrested seven pro-democracy politicians over tussles with pro-Beijing politicians in the Legislative Council in May. They were charged with contempt and interfering with members of the council, while none of the pro-Beijing lawmakers were detained. Annual commemorations of the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre were also cancelled amidst fears of violating the national security law. In March 2021, the Chinese central government unilaterally changed Hong Kong's electoral system and established the Candidate Eligibility Review Committee, which would be tasked with screening and evaluating political candidates for their "patriotism", effectively crushing the remainder of the Pro-Democracy camp.
Geography
Main articles: Geography of Hong Kong and Environment of Hong KongHong Kong is on China's southern coast, 60 km (37 mi) east of Macau, on the east side of the mouth of the Pearl River estuary. It is surrounded by the South China Sea on all sides except the north, which neighbours the Guangdong city of Shenzhen along the Sham Chun River. The territory's 1,110.18 km (428.64 sq mi) area (2,754.97 km if the maritime area is included) consists of Hong Kong Island, the Kowloon Peninsula, the New Territories, Lantau Island, and over 200 other islands. Of the total area, 1,073 km (414 sq mi) is land and 35 km (14 sq mi) is water. The territory's highest point is Tai Mo Shan, 957 metres (3,140 ft) above sea level. Urban development is concentrated on the Kowloon Peninsula, Hong Kong Island, and in new towns throughout the New Territories. Much of this is built on reclaimed land; 70 km (27 sq mi) (6% of the total land or about 25% of developed space in the territory) is reclaimed from the sea.
Undeveloped terrain is hilly to mountainous, with very little flat land, and consists mostly of grassland, woodland, shrubland, or farmland. About 40% of the remaining land area is country parks and nature reserves. The territory has a diverse ecosystem; over 3,000 species of vascular plants occur in the region (300 of which are native to Hong Kong), and thousands of insect, avian, and marine species.
Climate
Hong Kong has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cwa), characteristic of southern China, despite being located south of the Tropic of Cancer, although closely bordering on a tropical climate. Summers are long, hot and humid, with occasional showers and thunderstorms and warm air from the southwest. The humid nature of Hong Kong exacerbates the warmth of summer. Typhoons occur most often then, sometimes resulting in floods or landslides. Also rarely occurring are waterspouts and tornadoes, which occurred at Hong Kong International Airport on 26 September 2020 and at Victoria Harbour on 28 September 2024. Winters are short, mild and usually sunny at the beginning, becoming cloudy towards February. Frequent cold fronts bring strong, cooling winds from the north and occasionally result in chilly weather. Autumn is the sunniest season, whilst spring is generally cloudy. Snowfall has been extremely rare in Hong Kong; the last reported instance was on Tai Mo Shan in 1975. Hong Kong averages 1,709 hours of sunshine per year. Historic temperature extremes at the Hong Kong Observatory are 36.6 °C (97.9 °F) on 22 August 2017 and 0.0 °C (32.0 °F) on 18 January 1893. The highest and lowest recorded temperatures in all of Hong Kong are 39.0 °C (102 °F) at Wetland Park on 22 August 2017, and −6.0 °C (21.2 °F) at Tai Mo Shan on 24 January 2016.
Climate data for Hong Kong (Hong Kong Observatory), normals 1991–2020, extremes 1884–1939 and 1947–present | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °C (°F) | 26.9 (80.4) |
28.3 (82.9) |
31.5 (88.7) |
33.4 (92.1) |
36.1 (97.0) |
35.6 (96.1) |
36.1 (97.0) |
36.6 (97.9) |
35.9 (96.6) |
34.6 (94.3) |
31.8 (89.2) |
28.7 (83.7) |
36.6 (97.9) |
Mean maximum °C (°F) | 24.0 (75.2) |
25.1 (77.2) |
27.5 (81.5) |
30.2 (86.4) |
32.3 (90.1) |
33.6 (92.5) |
34.1 (93.4) |
34.2 (93.6) |
33.4 (92.1) |
31.3 (88.3) |
28.4 (83.1) |
25.1 (77.2) |
34.7 (94.5) |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 18.7 (65.7) |
19.4 (66.9) |
21.9 (71.4) |
25.6 (78.1) |
28.8 (83.8) |
30.7 (87.3) |
31.6 (88.9) |
31.3 (88.3) |
30.5 (86.9) |
28.1 (82.6) |
24.5 (76.1) |
20.4 (68.7) |
26.0 (78.8) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 16.5 (61.7) |
17.1 (62.8) |
19.5 (67.1) |
23.0 (73.4) |
26.3 (79.3) |
28.3 (82.9) |
28.9 (84.0) |
28.7 (83.7) |
27.9 (82.2) |
25.7 (78.3) |
22.2 (72.0) |
18.2 (64.8) |
23.5 (74.3) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 14.6 (58.3) |
15.3 (59.5) |
17.6 (63.7) |
21.1 (70.0) |
24.5 (76.1) |
26.5 (79.7) |
26.9 (80.4) |
26.7 (80.1) |
26.1 (79.0) |
23.9 (75.0) |
20.3 (68.5) |
16.2 (61.2) |
21.6 (70.9) |
Mean minimum °C (°F) | 9.1 (48.4) |
10.2 (50.4) |
12.2 (54.0) |
16.3 (61.3) |
20.7 (69.3) |
23.6 (74.5) |
24.2 (75.6) |
24.3 (75.7) |
23.5 (74.3) |
20.1 (68.2) |
15.3 (59.5) |
10.1 (50.2) |
7.8 (46.0) |
Record low °C (°F) | 0.0 (32.0) |
2.4 (36.3) |
4.8 (40.6) |
9.9 (49.8) |
15.4 (59.7) |
19.2 (66.6) |
21.7 (71.1) |
21.6 (70.9) |
18.4 (65.1) |
13.5 (56.3) |
6.5 (43.7) |
4.3 (39.7) |
0.0 (32.0) |
Average rainfall mm (inches) | 33.2 (1.31) |
38.9 (1.53) |
75.3 (2.96) |
153.0 (6.02) |
290.6 (11.44) |
491.5 (19.35) |
385.8 (15.19) |
453.2 (17.84) |
321.4 (12.65) |
120.3 (4.74) |
39.3 (1.55) |
28.8 (1.13) |
2,431.2 (95.72) |
Average rainy days (≥ 0.1 mm) | 5.70 | 7.97 | 10.50 | 11.37 | 15.37 | 19.33 | 18.43 | 17.50 | 14.90 | 7.83 | 5.70 | 5.30 | 139.90 |
Average relative humidity (%) | 74 | 79 | 82 | 83 | 83 | 82 | 81 | 81 | 78 | 73 | 72 | 70 | 78 |
Average dew point °C (°F) | 11.7 (53.1) |
13.2 (55.8) |
16.1 (61.0) |
19.7 (67.5) |
23.0 (73.4) |
24.9 (76.8) |
25.2 (77.4) |
25.1 (77.2) |
23.6 (74.5) |
20.2 (68.4) |
16.7 (62.1) |
12.4 (54.3) |
19.3 (66.7) |
Mean monthly sunshine hours | 145.8 | 101.7 | 100.0 | 113.2 | 138.8 | 144.3 | 197.3 | 182.1 | 174.4 | 197.8 | 172.3 | 161.6 | 1,829.3 |
Percent possible sunshine | 43 | 32 | 27 | 30 | 34 | 36 | 48 | 46 | 47 | 55 | 52 | 48 | 41 |
Source: Hong Kong Observatory |
Architecture
Main article: Architecture of Hong KongHong Kong has the world's largest number of skyscrapers, with 554 towers taller than 150 metres (490 ft), and the third-largest number of high-rise buildings in the world. The lack of available space restricted development to high-density residential tenements and commercial complexes packed closely together on buildable land. Single-family detached homes are uncommon and generally only found in outlying areas. The International Commerce Centre and Two International Finance Centre are the tallest buildings in Hong Kong and are among the tallest in the Asia-Pacific region. Other distinctive buildings lining the Hong Kong Island skyline include the HSBC Main Building, the anemometer-topped triangular Central Plaza, the circular Hopewell Centre, and the sharp-edged Bank of China Tower.
Demand for new construction has contributed to frequent demolition of older buildings, freeing space for modern high-rises. However, many examples of European and Lingnan architecture are still found throughout the territory. Older government buildings are examples of colonial architecture. The 1846 Flagstaff House, the former residence of the Commander of the British forces in Hong Kong, is the oldest Western-style building in Hong Kong. Some buildings, such as the Court of Final Appeal Building and the Hong Kong Observatory retain their original functions, and others have been adapted and reused; the Former Marine Police Headquarters was redeveloped into a commercial and retail complex, and Béthanie (built in 1875 as a sanatorium) houses the Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts. The Tin Hau Temple, dedicated to the sea goddess Mazu (originally built in 1012 and rebuilt in 1266), is the territory's oldest existing structure. The Ping Shan Heritage Trail has architectural examples of several imperial Chinese dynasties, including the Tsui Sing Lau Pagoda (Hong Kong's only remaining pagoda).
Tong lau, mixed-use tenement buildings constructed during the colonial era, blended southern Chinese architectural styles with European influences. These were especially prolific during the immediate post-war period, when many were rapidly built to house large numbers of Chinese migrants. Examples include Lui Seng Chun, the Blue House in Wan Chai, and the Shanghai Street shophouses in Mong Kok. Mass-produced public-housing estates, built since the 1960s, are mainly constructed in modernist style.
The Hong Kong Island skyline, viewed from the Victoria Harbour waterfront City view of Kowloon, Hong Kong Island, and the Hong Kong skylineDemographics
Main articles: Demographics of Hong Kong and Hong Kong peopleCause of Death | 2001 | 2011 | 2021 |
---|---|---|---|
1. Malignant neoplasms | 169.9 | 187.2 | 203.8 |
2. Pneumonia | 45.1 | 87.8 | 132.6 |
3. Diseases of heart | 70 | 89.6 | 89 |
4. Cerebrovascular | 46.6 | 47.2 | 42.2 |
5. External causes of morbidity and mortality |
27.5 | 22.2 | 26.7 |
6. Nephritis, nephrotic syndrome and nephrosis |
15.7 | 21.8 | 24 |
7. Dementia | 3.8 | 10.6 | 20.2 |
8. Septicaemia | 6.3 | 10.8 | 16.8 |
9. Chronic lower respiratory diseases |
31.5 | 27.8 | 14.3 |
10. Diabetes mellitus | 10.1 | 6.5 | 7.4 |
All other causes | 69.7 | 85 | 118.1 |
All causes | 496 | 596.6 | 695.2 |
The Census and Statistics Department estimated Hong Kong's population at 7,413,070 in 2021. The overwhelming majority (91.6%) is Han Chinese, most of whom are Taishanese, Teochew, Hakka, and other Cantonese peoples. The remaining 8.4% are non-ethnic Chinese minorities, primarily Filipinos, Indonesians, and South Asians. However, most Filipinos and Indonesians in Hong Kong are short-term workers. According to a 2021 thematic report by the Hong Kong government, after excluding foreign domestic helpers, the real number of non-Chinese ethnic minorities in the city was 301,344, or 4% of Hong Kong's population. About half the population have some form of British nationality, a legacy of colonial rule; 3.4 million residents have British National (Overseas) status, and 260,000 British citizens live in the territory. The vast majority also hold Chinese nationality, automatically granted to all ethnic Chinese residents at the handover. Headline population density exceeds 7,060 people/km, and is the fourth-highest in the world.
The predominant language is Cantonese, a variety of Chinese originating in Guangdong. It is spoken by 93.7% of the population, 88.2% as a first language and 5.5% as a second language. Slightly over half the population (58.7%) speaks English, the other official language; 4.6% are native speakers, and 54.1% speak English as a second language. Code-switching, mixing English and Cantonese in informal conversation, is common among the bilingual population. Post-handover governments have promoted Mandarin, which is currently about as prevalent as English; 54.2% of the population speak Mandarin, with 2.3% native speakers and 51.9% as a second language. Traditional Chinese characters are used in writing, rather than the simplified characters used in the mainland.
Among the religious population, the traditional "three teachings" of China, Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism, have the most adherents (20%), followed by Christianity (12%) and Islam (4%). Followers of other religions, including Sikhism, Hinduism, and Judaism, generally originate from regions where their religion predominates.
Life expectancy in Hong Kong was 81.3 years for males and 87.2 years for females in 2022, one of the highest in the world. Cancer, pneumonia, heart disease, cerebrovascular disease, and accidents are the territory's five leading causes of death. The universal public healthcare system is funded by general-tax revenue, and treatment is highly subsidised; on average, 95% of healthcare costs are covered by the government.
The city has a severe amount of income inequality, which has risen since the handover, as the region's ageing population has gradually added to the number of nonworking people. Although median household income steadily increased during the decade to 2021, the wage gap remained high; the 90th percentile of earners receive 41% of all income. The city has the most billionaires per capita, with one billionaire per 109,657 people, as well as the second-highest number of billionaires of any city in the world, the highest number of billionaires of any city in Asia, and the largest concentration of ultra high-net-worth individuals of any city in the world. Despite government efforts to reduce the growing disparity, median income for the top 10% of earners is 57 times that of the bottom 10%.
Economy
Main articles: Economy of Hong Kong and Tourism in Hong KongOne of the world's most significant financial centres and commercial ports, Hong Kong has a market economy focused on services, characterised by low taxation, minimal government market intervention, and an established international financial market. It is the world's 38th-largest economy, with a nominal GDP of approximately US$407 billion. Hong Kong's economy ranked at the top of the Heritage Foundation's economic freedom index between 1995 and 2021. However, Hong Kong was removed from the index by the Heritage Foundation in 2021, with the Foundation citing a "loss of political freedom and autonomy ... almost indistinguishable in many respects from other major Chinese commercial centers like Shanghai and Beijing". Hong Kong is highly developed, and ranks fourth on the UN Human Development Index. The Hong Kong Stock Exchange is the seventh-largest in the world, with a market capitalisation of HK$30.4 trillion (US$3.87 trillion) as of December 2018. Hong Kong is ranked as the 18th most innovative territory in the Global Innovation Index in 2024, and 3rd in the Global Financial Centres Index. The city is sometimes referred to as "Silicon Harbor", a nickname derived from Silicon Valley in California. Hong Kong hosts several high tech and innovation companies, including several multinational companies.
Hong Kong is the ninth largest trading entity in exports and eighth largest in imports (2021), trading more goods in value than its gross domestic product. Over half of its cargo throughput consists of transshipments (goods travelling through Hong Kong). Products from mainland China account for about 40% of that traffic. The city's location allowed it to establish a transportation and logistics infrastructure which includes the world's seventh-busiest container port and the busiest airport for international cargo. The territory's largest export markets are mainland China and the United States. Hong Kong is a key part of the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road. It has little arable land and few natural resources, importing most of its food and raw materials. More than 90% of Hong Kong's food is imported, including nearly all of its meat and rice. Agricultural activity is 0.1% of GDP and consists of growing premium food and flower varieties.
Although the territory had one of Asia's largest manufacturing economies during the latter half of the colonial era, Hong Kong's economy is now dominated by the service sector. The sector generates 92.7% of economic output, with the public sector accounting for about 10%. Between 1961 and 1997 Hong Kong's gross domestic product increased by a factor of 180, and per capita GDP increased by a factor of 87. The territory's GDP relative to mainland China's peaked at 27% in 1993; it fell to less than 3% in 2017, as the mainland developed and liberalised its economy. Economic and infrastructure integration with China has increased significantly since the 1978 start of market liberalisation on the mainland. Since resumption of cross-boundary train service in 1979, many rail and road links have been improved and constructed, facilitating trade between regions. The Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement formalised a policy of free trade between the two areas, with each jurisdiction pledging to remove remaining obstacles to trade and cross-boundary investment. A similar economic partnership with Macau details the liberalisation of trade between the special administrative regions. Chinese companies have expanded their economic presence in the territory since the handover. Mainland firms represent over half of the Hang Seng Index value, up from 5% in 1997.
As the mainland liberalised its economy, Hong Kong's shipping industry faced intense competition from other Chinese ports. Half of China's trade goods were routed through Hong Kong in 1997, dropping to about 13% by 2015. The territory's minimal taxation, common law system, and civil service attract overseas corporations wishing to establish a presence in Asia. The city has the second-highest number of corporate headquarters in the Asia-Pacific region. Hong Kong is a gateway for foreign direct investment in China, giving investors open access to mainland Chinese markets through direct links with the Shanghai and Shenzhen stock exchanges. The territory was the first market outside mainland China for renminbi-denominated bonds, and is one of the largest hubs for offshore renminbi trading. In November 2020, Hong Kong's Financial Services and the Treasury Bureau proposed a new law that will restrict cryptocurrency trading to professional investors only, leaving amateur traders (93% of Hong Kong's trading population) out of the market. The Hong Kong dollar, the local currency, is the eighth most traded currency in the world. Due to extremely compact house sizes and the extremely high housing density, the city has the most expensive housing market in the world.
The government has had a passive role in the economy. Colonial governments had little industrial policy and implemented almost no trade controls. Under the doctrine of "positive non-interventionism", post-war administrations deliberately avoided the direct allocation of resources; active intervention was considered detrimental to economic growth. While the economy transitioned to a service basis during the 1980s, late colonial governments introduced interventionist policies. Post-handover administrations continued and expanded these programmes, including export-credit guarantees, a compulsory pension scheme, a minimum wage, anti-discrimination laws, and a state mortgage backer.
Tourism is a major part of the economy, accounting for 5% of GDP. In 2016, 26.6 million visitors contributed HK$258 billion (US$32.9 billion) to the territory, making Hong Kong the 14th most popular destination for international tourists. It is the most popular Chinese city for tourists, receiving over 70% more visitors than its closest competitor (Macau). The city is ranked as one of the most expensive cities for expatriates. However, since 2020, there has been a sharp decline in incoming visitors due to tight COVID-19 travel restrictions. Additionally, due to the closure of the Russian airspace in 2022, multiple airlines decided to cease their operations in Hong Kong. In an attempt to attract tourists back to Hong Kong, the Hong Kong government announced plans to give away 500,000 free airline tickets in 2023. Hong Kong was the most visited city internationally in the Asia-Pacific in 2023, with over 2 million more international visitors than its closest competitor, Bangkok.
Victoria Peak is a major tourist attraction that offers views of Central and Victoria Harbour.Infrastructure
Transport
Main article: Transport in Hong KongHong Kong has a highly developed, sophisticated transport network. Over 90% of the daily trips made by its residents are made with public transport, the highest percentage in the world. The Octopus card, a contactless smart payment card made for Hong Kong, is widely accepted on railways, trams, buses and ferries, and can be used for payment in most retail stores. Alternative payments such as Apple Pay, AliPay, Mastercard and Visa have also been gradually introduced to public transports.
The Peak Tram, Hong Kong's first public transport system, has provided funicular rail transport between Central and Victoria Peak since 1888.
The Central and Western District has an extensive system of escalators and moving pavements, which being the Mid-Levels escalator, the world's longest outdoor covered escalator system.
Hong Kong Tramways’ tram network covers a portion of Hong Kong Island, covering from Kennedy Town to Shau Kei Wan, with a branch to Happy Valley. It operates 6 routes and has had a rideship of 42,558 in 2022. It began servicing Hong Kong since 1904. Hong Kong Tramways currently holds the Guinness World Record as the "Largest double-decker tram fleet in service", certified on 30 July 2021, with a fleet of 165 double-decker trams. The fleet of trams were mostly built by Hong Kong Tramways.
The Mass Transit Railway (MTR) is an extensive passenger rail network, connecting 99 metro stations and 68 light-rail stops throughout the territory. With a daily ridership of almost five million, the system serves 41% of all public transit passengers in the city and has an on-time rate of 99.9%. Cross-boundary train service to Shenzhen is offered by the East Rail line, and longer-distance inter-city trains to Guangzhou, Shanghai, and Beijing are operated from Hung Hom station. This train service has however been suspended since the outbreak of COVID-19, and officially closed by the State Council on 31 July 2024, as announced by the General Administration of Customs, citing that high-speed passenger trains have effectively met the travel needs of passengers between the mainland and Hong Kong. Connecting service to the national high-speed rail system is provided at West Kowloon railway station.
Although public transport systems handle most passenger traffic, there are over 500,000 private vehicles registered in Hong Kong. Automobiles drive on the left (unlike in mainland China), because of historical influence of the British Empire. Vehicle traffic is extremely congested in urban areas, exacerbated by limited space to expand roads and an increasing number of vehicles. More than 18,000 taxicabs, easily identifiable by their bright colours and taxi lights, are licensed to carry riders in the territory. Unlicensed ride-hailing services such as Uber also exists in Hong Kong, with some operating with licensed taxis to legitimise their business in ride-sharing. Unlicensed drivers have been targeted by the government and taxi drivers in the past, mainly due to the lack of third-party insurance on passengers and taxi drivers fearing the competition from drivers of these ride-hailing services. The government in 2024 has looked into legalising these services.
Bus services operate more than 700 routes across the territory, with smaller public light buses (also known as minibuses) serving areas standard buses do not reach as frequently or directly. Expressways and truck roads, organised with the Hong Kong Strategic Route and Exit Number System, connect all major areas of the territory. The Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macau Bridge provides a direct route to the western side of the Pearl River estuary.
Hong Kong International Airport is the territory's primary airport, replacing Kai Tak International Airport that ended its operation in 1998. Over 100 airlines operate flights from the airport, including locally based Cathay Pacific (flag carrier), Hong Kong Airlines, low-cost airline HK Express and cargo airline Air Hong Kong. It was the eighth-busiest airport by passenger traffic pre-COVID and handles the most air-cargo traffic in the world. Most private recreational aviation traffic flies through Shek Kong Airfield, under the supervision of the Hong Kong Aviation Club.
The Star Ferry operates two lines across Victoria Harbour for its 53,000 daily passengers. Ferries also serve outlying islands inaccessible by other means. Smaller kai-to boats serve the most remote coastal settlements. Ferry travel to Macau and mainland China is also available. Junks, once common in Hong Kong waters, are no longer widely available and are used privately and for tourism. The large size of the port gives Hong Kong the classification of Large-Port Metropolis.
Utilities
Main articles: Energy in Hong Kong, Electricity sector in Hong Kong, and Water supply and sanitation in Hong KongHong Kong generates most of its electricity locally. The vast majority of this energy comes from fossil fuels, with 46% from coal and 47% from petroleum. The rest is from other imports, including nuclear energy generated in mainland China. Renewable sources account for a negligible amount of energy generated for the territory. Small-scale wind-power sources have been developed, and a small number of private homes and public buildings have installed solar panels.
With few natural lakes and rivers, high population density, inaccessible groundwater sources, and extremely seasonal rainfall, the territory does not have a reliable source of freshwater. The Dong River in Guangdong supplies 70% of the city's water, and the remaining demand is filled by harvesting rainwater locally. Toilets in most built-up areas of the territory flush with seawater which reduces freshwater use.
Broadband Internet access is widely available, with 92.6% of households connected. Connections over fibre-optic infrastructure are increasingly prevalent, contributing to the high regional average connection speed of 21.9 Mbit/s (the world's fourth-fastest). Mobile-phone use is ubiquitous; there are almost 22 million mobile-phone accounts registered in Hong Kong, which is almost triple the territory's population.
Culture
Main article: Culture of Hong Kong See also: Cantonese cultureHong Kong is characterised as a hybrid of East and West. Traditional Chinese values emphasising family and education blend with Western ideals, including economic liberty and the rule of law. Although the vast majority of the population is ethnically Chinese, Hong Kong has developed a distinct identity. The territory diverged from the mainland through its long period of colonial administration and a different pace of economic, social, and cultural development. Mainstream culture was derived from immigrants originating from various parts of China; it was then influenced by British-style education, a separate political system, and the territory's rapid development during the late 20th century. Most migrants of that era fled poverty and war, reflected in the prevailing attitude toward wealth; Hongkongers would tend to link self-image and decision-making to material benefits. Residents' sense of local identity has increased post-handover: polling in December 2022 had 32% of respondents identifying as "Hongkongers", 34.1% identifying as "Hongkongers in China" 45.9% purporting a "Mixed Identity", 20.5% identifying as "Chinese" and 11.9% identifying as "Chinese in Hong Kong".
Traditional Chinese family values, including family honour, filial piety, and a preference for sons, are prevalent. Nuclear families are the most common households, although multi-generational and extended families are not unusual. Spiritual concepts such as feng shui are observed; large-scale construction projects often hire consultants to ensure proper building positioning and layout. The degree of its adherence to feng shui is believed to determine the success of a business. Bagua mirrors are regularly used to deflect evil spirits, and buildings often lack floor numbers with a 4; the number has a similar sound to the word for "die" in Cantonese.
Cuisine
Main article: Hong Kong cuisine Typical fare at a dim sum restaurant (left); cha chaan teng breakfast food with Hong Kong-style milk tea (right)Food in Hong Kong is primarily based on Cantonese cuisine, despite the territory's exposure to foreign influences and its residents' varied origins. Rice is the staple food, and is usually served plain with other dishes. Freshness of ingredients is emphasised. Poultry and seafood are commonly sold live at wet markets, and ingredients are used as quickly as possible when still fresh. There are up to five daily meals: breakfast, lunch, afternoon tea, dinner, and siu yeh. Dim sum, as part of yum cha (brunch), is a dining-out tradition with family and friends. Dishes include congee, cha siu bao, siu yuk, egg tarts, and mango pudding. Local versions of Western food are served at cha chaan teng (Hong Kong-style cafes). Common cha chaan teng menu items include macaroni in soup, deep-fried French toast, and Hong Kong-style milk tea.
Cinema
Main article: Cinema of Hong KongHong Kong developed into a filmmaking hub during the late 1940s as a wave of Shanghai filmmakers migrated to the territory, and these movie veterans helped build the colony's entertainment industry over the next decade. By the 1960s, the city was well known to overseas audiences through films such as The World of Suzie Wong. When Bruce Lee's The Way of the Dragon was released in 1972, local productions became popular outside Hong Kong. During the 1980s, films such as A Better Tomorrow, As Tears Go By, and Zu Warriors from the Magic Mountain expanded global interest beyond martial arts films; locally made gangster films, romantic dramas, and supernatural fantasies became popular.
Hong Kong cinema continued to be internationally successful over the following decade with critically acclaimed dramas such as Farewell My Concubine, To Live, and Chungking Express. The city's martial arts film roots are evident in the roles of the most prolific Hong Kong actors. Jackie Chan, Donnie Yen, Jet Li, Chow Yun-fat, and Michelle Yeoh frequently play action-oriented roles in foreign films. Hong Kong films have also grown popular in oversea markets such as Japan, South Korea, and Southeast Asia, earning the city the moniker "Hollywood of the East". At the height of the local movie industry in the early 1990s, over 400 films were produced each year; since then, industry momentum shifted to mainland China. The number of films produced annually has declined to about 60 in 2017.
Music
Main article: Music of Hong Kong Leslie Cheung (left) is considered a pioneering Cantopop artist, and Andy Lau has been an icon of Hong Kong music and film for several decades as a member of the Four Heavenly Kings.Cantopop is a genre of Cantonese popular music which emerged in Hong Kong during the 1970s. Evolving from Shanghai-style shidaiqu, it is also influenced by Cantonese opera and Western pop. Local media featured songs by artists such as Sam Hui, Anita Mui, Leslie Cheung, and Alan Tam; during the 1980s, exported films and shows exposed Cantopop to a global audience. The genre's popularity peaked in the 1990s, when the Four Heavenly Kings dominated Asian record charts. Despite a general decline since late in the decade, Cantopop remains dominant in Hong Kong; contemporary artists such as Eason Chan, Joey Yung, and Twins are popular in and beyond the territory.
Western classical music has historically had a strong presence in Hong Kong and remains a large part of local musical education. The publicly funded Hong Kong Philharmonic Orchestra, the territory's oldest professional symphony orchestra, frequently hosts musicians and conductors from overseas. The Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra, composed of classical Chinese instruments, is the leading Chinese ensemble and plays a significant role in promoting traditional music in the community.
Hong Kong has never had a separate national anthem to the country that controlled it; its current official national anthem is therefore that of the People's Republic of China, March of the Volunteers. The song Glory to Hong Kong has been used by protestors as an unofficial anthem of the city.
Sport and recreation
Main article: Sport in Hong KongDespite its small area, the territory is home to a variety of sports and recreational facilities. The city has hosted numerous major sporting events, including the 2009 East Asian Games, the 2008 Summer Olympics equestrian events, and the 2007 Premier League Asia Trophy. The territory regularly hosts the Hong Kong Sevens, Hong Kong Marathon, Hong Kong Tennis Classic and Lunar New Year Cup, and hosted the inaugural AFC Asian Cup and the 1995 Dynasty Cup.
Hong Kong represents itself separately from mainland China, with its own sports teams in international competitions. The territory has participated in almost every Summer Olympics since 1952 and has earned nine medals. Lee Lai-shan won the territory's first Olympic gold medal at the 1996 Atlanta Olympics, and Cheung Ka Long won the second one in Tokyo 2020. Hong Kong athletes have won 126 medals at the Paralympic Games and 17 at the Commonwealth Games. No longer part of the Commonwealth of Nations, the city's last appearance in the latter was in 1994.
Dragon boat races originated as a religious ceremony conducted during the annual Tuen Ng Festival. The race was revived as a modern sport as part of the Tourism Board's efforts to promote Hong Kong's image abroad. The first modern competition was organised in 1976, and overseas teams began competing in the first international race in 1993.
The Hong Kong Jockey Club, the territory's largest taxpayer, has a monopoly on gambling and provides over 7% of government revenue. Three forms of gambling are legal in Hong Kong: lotteries, horse racing, and football.
Education
Main article: Education in Hong KongEducation in Hong Kong is largely modelled on that of the United Kingdom, particularly the English system. Children are required to attend school from age 6 until completion of secondary education, generally at age 18. At the end of secondary schooling, all students take a public examination and are awarded the Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education upon successful completion.
Of residents aged 15 and older, 81% completed lower-secondary education, 66% graduated from an upper secondary school, 32% attended a non-degree tertiary program, and 24% earned a bachelor's degree or higher.
Mandatory education has contributed to an adult literacy rate of 95.7%. The literacy rate is lower than that of other developed economies because of the influx of refugees from mainland China during the post-war colonial era; much of the elderly population were not formally educated because of war and poverty.
Comprehensive schools fall under three categories: public schools, which are government-run; subsidised schools, including government aid-and-grant schools; and private schools, often those run by religious organisations and that base admissions on academic merit. These schools are subject to the curriculum guidelines as provided by the Education Bureau. Private schools subsidised under the Direct Subsidy Scheme and international schools fall outside of this system and may elect to use differing curricula and teach using other languages.
Medium of instruction
At primary and secondary school levels, the government maintains a policy of "mother tongue instruction"; most schools use Cantonese as the medium of instruction, with written education in both Chinese and English. Other languages being used as medium of instruction in non-international school education include English and Putonghua (Standard Mandarin Chinese). Secondary schools emphasise "bi-literacy and tri-lingualism", which has encouraged the proliferation of spoken Mandarin language education.
English is the official medium of instruction and assessments for most university programmes in Hong Kong, although use of Cantonese is predominant in informal discussions among local students and professors.
Tertiary education
Main article: Higher education in Hong KongHong Kong has twelve universities. The University of Hong Kong (HKU) was founded as the city's first institute of higher education during the early colonial period in 1911. The Chinese University of Hong Kong (CUHK) was established in 1963 to fill the need for a university that taught using Chinese as its primary language of instruction. Along with the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (HKUST) established in 1991, these universities are consistently ranked among the top 50 or top 100 universities worldwide.
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University (PolyU) and City University of Hong Kong (CityU), both granted university status in 1994, are consistently ranked among the top 100 or top 200 universities worldwide. The Hong Kong Baptist University (HKBU) was granted university status in 1994 and is a liberal arts institution. Hong Kong Metropolitan University (formerly as Open University of Hong Kong prior to 2021) (attaining status in 1997), Lingnan University (in 1999), Hong Kong Shue Yan University (in 2006), Education University of Hong Kong (in 2016), Hang Seng University of Hong Kong (in 2018) and Saint Francis University (in 2024) all attained full university status in subsequent years.
Media
Main article: Media of Hong KongMost of the newspapers in Hong Kong are written in Chinese but there are also a few English-language newspapers. The major one being the South China Morning Post, with The Standard serving as a business-oriented alternative. A variety of Chinese-language newspapers are published daily; the most prominent are Ming Pao and Oriental Daily News. Local publications are often politically affiliated, with pro-Beijing or pro-democracy sympathies. The central government has a print-media presence in the territory through the state-owned Ta Kung Pao and Wen Wei Po. Several international publications have regional operations in Hong Kong, including The Wall Street Journal, Financial Times, USA Today, Yomiuri Shimbun, and The Nikkei.
Four free-to-air television broadcasters operate in the territory; TVB, HKTVE, Hong Kong Open TV and Phoenix Television air eight digital channels. TVB, Hong Kong's dominant television network, has an 80% viewer share. Paid television services operated by PCCW offer hundreds of additional channels and cater to a variety of audiences. RTHK is the public broadcaster, providing seven radio channels and six free-to-air television channels. Ten non-domestic broadcasters air programming for the territory's foreign population. Access to media and information over the Internet is not subject to mainland Chinese regulations, including the Great Firewall, yet local control applies.
See also
Portals:Notes
- ^ No specific variety of Chinese is official in the territory. Residents predominantly speak Cantonese, the de facto regional standard.
- ^ For all government use, documents written using Traditional Chinese characters are authoritative over ones inscribed with Simplified Chinese characters. English shares equal status with Chinese in all official proceedings.
- After adjustment for taxes and social transfers
- Except for the Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Bridge Hong Kong Link Road, which drives on the right.
-
- US: /ˈhɒŋkɒŋ/ or UK: /hɒŋˈkɒŋ/; Chinese: 香港; Jyutping: Hoeng1 gong2; Cantonese Yale: Hēunggóng, Cantonese: [hœ́ːŋ.kɔ̌ːŋ]
- Officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China (abbr. Hong Kong SAR or HKSAR; Chinese: 中華人民共和國香港特別行政區; Cantonese Yale: Hēunggóng Dahkbiht Hàhngjingkēui).
- Legally Hong Kong, China in international treaties and organizations.
- Hong Kong permanent residents can be of any nationality. A person without Chinese nationality who has entered Hong Kong with a valid travel document, has ordinarily resided there for a continuous period not less than seven years, and is permanently domiciled in the territory would be legally recognised as a Hongkonger.
- However, decisions made by the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress override any territorial judicial process. Furthermore, the State Council may enforce national law in the region under specific circumstances.
- Mean monthly maxima and minima (i.e. the expected highest and lowest temperature readings at any point during the year or given month) calculated based on data in Hong Kong from 1991 to 2020.
References
Citations
- Leung 2016.
- ^ Official Languages Ordinance.
- ^ Population By-Census 2021, pp. 31, 51–52
- Legislative Council Disclaimer and Copyright Notice
- Use of Chinese in Court Proceedings 2011
- ^ Population By-Census 2021, p. 46.
- "China (People's Republic of) 1982 (rev. 2004)". Constitute project. Archived from the original on 17 July 2015. Retrieved 25 August 2019.
- ^ Cheung 2017.
- ^ "Survey and Mapping Office – Circulars and Publications". Survey and Mapping Office. Archived from the original on 31 March 2023. Retrieved 20 October 2020.
- "Mid-year population for 2023" (Press release). Census and Statistics Department. 15 August 2023. Archived from the original on 15 November 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2023.
- "Key statistics of the 2021 and 2011 Population Census" (PDF). census2021.gov.hk. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 March 2022. Retrieved 15 March 2022.
- "Main Tables – 2021 Population Census". census2021.gov.hk. Archived from the original on 14 November 2022. Retrieved 15 March 2022.
- ^ "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2024 Edition. (HK)". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. 22 October 2024. Archived from the original on 2 May 2024. Retrieved 11 November 2024.
- Household Income Distribution 2021, p. 5
- "Human Development Report 2023/2024" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 13 March 2024. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 March 2024. Retrieved 13 March 2024.
- Technical Legislative Amendments on Traffic Arrangements for the Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Bridge 2017
- Basic Law Chapter III Article 24.
- ^ Carroll 2007, pp. 15–21.
- Ren 2010, p. 221.
- Kirschner, Kylie (10 September 2023). "The top 10 cities around the world with the most ultra-wealthy people". Business Insider. Archived from the original on 15 November 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2023.
- ^ "Aquilaria sinensis and origin of the name of Hong Kong". Hong Kong Herbarium. Archived from the original on 1 December 2017. Retrieved 21 November 2017.
- ^ Carroll 2007, p. 1
- Empson 1992, p. 94.
- Bishop & Roberts 1997, p. 218.
- ^ Room 2005, p. 168.
- Davis 1841, p. 6.
- Empson 1992, p. 96.
- Hong Kong Government Gazette 1926, No. 479.
- HSH Annual Report 2017, p. 6.
- HSBC Annual Report 2011, p. 2.
- Davis, Vin; Ixer, Rob (2009). "The Petrology of the Wong Tei Tung Stone Tool Manufacturing Site, Sham Chung, Hong Kong Sar, China". Internet Archaeology (26). doi:10.11141/ia.26.8. ISSN 1363-5387. Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 8 June 2020.
- ^ Meacham 1999, p. 2.
- Li 2012, p. 38.
- Ban, Ban & Ban 111.
- Keat 2004, p. 932.
- Carroll 2007, p. 9.
- Barber 2004, p. 48.
- Carroll 2007, p. 10.
- Porter 1996, p. 63.
- Edmonds 2002, p. 1.
- von Glahn 1996, p. 116.
- Wills 1998, pp. 342–344.
- "Hong Kong Museum of History: "The Hong Kong Story" Exhibition Materials" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 April 2009.
- Zhihong 2006, pp. 8–9.
- Schottenhammer 2007, p. 33.
- Chen 2011.
- Hoe & Roebuck 1999, pp. 82, 87.
- "Hong Kong 2003 – History". www.yearbook.gov.hk. Archived from the original on 25 October 2018. Retrieved 26 June 2021.
- Tsang 2007, p. 12.
- Courtauld, Holdsworth & Vickers 1997, pp. 38–58
- Carroll 2007, pp. 21–24.
- Carroll 2007, p. 30.
- Scott 1989, p. 6.
- Chu 2005, p. 90.
- Wordie 2007, p. 243.
- Carroll 2007, p. 103.
- Yanne & Heller 2009, p. 71.
- Snow 2003, p. 43.
- Snow 2003, pp. 53–73.
- Kwong 2015.
- ^ Wiltshire 1997, p. 148.
- Buckley 1997, pp. 64, 92.
- Carroll 2007, pp. 145, 174–175.
- Forsyth, Neil (Director) (1990). Underground Pride (Motion picture). Hong Kong: MTR Corporation.
- Chu, Yingchi (2003). Hong Kong Cinema: Coloniser, Motherland and Self! Routledge Publishing. ISBN 0-7007-1746-3.
- Dodsworth & Mihaljek 1997, p. 54.
- Carroll 2007, pp. 176–178.
- ^ Carroll 2007, p. 181.
- Wong 1992, p. 9.
- Population Policy Report 2002, pp. 27–28
- Gargan, Edward A. (18 September 1995). "Pro-China Party Appears Big Loser in Hong Kong Election". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 8 May 2021. Retrieved 20 November 2020.
- Gargan 1997.
- Carroll 2007, p. 218
- Cheung & Ho 2013.
- Lee 2006, pp. 63–70.
- Crean, Jeffrey (2024). The Fear of Chinese Power: an International History. New Approaches to International History series. London, UK: Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-350-23394-2.
- Carroll 2007, p. 200.
- Carroll 2007, pp. 226, 233.
- Kaiman 2014.
- Bland 2016.
- Haas 2017.
- Huang 2016.
- Siu & Chung 2017.
- "To restore calm in Hong Kong, try democracy", The Economist
- "CE signs National Anthem Ordinance (with photos)". HKSAR Government Press Releases. Archived from the original on 12 June 2020. Retrieved 12 June 2020.
- Regan, Helen (29 June 2020). "China passes sweeping Hong Kong national security law: report". CNN. Archived from the original on 1 July 2020. Retrieved 29 June 2020.
- ^ "China approves plan to veto Hong Kong election candidates". France 24. 11 March 2021. Archived from the original on 12 March 2021. Retrieved 6 September 2022.
- ^ "Hong Kong cuts directly elected District Council seats as overhaul unanimously approved". Hong Kong Free Press. 6 July 2023.
- ^ "Ordinance passed and promulgated" (PDF). Hong Kong Government Gazette. 10 July 2023. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 July 2023.
- ^ "District Councils (Amendment) Ordinance 2023—Ordinance No. 19 of 2023" (PDF). Hong Kong Government Gazette. 10 July 2023. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 July 2023.
- Tam et al. 2012, p. 80
- ^ Tam et al. 2012, pp. 66, 80–81
- Ng Ka Ling and Another v the Director of Immigration
- Tam et al. 2012, p. 77
- Young & Cullen 2010, p. 39.
- Adaptation of Laws Guidelines 1998, p. 7
- Emergency Regulations Ordinance.
- Tam et al. 2012, p. 73
- ^ Gittings 2009, p. 150.
- Gittings 2009, p. 153.
- Young & Cullen 2010, pp. 13–16.
- Basic Law Chapter IV Article 45.
- Amendment to the Basic Law Annex I
- "China moves to overhaul Hong Kong politics, squeezing democratic opposition". Reuters. 11 March 2021. Archived from the original on 12 March 2021. Retrieved 6 September 2022.
- ^ Guidelines on the Legislative Council Election 2016, pp. 3–4
- Guidelines on the Legislative Council Election 2016, pp. 3, 52–53
- LegCo and DC Member Political Affiliations 2017
- Bush & Whelan-Wuest 2017.
- Sala 2016.
- Tam et al. 2012, pp. 80–81
- Gittings 2009, p. 148.
- ^ "Legislation Summary: Hong Kong National Security Law". NPC Observer. 30 June 2020. Archived from the original on 2 July 2020. Retrieved 2 July 2020.
- Jordan 1997, p. 335.
- Chief Executive of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region and Another v the President of the Legislative Council
- Basic Law Chapter II Article 18.
- Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Passports Ordinance
- "Control Point Locations". Immigration Department. Archived from the original on 22 November 2017. Retrieved 18 November 2017.
- Basic Law Chapter II Article 22.
- Basic Law Chapter V Article 106.
- Public Finance Facts 2018.
- Lendon 2017.
- Constitution of the People's Republic of China Chapter 3 § 4 (93).
- Basic Law Chapter II Article 14.
- Mok & Lee 2015.
- Basic Law Chapter VII Article 152.
- "Hong Kong Committee for UNICEF". UNICEF. Archived from the original on 28 December 2017. Retrieved 27 December 2017.
- "UNHCR Hong Kong". United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. Archived from the original on 28 December 2017. Retrieved 27 December 2017.
- "List of Treaties in Force and Applicable to the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region". Department of Justice. 25 October 2017. Archived from the original on 28 December 2017. Retrieved 27 December 2017.
- "Offices Outside Hong Kong". Hong Kong Government. Archived from the original on 14 June 2018. Retrieved 18 November 2017.
- ^ "Ireland suspends its extradition treaty with Hong Kong". The Globe and Mail Inc. Reuters. 23 October 2020. Archived from the original on 23 October 2020. Retrieved 23 October 2020.
- "Trump ends preferential economic treatment for Hong Kong". BBC. 15 July 2020. Archived from the original on 17 November 2020. Retrieved 23 October 2020.
- "Hong Kong Adopts Sweeping Security Laws, Bowing to Beijing – The New York Times". The New York Times. 20 March 2024. Archived from the original on 20 March 2024. Retrieved 21 March 2024.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) - ^ "各區域及地區 AREAS AND DISTRICTS" (PDF). Rating and Valuation Department, Government of Hong Kong. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 April 2022. Retrieved 1 September 2024.
- "Home Affairs Department - My Districts". Home Affairs Department, Government of Hong Kong. Archived from the original on 1 September 2024. Retrieved 1 September 2024.
- District Administration Facts 2016
- District Councils Ordinance.
- "2023 District Council Ordinary Election - Election Brief". www.elections.gov.hk. Retrieved 15 October 2024.
- ^ Cheng 2016, p. 387.
- Basic Law Chapter IV Articles 45, 68.
- Wong & Lim 2017.
- Ming 2006.
- Ngo & Cheung 2016.
- Zhao 2015.
- Chao 2013.
- Lhatoo 2015.
- Raquel Carvalho and Peace Chiu (25 February 2018). "Fed up with human trafficking, Hong Kong migrant workers hold vigil demanding justice". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 28 April 2023. Retrieved 24 June 2020.
- "Meanings of Right of Abode and Other Terms", Immigration Department
- Tony Read (8 July 2016). "Hong Kong must lead the fight against human trafficking, rather than just do the bare minimum". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 28 April 2023. Retrieved 24 June 2020.
- Astrid Zweynert (22 October 2015). "New ways to help Hong Kong's human trafficking victims". Christian Science Monitor. Thomson Reuters Foundation. Archived from the original on 28 April 2023. Retrieved 24 June 2020.
The US State Department's 2014 Trafficking in Persons report said people from mainland China, the Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam, Nepal, Cambodia, and other Southeast Asian countries as well as Colombia, Chad, and Uganda had become victims of sex trafficking and forced labor in Hong Kong.
- Jason Wordie (16 January 2016). "Human trafficking in Hong Kong: hidden in plain sight". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 28 April 2023. Retrieved 24 June 2020.
Likewise, legions of mainland prostitutes form a highly visible yet officially clandestine workforce in certain parts of Hong Kong. Many of these women, according to informed sources within the sex-worker sorority, have been trafficked.
- Cheung 2016.
- Cheung 2015.
- Hernández, Javier C. (30 June 2020). "Harsh Penalties, Vaguely Defined Crimes: Hong Kong's Security Law Explained". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 1 July 2020. Retrieved 2 July 2020.
- "Hong Kong National Security Law Promulgated, Came into Effect June 30, 2020". Morrison & Foerster. 1 July 2020. Archived from the original on 2 July 2020. Retrieved 2 July 2020.
- James, William (1 July 2020). "UK says China's security law is serious violation of Hong Kong treaty". Reuters. Archived from the original on 2 July 2020. Retrieved 2 July 2020.
- "Hong Kong pro-democracy politicians arrested". BBC News. November 2020. Archived from the original on 1 November 2020. Retrieved 1 November 2020.
- "Hong Kong churches drop Tiananmen tributes after 33 years amid arrest fears". Agence France-Presse. 30 May 2022. Archived from the original on 30 May 2022. Retrieved 31 May 2022 – via The Guardian.
- ^ "Survey and Mapping Office – Circulars and Publications". www.landsd.gov.hk. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 9 March 2021.
- ^ "Hong Kong". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 10 June 2021. Retrieved 2 October 2018.
- Owen & Shaw 2007, p. 13.
- Population By-Census 2021, pp. 34–35
- Land Policy Report 2017, p. 1.
- Owen & Shaw 2007, p. 2.
- "Land Use in Hong Kong 2017", Planning Department
- Morton & Harper 1995, p. 9.
- Hu 2003.
- "The Natural Environment, Plants & Animals in Hong Kong". Hong Kong Government. Archived from the original on 15 November 2017. Retrieved 15 November 2017.
- "Small tornado spotted at Hong Kong airport, but no damage reported". South China Morning Post. 26 September 2020. Retrieved 28 September 2024.
- "Waterspout spotted over Hong Kong's Victoria Harbour for first time". South China Morning Post. 28 September 2024. Retrieved 28 September 2024.
- "Climate of Hong Kong". Hong Kong Observatory. Archived from the original on 2 June 2017. Retrieved 5 September 2017.
- "Last time it snowed in Hong Kong". www.hko.gov.hk. Archived from the original on 12 December 2023. Retrieved 12 December 2023.
- Geography and Climate 2010.
- "Extreme Values and Dates of Occurrence of Extremes of Meteorological Elements between 1884 and 1939 and 1947–2017 for Hong Kong". Hong Kong Observatory. Archived from the original on 24 March 2018. Retrieved 25 March 2018.
- "HK records hottest day before typhoon", EJ Insight
- "Automatic Weather Observations yearly Extract". Hong Kong Observatory. Archived from the original on 10 March 2021. Retrieved 17 January 2021.
- "Monthly Meteorological Normals for Hong Kong (1991–2020)". Hong Kong Observatory. Archived from the original on 8 February 2021. Retrieved 7 February 2021.
- "Extreme Values and Dates of Occurrence of Extremes of Meteorological Elements between 1884–1939 and 1947–2020 for Hong Kong)". Hong Kong Observatory. Archived from the original on 8 February 2021. Retrieved 7 February 2021.
- "Monthly Data for Single Element". Hong Kong Observatory. Archived from the original on 9 February 2022. Retrieved 16 February 2022.
- "Hong Kong". The Skyscraper Center. Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat. Archived from the original on 11 November 2017. Retrieved 15 January 2018.
- "Skyline Ranking". Emporis. Archived from the original on 23 June 2018. Retrieved 24 June 2018.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - Tong & Wong 1997.
- Forrest, La Grange & Yip 2004, pp. 215, 222
- "The World's Tallest Buildings". Emporis. Archived from the original on 24 June 2018. Retrieved 24 June 2018.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - ^ Kohlstedt 2016.
- Hollingsworth & Zheng 2017.
- Zheng 2017.
- McKercher, Ho & du Cros 2004.
- ^ Tourism Facts 2016.
- Béthanie 2015, p. 3.
- Ingham 2007, p. 225.
- Declared Monuments 2007, pp. 5–6.
- Xue 2016, p. 99.
- Xue 2016, p. 41.
- "Death Rates by Leading Causes of Death, 2001 – 2021". Archived from the original on 8 April 2023. Retrieved 8 April 2023.
- Fan 1974.
- Carroll 2007, pp. 144–147.
- Yu 2013.
- Erni & Leung 2014, pp. 18, 22.
- "Statistical Product". www.censtatd.gov.hk. Archived from the original on 7 April 2022. Retrieved 28 November 2021.
- FCO Written Evidence 2014.
- Standing Committee Interpretation Concerning Implementation of Chinese Nationality Law in Hong Kong
- "Population density (people per sq km of land area) – Hong Kong SAR, China". World Bank. Archived from the original on 16 May 2020. Retrieved 6 August 2022.
- Lee 2012.
- Developing a Supplementary Guide to the Chinese Language Curriculum for Non-Chinese Speaking Students 2008, p. 9
- ^ Religion and Custom Facts 2016.
- "Life Expectancy at Birth (Male and Female), 1971 – 2022". Hong Kong Government Centrer of Health Protection. Archived from the original on 16 August 2023. Retrieved 16 August 2023.
- Health Facts 2017.
- Wong et al. 2015, p. 262.
- "Country Comparison: GDP (Purchasing Power Parity)". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 4 June 2011. Retrieved 15 January 2018.
- Household Income Distribution 2021, p. 3
- ^ Household Income Distribution 2021, p. 50
- Desjardins 2018.
- Grosser, Annika (30 April 2024). "The Cities With The Most Billionaires 2024". Forbes. Retrieved 8 June 2024.
- Liu 2018.
- Frank 2018.
- Household Income Distribution 2021, p. 4
- Hung & Ma 2023.
- Household Income Distribution 2021, p. 40
- Global Financial Centres Index 2017
- Jiang et al. 2003.
- "Hong Kong ranked world's freest economy for 18th consecutive year". Hong Kong Government. 12 January 2012. Archived from the original on 28 October 2012. Retrieved 28 May 2012.
- "Top 10 Countries". The Heritage Foundation. Archived from the original on 24 January 2008. Retrieved 1 February 2008.
- Feulner, Edwin. "Hong Kong Is No Longer What It Was". The Heritage Foundation. Archived from the original on 12 September 2022. Retrieved 13 September 2022.
- HKSE Market Statistics 2018, p. 2.
- World Intellectual Property Organization (2024). Global Innovation Index 2024: Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship. World Intellectual Property Organization. p. 18. doi:10.34667/tind.50062. ISBN 978-92-805-3681-2. Retrieved 6 October 2024.
{{cite book}}
:|website=
ignored (help) - "The Global Financial Centres Index 31" (PDF). Long Finance. March 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 March 2022. Retrieved 24 March 2022.
- "US Bank Leads Development of Hong Kong's "Silicon Harbor"". Tech Monitor. 8 July 1999. Archived from the original on 1 October 2022. Retrieved 6 July 2022.
- Rohwer, J. (2001). Remade in America: How Asia Will Change Because America Boomed. Crown. p. 168. ISBN 978-0-609-50412-3. Archived from the original on 10 February 2024. Retrieved 6 July 2022.
- Pete Engardio (12 April 1989). "How Motorola Took Asia By The Tail". Bloomberg. Archived from the original on 6 July 2022.
- Cragg, C. (1993). Hunting with the Tigers: Doing Business with Hong Kong, Indonesia, South Korea, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand, and Vietnam. Pfeiffer. p. 85. ISBN 978-0-89384-204-8. Archived from the original on 10 February 2024. Retrieved 6 July 2022.
- ^ "Country Comparison: Exports". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 27 April 2019. Retrieved 16 June 2019.
- ^ "Country Comparison: Imports". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 4 October 2008. Retrieved 16 June 2019.
- Economic Statistical Highlights 2017
- Park 2019.
- "Cargo Traffic 2016". Airports Council International. 1 January 2018. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 7 June 2018.
- Lam, Jasmine Siu Lee; Cullinane, Kevin Patrick Brendan; Lee, Paul Tae-Woo (3 May 2018). "The 21st-century Maritime Silk Road: challenges and opportunities for transport management and practice". Transport Reviews. 38 (4). Routledge: 413–415. doi:10.1080/01441647.2018.1453562. S2CID 158856945.
- Kong 2013.
- Agriculture and Fisheries Facts 2017
- Economy Facts 2016.
- Preston & Haacke 2003.
- Yeung 2008, p. 16.
- "HK vs China GDP: A sobering reality", EJ Insight
- Lung & Sung 2010, p. 5.
- ^ Griffiths & Lazarus 2018.
- "Mainland and Hong Kong Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement (CEPA)". Trade and Industry Department. 31 October 2017. Archived from the original on 26 December 2017. Retrieved 26 December 2017.
- "Hong Kong Special Administrative Region and Macao Special Administrative Region Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement (HK-Macao CEPA)". Trade and Industry Department. 17 November 2017. Archived from the original on 29 December 2017. Retrieved 28 December 2017.
- Baldwin, Lee & Jim 2014.
- Lam & Qiu 2017.
- ^ House of Commons Foreign Affairs Committee Tenth Report 2015, p. 18
- Cushman & Wakefield RHQ Report 2016, p. 8
- House of Commons Foreign Affairs Committee Tenth Report 2015, pp. 18–19
- MUIR, PAUL (17 February 2021). "Crypto body warns new HK law will backfire". Archived from the original on 22 February 2021. Retrieved 24 February 2021.
- Triennial Central Bank Survey 2016, p. 10
- "Hong Kong conundrum: sky-high prices and flats the size of parking spaces". Financial Times. 24 November 2021. Archived from the original on 10 December 2022. Retrieved 3 September 2022.
- Saiidi, Uptin (10 April 2017). "Here's why Hong Kong housing is so expensive". CNBC. Archived from the original on 3 September 2022. Retrieved 3 September 2022.
- Chan, Vanesse; Molloy, Claire (22 July 2021). "Why rent in Hong Kong is so high, even though there's undeveloped land". Business Insider. Archived from the original on 3 September 2022. Retrieved 3 September 2022.
- ^ Tsang, Donald (18 September 2006). "Big Market, Small Government" (Press release). Hong Kong Government. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 8 June 2018.
- "End of an experiment", The Economist
- WTO 2017, p. 6.
- "Despite worldwide changes, multinationals focus on mobile workforces to support career growth and ensure competitiveness". New York: Mercer. 21 June 2017. Archived from the original on 13 January 2018. Retrieved 26 December 2017.
- "Worldwide Cost of Living survey 2009". Mercer. 29 June 2010. Archived from the original on 25 July 2011. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
- "Virgin Atlantic drops Hong Kong route after nearly 30 years". Reuters. 5 October 2022. Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 10 October 2022.
- Goh Chiew Tong; Vivian Kam (3 February 2023). "Hong Kong will give away half a million plane tickets. Here's who can get them first". CNBC. Archived from the original on 3 February 2023. Retrieved 22 February 2023.
- "Euromonitor International's report reveals world's Top 100…". Euromonitor. 13 December 2023. Archived from the original on 1 March 2024. Retrieved 29 February 2024.
- Public Transport Strategy Study 2017, p. 1
- Poon & Chau 2001, p. 102.
- "MTR > Ticket Purchase and Usage". www.mtr.com.hk. Archived from the original on 16 July 2024. Retrieved 30 July 2024.
- "Hong Kong Tramways – Schedules and Fares". www.hktramways.com. Archived from the original on 16 June 2024. Retrieved 30 July 2024.
- "Schedule & Fares | StarFerry". www.starferry.com.hk. Archived from the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 30 July 2024.
- "E-payment System". www.citybus.com.hk. Archived from the original on 7 October 2023. Retrieved 30 July 2024.
- "The Kowloon Motor Bus Co. (1933) Ltd 九龍巴士(一九三三)". www.kmb.hk. Archived from the original on 1 May 2024. Retrieved 30 July 2024.
- Mok 2018.
- Gold 2001.
- "Public Transport | Annual transport digest 2023". www.td.gov.hk. Archived from the original on 30 July 2024. Retrieved 30 July 2024.
- "Hong Kong Tramways – Schedules and Fares". www.hktramways.com. Archived from the original on 16 June 2024. Retrieved 30 July 2024.
- "Hong Kong Tramways: fun facts about the century-old Ding Ding | Hong Kong Tourism Board". Discover Hong Kong. Retrieved 30 July 2024.
- "Largest double-decker tram fleet in service". Guinness World Records. 30 July 2021. Archived from the original on 30 July 2024. Retrieved 30 July 2024.
- Railway Network Facts 2018.
- "Transport Department – Railways". www.td.gov.hk. Archived from the original on 26 June 2023. Retrieved 30 July 2024.
- ^ Transport Statistical Highlights 2016
- Report on Rail Service 2014, p. 1.
- "Cross Boundary Train Services". MTR Corporation. Archived from the original on 19 November 2017. Retrieved 20 November 2017.
- "MTR > Intercity Passenger Services". www.mtr.com.hk. Retrieved 30 July 2024.
- "'End of an era' for Hong Kong's cross-border through-train services". South China Morning Post. 29 April 2022. Archived from the original on 16 March 2024. Retrieved 30 July 2024.
- "海關總署公告2024年第96號(關於關閉北京西站、上海站、廣州、東莞等4個鐵路口岸的公告)". General Administration of Customs of the People's Republic of China. Archived from the original on 31 July 2024. Retrieved 31 July 2024.
- Kwok 2018.
- Vehicle Registration and Licensing 2018
- Labarre 2010.
- Traffic Congestion Study 2014, pp. 2–3
- Transport Facts 2016.
- "'Ridesharing should not be a crime': Uber criticises Hong Kong's outdated traffic laws following arrests". Hong Kong Free Press. 23 May 2017. Retrieved 4 August 2024.
- "Uber vs Hong Kong taxis: why is the government allowing the quarrel to fester?". South China Morning Post. 21 May 2024. Archived from the original on 18 July 2024. Retrieved 4 August 2024.
- "Hong Kong to require permits for ride-hailing services including Uber". South China Morning Post. 5 July 2024. Archived from the original on 16 July 2024. Retrieved 4 August 2024.
- Cullinane 2002.
- Hong Kong Strategic Route Map (PDF) (Map). Transport Department. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 June 2018. Retrieved 29 June 2018.
- "'Goodbye Kai Tak': 25 years since Hong Kong's old airport turned off its lights". South China Morning Post. 6 July 2023. Retrieved 31 May 2024.
- HKIA Annual Report 2017, p. 152.
- NY/NJ Port Authority Airport Traffic 2017, p. 32
- NY/NJ Port Authority Airport Traffic 2017, p. 58
- Wordie 2007, p. 242.
- "Operational Information". Star Ferry. Archived from the original on 30 November 2017. Retrieved 20 November 2017.
- Cushman 1993, p. 57.
- "Ferry Services to Macau and the Mainland Ports". Hong Kong Government. Archived from the original on 19 November 2017. Retrieved 20 November 2017.
- Tatlow 2017.
- Roberts, Toby; Williams, Ian; Preston, John (19 May 2021). "The Southampton system: a new universal standard approach for port-city classification". Maritime Policy & Management. 48 (4): 530–542. doi:10.1080/03088839.2020.1802785. ISSN 0308-8839. S2CID 225502755.
- ^ Energy Statistics Report 2017, p. 1
- Energy Statistics Report 2017, p. 9
- Energy Statistics Report 2017, p. 29
- Energy Statistics Report 2017, p. 6
- Chan 2017.
- ^ Lee 2013.
- Water Supply Facts 2016.
- "Key Communications Statistics". Office of the Communications Authority. Archived from the original on 20 June 2018. Retrieved 8 July 2018.
- Akamai's State of the Internet 2017, p. 54
- IT and Internet Usage 2017, p. 9.
- "Hong Kong (China) mobile cellular subscriptions 2000-2022". Statista. Retrieved 15 October 2024.
- Carroll 2007, p. 169.
- Carroll 2007, pp. 167–172.
- He 2013.
- Tam 2017.
- Lam 2015.
- "Categorical Ethnic Identity – HKPORI – 香港民意研究所". Hong Kong Public Opinion Research Institute. 9 December 2022. Archived from the original on 5 March 2024.
- Family Survey 2013, pp. 12–13.
- Population By-Census 2021, p. 77.
- Fowler & Fowler 2008, p. 263.
- Xi & Ingham 2003, p. 181.
- Chan & Chow 2006, p. 3.
- ^ Long 2015, p. 271.
- Curry & Hanstedt 2014, pp. 9–12.
- Long 2015, p. 272.
- Fu 2008, pp. 381, 388–389.
- Carroll 2007, p. 148.
- Carroll 2007, p. 168.
- Chu, Karen (16 February 2023). "Berlin Spotlight: How Hong Kong's Film Industry Made a Surprise Comeback". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved 22 February 2023.
- Ge 2017.
- Chu 2017, pp. 1–9, 24–25.
- Chu 2017, pp. 77–85.
- Chu 2017, pp. 107–116.
- Chu 2017, pp. 9–10.
- Chu 2017, pp. 159–164.
- Smith et al. 2017, p. 101
- Ho 2011, p. 147.
- Vivienne Chow (12 September 2019). "Singing showdowns in Hong Kong pit the city's unofficial new anthem against China's". Quartz. Archived from the original on 13 September 2019. Retrieved 15 September 2019.
- "Listen to the Song That Hong Kong's Youthful Protesters Are Calling Their 'National Anthem'". TIME. 12 September 2019. Archived from the original on 24 January 2022. Retrieved 16 November 2022.
- ^ Shen & Kee 2017, p. 247.
- Ghoshal 2011.
- Horne & Manzenreiter 2002, p. 128.
- Lam & Chang 2005, p. 141.
- Shum, Michael; Chow, Carine (27 July 2021). "FENCE-TASTIC! Cheung Ka-long wins gold for HK". The Standard. Retrieved 27 July 2021.
- Lam & Chang 2005, p. 99.
- Sofield & Sivan 2003.
- ^ Littlewood 2010, pp. 16–17.
- Inland Revenue Annual Report 2017, p. 4
- Chan & Leung 2003, p. 24.
- "Programme Highlights". Hong Kong Government. Archived from the original on 24 August 2013. Retrieved 20 October 2010.
- ^ Li, Arthur (18 May 2005). "Creating a better education system". Hong Kong Government. Archived from the original on 3 March 2008. Retrieved 17 August 2010.
- "HKDSE". Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority. 12 October 2010. Archived from the original on 16 October 2010. Retrieved 20 October 2010.
- Women and Men in Hong Kong Key Statistics 2017, p. 66
- "Adult literacy rate". The Hong Kong Council of Social Service. Archived from the original on 28 December 2017. Retrieved 27 December 2017.
- Cheng et al. 2013.
- UNESCO Literacy Rates 2017, p. 8.
- Lee & Leung 2012.
- "Teaching and Learning | HKU Teaching and Learning". HKU Teaching and Learning | Teaching and Learning in The University of Hong Kong. 5 April 2010. Retrieved 17 May 2023.
- "Proof of English as Medium of Instruction | HKUST – Academic Registry". registry.hkust.edu.hk. Retrieved 17 May 2023.
- "University Language Policy | HKBU AR". ar.hkbu.edu.hk. Retrieved 17 May 2023.
- "Languages of instruction". Hong Kong Metropolitan University. Retrieved 17 May 2023.
- "Study@PolyU". www51.polyu.edu.hk. Archived from the original on 17 May 2023. Retrieved 17 May 2023.
- "Res – Frequently Asked Questions on Applications for Transcript/Letter of Certification/Report on Curriculum Details". www.res.cuhk.edu.hk. Retrieved 17 May 2023.
- Carroll 2007, pp. 84–86.
- Fulton Commission 1963.
- ^ "World University Rankings". Times Higher Education (THE). 4 October 2022. Retrieved 2 December 2022.
- ^ "QS World University Rankings 2023: Top Global Universities". Top Universities. Retrieved 2 December 2022.
- ^ "2022–2023 Best Global Universities Rankings".
- The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Ordinance
- Hong Kong Baptist University Ordinance
- The Open University of Hong Kong Ordinance
- Lingnan University Ordinance.
- LegCo Grant to Shue Yan University 2007.
- "Saint Francis University – Press Release – Caritas Institute of Higher Education granted the university title and renamed Saint Francis University 2024-01-9". www.sfu.edu.hk. Retrieved 26 July 2024.
- "Hong Kong media profile", BBC News
- Media Facts 2017.
- ^ Licensed Broadcasting Services 2018
- "Frequency Table for Digital Terrestrial Television Broadcasting Services in Hong Kong" (PDF). Retrieved 26 July 2024.
- Chow 2017.
- "A List of Licensed Broadcasting Services in Hong Kong (As at 18 June 2024)" (PDF). Office of the Communications Authority. Hong Kong.
- RTHK Budget 2018, pp. 806, 809.
- "RADIO TELEVISION HONG KONG ANNUAL REPORT 2021 – 2022" (PDF). rthk.hk. Retrieved 26 July 2024.
- "香港電台網站".
- "Hong Kong Activists Stare Down 'Great Firewall of China'", NBC News
Sources
- Ban, Biao 班彪; Ban, Gu 班固; Ban, Zhao 班昭 (111). 地理志 [Treatise on geography]. Book of Han (in Chinese). Vol. 28. OCLC 4342548.
- Barber, Nicola (2004). Hong Kong. Gareth Stevens. ISBN 978-0-8368-5198-4.
- Bishop, Kevin; Roberts, Annabel (1997). China's Imperial Way. Odyssey Publications. ISBN 978-962-217-511-2.
- Buckley, Roger (1997). Hong Kong: The Road to 1997. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-46979-1.
- Carroll, John (2007). A Concise History of Hong Kong. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7425-3422-3.
- Chan, Cecilia; Chow, Amy (2006). Death, Dying and Bereavement: a Hong Kong Chinese Experience. Hong Kong University Press. ISBN 978-962-209-787-2.
- Chan, Shun-hing; Leung, Beatrice (2003). Changing Church and State Relations in Hong Kong, 1950–2000. Hong Kong University Press. ISBN 962-209-612-3.
- Chu, Cindy Yik-yi (2005). Foreign Communities in Hong Kong, 1840s–1950s. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-8055-7.
- Chu, Yiu-wai (2017). Hong Kong Cantopop: A Concise History. Hong Kong University Press. ISBN 978-988-8390-58-8.
- Courtauld, Caroline; Holdsworth, May; Vickers, Simon (1997). The Hong Kong Story. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-590353-9.
- Curry, Janel; Hanstedt, Paul (2014). Reading Hong Kong, Reading Ourselves. City University of Hong Kong Press. ISBN 978-962-937-235-4.
- Cushman, Jennifer Wayne (1993). Fields from the Sea: Chinese Junk Trade with Siam During the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries. Cornell Southeast Asia Program. ISBN 978-0-87727-711-8.
- Davis, Sir John Francis (1841). Sketches of China: partly during an inland journey of four months, between Peking, Nanking, and Canton; with notices and observations relative to the present war. Vol. 1. Charles Knight & Co. OCLC 491627420.
- Dodsworth, John; Mihaljek, Dubravko (1997). Hong Kong, China: Growth, Structural Change, and Economic Stability During the Transition. International Monetary Fund. ISBN 978-1-55775-672-5.
- Edmonds, Richard L. (2002). China and Europe Since 1978: A European Perspective. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-52403-2.
- Empson, Hal (1992). Mapping Hong Kong: A Historical Atlas. Government Information Services. OCLC 29939947.
- Erni, John Nguyet; Leung, Lisa Yuk-ming (2014). Understanding South Asian Minorities in Hong Kong. Hong Kong University Press. ISBN 978-988-8208-34-0.
- Fowler, Jeaneane D.; Fowler, Merv (2008). Chinese Religions: Beliefs and Practices. Sussex Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-84519-172-6.
- Gittings, Danny (2009). "Hong Kong Judiciary". In Gaylord, Mark S.; Gittings, Danny; Traver, Harold (eds.). Introduction to Crime, Law and Justice in Hong Kong. Hong Kong University Press. pp. 147–168. ISBN 978-962-209-978-4.
- Ho, Wai-chung (2011). School Music Education and Social Change in mainland China, Hong Kong and Taiwan. Brill Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-18917-1.
- Hoe, Susanna; Roebuck, Derek (1999). The Taking of Hong Kong: Charles and Clara Elliot in China Waters. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7007-1145-1.
- Horne, John; Manzenreiter, Wolfram (2002). Japan, Korea and the 2002 World Cup. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-27563-7.
- Hu, Qi-ming (2003). "Preface". Rare and Precious Plants of Hong Kong. Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department. ISBN 978-988-201-616-3. OCLC 491712858.
- Ingham, Michael (2007). Hong Kong: A Cultural History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-531496-0.
- Keat, Ooi Gin (2004). Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-770-2.
- Lam, S.F.; Chang, Julian W. (2005). The Quest for Gold: Fifty Years of Amateur Sports in Hong Kong, 1947–1997. Hong Kong University Press. ISBN 978-962-209-765-0.
- Lam, Wai-man (2015). Understanding the Political Culture of Hong Kong: The Paradox of Activism and Depoliticization: The Paradox of Activism and Depoliticization. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-45301-7.
- Lee, S.H. (2006). SARS in China and Hong Kong. Nova Science Publishers. ISBN 978-1-59454-678-5.
- Leung, Julian Y.M. (2016). "Education in Hong Kong and China: Towards Convergence?". In Chan, Ming K.; Postiglione, Gerard A. (eds.). The Hong Kong Reader: Passage to Chinese Sovereignty: Passage to Chinese Sovereignty. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-315-48835-6.
- Li, Guo (2012). "A Site Catchment Analysis of Hong Kong's Neolithic Subsistence". In Cheng, Pei-kai; Fan, Ka Wai (eds.). New Perspectives on the Research of Chinese Culture. Springer. pp. 17–43. doi:10.1007/978-981-4021-78-4_2. ISBN 978-981-4021-77-7.
- Littlewood, Michael (2010). Taxation Without Representation: The History of Hong Kong's Troublingly Successful Tax System. Hong Kong University Press. ISBN 978-962-209-099-6.
- Long, Lucy M. (2015). Ethnic American Food Today: A Cultural Encyclopedia. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1-4422-2730-9.
- Morton, Brian; Harper, Elizabeth (1995). An Introduction to the Cape d'Aguilar Marine Reserve, Hong Kong. Hong Kong University Press. ISBN 978-962-209-388-1.
- Owen, Bernie; Shaw, Raynor (2007). Hong Kong Landscapes: Shaping the Barren Rock. Hong Kong University Press. ISBN 978-962-209-847-3.
- Porter, Jonathan (1996). Macau, the Imaginary City: Culture and Society, 1557 to the Present. Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-2836-2.
- Preston, Peter Wallace; Haacke, Jürgen (2003). Contemporary China: The Dynamics of Change at the Start of the New Millennium. RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN 978-0-7007-1637-1.
- Ren, Hai (4 October 2010). Neoliberalism and Culture in China and Hong Kong: The Countdown of Time. Oxford: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-92364-7.
- Schottenhammer, Angela (2007). The East Asian Maritime World 1400–1800: Its Fabrics of Power and Dynamics of Exchanges. Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-05474-4.
- Room, Adrian (2005). Placenames of the World. McFarland & Company. ISBN 978-0-7864-2248-7.
- Scott, Ian (1989). Political Change and the Crisis of Legitimacy in Hong Kong. University of Hawaiʻi Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-1269-0.
- Shen, Jianfa; Kee, Gordon (2017). Development and Planning in Seven Major Coastal Cities in Southern and Eastern China. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-46421-3. ISBN 978-3-319-46420-6.
- Smith, Gareth Dylan; Moir, Zack; Brennan, Matt; Rambarran, Shara; Kirkman, Phil (2017). The Routledge Research Companion to Popular Music Education. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-4724-6498-9.
- Snow, Philip (2003). The Fall of Hong Kong: Britain, China and the Japanese Occupation. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-10373-1.
- Tam, Maria Wai-chu; Chan, Eugene Kin-keung; Choi Kwan, Janice Wing-kum; Leung, Gloria Chi-kin; Lo, Alexandra Dak-wai; Tang, Simon Shu-pui (2012). "Basic Law – the Source of Hong Kong's Progress and Development" (PDF). The Basic Law and Hong Kong – The 15th Anniversary of Reunification with the Motherland. Working Group on Overseas Community of the Basic Law Promotion Steering Committee. OCLC 884571397. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 3 January 2018.
- Tsang, Steve (2007). A Modern History of Hong Kong. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84511-419-0.
- von Glahn, Richard (1996). Fountain of Fortune: Money and Monetary Policy in China, 1000–1700. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-91745-3.
- Wasserstrom, Jeffrey. Vigil: Hong Kong on the Brink (2020) Online review
- Wills, John E. (1998). "Relations with Maritime Europe, 1514–1662". In Twitchett, Denis; Mote, Frederick W. (eds.). The Cambridge History of China: Volume 8, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644. Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. pp. 333–375. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521243339.009. ISBN 978-0-521-24333-9.
- Wiltshire, Trea (1997). Old Hong Kong Volume II: 1901–1945 (5th ed.). FormAsia Books. ISBN 978-962-7283-13-3.
- Wong, Siu Lun (1992). Emigration and stability in Hong Kong (PDF). University of Hong Kong. ISBN 978-962-7558-09-5.
- Wordie, Jason (2007). Streets: Exploring Kowloon. Hong Kong University Press. ISBN 978-962-209-813-8.
- Magalhães, Bianca dos Santos (2017). UNWTO Tourism Highlights: 2017 Edition. World Tourism Organization. doi:10.18111/9789284419029. ISBN 978-92-844-1901-2.
- Xi, Xu; Ingham, Mike (2003). City Voices: Hong Kong writing in English, 1945–present. Hong Kong University Press. ISBN 978-962-209-605-9.
- Xue, Charlie Q.L. (2016). Hong Kong Architecture 1945–2015: From Colonial to Global. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-981-10-1004-0. ISBN 978-981-10-1003-3.
- Yanne, Andrew; Heller, Gillis (2009). Signs of a Colonial Era. Hong Kong University Press. ISBN 978-962-209-944-9.
- Yeung, Rikkie (2008). Moving Millions: The Commercial Success and Political Controversies of Hong Kong's Railways. Hong Kong University Press. ISBN 978-962-209-963-0.
- Young, Simon N.M.; Cullen, Richard (2010). Electing Hong Kong's Chief Executive. Hong Kong University Press. ISBN 978-988-8028-39-9.
- Zhihong, Shi (2006). "China's Overseas Trade Policy and Its Historical Results: 1522–1840". In Latham, A.J.H.; Kawakatsu, Heita (eds.). Intra-Asian Trade and the World Market. Routledge. pp. 4–23. ISBN 978-0-415-37207-7.
Legislation and case law
- Amendment to the Basic Law Annex I (Instrument A111)
- Basic Law Chapter II
- Basic Law Chapter III
- Basic Law Chapter IV
- Basic Law Chapter V
- Basic Law Chapter VII
- Chief Executive of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region and Another v the President of the Legislative Council, HCAL 185/2016, at para. 20
- Constitution of the People's Republic of China (Instrument A1)
- District Councils Ordinance (Cap. 547) Schedule 3
- Emergency Regulations Ordinance (Cap. 241)
- Hong Kong Baptist University Ordinance (Cap. 1126)
- Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Passports Ordinance (Cap. 539)
- Lingnan University Ordinance (Cap. 1165)
- Ng Ka Ling and Another v the Director of Immigration, FACV 14/1998, at para. 63
- Official Languages Ordinance (Cap. 5) § 3(1)
- Sino-British Joint Declaration (Instrument A301)
- Standing Committee Interpretation Concerning Implementation of Chinese Nationality Law in Hong Kong (Instrument A204)
- The Education University of Hong Kong Ordinance (Cap. 444)
- The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Ordinance (Cap. 1075)
- The Open University of Hong Kong Ordinance (Cap. 1145)
Academic publications
- Chen, Li (2011). "Universalism and Equal Sovereignty as Contested Myths of International Law in the Sino-Western Encounter". Journal of the History of International Law. 13 (1): 75–116. doi:10.1163/157180511X552054.
- Cheng, Edmund W. (June 2016). "Street Politics in a Hybrid Regime: The Diffusion of Political Activism in Post-colonial Hong Kong". The China Quarterly. 226: 383–406. doi:10.1017/S0305741016000394.
- Cheng, Sheung-Tak; Lum, Terry; Lam, Linda C. W.; Fung, Helene H. (2013). "Hong Kong: Embracing a Fast Aging Society With Limited Welfare". The Gerontologist. 53 (4): 527–533. doi:10.1093/geront/gnt017. PMID 23528290.
- Cullinane, S. (2002). "The relationship between car ownership and public transport provision: a case study of Hong Kong". Transport Policy. 9 (1): 29–39. doi:10.1016/S0967-070X(01)00028-2.
- Fan, Shuh Ching (1974). "The Population of Hong Kong" (PDF). World Population Year: 1–2. OCLC 438716102.
- Forrest, Ray; La Grange, Adrienne; Yip, Ngai-ming (2004). "Hong Kong as a Global City? Social Distance and Spatial Differentiation". Urban Studies. 41 (1): 207–227. Bibcode:2004UrbSt..41..207F. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.1032.5974. doi:10.1080/0042098032000155759. S2CID 154042413.
- Fu, Poshek (2008). "Japanese Occupation, Shanghai Exiles, and Postwar Hong Kong Cinema". The China Quarterly. 194 (194): 380–394. doi:10.1017/S030574100800043X. JSTOR 20192203. S2CID 154730809.
- Fulton Commission (1963). "Report of the Fulton Commission, 1963: Commission to Advise on the Creation of a Federal-Type Chinese University in Hong Kong". Minerva. 1 (4): 493–507. doi:10.1007/bf01107190. JSTOR 41821589. S2CID 189763965.
- Jordan, Ann D. (1997). "Lost in the Translation: Two Legal Cultures, the Common Law Judiciary and the Basic Law of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region". Cornell International Law Journal. 30 (2): 335–380.
- Lee, John (2012). "A Corpus-Based Analysis of Mixed Code in Hong Kong Speech". 2012 International Conference on Asian Language Processing. pp. 165–168. doi:10.1109/IALP.2012.10. ISBN 978-1-4673-6113-2. S2CID 16210378.
- Lee, Kwai Sang; Leung, Wai Mun (2012). "The status of Cantonese in the education policy of Hong Kong". Multilingual Education. 2 (2): 2. doi:10.1186/2191-5059-2-2. hdl:10397/98877.
- Lee, Nelson K. (2013). "The Changing Nature of Border, Scale and the Production of Hong Kong's Water Supply System since 1959". International Journal of Urban and Regional Research. 38 (3): 903–921. doi:10.1111/1468-2427.12060.
- McKercher, Bob; Ho, Pamela S.Y.; du Cros, Hilary (2004). "Attributes of Popular Attractions in Hong Kong". Annals of Tourism Research. 31 (2): 393–407. doi:10.1016/j.annals.2003.12.008. hdl:10397/29409.
- Meacham, William (1999). "Neolithic to Historic in the Hong Kong Region". Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association Bulletin. 18 (2): 121–128. doi:10.7152/bippa.v18i0.11707 (inactive 1 November 2024). eISSN 0156-1316. hdl:10722/208530.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link) - Ming, Sing (2006). "The Legitimacy Problem and Democratic Reform in Hong Kong". Journal of Contemporary China. 15 (48): 517–532. doi:10.1080/10670560600736558. S2CID 154949190.
- Poon, Simpson; Chau, Patrick (2001). "Octopus: The Growing E-payment System in Hong Kong" (PDF). Electronic Markets. 11 (2): 97–106. doi:10.1080/101967801300197016. S2CID 18766585. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 June 2018.
- Sofield, Trevor H.B.; Sivan, Atara (2003). "From Cultural Festival to International Sport – The Hong Kong Dragon Boat Races". Journal of Sport & Tourism. 8 (1): 9–20. doi:10.1080/14775080306242. S2CID 144106613.
- Tong, C. O.; Wong, S. C. (1997). "The advantages of a high density, mixed land use, linear urban development". Transportation. 24 (3): 295–307. doi:10.1023/A:1004987422746. S2CID 152365622.
- Wong, Eliza L.Y.; Yeoh, Eng-kiong; Chau, Patsy Y.K.; Yam, Carrie H.K.; Cheung, Annie W.L.; Fung, Hong (2015). "How shall we examine and learn about public-private partnerships (PPPs) in the health sector? Realist evaluation of PPPs in Hong Kong". Social Science & Medicine. 147: 261–269. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.11.012. PMID 26605970.
Institutional reports
- A List of Licensed Broadcasting Services in Hong Kong (PDF) (Report). Office of the Communications Authority. 1 June 2018.
- Adaptation of Laws Programme – Guiding Principles and Guideline Glossary of Terms (PDF) (Report). Legislative Council. November 1998.
- Agriculture and Fisheries (PDF). Hong Kong: The Facts (Report). Hong Kong Government. May 2017.
- Airport Traffic Report (PDF) (Report). Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. 14 April 2017. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 May 2017. Retrieved 20 November 2017.
- Akamai's State of the Internet – Q1 2017 Report (PDF) (Report). Akamai Technologies. 2017.
- Annual Report 2016/17 (PDF) (Report). Airport Authority Hong Kong. 12 June 2017.
- Annual Report 2016–17 (PDF) (Report). Inland Revenue Department. 2017.
- Annual Report 2017 (PDF) (Report). Hongkong and Shanghai Hotels. 2017.
- Annual Report and Accounts 2011 (PDF) (Report). The Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation. 2011.
- APAC Regional Headquarters (PDF) (Report). Cushman & Wakefield. April 2016. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 7 June 2018.
- Béthanie – The Academy's Landmark Heritage Campus (PDF) (Report). Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts. September 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 25 June 2018.
- Developing a Supplementary Guide to the Chinese Language Curriculum for Non-Chinese Speaking Students (PDF) (Report). Legislative Council. January 2008.
- District Administration (PDF). Hong Kong: The Facts (Report). Hong Kong Government. April 2016. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 September 2008. Retrieved 18 November 2008.
- Economic development: Statistical Highlights (PDF) (Report). Legislative Council. 26 April 2017.
- Family Survey 2013 (PDF) (Report). Legislative Council. July 2014.
- The UK's relations with Hong Kong: 30 years after the Joint Declaration (PDF) (Report). Parliament of the United Kingdom. 6 March 2015.
- Foreign and Commonwealth Office (October 2014). Written evidence from Foreign and Commonwealth Office (PDF) (Report). Parliament of the United Kingdom.
- Geography and Climate (PDF) (Report). Census and Statistics Department. 2010.
- Guidelines on the Legislative Council Election (PDF) (Report). Electoral Affairs Commission. 2016. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 November 2018. Retrieved 22 June 2018.
- Health Facts of Hong Kong: 2017 Edition (PDF) (Report). Department of Health. 2017.
- Hong Kong as a Service Economy (PDF). Hong Kong: The Facts (Report). Hong Kong Government. April 2016.
- Hong Kong Energy Statistics – 2016 Annual Report (PDF) (Report). Census and Statistics Department. April 2017.
- The Hong Kong Government Gazette (PDF) (Report). 3 September 1926 – via University of Hong Kong.
- Human Development Indices and Indicators – Statistical Update 2018 (PDF) (Report). United Nations Development Programme. 2018.
- Jiang, Guorong; Tang, Nancy; Law, Eve; Sze, Angela (September 2003). The Profitability of the Banking Sector in Hong Kong (PDF) (Report). Hong Kong Monetary Authority.
- June 2019 (PDF). Hong Kong Monthly Digest of Statistics (Report). Census and Statistics Department. June 2019.
- List of Political Affiliations of LegCo Members and DC Members (PDF) (Report). District Councils. 19 June 2017.
- Literacy Rates Continue to Rise from One Generation to the Next (PDF) (Report). UNESCO. September 2017. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 March 2020. Retrieved 30 December 2019.
- Lung, Charles C P; Sung, Y F (2010). A Century of Railway Development – The Hong Kong Story (PDF) (Report). Institution of Railway Signal Engineers. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 April 2019. Retrieved 26 December 2017.
- Main Results (PDF). 2021 Population By-Census (Report). Census and Statistics Department. 2021.
- Market Statistics 2018 (PDF) (Report). Hong Kong Stock Exchange. 2018.
- Panel on Education (8 January 2007). Grant to the Hong Kong Shue Yan University for Establishing a General Development Fund (PDF) (Report). Legislative Council.
- Panel on Home Affairs (June 2007). "List of Historical Buildings Declared as Monuments from 1997 to 2006" (PDF). The Queen's Pier (Report). Legislative Council.
- Public Finance (PDF). Hong Kong: The Facts (Report). Hong Kong Government. May 2018.
- Public Transport Strategy Study (PDF) (Report). Transport Department. June 2017.
- Radio Television Hong Kong (PDF). The 2018–2019 Budget (Report). Hong Kong Government. 2018.
- Railway Network (PDF). Hong Kong: The Facts (Report). Hong Kong Government. April 2018.
- Registration and Licensing of Vehicles by Class of Vehicles (PDF) (Report). Transport Department. January 2018.
- Religion and Custom (PDF). Hong Kong: The Facts (Report). Hong Kong Government. May 2016.
- Subcommittee on Matters Relating to Railways (2014). Follow-ups on the Service Suspension of Tseung Kwan O Line and Part of Kwun Tong Line on 16 December 2013, and Report on Subsequent Major Incidents on East Rail Line and Light Rail (PDF) (Report). Legislative Council.
- Reclamation Outside Victoria Harbour (PDF) (Report). Development Bureau. 2017.
- Report of the Task Force on Population Policy (PDF) (Report). Hong Kong Government. 2002.
- The Global Financial Centres Index 22 (PDF) (Report). China Development Institute. September 2017.
- The Media (PDF). Hong Kong: The Facts (Report). Hong Kong Government. December 2017.
- Thematic Report: Household Income Distribution in Hong Kong (PDF). 2021 Population By-Census (Report). Census and Statistics Department. May 2023.
- Tourism (PDF). Hong Kong: The Facts (Report). Hong Kong Government. May 2016.
- Transport (PDF). Hong Kong: The Facts (Report). Hong Kong Government. May 2016.
- Report on Study of Road Traffic Congestion in Hong Kong (PDF) (Report). Transport and Housing Bureau. December 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 April 2022. Retrieved 21 November 2017.
- Transport and Housing Bureau (19 April 2017). Technical Legislative Amendments on Traffic Arrangements for the Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Bridge (PDF) (Report). Legislative Council.
- Transport: Statistical Highlights (PDF) (Report). Legislative Council. 28 October 2016.
- Triennial Central Bank Survey: Foreign exchange turnover in April 2016 (PDF) (Report). Bank for International Settlements. September 2016.
- Usage of Information Technology and the Internet by Hong Kong Residents, 2000 to 2016 (PDF) (Report). Census and Statistics Department. November 2017.
- Use of Chinese in Court Proceedings (PDF) (Report). Legislative Council. 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 August 2020. Retrieved 16 November 2017.
- Water Supplies (PDF). Hong Kong: The Facts (Report). Hong Kong Government. May 2016.
- Women and Men in Hong Kong Key Statistics (PDF) (Report). Census and Statistics Department. July 2017.
- Yu, Jian Zhen; Huang, Hilda; Ng, Wai Man (June 2013). Final Report for Provision of Service for Fine Particulate Matter (PM2.5) Sample Chemical Analysis (PDF) (Report). Environmental Protection Department.
News and magazine articles
- Baldwin, Clare; Lee, Yimou; Jim, Clare (30 December 2014). "Special Report: The mainland's colonisation of the Hong Kong economy". Reuters. Retrieved 26 December 2017.
- Bland, Ben (31 July 2016). "Hong Kong ban on pro-independence candidates sparks backlash". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 10 December 2022. Retrieved 26 June 2018.
- Chan, Bernice (17 July 2017). "Hong Kong villagers using solar energy to help power their homes – and show its potential as a source of electricity for city". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 25 November 2017.
- Chao, York (25 May 2013). "Racist Hong Kong is still a fact". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 18 November 2017.
- Cheung, Stephanie (23 March 2015). "The case for extending Hong Kong's 2047 deadline". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 22 May 2018.
- Cheung, Tony (10 May 2016). "Too soon to talk about 2047? Legal experts split on when Hong Kong should debate its future". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 22 May 2018.
- Cheung, Tony (28 February 2017). "Who goes there? Hong Kong's participation in China's 'two sessions' explained". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 27 November 2017.
- Cheung, Tony; Ho, Lauren (19 January 2013). "CY Leung insists housing policy won't cause property crash". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 14 November 2017.
- Chow, Vivienne (16 March 2017). "Hong Kong's TVB Targeting New Revenues With OTT Platform, Productions". Variety. Retrieved 6 June 2018.
- Darrach, Amanda (14 June 2019). "How many really marched in Hong Kong? And how should we best guess crowd size?". Columbia Journalism Review. Retrieved 23 October 2019.
- "End of an experiment". The Economist. 15 July 2010. Retrieved 5 September 2010.
- Frank, Robert (5 September 2018). "Hong Kong topples New York as world's richest city". CNBC. Retrieved 21 April 2019.
- Gargan, Edward A. (1 July 1997). "China Resumes Control of Hong Kong, Concluding 156 Years of British Rule". The New York Times. Retrieved 5 January 2018.
- Ge, Celine (28 July 2017). "It's fade out for Hong Kong's film industry as China moves into the spotlight". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 28 May 2018.
- Gold, Anne (6 July 2001). "Hong Kong's Mile-Long Escalator System Elevates the Senses: A Stairway to Urban Heaven". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 22 March 2017. Retrieved 22 October 2010.
- Griffiths, James; Lazarus, Sarah (22 October 2018). "World's longest sea-crossing bridge opens between Hong Kong and China". CNN. Retrieved 15 February 2019.
- Haas, Benjamin (14 July 2017). "Hong Kong pro-democracy legislators disqualified from parliament". The Guardian. Retrieved 5 July 2018.
- He, Huifeng (13 January 2013). "Forgotten stories of the great escape to Hong Kong". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 27 December 2017.
- Hollingsworth, Julia; Zheng, Sarah (27 March 2017). "Top 10 Hong Kong skyscraper nicknames, from the Big Syringe to the Hong Kong Finger". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 26 June 2018.
- Huang, Echo (15 November 2016). "A Hong Kong court has disqualified two legislators who refused to take their oath "correctly"". Quartz. Retrieved 5 July 2018.
- Kaiman, Jonathan (30 September 2014). "Hong Kong's umbrella revolution – the Guardian briefing". The Guardian. Retrieved 3 February 2018.
- Kong, Daniel (8 August 2013). "Hong Kong Imports Over 90% of Its Food. Can It Learn to Grow?". Modern Farmer. Archived from the original on 29 October 2013. Retrieved 26 October 2013.
- Kwok, Donny (22 September 2018). "All aboard: Hong Kong bullet train signals high-speed integration with China". Reuters. Retrieved 26 September 2018.
- Labarre, Suzanne (15 June 2010). "Ingenious Flipper Bridge Melds Left-Side Drivers With Right-Side Drivers". Fast Company. Retrieved 25 March 2018.
- Lendon, Brad (29 June 2017). "China makes its military more visible in Hong Kong". CNN. Retrieved 22 December 2017.
- Lhatoo, Yonden (17 September 2015). "Racism is rife in Hong Kong and the Equal Opportunities Commission is a toothless hamster to tackle it". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 18 November 2017.
- Liu, Alfred (5 September 2018). "These Are the Cities With the Most Ultra-Rich People". Bloomberg News. Retrieved 21 April 2019.
- Mok, Danny (14 February 2018). "Going up! Prices for Hong Kong's famous Peak Tram to increase for second time in less than two years". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
- Mok, Danny; Lee, Eddie (4 March 2015). "Let Hongkongers serve in China's People's Liberation Army, says top military official". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 27 November 2017.
- Ngo, Jennifer; Cheung, Elizabeth (16 March 2016). "A case for inclusion: Carrie Lam pledges to tout list of 16 ethnic minority Hongkongers for government advisory positions". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 18 November 2017.
- Park, Kyunghee (23 January 2019). "Once the World's Greatest Port, Hong Kong Sinks in Global Ranking". Bloomberg News. Retrieved 14 February 2019.
- Sala, Ilaria Maria (1 September 2016). "As Hong Kong goes to the polls, why isn't the Communist Party on the ballot?". Quartz. Retrieved 18 November 2017.
- Siu, Phila; Chung, Kimmy (27 December 2017). "Controversial joint checkpoint plan approved for high-speed rail link as Hong Kong officials dismiss concerns over legality". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 5 July 2018.
- Tam, Luisa (11 September 2017). "Self-centred, demanding, materialistic and arrogant: how to steer clear of the Kong Girls". South China Morning Post. Hong Kong. Retrieved 27 December 2017.
- Tatlow, Didi Kirsten (2 February 2017). "On Deck With China's Last Junk Builders, Masters of an Ebbing Craft". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2 January 2022. Retrieved 31 May 2018.
- "To restore calm in Hong Kong, try democracy". The Economist. 20 June 2019. Retrieved 23 October 2019.
- Wong, Joshua; Lim, Emily (23 February 2017). "We must resist until China gives Hong Kong a say in our future". The Guardian. Retrieved 16 November 2017.
- Hung, Emily; Ma, Jess (19 September 2023). "Hong Kong's poorest struggle to benefit from post-pandemic recovery with wealth gap at its worst in over 10 years, Oxfam warns". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 8 June 2024.
- Yu, Verna (6 January 2013). "Veterans who fled mainland for Hong Kong in 1970s tell their stories". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 9 September 2013.
- Zhao, Shirley (6 September 2015). "'If you tell them you are Pakistani, they won't give you the flat': Finding a Hong Kong home is battle against prejudice for ethnic minorities". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 18 November 2017.
- Zheng, Sarah (14 January 2017). "Hong Kong's heritage sites face continued threat despite government grading system". South China Morning Post. Hong Kong. Retrieved 5 March 2018.
Websites
- Bush, Richard C.; Whelan-Wuest, Maeve (29 March 2017). "Another Hong Kong election, another pro-Beijing leader—why it matters". Brookings Institution. Retrieved 18 November 2017.
- Desjardins, Jeff (14 March 2018). "These 25 countries have the most billionaires". Business Insider. Retrieved 3 April 2018.
- "Disclaimer and Copyright Notice". Legislative Council. Retrieved 27 November 2017.
- Ghoshal, Amoy (1 July 2011). "Asian Cup: Know Your History – Part One (1956–1988)". Goal. Retrieved 5 March 2018.
- "HK records hottest day before typhoon". EJ Insight. 23 August 2017. Archived from the original on 29 July 2018. Retrieved 29 August 2018.
- "HK vs China GDP: A sobering reality". EJ Insight. 9 June 2017. Archived from the original on 29 August 2018. Retrieved 29 January 2018.
- "Hong Kong Activists Stare Down 'Great Firewall of China'". NBC News. 29 September 2014. Retrieved 21 June 2018.
- "Hong Kong profile – Media". BBC News. 5 March 2018. Retrieved 29 May 2018.
- Kohlstedt, Kurt (5 September 2016). "Here Be Dragons: How Feng Shui Shapes the Skyline of Hong Kong". 99% Invisible. Retrieved 23 June 2018.
- Kwong, Chi Man (9 September 2015). "Hong Kong during World War II: A Transnational Battlefield". University of Nottingham. Archived from the original on 27 June 2018. Retrieved 22 January 2018.
- Lam, Eric; Qiu, Yue (23 June 2017). "Hong Kong's Stock Market Tells the Story of China's Growing Dominance". Bloomberg News. Retrieved 26 December 2017.
- "Land Use in Hong Kong 2017". Planning Department. Archived from the original on 19 October 2013. Retrieved 1 September 2018.
- "Meanings of Right of Abode and Other Terms". Immigration Department. Retrieved 18 November 2017.
External links
- Hong Kong. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
- Hong Kong from BBC News
- Key Development Forecasts for Hong Kong from International Futures
- Hong Kong in Transition (1995–2020), an open access photographic archive of recent Hong Kong history
Government
- GovHK Hong Kong SAR government portal
- Discover Hong Kong Official site of the tourism board
Trade
Maps
- Wikimedia Atlas of Hong Kong
- Geographic data related to Hong Kong at OpenStreetMap
Pearl River Delta Metropolitan Region (Guangdong–Hong Kong–Macau Greater Bay Area) | ||
---|---|---|
Pearl River Delta Economic Zone | ||
Guangdong Province | ||
Special administrative regions |
Major cities along the Pearl River | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cities (from upper reaches to lower reaches) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Major tributaries |
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Pearl River | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Pearl |
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Shiziyang | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Lingdingyang | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Jiuzhouyang | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Major cities along the Yangtze River · Major cities along the Yellow River |
Links to related articles | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
22°18′N 114°12′E / 22.3°N 114.2°E / 22.3; 114.2
Categories:- Hong Kong
- People's Republic of China
- 1842 establishments in Asia
- Countries and territories where Chinese is an official language
- English-speaking countries and territories
- Metropolitan areas of China
- Pearl River Delta
- Populated places established in 1842
- Port cities and towns in China
- South China Sea
- Special administrative regions of China
- States and territories established in 1997