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{{Short description|Phenomenon of US political rhetoric after WWII}}
{{sprotect2}}
{{about|the events during the cold war|general information about the phenomenon|Red Scare}}
]
{{use mdy dates|date=November 2023}}
'''McCarthyism''' is a term describing the intense ] suspicion in the United States in a period that lasted roughly from the late 1940s to the late 1950s. This period is also referred to as the Second ], and coincided with increased fears about ] influence on American institutions and ] by ] agents. Originally coined to criticize the actions of ] ], "McCarthyism" later took on a more general meaning, not necessarily referring to the conduct of Joseph McCarthy alone.
{{Infobox event
| title = Second Red Scare
| partof = the ]
| image = ]
| image_size = 180px
| caption = American ] ] of the 1950s, specifically addressing the entertainment industry
| duration = 1947–1959
| location = ]
| cause = ], ]
| participants = {{ubl|]|Senator ]|]}}
| accused = {{ubl|Alleged communists including:|]}}
| outcome = * Decline of membership in the ]
* Persecution of thousands of innocent people
* Senate censure of McCarthy
| reported deaths =
| arrests =
| convicted =
| inquiries = * ]
* ]
}}{{conservatism US|history}}
'''McCarthyism''', also known as the '''Second Red Scare''', was the ] and persecution of ] individuals and a ] of communist and Soviet influence on American institutions and of ] during the late 1940s through the 1950s.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Storrs|first=Landon R. Y.|date=July 2, 2015|title=McCarthyism and the Second Red Scare|url=https://oxfordre.com/americanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.001.0001/acrefore-9780199329175-e-6|journal=American History|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.013.6|isbn=978-0199329175|access-date=July 3, 2018|archive-date=July 3, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180703191049/http://americanhistory.oxfordre.com/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.001.0001/acrefore-9780199329175-e-6|url-status=live}}</ref> After the mid-1950s, U.S. Senator ], who had spearheaded the campaign, gradually lost his public popularity and credibility after several of his accusations were found to be false.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/catalog/43mam8fk9780252037009.html|title=UI Press {{!}} Robert M. Lichtman {{!}} The Supreme Court and McCarthy-Era Repression: One Hundred Decisions|last=Lichtman|first=Robert M.|website=www.press.uillinois.edu|language=en|access-date=October 20, 2019|archive-date=May 12, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512060527/https://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/catalog/43mam8fk9780252037009.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4975529|title=Revisiting McCarthyism in the Patriot Act Era|website=NPR.org|language=en|access-date=October 20, 2019|archive-date=October 20, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191020072933/https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4975529|url-status=live}}</ref> The ] Chief Justice ] made a series of rulings on civil and political rights that overturned several key laws and legislative directives, and helped bring an end to the Second Red Scare.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TMc0yiJLydYC&q=McCarthyism+Warren+Court&pg=PA53|title=The Warren Court and the Pursuit of Justice|last=Horwitz|first=Morton J.|date=1999|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=978-0809016259|language=en|access-date=October 19, 2020|archive-date=November 13, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201113040739/https://books.google.com/books?id=TMc0yiJLydYC&q=McCarthyism+Warren+Court&pg=PA53|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=https://www.oyez.org/cases/1956/6|title=Yates v. United States|website=Oyez|language=en|access-date=October 20, 2019|archive-date=August 24, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190824110722/https://www.oyez.org/cases/1956/6|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=https://www.oyez.org/cases/1956/261|title=Watkins v. United States|website=Oyez|language=en|access-date=October 20, 2019|archive-date=October 20, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191020072928/https://www.oyez.org/cases/1956/261|url-status=live}}</ref> Historians have suggested since the 1980s that as McCarthy's involvement was less central than that of others, a different and more accurate term should be used instead that more accurately conveys the breadth of the phenomenon, and that the term ''McCarthyism'' is, in the modern day, outdated. Ellen Schrecker has suggested that '''''Hooverism''''', after FBI Head ], is more appropriate.{{sfn|Schrecker|1998|p=203}}


What became known as the McCarthy era began before McCarthy's rise to national fame. Following the breakdown of the wartime East-West alliance with the ], and with many remembering the ], President ] signed an ] in 1947 to screen federal employees for possible association with organizations deemed "totalitarian, fascist, communist, or subversive", or advocating "to alter the form of Government of the United States by unconstitutional means." The following year, the ] by the ] heightened concern in the West about Communist parties seizing power and the possibility of subversion. In 1949, a high-level ] official was convicted of ] in a case of espionage, and the Soviet Union tested a ]. The ] started the next year, significantly raising tensions and fears of impending communist upheavals in the United States. In a speech in February 1950, McCarthy claimed to have a list of members of the ] working in the State Department, which attracted substantial press attention, and the term ''McCarthyism'' was published for the first time in late March of that year in '']'', along with a ] by ] in '']''. The term has since taken on a broader meaning, describing the excesses of similar efforts to crack down on alleged "subversive" elements. In the early 21st century, the term is used more generally to describe reckless and unsubstantiated accusations of treason and far-left extremism, along with ] personal attacks on the character and patriotism of political adversaries.
During this time many thousands of Americans were accused of being Communists or communist sympathizers and became the subject of aggressive investigations and questioning before government or private-industry panels, committees and agencies. The primary targets of such suspicions were government employees, those in the entertainment industry, educators and ] activists. Suspicions were often given credence despite inconclusive or questionable evidence, and the level of threat posed by a person's real or supposed leftist associations or beliefs was often greatly exaggerated. Many people suffered loss of employment, destruction of their careers, and even imprisonment. Most of these punishments came about through trial verdicts later overturned,<ref>For example, '']'', 1957; or Watkins v. United States, 1957:
{{cite book
| last = Fried
| first = Albert
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| year = 1997
| title = McCarthyism, The Great American Red Scare: A Documentary History
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| pages = pp 205, 207
| id = ISBN 0-19-509701-7
}}</ref>
laws that would be declared unconstitutional,<ref>
For example, the California "Levering Oath" law, declared unconstitutional in 1967:
{{cite book
| last = Fried
| first = Albert
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| year = 1997
| title = McCarthyism, The Great American Red Scare: A Documentary History
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| pages = pg. 124
| id = ISBN 0-19-509701-7
}}</ref>
dismissals for reasons later declared illegal<ref>
For example, ''Slochower v. Board of Education'', 1956:
{{cite book
| last = Fried
| first = Albert
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| year = 1997
| title = McCarthyism, The Great American Red Scare: A Documentary History
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| pages = pg. 203
| id = ISBN 0-19-509701-7
}}
</ref> or ],<ref>
For example, ''Faulk vs. AWARE Inc., et al'', 1956:
{{cite book
| last = Fried
| first = Albert
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| year = 1997
| title = McCarthyism, The Great American Red Scare: A Documentary History
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| pages = pg. 197
| id = ISBN 0-19-509701-7
}}</ref>
or extra-legal procedures that would come into general disrepute.


The primary targets for persecution were government employees, prominent figures in the entertainment industry, academics, left-wing politicians, and labor union activists. Suspicions were often given credence despite inconclusive and questionable evidence, and the level of threat posed by a person's real or supposed leftist associations and beliefs were often exaggerated. Many people suffered loss of employment and the destruction of their careers and livelihoods as a result of the crackdowns on suspected communists, and some were outright imprisoned. Most of these reprisals were initiated by trial verdicts that were later overturned,<ref>For example, '']'' (1957) and '']'' (1957): {{harvnb|Fried|1997|pp=205, 207}}</ref> laws that were later struck down as unconstitutional,<ref>For example, California's "Levering Oath" law, declared unconstitutional in 1967: {{harvnb|Fried|1997|p=124}}</ref> dismissals for reasons later declared illegal<ref>For example, ''Slochower v. Board of Education'' (1956): {{harvnb|Fried|1997|p=203}}</ref> or ],<ref>For example, ''Faulk vs. AWARE Inc., et al.'' (1962): {{harvnb|Fried|1997|p=197}}</ref> and extra-judiciary procedures, such as informal blacklists by employers and public institutions, that would come into general disrepute, though by then many lives had been ruined. The most notable examples of McCarthyism include the investigations of alleged communists that were conducted by Senator McCarthy, and the hearings conducted by the ] (HUAC).
The most famous examples of McCarthyism include the ] and the investigations and hearings conducted by Joseph McCarthy. It was a widespread social and cultural phenomenon that affected all levels of society and was the source of a great deal of debate and conflict in the United States.


Following the end of the ], unearthed documents revealed substantial Soviet spy activity in the United States, though many of the agents were never properly identified by Senator McCarthy.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Haynes |first1=John Earl |last2=Klehr |first2=Harvey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M8p00bTFvRkC |title=Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-300-07771-1 |pages=8–22 |chapter=Venona and the Cold War |jstor=j.ctt1npk87 |chapter-url=https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/books/first/h/haynes-venona.html<!--https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1npk87-->}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Isserman |first=Maurice |date= May 9, 1999 |title=They Led Two Lives |url=https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/books/99/05/09/reviews/990509.09issermt.html |access-date=December 10, 2024 |magazine=The New York Times Book Review |issn=0028-7806}}</ref>
==Origins of McCarthyism==
] (aka 'Herblock') coined the term "McCarthyism" in this cartoon in the March 29, 1950 ''Washington Post'']]
The historical period that came to be known as McCarthyism began well before ]'s own involvement in it. There are many factors that can be counted as contributing to McCarthyism, some of them extending back to the years of the ] (1917-1920), and indeed to the inception of Communism as a recognized political force. Thanks in part to its success in organizing ] and its early opposition to ], the ] (CPUSA) increased its membership through the 1930s, reaching a peak of 50,000 members in 1942.<ref>
{{cite book
| last = Johnpoll
| first = Bernard K
| year = 1994
| title = A Documentary History of the Communist Party of the United States Vol. 3
| publisher = Greenwood Press
| pages = pg. xv
| id = ISBN 0-313-28506-3}}
</ref>


==Origins==
While the United States was engaged in ] and allied with the ], the issue of anti-communism was largely muted. With the end of World War II, the ] began almost immediately, as the Soviet Union installed repressive Communist ]s across Central and Eastern Europe.
{{See also|US Strike wave of 1945–1946}}] ("Herblock"), published in '']'', March 29, 1950.]]
President Harry S. Truman's ] of March 21, 1947, required that all federal civil-service employees be screened for "loyalty". The order said that one basis for determining disloyalty would be a finding of "membership in, affiliation with or sympathetic association" with any organization determined by the attorney general to be "totalitarian, fascist, communist or subversive" or advocating or approving the forceful denial of constitutional rights to other persons or seeking "to alter the form of Government of the United States by unconstitutional means".<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Robert J |first=Goldstein |year=2006 |title=Prelude to McCarthyism: The Making of a Blacklist |magazine=Prologue Magazine |location=Washington, DC |publisher=National Archives and Records Administration |url=https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2006/fall/agloso.html |access-date=January 16, 2017 |archive-date=January 18, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118033528/https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2006/fall/agloso.html |url-status=live }}</ref>


The historical period that came to be known as the McCarthy era began well before Joseph McCarthy's own involvement in it. Many factors contributed to McCarthyism, some of them with roots in the ] (1917–20), inspired by communism's emergence as a recognized political force and widespread social disruption in the United States related to unionizing and ] activities. Owing in part to its success in organizing labor unions and its early opposition to ], and offering an alternative to the ills of capitalism during the ], the ] increased its membership through the 1930s, reaching a peak of about 75,000 members in 1940–41.{{sfn|Weir|2007|pp=148–149}} While the United States was engaged in ] and allied with the ], the issue of ] was largely muted. With the end of World War II, the ] began almost immediately, as the Soviet Union installed communist ]s in areas it had occupied across Central and Eastern Europe. In a March 1947 address to Congress, Truman enunciated a new foreign policy doctrine that committed the United States to opposing Soviet geopolitical expansion. This doctrine came to be known as the ], and it guided United States support for anti-communist forces in ] and later in ] and elsewhere.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Merrill |first1=Dennis |title=The Truman Doctrine: Containing Communism and Modernity |journal=Presidential Studies Quarterly |date=2006 |volume=36 |issue=1|pages=27–37 |doi=10.1111/j.1741-5705.2006.00284.x }}</ref>
Events in 1949 and 1950 sharply increased the sense of threat from Communism in the United States. The Soviet Union ] an ] in 1949, earlier than many analysts had expected. That same year, ]'s Communist army gained control of mainland China despite heavy financial support of the opposing ] by the U.S. In 1950, the ] began, pitting U.S., U.N. and South Korean forces against Communists from North Korea and China. Although the ] and ] affairs had raised the issue of Soviet espionage as far back as 1945. The following year also saw several significant developments regarding Soviet Cold War ] activities. In January, 1950, ], a high-level ] official, was convicted of perjury. Hiss was in effect found guilty of espionage; the statute of limitations had run out for that crime, but he was convicted of having perjured himself when he denied that charge in earlier testimony before the ]. In Great Britain, ] confessed to committing espionage on behalf of the Soviet Union while working on the ] at ] during the War. ] were arrested in 1950 on charges of stealing atomic bomb secrets for the Soviets and were executed in 1953.


Although the ] and ] affairs had raised the issue of Soviet espionage in 1945, events in 1949 and 1950 sharply increased the sense of threat in the United States related to communism. The Soviet Union ] in 1949, earlier than many analysts had expected, raising the stakes in the Cold War. That same year, ]'s communist army gained control of mainland China despite heavy American financial support of the opposing ]. In 1950, the ] began, pitting U.S., U.N., and South Korean forces against communists from North Korea and China.
There were also more subtle forces encouraging the rise of McCarthyism. It had long been a practice of more conservative politicians to refer to liberal reforms such as ] and ] as "Communist" or "Red plots."<ref>
{{cite book
| last = Fried
| first = Richard M.
| year = 1990
| title = Nightmare in Red: The McCarthy Era in Perspective
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| pages = pg 41
| id = ISBN 0-19-504361-8
}}</ref> This tendency increased in reaction to the ] policies of President ]. Many conservatives equated the New Deal with ] or Communism, and saw its policies as evidence that the government had been heavily influenced by Communist policy-makers in the Roosevelt administration.<ref>
{{cite book
| last = Brinkley
| first = Alan
| year = 1995
| title = The End Of Reform: New Deal Liberalism in Recession and War
| publisher = Vintage
| pages = pg. 141
| id = ISBN 0-679-75314-1
}}</ref><ref>
{{cite book
| last = Fried
| first = Richard M.
| year = 1990
| title = Nightmare in Red: The McCarthy Era in Perspective
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| pages = pp 6, 15, 78-80
| id = ISBN 0-19-504361-8
}}</ref> In general, the vaguely defined danger of "Communist influence" was a more common theme in the ] of anti-Communist politicians than was espionage or any other specific activity.


During the following year, evidence of increased sophistication in Soviet Cold War espionage activities was found in the West. In January 1950, ], a high-level State Department official, was convicted of perjury. Hiss was in effect found guilty of espionage; the statute of limitations had run out for that crime, but he was convicted of having perjured himself when he denied that charge in earlier testimony before the HUAC. In Britain, ] confessed to committing espionage on behalf of the Soviet Union while working on the ] at ] during the War. ] were arrested in 1950 in the United States on charges of stealing atomic-bomb secrets for the Soviets, and were executed in 1953.
]
Joseph McCarthy's involvement with the ongoing cultural phenomenon that would bear his name began with a speech he made on ], February 9, 1950, to the Republican Women's Club of ]. He produced a piece of paper which he claimed contained a list of known Communists working for the ]. McCarthy is usually quoted as saying: "I have here in my hand a list of 205 — a list of names that were made known to the ] as being members of the ] and who nevertheless are still working and shaping policy in the State Department."<ref>{{cite book
| last = Griffith
| first = Robert
| title = The Politics of Fear: Joseph R. McCarthy and the Senate
| publisher = University of Massachusetts Press
| year = 1970
| pages = pg. 49
| id = ISBN 0-87023-555-9 }}</ref>
This speech resulted in a flood of press attention to McCarthy and set him on the path that would characterize the rest of his career and life.


Other forces encouraged the rise of McCarthyism. The more conservative politicians in the United States had historically referred to progressive reforms, such as ] and ], as "communist" or "Red plots", trying to raise fears against such changes.{{sfn|Fried|1990|p=41}} They used similar terms during the 1930s and the ] when opposing the ] policies of President ]. Many conservatives equated the New Deal with ] or Communism, and thought the policies were evidence of too much influence by allegedly communist policy makers in the Roosevelt administration.{{sfn|Brinkley|1995|p=141}}{{sfn|Fried|1990|pp=6, 15, 78–80}} In general, the vaguely defined danger of "Communist influence" was a more common theme in the rhetoric of anti-communist politicians than was espionage or any other specific activity. An example of this was ], an economist who was ] but ] due to earlier suspected Communist sympathies.
The first recorded use of the term McCarthyism was in a March 29, 1950 ] by '']'' editorial cartoonist ] (aka ]). The cartoon depicted four leading Republicans trying to push an elephant (the traditional symbol of the ]) to stand on a teetering stack of ten tar buckets, the topmost of which was labeled "McCarthyism."


==Start of McCarthy's involvement==
==The institutions of McCarthyism==
] in 1954]]


McCarthy's involvement in these issues began publicly with a speech he made on ], February 9, 1950, to the Republican Women's Club of ]. He brandished a piece of paper, which he claimed contained a list of known communists working for the State Department. McCarthy is usually quoted as saying: "I have here in my hand a list of 205—a list of names that were made known to the Secretary of State as being members of the Communist Party and who nevertheless are still working and shaping policy in the State Department."{{sfn|Griffith|1970|p=49}} This speech resulted in a flood of press attention to McCarthy and helped establish his path to becoming one of the most recognized politicians in the United States.
There were many anti-Communist committees, panels and "loyalty review boards" in federal, state and local governments, as well as many private agencies that carried out investigations for small and large companies concerned about possible Communists in their work force.


The first recorded use of the term "McCarthyism" was in the ] on March 28, 1950 ("Their little spree with McCarthyism is no aid to consultation").<ref>{{OED|McCarthyism, n.}}; citing ''Christian Science Monitor'', March 28, 1950, p. 20.</ref> The paper became one of the earliest and most consistent critics of the Senator.<ref>Strout, Lawrence N. (1999). ''''. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. "Introduction".</ref> The next recorded use happened on the following day, in a ] by ] editorial cartoonist ]. The cartoon depicts four leading Republicans trying to push an elephant (the traditional symbol of the ]) to stand on a platform atop a teetering stack of ten tar buckets, the topmost of which is labeled "McCarthyism". Block later wrote: "Nothing particularly ingenious about the term, which is simply used to represent a national affliction that can hardly be described in any other way. If anyone has a prior claim on it, he's welcome to the word and to the junior senator from Wisconsin along with it. I will also throw in a set of free dishes and a case of soap."{{sfn|Block|1952|p=152}}
In Congress, the most notable bodies for investigating Communist activities were the ], the ] and the ]. Between 1949 and 1954, a total of 109 investigations were carried out by these and other committees of Congress.<ref>
{{cite book
| last = Fried
| first = Richard M.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| year = 1990
| title = Nightmare in Red: The McCarthy Era in Perspective
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| pages = pg. 150
| id = ISBN 0-19-504361-8
}}</ref>


==Institutions==
===The Executive Branch===
A number of anti-communist committees, panels, and "loyalty review boards" in federal, state, and local governments, as well as many private agencies, carried out investigations for small and large companies concerned about possible Communists in their work forces.

In Congress, the primary bodies that investigated Communist activities were the HUAC, the ], and the ]. Between 1949 and 1954, a total of 109 investigations were carried out by these and other committees of Congress.{{sfn|Fried|1990|p=150}}

On December 2, 1954, the ] voted 67 to 22<ref>{{Cite web |title=S. Res. 301 Congressional Record, Dec 2, 1954 |url=https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/resources/pdf/1954McCarthyCensure.pdf |website=www.senate.gov}}</ref> to condemn McCarthy for "conduct that tends to bring the Senate into dishonor and disrepute".

===Executive branch===
====Loyalty-security reviews==== ====Loyalty-security reviews====
]
In the federal government, ]'s ] initiated a program of loyalty reviews for federal employees in 1947. Truman's mandate called for dismissal if there were "reasonable grounds... for belief that the person involved is disloyal to the Government of the United States."<ref>
In the federal government, President Truman's Executive Order 9835 initiated a program of loyalty reviews for federal employees in 1947. It called for dismissal if there were "reasonable grounds&nbsp;... for belief that the person involved is disloyal to the Government of the United States."<ref>{{Cite book |chapter=The Constitution of the Truman Presidency and the Post–World War II Era |editor1-first=Martin |editor1-last=Fausold |editor2-first=Alan |editor2-last=Shank |first=Donald R. |last=McCoy |year=1991 |title=The Constitution and the American Presidency |publisher=SUNY Press |page= |isbn=978-0791404683 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/constitutionamer0000faus/page/116}}</ref> Truman, a ], was probably reacting in part to the Republican sweep in the ] and felt a need to counter growing criticism from conservatives and anti-communists.{{sfn|Fried|1997}}
{{cite book
| author = Martin Fausold, Alan Shank, editors
| year = 1991
| title = The Constitution and the American Presidency
| publisher = SUNY Press
| pages = pg. 116
| id = ISBN 0-7914-0468-4
}}</ref>
Truman, a ], was probably reacting in part to the Republican sweep in the ], and felt a need to counter the growing criticism from conservatives and anti-communists.<ref>
{{cite book
| last = Fried
| first = Albert
| year = 1997
| title = McCarthyism: A Documentary History
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| id = ISBN 0-19-509701-7
}}</ref>


When ] took office in 1953, he strengthened and extended Truman's loyalty review program, while decreasing the avenues of appeal available to dismissed employees. ], Chairman of the Civil Service Commission Loyalty Review Board, referred to the new rules he was obliged to enforce as "just not the American way of doing things."<ref> When President ] took office in 1953, he strengthened and extended Truman's loyalty review program, while decreasing the avenues of appeal available to dismissed employees. ], chairman of the Civil Service Commission ], referred to the new rules he was obliged to enforce as "just not the American way of doing things."{{sfn|Fried|1990|p=133}} The following year, ], scientific director of the ] that built the first atomic bomb, then working as a consultant to the ], was stripped of his security clearance after a ]. Oppenheimer had received a top-secret clearance in 1947, but was denied clearance in the harsher climate of 1954.
{{cite book
| last = Fried
| first = Richard M.
| year = 1990
| title = Nightmare in Red: The McCarthy Era in Perspective
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| pages = pg. 133
| id = ISBN 0-19-504361-8
}}</ref>
Similar loyalty reviews were established in many state and local government offices and some private industries across the nation. In 1958 it was estimated that roughly one out of every five employees in the United States was required to pass some sort of loyalty review.<ref>
{{cite book
| last = Brown
| first = Ralph S.
| year = 1958
| title = Loyalty and Security: Employment Tests in the United States
| publisher = Yale University Press
| id =
}}</ref>


Once a person lost a job due to an unfavorable loyalty review, it could be very difficult to find other employment. "A man is ruined everywhere and forever," in the words of the chairman of President Truman's Loyalty Review Board. "No responsible employer would be likely to take a chance in giving him a job."<ref> Similar loyalty reviews were established in many state and local government offices and some private industries across the nation. In 1958, an estimated one of every five employees in the United States was required to pass some sort of loyalty review.{{sfn|Brown|1958}} Once a person lost a job due to an unfavorable loyalty review, finding other employment could be very difficult. "A man is ruined everywhere and forever," in the words of the chairman of President Truman's Loyalty Review Board. "No responsible employer would be likely to take a chance in giving him a job."{{sfn|Schrecker|1998|p=271}}
{{cite book
| last = Schrecker
| first = Ellen
| year = 1998
| title = Many Are the Crimes: McCarthyism in America
| publisher = Little, Brown
| pages = pg. 271
| id = ISBN 0-316-77470-7
}}</ref>


The ] started keeping a list of organizations that it deemed subversive beginning in 1942. This list was first made public in 1948, when it included 78 items. At its longest, it comprised 154 organizations, 110 of them identified as Communist. In the context of a loyalty review, membership in a listed organization was meant to raise a question, but not to be considered proof of disloyalty. One of the most common causes of suspicion was membership in the Washington Bookshop Association, a left-leaning organization that offered lectures on literature, classical music concerts and discounts on books.<ref> The ] started keeping a list of organizations that it deemed subversive beginning in 1942. This list was first made public in 1948, when it included 78 groups. At its longest, it comprised 154 organizations, 110 of them identified as Communist. In the context of a loyalty review, membership in a listed organization was meant to raise a question, but not to be considered proof of disloyalty. One of the most common causes of suspicion was membership in the ], a left-leaning organization that offered lectures on literature, classical music concerts, and discounts on books.{{sfn|Fried|1990|p=70}}
{{cite book
| last = Fried
| first = Richard M.
| year = 1990
| title = Nightmare in Red: The McCarthy Era in Perspective
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| pages = pg. 70
| id = ISBN 0-19-504361-8
}}</ref>


====J. Edgar Hoover and the FBI==== ====J. Edgar Hoover and the FBI====
] ] in 1961]]
In ''Many Are the Crimes: McCarthyism in America'', historian ] calls the ] "the single most important component of the anti-communist crusade" and writes: "Had observers known in the 1950s what they have learned since the 1970s, when the ] opened the Bureau's files, 'McCarthyism' would probably be called 'Hooverism.'"<ref>
{{cite book
| last = Schrecker
| first = Ellen
| year = 1998
| title = Many Are the Crimes: McCarthyism in America
| publisher = Little, Brown
| pages = pp 239, 203
| id = ISBN 0-316-77470-7
}}</ref>
FBI director ] was one of the nation's most fervent anti-communists, and one of the most powerful.


Hoover designed President Truman's loyalty-security program, and its background investigations of employees were carried out by FBI agents. This was a major assignment that led to the number of agents in the Bureau being increased from 3,559 in 1946 to 7,029 in 1952. Hoover's extreme sense of the Communist threat and the politically conservative standards of evidence applied by his bureau resulted in thousands of government workers losing their jobs. Due to Hoover's insistence upon keeping the identity of his informers secret, most subjects of loyalty-security reviews were not allowed to cross-examine or know the identities of those who accused them. In many cases they were not even told what they were accused of.<ref> ] director ] designed President Truman's loyalty-security program, and its background investigations of employees were carried out by FBI agents. This was a major assignment that led to the number of agents in the bureau being increased from 3,559 in 1946 to 7,029 in 1952. Hoover's sense of the communist threat and the standards of evidence applied by his bureau resulted in thousands of government workers losing their jobs. Due to Hoover's insistence upon keeping the identity of his informers secret, most subjects of loyalty-security reviews were not allowed to cross-examine or know the identities of those who accused them. In many cases, they were not even told of what they were accused.{{sfn|Schrecker|1998|pp=211, 266 et seq}}
{{cite book
| last = Schrecker
| first = Ellen
| year = 1998
| title = Many Are the Crimes: McCarthyism in America
| publisher = Little, Brown
| pages = pp 211, 266+
| id = ISBN 0-316-77470-7
}}</ref>


Hoover's influence extended beyond federal government employees and beyond the loyalty-security programs. The records of loyalty review hearings and investigations were supposed to be confidential, but Hoover routinely gave evidence from them to congressional committees such as HUAC.<ref> Hoover's influence extended beyond federal government employees and beyond the loyalty-security programs. The records of loyalty review hearings and investigations were supposed to be confidential, but Hoover routinely gave evidence from them to congressional committees such as HUAC.{{sfn|Schrecker|2002|p=65}}
{{cite book
| last = Schrecker
| first = Ellen
| title = The Age Of McCarthyism: A Brief History With Documents
| publisher = Palgrave Macmillan
| year = 2004
| location =
| pages = pg. 65
| url = http://www.writing.upenn.edu/~afilreis/50s/congcomms.html
| id = ISBN 0-312-29425-5}}</ref>
From 1951 to 1955, the FBI operated a secret "Responsibilities Program" that distributed anonymous documents with evidence from FBI files of Communist affiliations on the part of teachers, lawyers, and others. Many people accused in these "blind memoranda" were fired without any further process.<ref>
{{cite book
| last = Schrecker
| first = Ellen
| year = 1998
| title = Many Are the Crimes: McCarthyism in America
| publisher = Little, Brown
| pages = pg. 212
| id = ISBN 0-316-77470-7
}}</ref>


From 1951 to 1955, the FBI operated a secret "]" that distributed anonymous documents with evidence from FBI files of communist affiliations on the part of teachers, lawyers, and others. Many people accused in these "blind memoranda" were fired without any further process.{{sfn|Schrecker|1998|p=212}}
The FBI engaged in a number of illegal practices in its pursuit of information on Communists, including burglaries, opening mail and illegal wiretaps.<ref>
{{cite book
| author = Cox, John Stuart and Theoharis, Athan G.
| year = 1988
| title = The Boss: J. Edgar Hoover and the Great American Inquisition
| publisher = Temple University Press
| pages = pg. 312
| id = ISBN 0-87722-532-X
}}</ref>
The members of the left-wing ] were among the few attorneys who were willing to defend clients in communist-related cases, and this made the NLG a particular target of Hoover's. The office of this organization was burglarized by the FBI at least fourteen times between 1947 and 1951.<ref>
{{cite book
| last = Schrecker
| first = Ellen
| year = 1998
| title = Many Are the Crimes: McCarthyism in America
| publisher = Little, Brown
| pages = pg. 225
| id = ISBN 0-316-77470-7
}}</ref>
Among other purposes, the FBI used its illegally obtained information to alert prosecuting attorneys about the planned legal strategies of NLG defense lawyers.


The FBI engaged in a number of illegal practices in its pursuit of information on communists, including burglaries, opening mail, and illegal wiretaps.{{sfn|Cox|Theoharis|1988|p=312}} The members of the left-wing ] (NLG) were among the few attorneys who were willing to defend clients in communist-related cases, and this made the NLG a particular target of Hoover's; the office of the NLG was burgled by the FBI at least 14 times between 1947 and 1951.{{sfn|Schrecker|1998|p=225}} Among other purposes, the FBI used its illegally obtained information to alert prosecuting attorneys about the planned legal strategies of NLG defense lawyers.{{sfn|Schrecker|1998|p=224}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nlg-npap.org/sites/default/files/Breach%20of%20Privilege%20NLG%20April%202014.pdf|title=Breach of Privilege: Spying on Lawyers in the United States|last=Yoder|first=Traci|date=April 2014|access-date=February 5, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180925213950/https://www.nlg-npap.org/sites/default/files/Breach%20of%20Privilege%20NLG%20April%202014.pdf|archive-date=September 25, 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>
The FBI also used illegal undercover operations to harass and disrupt Communist and other dissident political groups. In 1956, Hoover was becoming increasingly frustrated by ] decisions that limited the Justice Department's ability to prosecute Communists. At this time he formalized a covert "dirty tricks" program under the name ].<ref>

{{cite book
The FBI also used illegal undercover operations to disrupt communist and other dissident political groups. In 1956, Hoover was becoming increasingly frustrated by ] decisions that limited the Justice Department's ability to prosecute communists. At this time, he formalized a covert "dirty tricks" program under the name ].{{sfn|Cox|Theoharis|1988|p=312}} COINTELPRO actions included planting forged documents to create the suspicion that a key person was an FBI informer, spreading rumors through anonymous letters, leaking information to the press, calling for ] audits, and the like. The COINTELPRO program remained in operation until 1971.
| author = Cox, John Stuart and Theoharis, Athan G.

| year = 1988
Historian ] calls the ] "the single most important component of the anti-communist crusade" and writes: "Had observers known in the 1950s what they have learned since the 1970s, when the ] opened the Bureau's files, 'McCarthyism' would probably be called 'Hooverism'."{{sfn|Schrecker|1998|pp=239, 203}}
| title = The Boss: J. Edgar Hoover and the Great American Inquisition

| publisher = Temple University Press
====Allen Dulles and the CIA====
| pages = pg. 312
In March 1950, McCarthy had initiated a series of investigations into potential infiltration of the ] (CIA) by communist agents and came up with a list of security risks that matched one previously compiled by the Agency itself. At the request of CIA director ], President Eisenhower demanded that McCarthy discontinue issuing subpoenas against the CIA. Documents made public in 2004 revealed that the CIA, under Dulles' orders, had broken into McCarthy's Senate office and fed disinformation to him in order to discredit him and stop his investigation from proceeding any further.{{sfn|Weiner|2007|pp=105–106}}
| id = ISBN 0-87722-532-X
}}</ref>
COINTELPRO actions included planting forged documents to create the suspicion that a key person was an FBI informer, spreading rumors through anonymous letters, leaking information to the press, calling for ] audits, and the like. The COINTELPRO program remained in operation until 1971.


===Congress===
===HUAC===<!-- This section is linked from ] -->
====House Committee on Un-American Activities====<!-- This section is linked from ] -->
{{main|House Un-American Activities Committee}} {{main|House Un-American Activities Committee}}
The House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) was the most prominent and active government committee involved in anti-Communist investigations. Formed in 1938 and known as the Dies Committee and chaired by ] until 1944, HUAC investigated a variety of "activities," including those of German-American Nazis during World War II. The Committee soon focused on Communism, beginning with an investigation into Communists in the ] in 1938. A significant step for HUAC was its investigation of the charges of espionage brought against ] in 1948. This investigation ultimately resulted in Hiss's trial and conviction for perjury, and convinced many of the usefulness of congressional committees for uncovering Communist subversion. The House Committee on Un-American Activities (commonly referred to as the HUAC) was the most prominent and active government committee involved in anti-communist investigations. Formed in 1938 and known as the Dies Committee, named for ], who chaired it until 1944, HUAC investigated a variety of "activities", including those of German-American Nazis during World War II. The committee soon focused on communism, beginning with an investigation into communists in the ] in 1938. A significant step for HUAC was its investigation of the charges of espionage brought against Alger Hiss in 1948. This investigation ultimately resulted in Hiss's trial and conviction for perjury, and convinced many of the usefulness of congressional committees for uncovering communist subversion.


HUAC achieved its greatest fame and notoriety with its investigation into the ]. In ], the Committee began to ] screenwriters, directors, and other movie industry professionals to testify about their known or suspected membership in the Communist Party, association with its members, or support of its beliefs. It was at these testimonies that what became known as the "$64 question" was asked: "Are you now or have you ever been a member of the Communist Party of the United States?" Among the first film industry witnesses subpoenaed by the Committee were ten who decided not to cooperate. These men, who became known as the ] cited the ] guarantee of free speech and free assembly, which they believed legally protected them from being required to answer the Committee's questions. This tactic failed, and the ten were sentenced to prison for ]. Two of the ten were sentenced to 6 months, the rest to a year. HUAC achieved its greatest fame and notoriety with its investigation into the ]. In ], the committee began to subpoena screenwriters, directors, and other movie-industry professionals to testify about their known or suspected membership in the Communist Party, association with its members, or support of its beliefs. At these testimonies, this question was asked: "Are you now or have you ever been a member of the Communist Party of the United States?"<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8RxLbr0QPdgC&q=mccarthyism+64+dollar+question&pg=PA153|title=The Performance of Power: Theatrical Discourse and Politics|publisher=]|year=1991|isbn=978-1587290343|editor-last=Case|editor-first=Sue-Ellen|page=153|access-date=October 19, 2020|editor-last2=Reinelt|editor-first2=Janelle G.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201107142946/https://books.google.com/books?id=8RxLbr0QPdgC&q=mccarthyism+64+dollar+question&pg=PA153|archive-date=November 7, 2020|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Dmytryk |first1=Edward |title=Odd Man Out: A Memoir of the Hollywood Ten |date=1996 |publisher=Southern Illinois University Press |isbn=978-0809319992 |page=59 |url=https://archive.org/details/oddmanoutmemoiro0000dmyt_j8j0/page/59/mode/1up |quote="In the early days of the Martin Dies Committee the question had simply been, Are you a member of the Communist Party of the United States? As a countermeasure, the Party adopted a rule that automatically cancelled a Communist's membership the moment the question was asked. He could then answer 'No' without perjuring himself. The final wording was adopted to circumvent the Party's tactic."}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=October 2023}} Among the first film industry witnesses subpoenaed by the committee were ten who decided not to cooperate. These men, who became known as the "]", cited the ]'s guarantee of free speech and free assembly, which they believed legally protected them from being required to answer the committee's questions. This tactic failed, and the ten were sentenced to prison for ]. Two of them were sentenced to six months, the rest to a year.


In the future, witnesses (in the entertainment industries and otherwise) who were determined not to cooperate with the Committee would claim their ] protection against self-incrimination. While this usually protected them from a contempt of Congress citation, it was considered grounds for dismissal by many government and private industry employers. The legal requirements for Fifth Amendment protection were such that a person could not testify about his own association with the Communist Party and then refuse to "name names" of colleagues with Communist affiliations.<ref> In the future, witnesses (in the entertainment industries and otherwise) who were determined not to cooperate with the committee would claim their ] protection against self-incrimination. ] and ], the only two visual artists to be questioned by McCarthy, both took this approach, and emerged relatively unscathed by the experience.<ref>{{Cite web|last=nublockmuseum|date=May 31, 2013|title=Behind Blacklisted|url=https://nublockmuseum.blog/2013/05/31/behind-blacklisted/|access-date=July 27, 2020|website=Stories From The Block|language=en-US|archive-date=July 27, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727105706/https://nublockmuseum.blog/2013/05/31/behind-blacklisted/|url-status=live}}</ref> However, while this usually protected witnesses from a contempt-of-Congress citation, it was considered grounds for dismissal by many government and private-industry employers. The legal requirements for Fifth Amendment protection were such that a person could not testify about his own association with the Communist Party and then refuse to "name names" of colleagues with communist affiliations.{{sfn|Fried|1990|pp=154–155}}{{sfn|Schrecker|2002|p=68}} Thus, many faced a choice between "crawl through the mud to be an informer," as actor ] put it, or becoming known as a "Fifth Amendment Communist"—an epithet often used by Senator McCarthy.<ref name="SIN">{{cite web| title = See it Now: A Report on Senator Joseph R. McCarthy (transcript)| publisher = CBS-TV| date = March 9, 1954| url = http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/murrowmccarthy.html| access-date = March 16, 2007| archive-date = November 10, 2015| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151110194223/http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/murrowmccarthy.html| url-status = live}}</ref>
{{cite book
| last = Fried
| first = Richard M.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| year = 1990
| title = Nightmare in Red: The McCarthy Era in Perspective
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| pages = pp 154-155
| id = ISBN 0-19-504361-8
}}</ref><ref>
{{cite book
| last = Schrecker
| first = Ellen
| title = The Age Of McCarthyism: A Brief History With Documents
| publisher = Palgrave Macmillan
| year = 2004
| location =
| pages = pg. 68
| url = http://www.writing.upenn.edu/~afilreis/50s/congcomms.html
| id = ISBN 0-312-29425-5}}</ref>
Thus many faced a choice between "crawl through the mud to be an informer," as actor ] put it, or becoming known as a "Fifth Amendment Communist,"—an epithet often used by Senator McCarthy.<ref>
{{citation
| title = Transcript - See it Now: A Report on Senator Joseph R. McCarthy
| work =
| publisher = CBS-TV
| date = March 9, 1954
| url = http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/murrowmccarthy.html
| accessdate = 2007-03-16 }}</ref>


===Senate Committees=== ====Senate committees====
In the Senate, the primary committee for investigating communists was the ] (SISS), formed in 1950 and charged with ensuring the enforcement of laws relating to "espionage, sabotage, and the protection of the internal security of the United States". The SISS was headed by Democrat ] and gained a reputation for careful and extensive investigations. This committee spent a year investigating ] and other members of the ]. As had been done numerous times before, the collection of scholars and diplomats associated with Lattimore (the so-called ]) were accused of "losing China", and while some evidence of pro-communist attitudes was found, nothing supported McCarran's accusation that Lattimore was "a conscious and articulate instrument of the Soviet conspiracy". Lattimore was charged with perjuring himself before the SISS in 1952. After many of the charges were rejected by a federal judge and one of the witnesses confessed to perjury, the case was dropped in 1955.{{sfn|Fried|1990|pp=145–150}}
]
In the Senate, the primary committee for investigating Communists was the ] (SISS), formed in 1950 and charged with ensuring the enforcement of laws relating to "espionage, sabotage, and the protection of the internal security of the United States." The SISS was headed by Democrat ] and gained a reputation for careful and extensive investigations. This committee spent a year investigating ] and other members of the ]. As had been done numerous times before, the collection of Scholars and diplomats associated with Lattimore (the so-called ]) were accused of "losing China," and while some evidence of pro-communist attitudes was found, there was nothing to support McCarran's accusation that Lattimore was "a conscious and articulate instrument of the Soviet conspiracy". Lattimore was charged with perjuring himself before the SISS in 1952. After many of the charges were rejected by a Federal Judge and one of the witnesses confessed to perjury, the case was dropped in 1955.<ref>
{{cite book
| last = Fried
| first = Richard M.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| year = 1990
| title = Nightmare in Red: The McCarthy Era in Perspective
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| pages = pp 145-150
| id = ISBN 0-19-504361-8
}}</ref>


Joseph McCarthy himself headed the ] in 1953 and 1954, and during that time used it for a number of his Communist-hunting investigations. McCarthy first examined allegations of Communist influence in the ], and then turned to the overseas library program of the State Department. ] of these libraries were searched for works by authors McCarthy deemed inappropriate. McCarthy then recited the list of supposedly pro-communist authors before his subcommittee and the press. Yielding to the pressure, the State Department ordered its overseas librarians to remove from their shelves "material by any controversial persons, Communists, ]s, etc." Some libraries actually burned the newly-forbidden books.<ref> McCarthy headed the ] in 1953 and 1954, and during that time, used it for a number of his communist-hunting investigations. McCarthy first examined allegations of communist influence in the ], and then turned to the overseas library program of the State Department. ] of these libraries were searched for works by authors McCarthy deemed inappropriate. McCarthy then recited the list of supposedly pro-communist authors before his subcommittee and the press. Yielding to the pressure, the State Department ordered its overseas librarians to remove from their shelves "material by any controversial persons, Communists, ]s, etc." Some libraries actually burned the newly forbidden books.{{sfn|Griffith|1970|p=216}} Though he did not block the State Department from carrying out this order, President Eisenhower publicly criticized the initiative as well, telling the graduating class of Dartmouth College President in 1953: "Don't join the book burners! … Don't be afraid to go to the library and read every book so long as that document does not offend our own ideas of decency—that should be the only censorship."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://newrepublic.com/article/119516/report-book-burning-under-huac-and-eisenhower|title=The Horrible, Oppressive History of Book Burning in America|publisher=The New Republic|date=June 26, 1953|access-date=February 12, 2020|archive-date=February 12, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200212203141/https://newrepublic.com/article/119516/report-book-burning-under-huac-and-eisenhower|url-status=live}}</ref> The president then settled for a compromise by retaining the ban on Communist books written by Communists, while also allowing the libraries to keep books on Communism written by anti-Communists.<ref name="Abdul-JabbarObstfeld2016">{{cite book|author1=Kareem Abdul-Jabbar|author2=Raymond Obstfeld|title=Writings on the Wall: Searching for a New Equality Beyond Black and White|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oafiDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT53|date= 2016|publisher=Time Inc. Books|isbn=978-1618935434|pages=53–}}</ref>

{{cite book
McCarthy's committee then began an investigation into the ]. This began at the ] laboratory at ]. McCarthy garnered some headlines with stories of a dangerous spy ring among the Army researchers, but ultimately nothing came of this investigation.{{sfn|Stone|2004|p=384}}
| last = Griffith

| first = Robert
McCarthy next turned his attention to the case of a U.S. Army dentist who had been promoted to the rank of major despite having refused to answer questions on an Army loyalty review form. McCarthy's handling of this investigation, including a series of insults directed at a ], led to the ], with the Army and McCarthy trading charges and counter-charges for 36 days before a nationwide television audience. While the official outcome of the hearings was inconclusive, this exposure of McCarthy to the American public resulted in a sharp decline in his popularity.{{sfn|Fried|1990|p=138}} In less than a year, McCarthy was censured by the Senate, and his position as a prominent force in anti-communism was essentially ended.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://research.archives.gov/description/1157557 |title=Senate Resolution 301: Censure of Senator Joseph McCarthy |author=] |date=July 30, 1954 |publisher=U.S. National Archives and Records Administration |access-date=October 30, 2013 |archive-date=November 1, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101220854/http://research.archives.gov/description/1157557 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| authorlink =
| title = The Politics of Fear: Joseph R. McCarthy and the Senate
| publisher = University of Massachusetts Press
| year = 1970
| pages = pg. 216
| id = ISBN 0-87023-555-9 }}</ref>
McCarthy's committee then began an investigation into the ]. This began at the ] laboratory at ]. McCarthy garnered some headlines with stories of a dangerous spy ring among the Army researchers, but ultimately nothing came of this investigation.<ref>
{{cite book
| last = Stone
| first = Geoffrey R.
| title = Perilous Times: Free Speech in Wartime from the Sedition Act of 1798 to the War on Terrorism
| publisher = W. W. Norton & Company
| year = 2004
| pages = pg. 384
| id = ISBN 0-393-05880-8 }}</ref>
McCarthy next turned his attention to the case of a U.S. Army dentist who had been promoted to the rank of major despite having refused to answer questions on an Army loyalty review form. McCarthy's handling of this investigation, including a series of insults directed at a ], led to the ], with the Army and McCarthy trading charges and counter-charges for 36 days before a nation-wide television audience. While the official outcome of the hearings was inconclusive, this exposure of McCarthy to the American public resulted in a sharp decline in his popularity.<ref>
{{cite book
| last = Fried
| first = Richard M.
| coauthors =
| year = 1990
| title = Nightmare in Red: The McCarthy Era in Perspective
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| pages = pg. 138
| id = ISBN 0-19-504361-8
}}</ref>
In less than a year, McCarthy was censured by the Senate and his position as a prominent force in anti-communism was essentially ended.


===Blacklists=== ===Blacklists===
{{main|Hollywood blacklist}}
]'', a 1950 publication claiming to document "Communist influence in radio and television"]]
On November 25, 1947 (the day after the House of Representatives approved citations of contempt for the ]), ], President of the ], issued a press release on behalf of the heads of the major studios that came to be referred to as the ]. This statement announced the firing of the Hollywood Ten and stated: "We will not knowingly employ a Communist or a member of any party or group which advocates the overthrow of the government of the United States" This open capitulation to the attitudes of McCarthyism marked the beginning of the ]. In spite of the fact that hundreds would be denied employment, the studios, producers and other employers did not publicly admit that a blacklist existed. On November 25, 1947, the day after the House of Representatives approved citations of contempt for the Hollywood Ten, ], president of the ], issued a press release on behalf of the heads of the major studios that came to be referred to as the ]. This statement announced the firing of the Hollywood Ten and stated: "We will not knowingly employ a Communist or a member of any party or group which advocates the overthrow of the government of the United States..." This marked the beginning of the ]. In spite of the fact that hundreds were denied employment, the studios, producers, and other employers did not publicly admit that a blacklist existed.


At this time, private loyalty-review boards and anti-communist investigators began to appear to fill a growing demand among certain industries to certify that their employees were above reproach. Companies that were concerned about the sensitivity of their business, or who, like the entertainment industry, felt particularly vulnerable to public opinion made use of these private services. For a fee, these teams would investigate employees and question them about their politics and affiliations. At such hearings, the subject would usually not have a right to the presence of an attorney, and as with HUAC, the interviewee might be asked to defend himself against accusations without being allowed to cross-examine the accuser. These agencies would keep cross-referenced lists of leftist organizations, publications, rallies, charities and the like, as well as lists of individuals who were known or suspected communists. Books such as '']'' and newsletters such as ''Counterattack'' and ''Confidential Information'' were published to keep track of communist and leftist organizations and individuals.<ref> At this time, private loyalty review boards and anti-communist investigators began to appear to fill a growing demand among certain industries to certify that their employees were above reproach. Companies that were concerned about the sensitivity of their business, or which, like the entertainment industry, felt particularly vulnerable to public opinion, made use of these private services. For a fee, these teams investigated employees and questioned them about their politics and affiliations.
At such hearings, the subject usually did not have a right to the presence of an attorney, and as with HUAC, the interviewee might be asked to defend himself against accusations without being allowed to cross-examine the accuser. These agencies kept cross-referenced lists of leftist organizations, publications, rallies, charities, and the like, as well as lists of individuals who were known or suspected communists. Books such as '']'' and newsletters such as ''Counterattack'' and ''Confidential Information'' were published to keep track of communist and leftist organizations and individuals.{{sfn|Fried|1997|p=116}} Insofar as the various blacklists of McCarthyism were actual physical lists, they were created and maintained by these private organizations.{{citation needed|date=August 2016}}{{explain|date=August 2016}}
{{cite book
| last = Fried
| first = Albert
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| year = 1997
| title = McCarthyism, The Great American Red Scare: A Documentary History
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| pages = pg. 116
| id = ISBN 0-19-509701-7
}}</ref>
Insofar as the various blacklists of McCarthyism were actual physical lists, they were created and maintained by these private organizations.


===Laws and arrests=== ===Laws and arrests===
{{see also|Smith Act trials of Communist Party leaders}}
There were several attempts to introduce legislation or apply existing laws to help to protect the United States from the perceived threat of Communist subversion.
Efforts to protect the United States from the perceived threat of communist subversion were particularly enabled by several federal laws. The ] banned membership in subversive organizations, which was interpreted as being anti-labor legislation.<ref name="auto">{{Cite book|last=Goldstein|first=Robert Justin|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/879022662|title=Little 'Red Scares' : Anti-Communism and Political Repression in the United States, 1921–1946|date=2014|publisher=Ashgate Publishing Ltd|isbn=978-1472413772|location=Farnham|oclc=879022662}}</ref> The Hatch Act would allow for the reduction of influence of the ], which was claimed to have been created by the ] based on a model of their unemployed councils.<ref name="auto"/> The Alien Registration Act or ] of 1940 made the act of "knowingly or willfully advocate, abet, advise or teach the ... desirability or propriety of overthrowing the Government of the United States or of any State by force or violence, or for anyone to organize any association which teaches, advises or encourages such an overthrow, or for anyone to become a member of or to affiliate with any such association" a criminal offense.


The Alien Registration Act or ] of 1940 made it a criminal offense for anyone to "knowingly or willfully advocate, abet, advise or teach the desirability or propriety of overthrowing the Government of the United States or of any State by force or violence, or for anyone to organize any association which teaches, advises or encourages such an overthrow, or for anyone to become a member of or to affiliate with any such association". Hundreds of Communists and others were prosecuted under this law between 1941 and 1957. Eleven leaders of the Communist Party were charged and convicted under the Smith Act in 1949. Ten defendants were given sentences of five years and the eleventh was sentenced to three years. All of the defense attorneys were cited for ] and were also given prison sentences. In 1951, twenty-three other leaders of the party were indicted, including ], a founding member of the ]. By 1957 over 140 leaders and members of the Communist Party had been charged under the law.<ref> Hundreds of communists and others were prosecuted under this law between 1941 and 1957. Eleven leaders of the Communist Party were convicted under the Smith Act in 1949 in the ]. Ten defendants were given sentences of five years and the eleventh was sentenced to three years. The defense attorneys were cited for ] and given prison sentences.{{sfn|Fried|1997|pp=13, 15, 27, 110–112, 165–168}} In 1951, 23 other leaders of the party were indicted, including ], a founding member of the ]. Many were convicted on the basis of testimony that was later admitted to be false.{{sfn|Fried|1997|pp=201–202}}> By 1957, 140 leaders and members of the Communist Party had been charged under the law, of whom 93 were convicted.<ref>Levin, Daniel, "Smith Act", in
{{cite book | editor = Paul Finkelman | year = 2006 | title = Encyclopedia of American Civil Liberties | publisher = CRC Press | page = 1488 | isbn = 0415943426}}</ref>
{{cite book
| last = Fried
| first = Albert
| year = 1997
| title = McCarthyism, The Great American Red Scare: A Documentary History
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| id = ISBN 0-19-509701-7
}}</ref>


The ], which became law in 1950, has been described by scholar Ellen Schrecker as "the McCarthy era's only important piece of legislation"{{sfn|Schrecker1998|p=141}} (the Smith Act technically antedated McCarthyism). However, the McCarran Act had no real effect beyond legal harassment. It required the registration of Communist organizations with the ] and established the ] to investigate possible communist-action and communist-front organizations so they could be required to register. Due to numerous hearings, delays, and appeals, the act was never enforced, even with regard to the Communist Party of the United States itself, and the major provisions of the act were found to be unconstitutional in 1965 and 1967.{{sfn|Fried|1990|p=187}} In 1952, the ] was passed. This law allowed the government to deport immigrants or naturalized citizens engaged in subversive activities and also to bar suspected subversives from entering the country.
Described by scholar Ellen Schrecker as "the McCarthy era's only important piece of legislation,"<ref>
{{cite book
| last = Schrecker
| first = Ellen
| year = 1998
| title = Many Are the Crimes: McCarthyism in America
| publisher = Little, Brown
| pages = pg. 141
| id = ISBN 0-316-77470-7
}}</ref>
the ] became law in 1950 (the Smith Act technically predated McCarthyism). However, the McCarran Act had no real effect beyond legal harassment. It required the registration of Communist organizations with the ] and established the ] to investigate possible Communist-action and Communist-front organizations so they could be required to register. Due to numerous hearings, delays and appeals, the act was never enforced, even with regard to the Communist Party of the United States itself, and the major provisions of the act were found to be unconstitutional in 1965 and 1967.<ref>
{{cite book
| last = Fried
| first = Richard M.
| year = 1990
| title = Nightmare in Red: The McCarthy Era in Perspective
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| pages = 187
| id = ISBN 0-19-504361-8
}}</ref>


The ] was passed with overwhelming support in both houses of Congress after very little debate. Jointly drafted by Republican ] and Democrat ], the law was an extension of the Internal Security Act of 1950, and sought to outlaw the Communist Party by declaring that the party, as well as "Communist-Infiltrated Organizations" were "not entitled to any of the rights, privileges, and immunities attendant upon legal bodies." While the Communist Control Act had an odd mix of liberals and conservatives among its supporters, it never had any significant effect.
In 1952, the ] was passed. This law allowed the government to deport immigrants or naturalized citizens engaged in subversive activities and also to bar suspected subversives from entering the country.


The ] was passed with overwhelming support in both houses of Congress after very little debate. Jointly drafted by Republican ] and Democrat ], the law was an extension of the Internal Security Act of 1950, and sought to outlaw the Communist Party by declaring that the party, as well as "Communist-Infiltrated Organizations" were "not entitled to any of the rights, privileges, and immunities attendant upon legal bodies". The Communist Control Act never had any significant effect, and was perhaps most notable for the odd mix of liberals and conservatives among its supporters. It was successfully applied only twice: in 1954 it was used to prevent Communist Party members from appearing on the New Jersey state ballot, and in 1960 it was cited to deny the CPUSA recognition as an employer under New York State's unemployment compensation system. ] called the act "a monstrosity", "a wretched repudiation of democratic principles," while ] accused Democratic liberals of a "neurotic, election-year anxiety to escape the charge of being 'soft on Communism' even at the expense of sacrificing constitutional rights."<ref> The act was successfully applied only twice. In 1954 it was used to prevent Communist Party members from appearing on the New Jersey state ballot, and in 1960, it was cited to deny the CPUSA recognition as an employer under New York state's unemployment compensation system. The '']'' called the act "a monstrosity", "a wretched repudiation of democratic principles," while '']'' accused Democratic liberals of a "neurotic, election-year anxiety to escape the charge of being 'soft on Communism' even at the expense of sacrificing constitutional rights."{{sfn|McAuliff|1978|p=142}}
{{cite book
| last = McAuliff
| first = Mary Sperling
| title = Crisis on the Left: Cold War Politics and American Liberals, 1947-1954
| publisher = University of Massachusetts Press
| year = 1978
| pages = 142
| id = ISBN 0-87023-241-X }}</ref>


=== Repression in the individual states ===
==Popular support for McCarthyism==
In addition to the federal laws and responding to the worries of the local opinion, several ] enacted anti-communist statutes.
]
McCarthyism was supported by a variety of groups, including the ], ] and various other anti-communist organizations. One core element of support was a variety of militantly anti-communist women's groups such as the ] and the ]. These organized tens of thousands of housewives into study groups, letter-writing networks, and patriotic clubs that coordinated efforts to identify and eradicate subversion.<ref name="Nickerson">Nickerson, Michelle M. "", in the ''OAH Magazine of History'' 17 (January 2003). ISSN 0882-228X</ref>


By 1952, several states had enacted statutes against ], ], and sedition; banned communists and "subversives" from public employment, or even from receiving public aid; demanded on loyalty oaths from public servants; and severely restricted or banned the Communist Party. In addition, six states had equivalents to the HUAC.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/freedomunderfire00linf/page/107|title=Freedom Under Fire: U.S. Civil Liberties in Times of War|last=Linfield|first=Michael|date=1990|publisher=South End Press|isbn=978-0896083745|pages=|language=en}}</ref> The ]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://todayinclh.com/?event=california-creates-un-american-activities-committee|title=California Creates Un-American Activities Committee|website=Today in Civil Liberties History|date=28 May 2013|language=en-US|access-date=July 9, 2017|archive-date=September 24, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170924225528/http://todayinclh.com/?event=california-creates-un-american-activities-committee|url-status=live}}</ref> and the ] were established by their respective legislatures.
Although far-right radicals were the bedrock of support for McCarthyism, they were not alone. A broad "coalition of the aggrieved" found McCarthyism attractive, or at least politically useful. Common themes uniting the coalition were opposition to internationalism, particularly the ]; opposition to ]s, particularly the various programs established by the ]; and opposition to efforts to reduce inequalities in the ].<ref name="Rovere">{{cite book
| last = Rovere
| first = Richard H.
| title = Senator Joe McCarthy
| publisher = University of California Press
| year = 1959
| pages = pp. 21-22
| id = ISBN 0-520-20472-7 }}</ref>


Some of these states had very severe, or even extreme, laws against communism. In 1950, ] enacted life imprisonment for subversive propaganda; the following year, ] enacted the ] for advocating the violent overthrow of the government.<ref name=":0" /> The death penalty for membership in the Communist Party was discussed in ] by Governor ], who described it as "worse than murder."<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.texasobserver.org/so-long-to-the-communist-threat/|title=So Long to the Communist Threat|last=Richards|first=Dave|date=August 19, 2009|work=The Texas Observer|access-date=July 9, 2017|language=en-US|archive-date=September 26, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170926143806/https://www.texasobserver.org/so-long-to-the-communist-threat/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nc4mlgcCRa4C&pg=PA87|title=Deep in the Heart: The Texas Tendency in American Politics|last=McEnteer|first=James|date=2004|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0275983062|page=87|language=en|access-date=September 4, 2017|archive-date=August 6, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806043947/https://books.google.com/books?id=nc4mlgcCRa4C&pg=PA87|url-status=live}}</ref>
One focus of popular McCarthyism concerned the provision of ] services, particularly ], ] care services and ], all of which were deemed by some to be communist plots to poison or brainwash the American people. This viewpoint led to major collisions between McCarthyite radicals and supporters of public health programs, most notably in the case of the ] controversy of 1956.<ref>
{{Harvard reference
| Surname= Marmor
| Given= Judd
| Chapter=Psychodynamics of Group Opposition to Mental Health Programs
| Title=Psychiatry in Transition
| Publisher=Brunner/Mazel
| Year=1974
| ID = ISBN 0876300700
}}</ref>


Municipalities and counties also enacted anti-communist ordinances: ] banned any communist or "Muscovite model of police-state dictatorship" from owning arms, while ] and ] banned any communist from being within the city's limits.<ref name=":0" />
Right-wing intellectuals found the decisiveness of McCarthyism refreshing. ], the founder of the influential conservative political magazine '']'', wrote a defense of McCarthy, ''McCarthy and his Enemies'', in which he asserted that "McCarthyism ... is a movement around which men of good will and stern morality can close ranks."<ref>
{{cite book
|last = Buckley
|first = William F.
|authorlink = William F. Buckley, Jr.
|year = 1954
|title = McCarthy and His Enemies: The Record and Its Meaning
|pages = pg.335
|publisher = Regnery Publishing
|id = ISBN 0-89526-472-2}}</ref>


==Popular support==
In addition, as Richard Rovere points out, many ordinary Americans became convinced that there must be "no smoke without fire" and lent their support to McCarthyism. In January 1954, a ] poll found that 50% of the American public supported McCarthy, while only 29% had an unfavorable opinion of the senator. ], the ], commented that if the ] had been put to a vote it probably would have been defeated.<ref name="Rovere" />
]


McCarthyism was supported by a variety of groups, including the ] and various other anti-communist organizations. One core element of support was a variety of militantly anti-communist women's groups such as the ] and the ] These organized tens of thousands of housewives into study groups, letter-writing networks, and patriotic clubs that coordinated efforts to identify and eradicate what they saw as subversion.<ref>Nickerson, Michelle M., " {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030310181508/http://www.oah.org/pubs/magazine/conservatism/nickerson.html |date=March 10, 2003 }}", ''OAH Magazine of History'' 17 (January 2003). {{ISSN|0882-228X}}.</ref>
==Views of Communists==
Those who sought to justify McCarthyism did so largely through their characterization of Communism, and American Communists in particular. The CPUSA was said to be under the complete control of Moscow, and in fact, there is documentary evidence that the general policies of the CPUSA were set by the Soviet Communist Party.<ref>
{{cite book
| last = Haynes
| first = John Earl
| coauthors = Klehr, Harvey
| year = 2000
| title = Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America
| publisher = Yale University Press
| id = ISBN 0-300-08462-5}}</ref>
Proponents of McCarthyism claimed that this control was so complete that any American Communist was inevitably a puppet of the Soviet Union. As J. Edgar Hoover put it in a 1950 speech, "Communist members, body and soul, are the property of the Party." This attitude was not confined to arch-conservatives. In 1940, The ] ejected founding member ], saying that her membership in the Communist Party was enough to disqualify her as a civil libertarian. In the government's prosecutions of Communist Party members under the Smith Act (see above), the prosecution case was based not on specific actions or statements by the defendants, but on the premise that a commitment to violent overthrow of the government was inherent in the doctrines of Marxism-Leninism. Passages of the CPUSA's constitution that specifically rejected revolutionary violence were dismissed as deliberate deception.<ref>
{{cite book
| last = Schrecker
| first = Ellen
| year = 1998
| title = Many Are the Crimes: McCarthyism in America
| publisher = Little, Brown
| pages = pp 161, 193, 194
| id = ISBN 0-316-77470-7
}}</ref>


Although right-wing radicals were the bedrock of support for McCarthyism, they were not alone. A broad "coalition of the aggrieved" found McCarthyism attractive, or at least politically useful. Common themes uniting the coalition were opposition to internationalism, particularly the ]; opposition to ]s, particularly the various programs established by the ]; and opposition to efforts to reduce inequalities in the ].{{sfn|Rovere|1959|pp=21–22}}
In addition, it was often claimed that the Party did not allow any member to resign, so a person who had been a member for a short time decades previously could be considered as suspect as a current member. Many of the hearings and trials of McCarthyism featured testimony by former Communist Party members such as ], ] and ], speaking as expert witnesses. Despite the obvious contradiction, these ex-communists were the source of some of the most vivid descriptions of how the Party permanently enslaved its members.<ref>

{{cite book
One focus of popular McCarthyism concerned the provision of ] services, particularly ], ] care services, and ], all of which were denounced by some to be communist plots to poison or brainwash the American people. Such viewpoints led to collisions between McCarthyite radicals and supporters of public-health programs, most notably in the case of the ] controversy of 1956.<ref>Marmor, Judd, Viola W. Bernard, and Perry Ottenberg, "Psychodynamics of Group Opposition to Mental Health Programs", in {{cite book | author= Judd Marmor | title=Psychiatry in Transition | publisher=Transaction | year=1994 | edition=2nd | pages = 355–373 | isbn = 1560007362}}</ref>
| last = Schrecker

| first = Ellen
], the founder of the influential conservative political magazine '']'', wrote a defense of McCarthy, ''McCarthy and his Enemies'', in which he asserted that "McCarthyism ... is a movement around which men of good will and stern morality can close ranks."{{sfn|Buckley|1954|p=335}}
| year = 1998

| title = Many Are the Crimes: McCarthyism in America
In addition, as Richard Rovere points out, many ordinary Americans became convinced that there must be "no smoke without fire" and lent their support to McCarthyism. The ] found that at his peak in January 1954, 50% of the American public supported McCarthy, while 29% had an unfavorable opinion. His support fell to 34% in June 1954.<ref>{{cite book|author=Robert Griffith|title=The Politics of Fear: Joseph R. McCarthy and the Senate|url=https://archive.org/details/politicsoffearjo00grif|url-access=registration|year=1987|publisher=Univ of Massachusetts Press|page=|isbn=0870235559}}</ref> Republicans tended to like what McCarthy was doing and Democrats did not, though McCarthy had significant support from traditional Democratic ethnic groups, especially Catholics, as well as many unskilled workers and small-business owners. (McCarthy himself was a Catholic.) He had very little support among union members and Jews.<ref>{{cite book|author=Arthur Herman|title=Joseph McCarthy: Reexamining the Life and Legacy of America's Most Hated Senator|url=https://archive.org/details/josephmccarthyre00herm/page/160|year=2000|publisher=Simon and Schuster|pages=|isbn=978-0684836256}}</ref>
| publisher = Little, Brown

| pages = pg. 133
==Portrayals of communists==
| id = ISBN 0-316-77470-7
Those who sought to justify McCarthyism did so largely through their characterization of communism, and American communists in particular. Proponents of McCarthyism claimed that the ] was so completely under Moscow's control that any American communist was a puppet of the Soviet intelligence services. This view, if restricted to the Communist Party's leadership<ref name=":7" /> is supported by recent documentation from the archives of the ]<ref>{{Cite book| last = Andrew | first = Christopher | author2 = Vasili Mitrokhin | title = The Sword and the Shield | publisher = Basic Books | year = 1999 | location = New York | pages = | isbn = 0465003109 | url = https://archive.org/details/swordshieldmitro00andr/page/108 }}</ref> as well as post-war decodes of wartime Soviet radio traffic from the ],<ref>{{Cite book | last = Haynes | first = John |author2=Harvey Klehr | title = Venona – Decoding Soviet Espionage in America | publisher = Yale University | year = 1999 | location = Connecticut | pages = 221–226 | isbn = 0300077718}}</ref> showing that Moscow provided financial support to the CPUSA and had significant influence on CPUSA policies. J. Edgar Hoover commented in a 1950 speech, "Communist members, body and soul, are the property of the Party."
}}</ref>

According to historian Richard G. Powers, McCarthy added "bogus specificity" to "sweeping accusation", gaining support among "countersubversive anticommunists" on one hand, who sought to find and punish perceived communists. On the other hand, "liberal anticommunists" believed that the Communist Party was "despicable and annoying" but ultimately politically irrelevant.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Powers |first=Richard Gid |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cMztAAAAMAAJ |title=Not Without Honor: The History of American Anticommunism |date=1995 |publisher=Free Press |isbn=978-0684824277 |pages=129, 214, 240 |language=en}}</ref>

President Harry Truman, who pursued the anti-Soviet ], called McCarthy "the greatest asset the Kremlin has" by "torpedo the bipartisan foreign policy of the United States."<ref>{{Cite web |title=President Harry S. Truman Responds to Senator Joseph R. McCarthy's Accusations of Disloyalty |url=http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/8078 |website=historymatters.gmu.edu}}</ref>

Historian Landon R. Y. Storrs writes that the CPUSA's "secretiveness, its ] internal structure, and the loyalty of its leaders to the ] were fundamental flaws that help explain why and how it was demonized. On the other hand, most American Communists were ] attracted by the party's militance against various forms of social injustice." Furthermore, based on later declassified evidence, "The paradoxical lesson from several decades of scholarship is that the same organization that inspired democratic idealists in the pursuit of social justice also was secretive, authoritarian, and morally compromised by ties to the Stalin regime."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Storrs |first=Landon R. Y. |date=2015-07-02 |title=McCarthyism and the Second Red Scare |url=https://oxfordre.com/americanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.001.0001/acrefore-9780199329175-e-6 |access-date=2022-11-02 |website=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History |language=en |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.013.6|isbn=978-0199329175 }}</ref>

In the mid 20th century, this attitude was not confined to arch-conservatives. In 1940, the ] ejected founding member Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, saying that her membership in the Communist Party was enough to disqualify her as a ]. In the government's prosecutions of Communist Party members under the Smith Act (see above), the prosecution case was based not on specific actions or statements by the defendants, but on the premise that a commitment to violent overthrow of the government was inherent in the doctrines of Marxism–Leninism. Passages of the CPUSA constitution that specifically rejected ] were dismissed as deliberate deception.{{sfn|Schrecker|1998|pp=161, 193–194}}

In addition, it was often claimed that the party didn't allow members to resign; thus someone who had been a member for a short time decades previously could be thought a current member. Many of the hearings and trials of McCarthyism featured testimony by former Communist Party members such as ], ], and ], speaking as expert witnesses.<ref name=Witness>{{Cite book | last = Chambers | first = Whittaker | author-link = Whittaker Chambers | title = Witness | publisher = Random House | year = 1952 | location = New York | page = 799 | isbn = 978-0848809584}}</ref>{{sfn|Schrecker|1998|pp=130–137}}

Various historians and pundits have discussed alleged Soviet-directed infiltration of the U.S. government and the possible collaboration of high ] officials.{{sfn|Herman|2000|pp=5–6}}<ref>Allen Weinstein and Alexander Vassiliev, ''The Haunted Wood: Soviet Espionage in America – The Stalin Era'' (New York: Modern Library, 2000) {{ISBN|978-0375755361}}, pp. 48, 158, 162, 169, 229</ref><ref>M. Stanton Evans. '']: The Untold Story of Senator Joe McCarthy and His Fight against America's Enemies''. Crown Forum, 2007 pp. 19–21.</ref><ref>John Earl Haynes, Harvey Klehr. ''Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America''. Yale University Press, 1999, p. 18.</ref>


==Victims of McCarthyism== ==Victims of McCarthyism==
{{original research section|date=January 2023}}
It is difficult to estimate the number of victims of McCarthyism. The number imprisoned is in the hundreds, and some ten or twelve thousand lost their jobs.<ref>
{{See also|List of films by the Hollywood Ten|Hollywood blacklist|Lavender scare}}
{{cite book
Estimating the number of victims of McCarthy is difficult. The number imprisoned is in the hundreds, and some ten or twelve thousand lost their jobs.{{sfn|Schrecker|1998|p=xiii}} In many cases, simply being subpoenaed by HUAC or one of the other committees was sufficient cause to be fired.{{sfn|Schrecker|2002|pp=63–64}}
| last = Schrecker
| first = Ellen
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| year = 1998
| title = Many Are the Crimes: McCarthyism in America
| publisher = Little, Brown
| pages = pg. xiii
| id = ISBN 0-316-77470-7
}}</ref>
In many cases, simply being subpoenaed by HUAC or one of the other committees was sufficient cause to be fired.<ref>
{{cite book
| last = Schrecker
| first = Ellen
| title = The Age Of McCarthyism: A Brief History With Documents
| publisher = Palgrave Macmillan
| year = 2004
| pages = pp 63-64
| url = http://www.writing.upenn.edu/~afilreis/50s/congcomms.html
| id = ISBN 0-312-29425-5}}</ref>
Many of those who were imprisoned, lost their jobs or were questioned by committees did in fact have a past or present connection of some kind with the Communist Party. But for the vast majority, both the potential for them to do harm to the nation and the nature of their communist affiliation were tenuous.<ref>
{{cite book
| last = Schrecker
| first = Ellen
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| year = 1998
| title = Many Are the Crimes: McCarthyism in America
| publisher = Little, Brown
| pages = pg. 4
| id = ISBN 0-316-77470-7
}}</ref>
Suspected ] was also a common cause for being targeted by McCarthyism. According to some scholars, this resulted in more persecutions than did alleged connection with Communism.<ref>
{{cite book
| last = D'Emilio
| first = John
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| year = 1998
| title = Sexual Politics, Sexual Communities
| publisher = University of Chicago Press; 2nd Edition
| pages =
| id = ISBN 0-226-14267-1
}}</ref>


For the vast majority, both the potential for them to do harm to the nation and the nature of their communist affiliation were tenuous.<ref>Schrecker (1998), p. 4.</ref> After the extremely damaging "]" spy scandal (], ], ], ] and ]), suspected ] was also a common cause for being targeted by McCarthyism. The hunt for "sexual perverts", who were presumed to be subversive by nature, resulted in over 5,000 federal workers being fired, and thousands were harassed and denied employment.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sears|first1=Brad|last2=Hunter|first2=Nan D.|last3=Mallory|first3=Christy|title=Documenting Discrimination on the Basis of Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity in State Employment|date= 2009|publisher=The Williams Institute on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Law and Public Policy at UCLA School of Law|location=Los Angeles|chapter=5: The Legacy of Discriminatory State Laws, Policies, and Practices, 1945–Present|page=5-3|url=https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/5_History.pdf#page=3|quote=From 1947 to 1961, more than 5,000 allegedly homosexual federal civil servants lost their jobs in the purges for no reason other than sexual orientation, and thousands of applicants were also rejected for federal employment for the same reason. During this period, more than 1,000 men and women were fired for suspected homosexuality from the State Department alone—a far greater number than were dismissed for their membership in the Communist party. The Cold War and anticommunist efforts provided the setting in which a sustained attack upon gay men and lesbians took place. The history of this 'lavender scare' by the federal government has been extensively documented by historian David Johnson, who has demonstrated that during this era, government officials intentionally engaged in campaigns to associate homosexuality with Communism: 'homosexual' and 'pervert' became synonyms for 'Communist' and 'traitor.' LGBT people were treated as a national-security threat, demanding the attention of Congress, the courts, statehouses, and the media.|access-date=December 16, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170206215755/http://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/5_History.pdf#page=3|archive-date=February 6, 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>{{sfn|D'Emilio|1998|pp=41–49.}} Many have termed this aspect of McCarthyism the "]".<ref>David K. Johnson, ''The Lavender Scare: The Cold War Persecution of Gays and Lesbians in the Federal Government''. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009.), p. 10</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=An interview with David K. Johnson author of The Lavender Scare: The Cold War Persecution of Gays and Lesbians in the Federal Government|url=http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/404811in.html|website=press.uchicago.edu|publisher=The University of Chicago|date=2004|quote=The Lavender Scare helped fan the flames of the Red Scare. In popular discourse, communists and homosexuals were often conflated. Both groups were perceived as hidden subcultures with their own meeting places, literature, cultural codes, and bonds of loyalty. Both groups were thought to recruit to their ranks the psychologically weak or disturbed. And both groups were considered immoral and godless. Many people believed that the two groups were working together to undermine the government.|access-date=December 16, 2017|archive-date=April 28, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428220312/https://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/404811in.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
In the ], over 300 actors, authors and directors were denied work in the U.S. through the unofficial ]. Blacklists were at work throughout the entertainment industry, in universities and schools at all levels, in the legal profession, and in many other fields. A port security program initiated by the Coast Guard shortly after the start of the ] required a review of every maritime worker who loaded or worked aboard any American ship, regardless of cargo or destination. As with other loyalty-security reviews of McCarthyism, the identities of any accusers and even the nature of any accusations were typically kept secret from the accused. Nearly 3,000 seamen and longshoremen lost their jobs due to this program alone.<ref>
{{cite book
| last = Schrecker
| first = Ellen
| year = 1998
| title = Many Are the Crimes: McCarthyism in America
| publisher = Little, Brown
| pages = pg. 267
| id = ISBN 0-316-77470-7
}}</ref>


Homosexuality was classified as a psychiatric disorder in the 1950s.<ref name="Patrizia Gentile 2010. pg 65">Gary Kinsman and Patrizia Gentile. ''The Canadian War on Queers: National Security as Sexual Regulation''. Vancouver: UBC Press, 2010, p. 65.</ref> However, in the context of the highly politicized Cold War environment, homosexuality became framed as a dangerous, contagious social disease that posed a potential threat to state security.<ref name="Patrizia Gentile 2010. pg 65"/> As the family was believed to be the cornerstone of American strength and integrity,<ref>Elizabeth Lapovsky Kennedy and Madeline Davis. ''Boots of Leather, Slippers of Gold''. New York: Routledge, 1993, p. 75.</ref> the description of homosexuals as "sexual perverts" meant that they were both unable to function within a family unit and presented the potential to poison the social body.<ref name="Patrizia Gentile 2010. pg 8">Kinsman and Gentile, p. 8.</ref> This era also witnessed the establishment of widely spread FBI surveillance intended to identify homosexual government employees.<ref>John D'Emilio and Estelle B. Freedman. ''Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America'', 3rd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012, p. 316.</ref>
A few of the more famous people who were blacklisted or suffered some other persecution during McCarthyism are listed here:


The McCarthy hearings and according "sexual pervert" investigations can be seen to have been driven by a desire to identify individuals whose ability to function as loyal citizens had been compromised.<ref name="Patrizia Gentile 2010. pg 8"/> McCarthy began his campaign by drawing upon the ways in which he embodied traditional American values to become the self-appointed vanguard of social morality.<ref>David K. Johnson, p. 96.</ref>
{{col-begin}}

{{col-3}}
] and his wife, Cleo, at the HUAC in 1947]]
*], composer and conductor<ref name=blacklist>
In the film industry, more than 300 actors, authors, and directors were denied work in the U.S. through the unofficial ]. Blacklists were at work throughout the entertainment industry, in universities and schools at all levels, in the legal profession, and in many other fields. A port-security program initiated by the Coast Guard shortly after the start of the Korean War required a review of every maritime worker who loaded or worked aboard any American ship, regardless of cargo or destination. As with other loyalty-security reviews of McCarthyism, the identities of any accusers and even the nature of any accusations were typically kept secret from the accused. Nearly 3,000 seamen and longshoremen lost their jobs due to this program alone.{{sfn|Schrecker|1998|p=267}}
Blacklisted in Hollywood; {{cite book

| author = Dave Wagner & Paul Buhle
Some of the notable people who were blacklisted or suffered some other persecution during McCarthyism include:
| title = Blacklisted: The Film Lover's Guide to the Hollywood Blacklist

| publisher = Palgrave Macmillan
{{div col|colwidth=27em}}
| year = 2003
* ], musician
| id = ISBN 1-4039-6145-X }}</ref>
* ], writer<ref>Publication canceled after FBI contact: {{cite book|author=Horvath, Brooke|year=2005|title=Understanding Nelson Algren|publisher=University of South Carolina Press|page=84|isbn=1570035741}}</ref>
*], actor<ref name=blacklist/>
* ], actress, model, and film studio executive.<ref>Investigated by the FBI and brought before HUAC for having registered as a Communist supporter in 1936: {{cite web|title=Lucille Ball|url=https://vault.fbi.gov/lucille-ball/lucille-ball-part-01-of-01/view|website=FBI Records: The Vault|publisher=Federal Bureau of Investigation|access-date=September 9, 2015|archive-date=September 5, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905180532/https://vault.fbi.gov/lucille-ball/lucille-ball-part-01-of-01/view|url-status=live}}</ref>
*], composer<ref name=blacklist/>
*], attorney<ref> * ], sociologist
* ], screenwriter
Blacklisted in his profession, committed suicide in 1959;
* ], ], writer, journalist, screenwriter, ]
{{cite book
* ], composer and conductor<ref>On Hollywood "graylist": {{cite news|url=https://www.today.com/popculture/composer-elmer-bernstein-dead-82-wbna5753311|title=Composer Elmer Bernstein Dead at 82|date=August 19, 2004|access-date=February 27, 2009|publisher=Today.com|agency=Associated Press|archive-date=April 20, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170420124904/http://www.today.com/popculture/composer-elmer-bernstein-dead-82-wbna5753311|url-status=live}}</ref>
| last = Bosworth
* ], conductor, pianist, composer{{sfn|Schrecker|2002|p=244}}
| first = Patricia
* ], physicist and philosopher<ref>Lost his job, exiled: {{cite book|author=Jessica Wang|year=1999|title=American Science in an Age of Anxiety: scientists, anticommunism, & the cold war|publisher=The University of North Carolina Press|pages=277–278|isbn=978-0807824474}}</ref>
| title = Anything Your Little Heart Desires: An American Family Story
* ], poet, playwright, screenwriter
| publisher = Touchstone
* Archie Brown, ], veteran of World War II, union leader, imprisoned. Successfully challenged ] provision<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170331000632/http://www.nytimes.com/1990/11/25/obituaries/archie-brown-79-union-leader-in-landmark-case-on-communists.html |date=March 31, 2017 }}, ''The New York Times'', November 25, 1990. Retrieved June 10, 2014.</ref>
| year = 1998
* ], forced from the U.S. State Department<ref>{{cite news|title=McCarthy Target Ousted|url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1952/11/21/84368794.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301091502/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1952/11/21/84368794.pdf |archive-date=2021-03-01 |url-status=live |access-date=April 4, 2014|newspaper=The New York Times|date=November 21, 1952}}</ref>
| id = ISBN 0-684-83848-6}}</ref>
* ], film director, producer<ref>{{cite book|author1=Buhle, Paul |author2=David Wagner |name-list-style=amp |title=Blacklisted: The Film Lover's Guide to the Hollywood Blacklist|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2003b|isbn=140396145X }}</ref>
*], director<ref name=blacklist/>
* ], actor and director<ref>Harassed by anti-Communist groups, denied reentry to United States while traveling abroad: {{cite book |author=Lev, Peter|year=1999 |title=Transforming the Screen, 1950–1959|publisher= University of California Press|page=159 |isbn=0520249666}}</ref>
*], civil rights activist and author<ref>
* ], composer<ref name=blacklist2>On the ''Red Channels'' blacklist of artists and entertainers: {{harvnb|Schrecker|2002|p=244}}</ref>
Indicted under the ];
* ], attorney<ref>Blacklisted in his profession, committed suicide in 1959: {{cite book|author=Bosworth, Patricia |title=Anything Your Little Heart Desires: An American Family Story |publisher=Touchstone |year=1998 |isbn=0684838486 |url=https://archive.org/details/anythingyourlitt00bosw }}</ref>
{{cite book
* ], actor<ref name="Channels"/>
| last = Dubois
* ], director<ref>On Hollywood blacklist: {{harvnb|Buhle|Wagner|2003|p=105}}</ref>
| first = W. E. B.
* ], mathematician
| title = The Autobiography of W. E. B. Dubois
* ], historian
| publisher = International Publishers
* ], actress<ref>Harassed by anti-Communist groups, denied reentry to United States, thus prevented from acting in the movie '']'': {{cite book |author=Ramón, David |year=1997 |title=Dolores del Río |publisher=Clío |page=44 |isbn=9686932356}}</ref>
| year = 1968
* ], director, ]
| id = ISBN 0-7178-0234-5 }}</ref>
* ], civil rights activist and author<ref>Indicted under the ]: {{cite book |author=Du Bois, W.E.B. |title=The Autobiography of W.E.B. Du Bois |url=https://archive.org/details/autobiographyofw0000dubo |url-access=registration |publisher=International Publishers |year=1968 |isbn=0717802345 }}</ref>
*], author<ref>
* ], philosopher
Blacklisted, imprisoned for contempt of Congress; {{cite book
* ], pre-Keynesian Harvard economist, US Treasury monetary policy specialist<ref>{{cite book|author=Craig, R. Bruce|title=Treasonable Doubt|publisher=University Press of Kansas|year=2004|page=496|isbn =978-0700613113}}</ref>
| last = Sabin
* ], ]-winning physicist, philosopher, mathematician, activist<ref>{{cite book|author=Jerome, Fred|title=The Einstein File: J. Edgar Hoover's Secret War Against the World's Most Famous Scientist|publisher=St. Martin's Press|year=2002|isbn=0312288565|url=https://archive.org/details/einsteinfile00fred}}</ref>
| first = Arthur J.
* ], composer<ref>{{cite book|author=Herman, Jan|title=A Talent for Trouble: The Life of Hollywood's Most Acclaimed Director, William Wyler|publisher=Cambridge, Mass.: Da Capo|year=1995|isbn=030680798X }}</ref>
| coauthors =
* ], writer<ref>Blacklisted, imprisoned for three months for contempt of Congress: Sabin (1999), p. 75.</ref>
| year = 1999
* ], novelist and playwright<ref>{{cite book|author=Alexander, Stephan|title=Überwacht. Ausgebürgert. Exiliert: Schriftsteller und der Staat|publisher=Bielefeld: Aisthesis Verlag|year=2007|pages=36–52|isbn=978-3895286346 }}</ref>
| title = In Calmer Times: The Supreme Court and Red Monday
* ], writer of '']''
| publisher = University of Pennsylvania Press
* ], actor<ref name=blacklist2/>
| pages = pg. 75
* ], journalist<ref></ref>
| id = ISBN 0-8122-3507-X
* ], actor<ref name="Channels"/>
}}</ref>
*], actress<ref name=blacklist/> * ], actress<ref name="Channels"/>
*], author<ref name=blacklist/> * ], actress<ref>On Hollywood blacklist: {{harvnb|Buhle|Wagner|2003|p=31}}</ref>
*], playwright<ref name=blacklist/> * ], author<ref name=blacklist2/>
* ], American painter and illustrator
{{col-3}}
* ], clothing designer, author, equal rights activist<ref>{{cite book|author=Berch, Bettina|title=Radical By Design: The Life and Style of Elizabeth Hawes|publisher=Dutton Adult|year=1988|isbn =0525247157}}</ref>
*], animator<ref name=blacklist/>
*], author<ref name = blacklist3> * ], playwright<ref name=blacklist2/>
* ], union organizer, CPUSA official<ref>, ], Dennis McLellan, August 8, 2006. Retrieved June 11, 2014.</ref>
On the ''Red Channels'' blacklist for artists and entertainers; {{cite book
* ], singer<ref name="Channels"/>
| last = Schrecker
* ], writer, poet, playwright<ref name=blacklist2/>
| first = Ellen
* ], U.S. Senator<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.boisestate.edu/bluereview/shocking-death-senator-lester-hunt | title=The Shocking Death of Senator Lester Hunt | date=June 20, 2016 }}</ref>
| title = The Age of McCarthyism: A Brief History with Documents
* ], actress
| publisher = Palgrave Macmillan
* ], actor<ref name=blacklist2/>
| year = 2002
* ], diplomat<ref name=obit>" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201113040740/https://www.nytimes.com/1989/08/11/obituaries/theodore-kaghan-77-was-in-foreign-service.html |date=2020-11-13 }}". ''The New York Times'', August 11, 1989. Accessed March 7, 2011.</ref>
| pages = pg. 244
* ], writer and director<ref name=blacklist2/>
| id = ISBN 0-312-29425-5 }}</ref>
* ], historian
*], actor<ref name=blacklist/>
* ], comedian, singer<ref>{{cite web |url=http://vault.fbi.gov/Danny%20Kaye%20 |title=Subject: Danny Kaye |publisher=Federal Bureau of Investigation |access-date=June 29, 2013 |archive-date=May 12, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512164343/http://vault.fbi.gov/Danny%20Kaye%20 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Full citation needed|date=August 2013}}
*], actress<ref name = blacklist2>
* ], historian<ref>Keith Haynes "''Benjamin Keen 1913–2002''" Hispanic American Historical Review 83.2 (2003) 357–359</ref>
Blacklisted in Hollywood; {{cite book
* ], conductor and composer<ref>{{cite book|author=Heyworth, Peter|title=Otto Klemperer: Vol. 2, 1933–1973: His Life and Times|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1996|isbn=978-0521244886|url=https://archive.org/details/ottoklempererhis00heyw}}</ref>
| last = Schrecker
* ], actress and ]<ref name=blacklist2/>
| first = Ellen
* ], physicist
| title = The Age of McCarthyism: A Brief History with Documents
* ], mathematician and physicist<ref>{{cite book|title=The Lanczos Method:Evolution and Application|url=https://archive.org/details/lanczosmethodevo00komz|url-access=limited|author=Louis Komzsik|page=|publisher=SIAM|year=2003|isbn=978-0898715378}}</ref>
| publisher = Palgrave Macmillan
* ], screenwriter, ]
| year = 2002
* ], playwright<ref name="Channels">{{cite web|url=http://www.authentichistory.com/1946-1960/redchannels/redchannels.html|title=The Authentic History Center: Red Channels, The Blacklist|access-date=July 21, 2010}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>
| pages = pg. 244
* ], actor<ref>Blacklisted and unemployed, committed suicide in 1955: {{harvnb|Fried|1990|p=156}}</ref>
| id = ISBN 0-312-29425-5 }}</ref>
*], actor<ref> * ], philosopher
* ], director<ref name=blacklist2/>
Blacklisted and unemployed, committed suicide in 1955;
* ], screenwriter, ]
{{cite book
* ], novelist<ref name="Stephan, Alexander 1995">{{cite book|author=Stephan, Alexander|title=Im Visier des FBI: deutsche Exilschriftsteller in den Akten amerikanischer Geheimdienste|publisher=Metzler|year=1995|isbn =3476013812 }}</ref>
| last = Fried
* ], writer<ref name="Stephan, Alexander 1995"/>
| first = Richard M.
* ], ] winning novelist and essayist<ref name="Stephan, Alexander 1995"/>
| authorlink =
* ], poet
| coauthors =
* ], actor<ref name=blacklist2/>
| year = 1990
* ], playwright and essayist<ref name=blacklist2/>
| title = Nightmare in Red: The McCarthy Era in Perspective
* ], author, ]. Refused to testify to HUAC.
| publisher = Oxford University Press
* ], conductor, pianist, composer<ref>{{cite book|author=Trotter, William R.|title=Priest of Music. The Life of Dimitri Mitropoulos|publisher=Amadeus Press|year=1995|isbn=0931340810|url=https://archive.org/details/priestofmusiclif00trot}}</ref>
| pages = pg 156
* ], actor<ref name=blacklist2/>
| id = ISBN 0-19-504361-8
* ], literary scholar
}}</ref>
* ], biochemist, sinologist, historian of science
*], director<ref name=blacklist/>
* ], theoretical physicist, director of the ]
*], actor<ref name = blacklist2/>
*], playwright and essayist<ref name = blacklist2/> * ], writer, humorist<ref name=blacklist2/>
* ], chemist, Nobel prizes for Chemistry and Peace<ref>Repeatedly denied passport: {{cite web|author1=Thompson, Gail |author2=R. Andrew Viruleg |name-list-style=amp |url=http://www.woodrow.org/teachers/ci/1992/Pauling.html |title=Linus Pauling |publisher=Woodrow Wilson National Fellowship Foundation |access-date=December 11, 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071224231408/http://www.woodrow.org/teachers/ci/1992/Pauling.html |archive-date=December 24, 2007 }}</ref>
*], actor<ref name=blacklist/>
* ], diplomat<ref>Robert D. Dean, ''The Imperial Brotherhood: Gender and the Making of Cold War Foreign Policy'' (], 2001), 65, 127, 140</ref>
*], author<ref name=blacklist/>
* ], union organizer, editor<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510081006/http://www.nytimes.com/1987/11/09/obituaries/al-richmond-leftist-ex-editor.html?module=Search&mabReward=relbias%3Aw |date=May 10, 2017 }}, ''The New York Times'', November 9, 1987. Retrieved June 10, 2014.</ref>
*], physicist, "father of the atomic bomb"<ref>
* ], actor and director<ref>On Hollywood blacklist: {{harvnb|Buhle|Wagner|2003|p=18}}</ref>
Security clearance withdrawn; {{cite book
* ], actor, athlete, singer, writer, political activist<ref>Blacklisted, passport revoked: {{cite book|editor-first1=Marable|editor-last1=Manning|editor-first2=John|editor-last2=McMillian|editor-first3=Nishani|editor-last3=Frazier )|year=2003|title=Freedom on My Mind: The Columbia Documentary History of the African American Experience|publisher=Columbia University Press|page=|isbn=0231108907|url=https://archive.org/details/freedomonmymindc00bada/page/559}}</ref>
| last = Schrecker
* ], actor<ref name=blacklist2/>
| first = Ellen
* ], screenwriter<ref>On Hollywood blacklist: {{harvnb|Buhle|Wagner|2003|p=208}}</ref>
| title = The Age of McCarthyism: A Brief History with Documents
* ], physicist
| publisher = Palgrave Macmillan
* ], actress<ref>{{cite book|first=Paul |last=Brodeur |title=A Writer in the Cold War |publisher=Faber and Faber |year=1997 |isbn=978-0571199075 |pages= |url=https://archive.org/details/secretswriterinc00brod/page/159 }}</ref>
| year = 2002
* ], folk singer, songwriter<ref name=blacklist2/>
| pages = pg. 41
* ], physicist
| id = ISBN 0-312-29425-5 }}</ref>
* ], jazz musician, bandleader, author<ref name=blacklist2/>
{{col-3}}
* ], writer<ref name="Channels"/>
*], chemist, winner of two Nobel prizes<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.woodrow.org/teachers/ci/1992/Pauling.html| title=Linus Pauling |quote= January of 1952, Pauling requested a passport to attend a meeting in England ... The passport was denied because granting it "would not be in the best interest of the United States." He applied again and wrote President Eisenhower, asking him to arrange the issuance of the passport since, "I am a loyal citizen of the United States. I have never been guilty of any unpatriotic or criminal act." |accessdate=2007-12-11 }}</ref>
* ], journalist, author<ref>Herbert Mitgang. " {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501103823/http://www.nytimes.com/1993/12/29/obituaries/william-l-shirer-author-is-dead-at-89.html |date=2017-05-01 }}". ''The New York Times'', December 29, 1993. Accessed March 5, 2011.</ref>
*], actor, athlete, singer, author, political and civil rights activist<ref>
* ], actor<ref>Lawrence Van Gelder. " {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170219192932/http://www.nytimes.com/1994/12/02/obituaries/lionel-stander-dies-at-86-actor-who-defied-blacklist.html |date=2017-02-19 }}". ''The New York Times'', December 2, 1994. Accessed March 5, 2011.</ref>
Blacklisted, passport revoked; {{cite book
* ], physicist
| author = Manning Marable, John McMillian, Nishani Frazier, editors
* ], mathematician, historian of maths<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140316224444/http://www.dwc.knaw.nl/DL/levensberichten/PE00003184.pdf |date=March 16, 2014 }} p. 7</ref>
| coauthors =
* ], economist and founder-editor of '']''<ref>Subpoenaed by New Hampshire Attorney General, indicted for contempt of court: {{cite book|author=Heale, M. J. |title=McCarthy's Americans: Red Scare Politics in State and Nation, 1935–1965|publisher=University of Georgia Press|year=1998|page=73|isbn=0820320269}}</ref>
| year = 2003
* ], diplomat<ref>Robert D. Dean, ''Imperial Brotherhood: Gender and the Making of Cold War Foreign Policy'' (Amherst, MA: ], 2001), 141–144</ref>
| title = Freedom on My Mind: The Columbia Documentary History of the African American Experience
* ], psychologist
| publisher = Columbia University Press
* ], screenwriter, ]
| pages = pg. 559
* ], physicist<ref>Passport revoked, incarcerated: {{cite book|last=Chang, Iris|year=1996|title=Thread of the Silkworm |publisher=Basic Books|isbn=0465006787}}</ref>
| id = ISBN 0-231-10890-7
* ], actor, director, responsible for recreating ] in London, England.
}}</ref>
* ], anthropologist fired from ]<ref>David H. Price. 2004. Threatening Anthropology: McCarthyism and the FBI's Surveillance of Activist Anthropologists. Duke University Press, March 30, 2004</ref>
*], actor<ref name = blacklist2/>
* ], physicist
*], author<ref name=blacklist/>
{{div col end}}
*], folk singer<ref name = blacklist3/>

*], jazz musician<ref name = blacklist3/>
In 1953, Robert K. Murray, a young professor of history at Pennsylvania State University who had served as an intelligence officer in World War II, was revising his dissertation on the ] for publication until ] decided that "under the circumstances ... it wasn't wise for them to bring this book out." He learned that investigators were questioning his colleagues and relatives. The University of Minnesota press published his volume, ''Red Scare: A Study in National Hysteria, 1919–1920'', in 1955.<ref>Organization of American Historians: {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130904174256/http://www.oah.org/pubs/nl/2003nov/murray.html |date=September 4, 2013 }}, accessed January 28, 2011</ref>
*], actor<ref name=blacklist/>
*], economist and founder-editor of ]<ref>
Subpoenaed by New Hampshire Attorney General, indicted for contempt of court;
{{cite book
| last = Heale
| first = M. J.
| coauthors =
| title = McCarthy's Americans: Red Scare Politics in State and Nation, 1935-1965
| publisher =University of Georgia Press
| year = 1998
| pages = pg. 73
| id = ISBN 0-8203-2026-9}}</ref>
*], physicist<ref>
Passport revoked, incarcerated; {{cite book
| last = Chang
| first = Iris
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| year = 1996
| title = Thread of the Silkworm
| publisher = Basic Books
| pages =
| id = ISBN 0-465-00678-7
}}</ref>
*], actor, author and director<ref name = blacklist2/>
{{col-end}}


==Critical reactions== ==Critical reactions==
The nation was by no means united behind the policies and activities that have come to be associated with McCarthyism. The critics of various aspects of McCarthyism included many figures not generally noted for their liberalism. In his overridden ] of the ] of 1950, President Truman wrote, "In a free country, we punish men for the crimes they commit, but never for the opinions they have."<ref>{{cite web| author= Truman, Harry S.| date=September 1950| url=http://trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/viewpapers.php?pid=883| title=Veto of the Internal Security Bill| access-date=August 7, 2006| publisher=Truman Presidential Museum and Library| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070301113033/http://trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/viewpapers.php?pid=883| archive-date=March 1, 2007| url-status=dead}}</ref> Truman also unsuccessfully vetoed the ], which among other provisions denied ]s ] protection unless union leaders signed ]s swearing they were not and had never been Communists. In 1953, after he left office, Truman criticized the contemporary Eisenhower administration:
The nation was by no means united behind the policies and activities that have come to be identified as McCarthyism. There were many critics of various aspects of McCarthyism, including many figures not generally noted for their liberalism.


{{blockquote|It is now evident that the present Administration has fully embraced, for political advantage, McCarthyism. I am not referring to the Senator from Wisconsin. He is only important in that his name has taken on the dictionary meaning of the word. It is the corruption of truth, the abandonment of the due process law. It is the use of the big lie and the unfounded accusation against any citizen in the name of Americanism or security. It is the rise to power of the demagogue who lives on untruth; it is the spreading of fear and the destruction of faith in every level of society.{{sfn|Doherty|2005|pp=14–15}}}}
For example, in his overridden ] of the ] of 1950, President Truman wrote, "In a free country, we punish men for the crimes they commit, but never for the opinions they have."<ref>
{{cite web
| url = http://trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/viewpapers.php?pid=883
| title = Veto of the Internal Security Bill
| accessdate = 2006-08-07
| last = Truman
| first = Harry S.
| year = 1950
| month = September
| publisher = Truman Presidential Museum & Library
}}</ref>
Truman also unsuccessfully vetoed the ], which among other provisions limited the power of ] and denied unions ] protection unless the union's leaders signed ]s swearing they were not and had never been Communists. In 1953, after he had left office, Truman criticized the current Eisenhower administration:
{{cquote|It is now evident that the present Administration has fully embraced, for political advantage, McCarthyism. I am not referring to the Senator from Wisconsin. He is only important in that his name has taken on the dictionary meaning of the word. It is the corruption of truth, the abandonment of the due process law. It is the use of the big lie and the unfounded accusation against any citizen in the name of Americanism or security. It is the rise to power of the demagogue who lives on untruth; it is the spreading of fear and the destruction of faith in every level of society.<ref>
{{cite book
| last = Doherty
| first = Thomas
| year = 2003
| title = Cold War, Cool Medium: Television, McCarthyism, and American Culture
| publisher = Columbia University Press
| pages = pp. 14-15
| id = ISBN 023112953X
}}</ref>}}


On June 1, 1950, Senator ], a ] Republican, delivered a speech to the Senate she called a "]". In a clear attack upon McCarthyism, she called for an end to "character assassinations" and named "some of the basic principles of Americanism: The right to criticize; The right to hold unpopular beliefs; The right to protest; The right of independent thought." She said "freedom of speech is not what it used to be in America," and decried "cancerous tentacles of 'know nothing, suspect everything' attitudes."<ref> On June 1, 1950, Senator ], a Maine Republican, delivered a speech to the Senate she called a "]". In a clear attack upon McCarthyism, she called for an end to "]s" and named "some of the basic principles of Americanism: The right to criticize; the right to hold unpopular beliefs; the right to protest; the right of independent thought". She said "] is not what it used to be in America", and decried "cancerous tentacles of 'know nothing, suspect everything' attitudes".<ref>{{cite web |author=Smith, Margaret Chase |date=June 1, 1950 |url= http://www.mcslibrary.org/program/library/declaration.htm |title= Declaration of Conscience |access-date= August 4, 2006 |publisher=Margaret Chase Smith Library |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20061008025315/http://www.mcslibrary.org/program/library/declaration.htm |archive-date=October 8, 2006 }}</ref> Six other Republican senators—], ], ], ], ], and ]—joined Smith in condemning the tactics of McCarthyism.
] (left) and Senator McCarthy, June 9, 1954]]
{{cite web
| url = http://www.mcslibrary.org/program/library/declaration.htm
| title = Margaret Chase Smith Library; "Declaration of Conscience"
| accessdate = 2006-08-04
| authorlink = Margaret Chase Smith
}}</ref>
Six other Republican Senators—], ], ], ], ], and ]—joined Smith in condemning the tactics of McCarthyism.


], one of the most highly respected news reporters and commentators of the 1940s and 1950s, often spoke out against what he saw as the excesses of McCarthyism. On one occasion he warned that many local anti-Communist movements constituted a "general attack not only on schools and colleges and libraries, on teachers and textbooks, but on all people who think and write in short, on the freedom of the mind."<ref> ], one of the most highly respected news reporters and commentators of the 1940s and 1950s, often spoke out against what he saw as the excesses of McCarthyism. On one occasion he warned that many local anti-communist movements constituted a "general attack not only on schools and colleges and libraries, on teachers and textbooks, but on all people who think and write ... in short, on the freedom of the mind".{{sfn|Fried|1990|p=29}}
{{cite book
| last = Fried
| first = Richard M.
| year = 1990
| title = Nightmare in Red: The McCarthy Era in Perspective
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| pages = pg. 29
| id = ISBN 0-19-504361-8
}}</ref>


In 1952, the Supreme Court upheld a lower court decision in ''Alder v. Board of Education of New York'', thus approving a law that allowed state loyalty review boards to fire teachers deemed "subversive." In his dissenting opinion, Justice ] wrote: "The present law proceeds on a principle repugnant to our society &mdash; guilt by association. What happens under this law is typical of what happens in a police state. Teachers are under constant surveillance; their pasts are combed for signs of disloyalty; their utterances are watched for clues to dangerous thoughts."<ref> In 1952, the Supreme Court upheld a lower-court decision in '']'', thus approving a law that allowed state loyalty review boards to fire teachers deemed "subversive". In his dissenting opinion, Justice ] wrote: "The present law proceeds on a principle repugnant to our society—guilt by association.... What happens under this law is typical of what happens in a police state. Teachers are under constant surveillance; their pasts are combed for signs of disloyalty; their utterances are watched for clues to dangerous thoughts."{{sfn|Fried|1997|p=114}}
{{cite book
| last = Fried
| first = Albert
| year = 1997
| title = McCarthyism, The Great American Red Scare: A Documentary History
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| pages = pg. 114
| id = ISBN 0-19-509701-7
}}</ref>


]]]
The 1952 ] play '']'' used the ] as a metaphor for McCarthyism, suggesting that the process of McCarthyism-style persecution can occur at any time or place. The play focused heavily on the fact that once accused, a person would have little chance of exoneration, given the irrational and circular reasoning of both the courts and the public. Miller would later write: "The more I read into the Salem panic, the more it touched off corresponding images of common experiences in the fifties."<ref>
One of the most influential opponents of McCarthyism was the famed CBS newscaster and analyst ]. On October 20, 1953, Murrow's show '']'' aired an episode about the dismissal of ], a former reserve Air Force lieutenant who was accused of associating with Communists. The show was strongly critical of the ]'s methods, which included presenting evidence in a sealed envelope that Radulovich and his attorney were not allowed to open.
{{citation
| url = http://www.newyorker.com/archive/1996/10/21/1996_10_21_158_TNY_CARDS_000373902
| title = Why I Wrote "The Crucible"
| accessdate = 2006-08-07
| last = Miller
| first = Arthur
| date = October 21, 1996
| publisher = The New Yorker
| format = {{Dead link|date=June 2008}} &ndash; <sup></sup>
}}</ref>


On March 9, 1954, ''See It Now'' aired another episode on the issue of McCarthyism, this one attacking Joseph McCarthy himself. Titled "A Report on Senator Joseph R. McCarthy", it used footage of McCarthy speeches to portray him as dishonest, reckless, and abusive toward witnesses and prominent Americans. In his concluding comment, Murrow said:
]]]
One of the most influential opponents of McCarthyism was the famed CBS newscaster and analyst ]. On October 20, 1953, Murrow's show '']'' aired an episode about the dismissal of ], a former reserve Air Force lieutenant who was accused of associating with Communists. The show was strongly critical of the ]'s methods, which included presenting evidence in a sealed envelope that Radulovich and his attorney were not allowed to open. On March 9, 1954, ''See It Now'' aired another episode on the issue of McCarthyism, this one attacking Joseph McCarthy himself. Titled "A Report on Senator Joseph R. McCarthy," it used footage of McCarthy speeches to portray him as dishonest, reckless and abusive toward witnesses and prominent Americans. In his concluding comment, Murrow said:
{{cquote|We must not confuse dissent with disloyalty. We must remember always that accusation is not proof and that conviction depends upon evidence and due process of law. We will not walk in fear, one of another. We will not be driven by fear into an age of unreason, if we dig deep in our history and our doctrine, and remember that we are not descended from fearful men.<ref>
{{citation
| title = Transcript - See it Now: A Report on Senator Joseph R. McCarthy
| publisher = CBS-TV
| date = March 9, 1954
| url = http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/murrowmccarthy.html
| accessdate = 2006-12-27 }}</ref>}}
This broadcast has been cited as a key episode in bringing about the end of McCarthyism.<ref>
See for example,
{{cite book
| last = Streitmatter
| first = Rodger
| title = Mightier Than the Sword: How the News Media Have Shaped American History
| publisher = Westview Press
| year =1998
| pages = pg. 154
| id = ISBN 0813332117 }}</ref>


{{blockquote|We must not confuse dissent with disloyalty. We must remember always that accusation is not proof and that conviction depends upon evidence and due process of law. We will not walk in fear, one of another. We will not be driven by fear into an age of unreason, if we dig deep in our history and our doctrine, and remember that we are not descended from fearful men.<ref name=SIN/>}}
In April 1954, Senator McCarthy was also under attack in the ]. These hearings were televised live on the new ], allowing the public to view first-hand McCarthy's interrogation of individuals and his controversial tactics. In one exchange, McCarthy reminded the attorney for the Army, ], that he had an employee in his law firm who had belonged to an organization that had been accused of Communist sympathies. Welch famously rebuked McCarthy: "Have you no sense of decency, sir? At long last, have you left no sense of decency?"<ref>
{{cite book
| first = Thomas
| last = Doherty
| title= Cold War, Cool Medium: Television, McCarthyism, and American Culture
| publisher= Columbia University Press
| year= 2005
| pages = pg. 207
| id= ISBN 0-231-12953-X
}}</ref>
This exchange reflected a growing negative public opinion of McCarthy.


This broadcast has been cited as a key episode in bringing about the end of McCarthyism.{{sfn|Streitmatter|1998|p=154}}
==The decline of McCarthyism==
As the nation moved into the mid and late fifties, the attitudes and institutions of McCarthyism slowly weakened. Changing public sentiments undoubtedly had a lot to do with this, but one way to chart the decline of McCarthyism is through a series of court decisions.


In April 1954, McCarthy was also under attack in the ]. These hearings were televised live on the new ] network, allowing the public to view first-hand McCarthy's interrogation of individuals and his controversial tactics. In one exchange, McCarthy reminded the attorney for the Army, ], that he had an employee in his law firm who had belonged to an organization that had been accused of Communist sympathies. In an exchange that reflected the increasingly negative public opinion of McCarthy, Welch rebuked the senator: "Have you no sense of decency, sir? At long last, have you left no sense of decency?"{{sfn|Doherty|2005|p=207}}
A key figure in the end of the blacklisting of McCarthyism was ]. Host of an afternoon comedy radio show, Faulk was a leftist active in his union, the ]. He was scrutinized by ], one of the private firms that examined individuals for signs of communist "disloyalty". Marked by AWARE as unfit, he was fired by ]. Almost uniquely among the many victims of blacklisting, Faulk decided to sue AWARE in 1957 and finally won the case in 1962.<ref>
{{cite book
| last = Faulk
| first = John Henry
| authorlink = John Henry Faulk
| coauthors =
| title = Fear on Trial
| publisher = University of Texas Press
| year = 1963
| id = ISBN 0-292-72442-X }}</ref>
With this court decision, the private blacklisters and those who used them were put on notice that they were ] for the professional and financial damage they caused. Although some informal blacklisting continued, the private "loyalty checking" agencies were soon a thing of the past.<ref>
{{cite book
| last = Fried
| first = Albert
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| year = 1997
| title = McCarthyism, The Great American Red Scare: A Documentary History
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| pages = pg. 197
| id = ISBN 0-19-509701-7
}}</ref>
Even before the Faulk verdict, many in Hollywood had decided it was time to break the blacklist. In 1960, Dalton Trumbo, one of the best known members of the Hollywood Ten, was publicly credited with writing the films '']'' and '']''.


==Decline==
Much of the undoing of McCarthyism came at the hands of the Supreme Court. As ] wrote in his biography of Joseph McCarthy: "...the United States Supreme Court took judicial notice of the rents McCarthy was making in the fabric of liberty and thereupon wrote a series of decisions that have made the fabric stronger than before."<ref>
In the mid and late 1950s, the attitudes and institutions of McCarthyism slowly weakened. Changing public sentiments heavily contributed to the decline of McCarthyism. Its decline may also be charted through a series of court decisions.
{{cite book
| last = Rovere
| first = Richard H.
| title = Senator Joe McCarthy
| publisher = University of California Press
| year = 1959
| pages = pg. 264
| id = ISBN 0-520-20472-7 }}</ref>
Two Eisenhower appointees to the court &mdash; ] (who was made Chief Justice) and ]&mdash; proved to be more liberal than Eisenhower had anticipated, and he would later refer to the appointment of Warren as his "biggest mistake."<ref>
{{cite book
| last = Sabin
| first = Arthur J.
| coauthors =
| year = 1999
| title = In Calmer Times: The Supreme Court and Red Monday
| publisher = University of Pennsylvania Press
| pages = pg. 5
| id = ISBN 0-8122-3507-X
}}</ref>


=== Notable events ===
In 1956, the Supreme Court heard the case of ''Slochower v. Board of Education''. Slochower was a professor at Brooklyn College who had been fired by New York City for invoking the Fifth Amendment when McCarthy's committee questioned him about his past membership in the Communist Party. The court prohibited such actions, ruling "...we must condemn the practice of imputing a sinister meaning to the exercise of a person's constitutional right under the Fifth Amendment. The privilege against self-incrimination would be reduced to a hollow mockery if its exercise could be taken as equivalent either to a confession of guilt or a conclusive presumption of perjury."<ref>
A key figure in the end of the blacklisting of McCarthyism was ]. Host of an afternoon comedy radio show, Faulk was a leftist active in his union, the ]. He was scrutinized by AWARE, Inc., one of the private firms that examined individuals for signs of communist "disloyalty". Marked by AWARE as unfit, he was fired by ]. Almost uniquely among the many victims of blacklisting, Faulk decided to sue AWARE in 1957 and finally won the case in 1962.<ref>{{cite book | last = Faulk | first = John Henry | title = Fear on Trial | url = https://archive.org/details/fearontrial0000faul | url-access = registration | publisher = University of Texas Press | year = 1963 | isbn = 029272442X}}</ref>
{{cite book
| last = Fried
| first = Albert
| authorlink =
| year = 1997
| title = McCarthyism, The Great American Red Scare: A Documentary History
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| pages = pg. 203
| id = ISBN 0-19-509701-7
}}</ref>


With this court decision, the private blacklisters and those who used them were put on notice that they were ] for the professional and financial damage they caused. Although some informal blacklisting continued, the private "loyalty checking" agencies were soon a thing of the past.{{sfn|Fried|1997|p=197}} Even before the Faulk verdict, many in Hollywood had decided it was time to break the blacklist. In 1960, ], one of the best known members of the ], was publicly credited with writing the films '']'' and '']''.
Another key decision was in the 1957 case ''],'' in which the convictions of fourteen Communists were reversed. In Justice Black's opinion, he wrote of the original "Smith Act" trials: "The testimony of witnesses is comparatively insignificant. Guilt or innocence may turn on what Marx or Engels or someone else wrote or advocated as much as a hundred years or more ago. When the propriety of obnoxious or unfamiliar view about government is in reality made the crucial issue, prejudice makes conviction inevitable except in the rarest circumstances."<ref>
{{cite book
| last = Fried
| first = Albert
| authorlink =
| year = 1997
| title = McCarthyism, The Great American Red Scare: A Documentary History
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| pages = pg. 205
| id = ISBN 0-19-509701-7
}}</ref>


=== Warren Court ===
Also in 1957, the Supreme Court ruled on the case of '']'', curtailing the power of HUAC to punish uncooperative witnesses by finding them in contempt of Congress. Justice Warren wrote in the decision: "The mere summoning of a witness and compelling him to testify, against his will, about his beliefs, expressions or associations is a measure of governmental interference. And when those forced revelations concern matters that are unorthodox, unpopular, or even hateful to the general public, the reaction in the life of the witness may be disastrous."<ref>
Much of the undoing of McCarthyism came at the hands of the ] under Chief Justice ].<ref name= ":2" /><ref name=":3" /> As ] wrote in his biography of Joseph McCarthy, "he United States Supreme Court took judicial notice of the rents McCarthy was making in the fabric of liberty and thereupon wrote a series of decisions that have made the fabric stronger than before."{{sfn|Rovere|1959|p=264}} Two Eisenhower appointees to the court—] (who was made Chief Justice) and ]—proved to be more liberal than Eisenhower had anticipated.{{sfn|Sabin|1999|p=5.}}
{{cite book
| last = Fried
| first = Albert
| authorlink =
| year = 1997
| title = McCarthyism, The Great American Red Scare: A Documentary History
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| pages = pg. 207
| id = ISBN 0-19-509701-7
}}</ref>


The ] made a series of rulings that helped bring an end to the McCarthyism.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" />
In its 1958 decision on ''Kent v. Dulles'', the Supreme Court halted the State Department from using the authority of its own regulations to refuse or revoke passports based on an applicant's communist beliefs or associations.<ref>
{{cite book
| last = Fried
| first = Albert
| authorlink =
| year = 1997
| title = McCarthyism, The Great American Red Scare: A Documentary History
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| pages = pg. 211
| id = ISBN 0-19-509701-7
}}</ref>


In 1956, the Warren Court heard the case of '']''. ] was a professor at Brooklyn College who had been fired by New York City for invoking the Fifth Amendment when McCarthy's committee questioned him about his past membership in the Communist Party. The court prohibited such actions, ruling "...we must condemn the practice of imputing a sinister meaning to the exercise of a person's constitutional right under the Fifth Amendment… The privilege against self-incrimination would be reduced to a hollow mockery if its exercise could be taken as equivalent either to a confession of guilt or a conclusive presumption of perjury."{{sfn|Fried|1997|p=203}} In addition, the 1956 ''Cole v. Young'' ruling also greatly weakened the ability to discriminate in the federal civilian workforce.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/351/536/|title= Cole v. Young 351 U.S. 536 (1956)|work= Justia|access-date= October 1, 2016|archive-date= March 27, 2019|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190327162048/https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/351/536/|url-status= live}}</ref>
==Continuing controversy==
Though McCarthyism might seem to be of interest only as a historical subject, the political divisions it created in the United States continue to make themselves manifest, and the politics and history of anti-Communism in the United States are still contentious. One source of controversy is the comparison that a number of observers have made between the oppression of liberals and leftists during the McCarthy period and recent actions against ]s and suspected ]. In ''The Age of Anxiety: McCarthyism to Terrorism'', author Haynes Johnson compares the "abuses suffered by aliens thrown into high security U.S. prisons in the wake of 9/11" to the excesses of the McCarthy era.<ref>
{{cite book
| last = Johnson
| first = Haynes
| title = The Age of Anxiety: McCarthyism to Terrorism
| publisher =Harcourt
| year =2005
| pages = pg. 471
| id = ISBN 0151010625 }}</ref>
Similarly, ] has written that the ] "in effect resurrects the philosophy of McCarthyism, simply substituting 'terrorist' for 'communist.'"<ref>
{{cite journal
| last = Cole
| first = David
| authorlink = David D. Cole
| title = National Security State
| work =
| journal =]
| date =December 17, 2001
| url =http://www.thenation.com/doc/20011217/cole
| accessdate = 2007-03-14 }}
See also
{{cite journal
| last = Cole
| first = David
| authorlink = David D. Cole
| title =The New McCarthyism: Repeating History in the War on Terrorism
| journal =Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review
| publisher = Harvard Law School
| volume =Vol. 38
| issue =no. 1
| date =Winter, 2003
| url =http://www.law.harvard.edu/students/orgs/crcl/vol38_1/cole.php
| accessdate =2007-03-14
| doi =10.2139/ssrn.383660
| format ={{Dead link|date=June 2008}} &ndash; <sup></sup> }}</ref>


Another key decision was in the 1957 case '']'', in which the convictions of fourteen Communists were reversed. In Justice Black's opinion, he wrote of the original "Smith Act" trials: "The testimony of witnesses is comparatively insignificant. Guilt or innocence may turn on what Marx or Engels or someone else wrote or advocated as much as a hundred years or more ago… When the propriety of obnoxious or unfamiliar view about government is in reality made the crucial issue, …prejudice makes conviction inevitable except in the rarest circumstances."{{sfn|Fried|1997|p=205}}
From the opposite pole, ] devotes much of her book '']'' to drawing parallels between past opposition to McCarthy and McCarthyism and the efforts of modern-day liberals that, in her view, hinder the ].<ref>
{{cite book
| last = Coulter
| first = Ann
| authorlink = Ann Coulter
| title = Treason: Liberal Treachery from the Cold War to the War on Terrorism
| publisher = Three Rivers Press
| year = 2003
| id = ISBN 1-4000-5032-4}}</ref>
Other authors who have drawn on a comparison between current anti-terrorist policies and McCarthyism include ],<ref>
{{cite web
| first = Geoffrey R.
| last = Stone
| title = Essay on McCarthyism and modern threats to liberty
| publisher = The University of Chicago Law School
| year = 2004
| url = http://www.law.uchicago.edu/news/stone_mccarthyism.html
| accessdate = 2006-11-02
}}</ref>
]
<ref>
{{cite book
| last = Morgan
| first = Ted
| authorlink = Ted Morgan
| title = Reds: McCarthyism in Twentieth-Century America
| publisher =Random House
| year =2004
| pages = pg. 597 ''et seq.''
| id = ISBN 081297302X }}</ref>
and ].<ref name=Goldberg>
{{cite web
| first = Jonah
| last = Goldberg
| authorlink = Jonah Goldberg
| title = Two Cheers for "McCarthyism"?
| publisher = ]
| year = 2003
| url = http://www.nationalreview.com/goldberg/goldberg022603.asp
| accessdate = 2007-01-25
}}</ref>


Also in 1957, the Supreme Court ruled on the case of '']'', curtailing the power of HUAC to punish uncooperative witnesses by finding them in contempt of Congress. Justice Warren wrote in the decision: "The mere summoning of a witness and compelling him to testify, against his will, about his beliefs, expressions or associations is a measure of governmental interference. And when those forced revelations concern matters that are unorthodox, unpopular, or even hateful to the general public, the reaction in the life of the witness may be disastrous."{{sfn|Fried|1997|p=207}}<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180614022238/https://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-supreme-court/354/178.html |date=June 14, 2018 }}, ''Caselaw'', Findlaw.</ref>
McCarthyism also attracts controversy purely as a historical issue. Through declassified documents from Soviet archives and ] decryptions of coded Soviet messages, it has become known that the Soviet Union engaged in substantial espionage activities in the United States during the 1940s. It is also known that the CPUSA was substantially funded and its policies controlled by the Soviet Union, and that CPUSA members were often recruited as spies.<ref>
{{cite journal
| last = Marshall
| first = Joshua
| authorlink =Joshua Micah Marshall
| title =Exhuming McCarthy
| journal =The American Prospect
| volume =Vol. 10
| issue =no. 43
| year =1999
| url =http://www.prospect.org/print/V10/43/marshall-j.html
| accessdate =2007-02-07
| format ={{Dead link|date=June 2008}} &ndash; <sup></sup> }}</ref>
In the view of some contemporary authors, these revelations stand as at least a partial vindication of McCarthyism. Some feel that there was a genuinely dangerous subversive element in the United States, and that this danger justified extreme measures.<ref name=Goldberg/> Others, while accepting that there were inexcusable excesses during McCarthyism, argue that some contemporary historians of McCarthyism often deny the seriousness of Communist espionage during the period.<ref>
See for example
{{cite book
| author = ] and ]
| coauthors =
| title = In Denial: Historians, Communism, and Espionage
| publisher = Encounter Books
| year = 2003
| id = ISBN 1-893554-72-4}},
{{cite journal
| last = Radosh
| first = Ronald
| authorlink = Ronald Radosh
| title = The Persistence Of Anti-Anti-Communism
| journal = FrontPageMagazine.com
| date = July 11, 2001
| url = http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/Printable.asp?ID=1491
| accessdate = }} </ref>
The contrary view holds that, recent revelations notwithstanding, by the time McCarthyism began in the late 1940s, the CPUSA was an ineffectual fringe group, and the damage done to U.S. interests by Soviet spies after World War II was minimal.<ref>
{{cite book
| last = Theoharis
| first = Athan
| authorlink = Athan Theoharis
| title = Chasing Spies: How the FBI Failed in Counter-Intelligence But Promoted the Politics of McCarthyism in the Cold War Years
| publisher = Ivan R. Dee
| year = 2002
| url = http://www.fas.org/irp/eprint/theoharis.htm
| id = ISBN 1-56663-420-2 }} "American spies may have aimed to further Soviet interests and betray their own nation, but the effect of their actions compromised neither long-term nor immediate U.S. security interests..."</ref>
As historian Ellen Schrecker put it, "''in this country,'' McCarthyism did more damage to the constitution than the American Communist Party ever did."<ref>
(Emphasis in original)
{{cite web
| last = Schrecker
| first = Ellen
| authorlink = Ellen Schrecker
| title = Comments on John Earl Haynes', "The Cold War Debate Continues"
| url = http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~hpcws/comment15.htm
| accessdate = }}</ref>


In its 1958 decision in '']'', the Supreme Court halted the ] from using the authority of its own regulations to refuse or revoke passports based on an applicant's communist beliefs or associations.{{sfn|Fried|1997|p=211}}
===Current use of the term===

Since the time of McCarthy, the word "McCarthyism" has entered American speech as a general term for a variety of distasteful practices: aggressively questioning a person's patriotism, making poorly supported accusations, using accusations of disloyalty to pressure a person to adhere to conformist politics or to discredit an opponent, subverting civil rights in the name of national security and the use of ] are all often referred to as McCarthyism.
==Repercussions==

=== Study and reactions to Constitutional implications ===
The political divisions McCarthyism created in the United States continue to make themselves manifest, and the politics and history of anti-communism in the United States are still contentious. Portions of the massive security apparatus established during the McCarthy era still exist. ]s are still required by the ] for all officials and employees of the ] (which is highly problematic for ] and ]es whose beliefs preclude them from pledging absolute loyalty to the state).<ref>Paddock, Richard C. (May 11, 2008), , ''San Francisco Chronicle''</ref> At the federal level, a few portions of the ] remain in effect. However, the act's detention provision was repealed in 1971.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Izumi|first=Masumi|date=May 2005|title=Prohibiting 'American Concentration Camps'|journal=Pacific Historical Review|volume= 74|issue=2|page=166|jstor=10.1525/phr.2005.74.2.165|doi=10.1525/phr.2005.74.2.165}}</ref> The McCarran Act's Communist registration requirement was declared unconstitutional in the 1965 Supreme Court ruling in '']'' as well. The McCarran Act's ], which enforced the law's investigation requirement for persons alleged to be involved in "subversive activities", was officially abolished through Congressional legislation in 1972 as well.<ref>{{Cite web|editor-last=Kesaris|editor-first=Paul L.|title=Records of the Subversive Activities Control Board|url=http://cisupa.proquest.com/ksc_assets/catalog/10837.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304022713/http://cisupa.proquest.com/ksc_assets/catalog/10837.pdf|archive-date=2016-03-04|access-date=2022-02-04|publisher=]}}</ref>

=== Historical study on anti-communism and Soviet espionage ===
McCarthyism also attracts controversy purely as a historical issue. Through declassified documents from Soviet archives and ] decryptions of coded Soviet messages, the Soviet Union was found to have engaged in substantial espionage activities in the United States during the 1940s. The ] also was substantially funded and its policies controlled by the Soviet Union, and accusations existed that CPUSA members were often recruited as spies.<ref>Marshall, Joshua, {{Dead link|date=October 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, ''American Prospect'' 10, no. 43 (1999).</ref><ref name=":22">{{Cite journal |last=Storrs |first=Landon R. Y. |date=2015-07-02 |title=McCarthyism and the Second Red Scare |url=https://oxfordre.com/americanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.001.0001/acrefore-9780199329175-e-6 |journal=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History |language=en |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.013.6 |isbn=978-0199329175}}</ref>

] like ] and ] had a contempt for McCarthyism. Sociologist Edward Shils criticized an excessive policy of secrecy during the Cold War, that led to the misdirection of McCarthyism, which was addressed during the 1994–1997 ]. As Moynihan put it, "reaction to McCarthy took the form of a modish ] that considered impolite any discussion of the very real threat Communism posed to Western values and security." After revelations of Soviet spy networks from the declassified Venona project, Moynihan wondered: "Might less secrecy have prevented the liberal overreaction to McCarthyism as well as McCarthyism itself?" He described the situation during the McCarthy era as "ignorant armies clashed by night". With McCarthy advocating an extremist view, the discussion of communist subversion was made into a civil rights issue instead of a counterintelligence one.<ref name=":7">{{cite book |last=Moynihan |first=Daniel Patrick |url=https://archive.org/details/secrecyamericane00moyn |title=Secrecy: The American Experience |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0300080797 |pages= |url-access=registration}}</ref>

In the view of some contemporary commentators, the revelations from Venona and other archives on espionage stand as at least a partial vindication of McCarthyism.<ref>] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150330094927/http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00t7hhf |date=March 30, 2015 }} '']'' airdate August 9, 2010</ref> Some, such as Goldberg, feel that a genuinely dangerous subversive element was in the United States, and that this danger justified extreme measures.<ref name="Goldberg">{{cite magazine |author=Goldberg, Jonah |date=February 26, 2003 |title=Two Cheers for 'McCarthyism'? |url=http://www.nationalreview.com/goldberg/goldberg022603.asp |magazine=National Review Online |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061210062004/http://www.nationalreview.com/goldberg/goldberg022603.asp <!--Added by H3llBot--> |archive-date=December 10, 2006 |access-date=January 25, 2007}}</ref> The opposing view holds that, recent revelations notwithstanding, by the time McCarthyism began in the late 1940s, the CPUSA was an ineffectual fringe group, and the damage done to U.S. interests by Soviet spies after World War II was minimal.<ref>{{cite book |author=Theoharis, Athan |url=https://archive.org/details/chasingspieshowf00theo |title=Chasing Spies: How the FBI Failed in Counter-Intelligence But Promoted the Politics of McCarthyism in the Cold War Years |publisher=Ivan R. Dee |year=2002 |isbn=1566634202 |author-link=Athan Theoharis}}</ref> Historian Ellen Schrecker states, "''in this country,'' McCarthyism did more damage to the constitution than the American Communist Party ever did."<ref>{{cite web |author=Schrecker, Ellen |date=Winter 2000 |title=Comments on John Earl Haynes' ''The Cold War Debate Continues'' |url=http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~hpcws/comment15.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170515134722/http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~hpcws/comment15.htm |archive-date=May 15, 2017 |access-date=February 27, 2009 |work=Journal of Cold War Studies |publisher=Harvard University – Faculty of Arts and Sciences}} Emphasis in original.</ref>

Historian ], while acknowledging that inexcusable excesses occurred during McCarthyism, argues that some contemporary historians of McCarthyism underplay the un-democratic nature of the CPUSA.<ref>{{cite web | last = Haynes | first = John Earl | author-link = John Earl Haynes | title = Reflections on Ellen Schrecker and Maurice Isserman's essay, 'The Right's Cold War Revision' | url = http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page47.html | access-date = September 9, 2010 | archive-date = March 15, 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150315132843/http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page47.html | url-status = live }}</ref> At the same time, Haynes, who studied the Venona decryptions extensively, argued that McCarthy's attempts to "make anti-communism a partisan weapon" actually "threatened anti-Communist consensus", thereby ultimately harming anti-Communist efforts more than helping them.<ref>{{cite web |last=Haynes |first=John Earl |date=February 2000 |title=Exchange with Arthur Herman and Venona book talk |url=http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page58.html |access-date=July 11, 2007}}</ref> Of the 159 people who were identified on lists used or referenced by McCarthy, evidence only substantially proved that nine of them had aided Soviet espionage efforts—while several hundred Soviet spies were actually known based on Venona and other evidence, most were never named by McCarthy.<ref name="johnearlhaynes62">{{cite web |last=Haynes |first=John Earl |year=2006 |title=Senator Joseph McCarthy's Lists and Venona |url=http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page62.html |access-date=August 31, 2006}}</ref>{{sfn|Haynes|Klehr |2000}}

=== Later political usage of term ===
A number of observers have compared the oppression of liberals and leftists during the McCarthy period to 2000s-era actions against suspected terrorists, most of them Muslims. In ''The Age of Anxiety: McCarthyism to Terrorism'', author Haynes Johnson compares the "abuses suffered by aliens thrown into high-security U.S. prisons in the wake of 9/11" to the excesses of the McCarthy era.<ref>{{cite book |author=Johnson, Haynes |url=https://archive.org/details/ageofanxietymcca00john_0 |title=The Age of Anxiety: McCarthyism to Terrorism |publisher=Harcourt |year=2005 |isbn=0151010625 |page= |url-access=registration}}</ref> Similarly, ] has written that the ] "in effect resurrects the philosophy of McCarthyism, simply substituting 'terrorist' for 'communist'."<ref>Cole, David, " {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070211044858/http://www.thenation.com/doc/20011217/cole|date=2007-02-11}}", ''The Nation'' (December 17, 2001). See also Cole, David, "The New McCarthyism: Repeating History in the War on Terrorism", ''Harvard Civil Rights–Civil Liberties Law Review'' 38, no. 1 (Winter 2003).</ref>

From the opposite pole, conservative writer ] devotes much of her book '']'' to drawing parallels between past opposition to McCarthy and McCarthyism and the policies and beliefs of modern-day liberals, arguing that the former hindered the anti-communist cause and the latter hindered the ].<ref>{{cite book |author=Coulter, Ann |url=https://archive.org/details/treason00annc |title=Treason: Liberal Treachery from the Cold War to the War on Terrorism |publisher=Three Rivers Press |year=2003 |isbn=1400050324 |url-access=registration}}</ref> Other authors who have drawn on a comparison between current ] and McCarthyism include ],<ref>{{cite news |author=Geoffrey R. Stone |date=October 17, 2004 |title=America's new McCarthyism |newspaper=Chicago Tribune |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/2004/10/17/americas-new-mccarthyism/ |url-status=live |access-date=January 3, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180104192406/http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2004-10-17/news/0410170323_1_democratic-dominance-mccarthyism-partisan |archive-date=January 4, 2018}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite book |author=Morgan, Ted |title=Reds: McCarthyism in Twentieth-Century America |publisher=Random House |year=2004 |isbn=081297302X |pages=597 et seq}}</ref> and ].<ref name="Goldberg" />

Since the time of McCarthy, the word ''McCarthyism'' has entered American speech as a general term for a variety of practices: aggressively questioning a person's patriotism, making poorly supported accusations, using accusations of disloyalty to pressure a person to adhere to conformist politics or to discredit an opponent, subverting ] in the name of national security, and the use of ] are all often referred to as ''McCarthyism''.<ref>{{cite news |last=Rosenthal |first=Jack |date=October 7, 1984 |title=President vs. Demagogue |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1984/10/07/books/president-vs-demagogue.html |url-status=live |access-date=December 20, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170904111135/http://www.nytimes.com/1984/10/07/books/president-vs-demagogue.html |archive-date=September 4, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Boot |first=Max |date=April 2000 |title=Joseph McCarthy by Arthur Herman |url=http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/joseph-mccarthy-by-arthur-herman-9160 |url-status=dead |journal=Commentary |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100721122049/http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/joseph-mccarthy-by-arthur-herman-9160 |archive-date=July 21, 2010 |access-date=April 11, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=What Qualifies as Demagoguery? |date=October 19, 2004 |title=What Qualifies as Demagoguery? |url=http://hnn.us/articles/7603.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130725015101/http://hnn.us/articles/7603.html |archive-date=July 25, 2013 |access-date=December 20, 2017 |publisher=History News Network}}</ref>

==In popular culture==
* The 1951 novel '']'' by ] tells the story of the director of a (fictional) radio show, broadcast live at the time, who is given a deadline to investigate his cast for alleged links to communism. The novel recounts the devastating effects on all concerned.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.openroadmedia.com/ebook/the-troubled-air/|title=The Troubled Air|date=16 April 2013|publisher=Open Road Media|access-date=September 9, 2016|archive-date=September 11, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911193938/http://www.openroadmedia.com/ebook/the-troubled-air/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* The 1952 ] play '']'' used the ] as a metaphor for McCarthyism, suggesting that the process of McCarthyism-style persecution can occur at any time or place. The play focused on the fact that once accused, a person had little chance of exoneration, given the irrational and ] of both the courts and the public. Miller later wrote: "The more I read into the Salem panic, the more it touched off corresponding images of common experiences in the fifties."<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Miller |first=Arthur |date=October 21, 1996 |url=https://www.newyorker.com/archive/1996/10/21/1996_10_21_158_TNY_CARDS_000373902 |title=Why I Wrote The Crucible |magazine=The New Yorker |access-date=February 20, 2020 |archive-date=September 28, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928033947/http://www.newyorker.com/archive/1996/10/21/1996_10_21_158_TNY_CARDS_000373902 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* The 1976 film '']'' starring ] dealt with the McCarthy-era Hollywood blacklist. The film was made by those blacklisted: producer and director ]; writer ]; and actors ], ], ], ], ], and ].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/mccarthy/blacklist.html|title=The Hollywood Blacklist|last=Georgakas|first=Dan|website=www.english.illinois.edu|access-date=August 15, 2018|archive-date=August 26, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180826102811/http://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/mccarthy/blacklist.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
* The 1985 film ] is set during the ], with footage of the hearings seen on a television set. The characters reveal they are being blackmailed by Mr. Boddy, who threatens to expose their secrets to the HUAC.
* '']'' is a 1991 American drama film about the Hollywood blacklist, McCarthyism, and the activities of the HUAC. Written and directed by Irwin Winkler, it starred ], ], and ].
* The 2005 film '']'' by ] starred ] as broadcast journalist ] and contained archival footage of McCarthy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4949041|title='Good Night and Good Luck': Murrow vs. McCarthy|website=NPR.org|access-date=April 5, 2018|archive-date=October 26, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171026111018/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4949041|url-status=live}}</ref>
* The 2016 opera ], based on the 2007 novel by ], is set in McCarthy-era Washington D.C. and focuses on the "]", a witch hunt and mass firings of gay people from the United States government.
* The 2023 mini-series '']'', also based on the 2007 novel by Thomas Mallon, centers on the decades-long romance between two men who first meet during the height of McCarthyism.


==See also== ==See also==
{{Portal|Conservatism|Communism|Socialism|1950s}}
*]
{{cols}}
*]
* ]
*]
*] * ]
*] * ]
* ]
*]
* ]
* ] of 1950
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
{{colend}}


==Notes== == References ==
=== Citations ===
{{reflist|2}}
{{Reflist}}


=== Sources ===
==References and further reading==
{{refbegin}} {{refbegin}}
*{{cite book * {{cite book
| last = Block
| author = ] and ]
| first = Herbert
| coauthors =
| title = The Herblock Book
| title = The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB
| year = 1952
| publisher = Basic Books
| year = 2000 | publisher = Beacon
| isbn = 149925346X
| id = ISBN 0-465-00312-5
}} }}
*{{cite book * {{cite book
| first = David | last = Brinkley
| last = Caute | first = Alan
| year = 1995
| authorlink = David Caute
| title= The Great Fear: The Anti-Communist Purge Under Truman and Eisenhower | title = The End of Reform: New Deal Liberalism in Recession and War
| publisher= Simon & Schuster | publisher = Vintage
| isbn = 0679753141
| year= 1978
| id= ISBN 0671226827
}} }}
*{{cite book * {{cite book
| first = Thomas | last = Brown
| last = Doherty | first = Ralph S.
| year = 1958
| title= Cold War, Cool Medium: Television, McCarthyism, and American Culture
| title = Loyalty and Security: Employment Tests in the United States
| publisher= Columbia University Press
| publisher = Yale University Press
| year= 2005
| isbn = 0306702185
| id= ISBN 0-231-12953-X
}} }}
*{{cite book * {{cite book
|last = Buckley
| author = ] and ]
|first = William F.
| title = In Denial: Historians, Communism, and Espionage
|year = 1954
| publisher = Encounter Books
|title = McCarthy and His Enemies: The Record and Its Meaning
| year = 2003
|url = https://archive.org/details/mccarthyhisenemi00buck
| id = ISBN 1-893554-72-4
|url-access = registration
|publisher = Regnery
|isbn = 0895264722
}} }}
*{{cite book * {{cite book| last1 = Buhle| first1=Paul
| first2=David |last2=Wagner
| last = Haynes
| first = John Earl | year = 2003
| title = Hide in Plain Sight: The Hollywood Blacklistees in Film and Television, 1950–2002
| year = 2000
| publisher = Palgrave Macmillan
| title = Red Scare or Red Menace?: American Communism and Anti Communism in the Cold War Era
| publisher = Ivan R. Dee | isbn = 1403961441
| url = https://archive.org/details/hideinplainsight00buhl
| id = ISBN 1-56663-091-6
}}
* {{cite book| last1 = Cox| first1=John Stuart
| first2= Athan G. |last2=Theoharis
| year = 1988
| title = The Boss: J. Edgar Hoover and the Great American Inquisition
| publisher = Temple University Press
| isbn = 087722532X
| url = https://archive.org/details/bossjedgarhoover00theo
}}
* {{cite book
| last = D'Emilio
| first = John
| year = 1998
| title = Sexual Politics, Sexual Communities
| publisher = University of Chicago Press
| edition = 2d
| isbn = 0226142671
}} }}
*{{cite book * {{cite book
| first = Thomas
| author = Haynes, John Earl and Klehr, Harvey
| year = 2000 | last = Doherty
| title = Cold War, Cool Medium: Television, McCarthyism, and American Culture
| title = Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America
| url = https://archive.org/details/coldwarcoolmediu00dohe
| publisher = Yale University Press
| url-access = registration
| id = ISBN 0-300-08462-5
| publisher = Columbia University Press
| year = 2005
| isbn = 023112953X
}} }}
*{{cite book * {{cite book| last = Fried
| last = Fried | first = Albert
| first = Albert
| year = 1997 | year = 1997
| title = McCarthyism, The Great American Red Scare: A Documentary History | title = McCarthyism, The Great American Red Scare: A Documentary History
| publisher = Oxford University Press | publisher = Oxford University Press
| id = ISBN 0-19-509701-7 | isbn = 0195097017
| url = https://archive.org/details/mccarthyismgreat00frie
}}
}}
*{{cite book
* {{cite book
| last = Fried | last = Fried
| first = Richard M. | first = Richard M.
Line 1,093: Line 462:
| title = Nightmare in Red: The McCarthy Era in Perspective | title = Nightmare in Red: The McCarthy Era in Perspective
| publisher = Oxford University Press | publisher = Oxford University Press
| id = ISBN 0-19-504361-8 | isbn = 0195043618
}} }}
*{{cite book * {{cite book
| last = Morgan | last = Griffith
| first = Ted | first = Robert
| title = The Politics of Fear: Joseph R. McCarthy and the Senate
| authorlink = Ted Morgan
| url = https://archive.org/details/politicsoffearjo00grif
| title = Reds: McCarthyism in Twentieth-Century America
| publisher = Random House | url-access = registration
| publisher = ]
| year = 2004
| id = ISBN 0-8129-7302-X | year = 1970
| isbn = 0870235559
}} }}
*{{cite book * {{cite book
| author1-link=John Earl Haynes|last1=Haynes|first1=John Earl|author2-link=Harvey Klehr|first2=Harvey|last2=Klehr
| last = Navasky
| first = Victor S. | year = 2000
| title = Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America
| authorlink = Victor Navasky
| publisher = Yale University Press
| title= Naming Names
| isbn = 0300-084625
| publisher= Hill and Wang
| year= 1980
| id= ISBN 0809001837
}} }}
*{{cite book * {{cite book| last = Herman
| last = Powers | first = Arthur
| first = Richard Gid | year = 2000
| title = Joseph McCarthy: Reexamining the Life and Legacy of America's Most Hated Senator
| title=Not Without Honor: A History of American AntiCommunism
| publisher=Free Press | publisher = The Free Press
| isbn = 0684836254
| year=1997
| url = https://archive.org/details/josephmccarthyre00herm
| id= ISBN 0-300-07470-0
}}
* {{cite book
| last = McAuliff
| first = Mary Sperling
| title = Crisis on the Left: Cold War Politics and American Liberals, 1947–1954
| publisher = ]
| year = 1978
| isbn = 087023241X
}} }}
*{{cite book * {{cite book
| last = Schrecker | last = Rovere
| first = Ellen | first = Richard H.
| title = Senator Joe McCarthy
| authorlink = Ellen Schrecker
| publisher = University of California Press
| year = 1959
| isbn = 0520204727
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Sabin
| first = Arthur J.
| year = 1999
| title = In Calmer Times: The Supreme Court and Red Monday
| publisher = University of Pennsylvania Press
| isbn = 081223507X
}}
* {{cite book| last = Schrecker
| first = Ellen
| year = 1998 | year = 1998
| title = Many Are the Crimes: McCarthyism in America | title = Many Are the Crimes: McCarthyism in America
| publisher = Little, Brown | publisher = Little, Brown
| id = ISBN 0-316-77470-7 | isbn = 0316774707
| url = https://archive.org/details/manyarecrimesmcc00schr
}}
}}
*{{cite book
* {{cite book
| last = Schrecker | last = Schrecker
| first = Ellen | first = Ellen
| title = The Age Of McCarthyism: A Brief History With Documents | title = The Age of McCarthyism: A Brief History with Documents
| publisher = Palgrave Macmillan | publisher = Palgrave Macmillan
| year = 2002
| edition = 2d
| isbn = 0312294255
}}
* {{cite book| last = Stone
| first = Geoffrey R.
| title = Perilous Times: Free Speech in Wartime from the Sedition Act of 1798 to the War on Terrorism
| publisher = W. W. Norton
| year = 2004 | year = 2004
| isbn = 0393-058808
| url = http://www.writing.upenn.edu/~afilreis/50s/congcomms.html
| url = https://archive.org/details/periloustimesfre00ston
| id = ISBN 0-312-29425-5
}} }}
*{{cite book * {{cite book
| last = Streitmatter
| author = ] and Vassiliev, Alexander
| year = 2000 | first = Rodger
| title = The Haunted Wood: Soviet Espionage in America &mdash; The Stalin Era | title = Mightier Than the Sword: How the News Media Have Shaped American History
| publisher = Modern Library | publisher = Westview Press
| year = 1998
| id = ISBN 0-375-75536-5
| isbn = 0813332117
| url-access = registration
| url = https://archive.org/details/mightierthanswor00rodg
}}
* {{cite book |last=Weiner |first=Tim |author-link=Tim Weiner |title=Legacy of Ashes: The History of the Central Intelligence Agency |publisher=] |location=New York |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-385-51445-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/legacyofasheshis00wein}}
* {{cite book
| last = Weir
| first = Robert E.
| year = 2007
| title = Class in America: An Encyclopedia
| publisher = Greenwood Press
| isbn = 978-0313337208
}} }}
{{refend}} {{refend}}


===Historiography===
== External links ==
* Haynes, John Earl. "The Cold War debate continues: A traditionalist view of historical writing on domestic Communism and anti-Communism." ''Journal of Cold War Studies'' 2.1 (2000): 76–115.
{{wikiquote|Joseph McCarthy}}
* Hixson Jr, William B. ''Search for the American right wing: An analysis of the social science record, 1955–1987'' (Princeton University Press, 2015).
* Reeves, Thomas C. "McCarthyism: Interpretations since Hofstadter." ''Wisconsin Magazine of History'' (1976): 42–54.
* Selverstone, Marc J. "A Literature So Immense: The Historiography of Anticommunism." ''Organization of American Historians Magazine of History'' 24.4 (2010): 7–11.

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}} {{refbegin}}
*{{cite web * {{cite book
| author-link = Christopher Andrew (historian)|author = Andrew, Christopher
| last = Navasky
| author2 =Mitrokhin, Vasili |author-link2 = Vasili Mitrokhin
| first = Victor
| title = The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB
| authorlink = Victor Navasky
| coauthors = | publisher = Basic Books
| title = Cold War Ghosts | year = 2000
| publisher = The Nation | isbn = 0465-003125
| year = 2001
| url = http://www.thenation.com/doc/20010716/navasky
| accessdate = 2006-11-02
}} }}
*{{cite web * {{cite book|last = Buckley
|first = William F.
| author = Beyer, Mary and Beyer, Michael
|year = 1977
| coauthors =
| title = McCarthyism Today |title = A Hymnal: The Controversial Arts
| publisher = International Journal of Baudrillard Studies |publisher = G.P. Putnam's Sons
|isbn = 0399122273
| year = 2006
|url = https://archive.org/details/hymnalcontrovers00buck
| url = http://www.ubishops.ca/baudrillardstudies/vol3_1/beyer.htm
}}
| accessdate = 2006-11-02
* {{cite book
| title = Showdown at High Noon: Witch-hunts, Critics, and the End of the Western
| author = Byman, Jeremy
| publisher = Scarecrow Press
| year = 2004
| isbn = 0810849984
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=WIp2PfC1Mm4C
| access-date = October 19, 2020
| archive-date = May 10, 2017
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170510183352/https://books.google.com/books?id=WIp2PfC1Mm4C
| url-status = live
}} }}
* Caballero, Raymond. ''McCarthyism vs. Clinton Jencks.'' Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2019.
*{{cite web
* {{cite book
| first = Lawrence
| last = Badash | first = David
| coauthors = | last = Caute
| author-link = David Caute
| title = Video of a talk titled "Science in the McCarthy Period: Training Ground for Scientists as Public Citizens"
| title= The Great Fear: The Anti-Communist Purge Under Truman and Eisenhower
| publisher = Oregon State University
| publisher= Simon & Schuster
| year= 1978
| isbn= 0671226827
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Coulter
| first = Ann
| author-link = Ann Coulter
| title = Treason: Liberal Treachery from the Cold War to the War on Terrorism
| publisher = Crown Forum
| year = 2003
| isbn = 1400050308
| url = https://archive.org/details/treason00annc
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Evans
| first = M. Stanton
| author-link = M. Stanton Evans
| title = Blacklisted by History: The Untold Story of Senator Joe McCarthy and His Fight Against America's Enemies
| publisher = Crown Publishing
| year = 2007 | year = 2007
| isbn = 978-1400081059
| url = http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/events/2007paulingconference/video-s3-3-badash.html
| url = https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781400081059
| accessdate = 2008-01-16
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Haynes
| first = John Earl
| year = 2000
| title = Red Scare or Red Menace?: American Communism and Anti Communism in the Cold War Era
| publisher = Ivan R. Dee
| isbn = 156663-0916
| url-access = registration
| url = https://archive.org/details/redscareorredmen00hayn
}}
* {{cite book
| author1 = Haynes, John Earl
| author2 = Harvey Klehr
| name-list-style = amp
| title = In Denial: Historians, Communism, and Espionage
| publisher = Encounter
| year = 2003
| isbn = 1893554724
| url = https://archive.org/details/indenial00john
}}
* Latham, Earl (ed.). '''' (1965). excerpts from primary and secondary sources
* Lichtman, Robert M. ''The Supreme Court and McCarthy-Era Repression: One Hundred Decisions.'' Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 2012.
* McDaniel, Rodger. ''Dying for Joe McCarthy's Sins: The Suicide of Wyoming Senator Lester Hunt.'' WordsWorth, 2013.
* {{cite book |last=Morgan |first=Ted |author-link=Ted Morgan (writer) |title=Reds: McCarthyism in Twentieth-Century America |publisher=Random House |year=2004 |isbn=081297302X}}
* {{cite book |last=Navasky |first=Victor S. |author-link=Victor Navasky |title=Naming Names |publisher= Hill and Wang |year=1980 |isbn=08090-01837}}
* {{cite book |last=Powers |first=Richard Gid |title=Not Without Honor: A History of American Anticommunism |publisher=Free Press |year=1997 |isbn= 0300-07470-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Schrecker |first=Ellen |title=The Age of McCarthyism: A Brief History with Documents |publisher=Bedford Books of St. Martin's Press |year=1994 |url=https://archive.org/details/ageofmccarthyism0000schr |isbn=0312-083491 |url-access=registration }}
* Storrs, Landon R.Y., ''The Second Red Scare and the Unmaking of the New Deal Left.'' Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2013.
* {{cite book |author1-link=Allen Weinstein|last1=Weinstein|first1=Allen|first2=Alexander|last2=Vassiliev |year=2000 |title=The Haunted Wood: Soviet Espionage in America – The Stalin Era |publisher=Modern Library |isbn=0375755365}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite web
| author = Badash, Lawrence
| title = Science in the McCarthy Period: Training Ground for Scientists as Public Citizens
| publisher = Oregon State University
| date = October 30, 2007
| url = http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/events/2007paulingconference/video-s3-3-badash.html
| access-date = January 16, 2008
| archive-date = February 5, 2008
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080205100902/http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/events/2007paulingconference/video-s3-3-badash.html
| url-status = live
}}
* {{cite web
|author1=Beyer, Mary
|author2=Michael Beyer
|name-list-style=amp
|title=McCarthyism Today
|publisher=International Journal of Baudrillard Studies
|date=January 2006
|url=https://www.ubishops.ca/baudrillardstudies/vol3_1/beyer.htm
|access-date=November 2, 2006
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061001134711/http://www.ubishops.ca/baudrillardstudies/vol3_1/beyer.htm
|archive-date=October 1, 2006
}}
* {{cite web
|url=https://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/research/online_documents/mccarthyism.html
|title=McCarthyism / The "Red Scare"
|publisher=Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Museum, and Boyhood Home
|work=Dwight D. Eisenhower Online Documents
|access-date=October 30, 2013
|archive-date=November 1, 2013
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101220627/http://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/research/online_documents/mccarthyism.html
|url-status=live
}} }}
*{{cite web * {{cite web
| title = The Communist Menace | author = Navasky, Victor S.
| work = Radio show "Stand By For Crime" | title = Cold War Ghosts
| date = circa 1953 | work = The Nation
| date = June 28, 2001
| url = http://ia301119.us.archive.org/0/items/OTRR_Certified_Stand_By_For_Crime/Stand_By_for_Crime_53-xx-xx__01__The_Communist_Menace_cl_cut_.mp3
| url = http://www.thenation.com/doc/20010716/navasky
| accessdate = 2006-12-11
| access-date = November 2, 2006
}} A radio announcer poses as a Red to snare the communist "Mr. Big."
| archive-date = April 14, 2009
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090414194950/http://www.thenation.com/doc/20010716/navasky
| url-status = live
}}
* {{cite web |author=] |title=A Closer Look Under The Bed |work=Claremont Review of Books |publisher=Claremont Institute |date=Fall 2004 |url=http://www.claremont.org/publications/crb/id.1375/article_detail.asp |access-date=December 27, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120127043835/http://www.claremont.org/publications/crb/id.1375/article_detail.asp |archive-date=January 27, 2012 }}
{{refend}} {{refend}}


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Latest revision as of 01:58, 14 December 2024

Phenomenon of US political rhetoric after WWII This article is about the events during the cold war. For general information about the phenomenon, see Red Scare.

Second Red Scare
Part of the Cold War
American anti-communist propaganda of the 1950s, specifically addressing the entertainment industry
Duration1947–1959
LocationUnited States
CauseFall of China, Korean War
Participants
Outcome
  • Decline of membership in the Communist Party USA
  • Persecution of thousands of innocent people
  • Senate censure of McCarthy
Inquiries
Accused
This article is part of a series on
Conservatism
in the United States
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Principles
History
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McCarthyism, also known as the Second Red Scare, was the political repression and persecution of left-wing individuals and a campaign spreading fear of communist and Soviet influence on American institutions and of Soviet espionage in the United States during the late 1940s through the 1950s. After the mid-1950s, U.S. Senator Joseph McCarthy, who had spearheaded the campaign, gradually lost his public popularity and credibility after several of his accusations were found to be false. The U.S. Supreme Court under Chief Justice Earl Warren made a series of rulings on civil and political rights that overturned several key laws and legislative directives, and helped bring an end to the Second Red Scare. Historians have suggested since the 1980s that as McCarthy's involvement was less central than that of others, a different and more accurate term should be used instead that more accurately conveys the breadth of the phenomenon, and that the term McCarthyism is, in the modern day, outdated. Ellen Schrecker has suggested that Hooverism, after FBI Head J. Edgar Hoover, is more appropriate.

What became known as the McCarthy era began before McCarthy's rise to national fame. Following the breakdown of the wartime East-West alliance with the Soviet Union, and with many remembering the First Red Scare, President Harry S. Truman signed an executive order in 1947 to screen federal employees for possible association with organizations deemed "totalitarian, fascist, communist, or subversive", or advocating "to alter the form of Government of the United States by unconstitutional means." The following year, the Czechoslovak coup by the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia heightened concern in the West about Communist parties seizing power and the possibility of subversion. In 1949, a high-level State Department official was convicted of perjury in a case of espionage, and the Soviet Union tested a nuclear bomb. The Korean War started the next year, significantly raising tensions and fears of impending communist upheavals in the United States. In a speech in February 1950, McCarthy claimed to have a list of members of the Communist Party USA working in the State Department, which attracted substantial press attention, and the term McCarthyism was published for the first time in late March of that year in The Christian Science Monitor, along with a political cartoon by Herblock in The Washington Post. The term has since taken on a broader meaning, describing the excesses of similar efforts to crack down on alleged "subversive" elements. In the early 21st century, the term is used more generally to describe reckless and unsubstantiated accusations of treason and far-left extremism, along with demagogic personal attacks on the character and patriotism of political adversaries.

The primary targets for persecution were government employees, prominent figures in the entertainment industry, academics, left-wing politicians, and labor union activists. Suspicions were often given credence despite inconclusive and questionable evidence, and the level of threat posed by a person's real or supposed leftist associations and beliefs were often exaggerated. Many people suffered loss of employment and the destruction of their careers and livelihoods as a result of the crackdowns on suspected communists, and some were outright imprisoned. Most of these reprisals were initiated by trial verdicts that were later overturned, laws that were later struck down as unconstitutional, dismissals for reasons later declared illegal or actionable, and extra-judiciary procedures, such as informal blacklists by employers and public institutions, that would come into general disrepute, though by then many lives had been ruined. The most notable examples of McCarthyism include the investigations of alleged communists that were conducted by Senator McCarthy, and the hearings conducted by the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC).

Following the end of the Cold War, unearthed documents revealed substantial Soviet spy activity in the United States, though many of the agents were never properly identified by Senator McCarthy.

Origins

See also: US Strike wave of 1945–1946
One of the earliest uses of the term McCarthyism was in a cartoon by Herbert Block ("Herblock"), published in The Washington Post, March 29, 1950.

President Harry S. Truman's Executive Order 9835 of March 21, 1947, required that all federal civil-service employees be screened for "loyalty". The order said that one basis for determining disloyalty would be a finding of "membership in, affiliation with or sympathetic association" with any organization determined by the attorney general to be "totalitarian, fascist, communist or subversive" or advocating or approving the forceful denial of constitutional rights to other persons or seeking "to alter the form of Government of the United States by unconstitutional means".

The historical period that came to be known as the McCarthy era began well before Joseph McCarthy's own involvement in it. Many factors contributed to McCarthyism, some of them with roots in the First Red Scare (1917–20), inspired by communism's emergence as a recognized political force and widespread social disruption in the United States related to unionizing and anarchist activities. Owing in part to its success in organizing labor unions and its early opposition to fascism, and offering an alternative to the ills of capitalism during the Great Depression, the Communist Party of the United States increased its membership through the 1930s, reaching a peak of about 75,000 members in 1940–41. While the United States was engaged in World War II and allied with the Soviet Union, the issue of anti-communism was largely muted. With the end of World War II, the Cold War began almost immediately, as the Soviet Union installed communist puppet régimes in areas it had occupied across Central and Eastern Europe. In a March 1947 address to Congress, Truman enunciated a new foreign policy doctrine that committed the United States to opposing Soviet geopolitical expansion. This doctrine came to be known as the Truman Doctrine, and it guided United States support for anti-communist forces in Greece and later in China and elsewhere.

Although the Igor Gouzenko and Elizabeth Bentley affairs had raised the issue of Soviet espionage in 1945, events in 1949 and 1950 sharply increased the sense of threat in the United States related to communism. The Soviet Union tested an atomic bomb in 1949, earlier than many analysts had expected, raising the stakes in the Cold War. That same year, Mao Zedong's communist army gained control of mainland China despite heavy American financial support of the opposing Kuomintang. In 1950, the Korean War began, pitting U.S., U.N., and South Korean forces against communists from North Korea and China.

During the following year, evidence of increased sophistication in Soviet Cold War espionage activities was found in the West. In January 1950, Alger Hiss, a high-level State Department official, was convicted of perjury. Hiss was in effect found guilty of espionage; the statute of limitations had run out for that crime, but he was convicted of having perjured himself when he denied that charge in earlier testimony before the HUAC. In Britain, Klaus Fuchs confessed to committing espionage on behalf of the Soviet Union while working on the Manhattan Project at Los Alamos National Laboratory during the War. Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were arrested in 1950 in the United States on charges of stealing atomic-bomb secrets for the Soviets, and were executed in 1953.

Other forces encouraged the rise of McCarthyism. The more conservative politicians in the United States had historically referred to progressive reforms, such as child labor laws and women's suffrage, as "communist" or "Red plots", trying to raise fears against such changes. They used similar terms during the 1930s and the Great Depression when opposing the New Deal policies of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Many conservatives equated the New Deal with socialism or Communism, and thought the policies were evidence of too much influence by allegedly communist policy makers in the Roosevelt administration. In general, the vaguely defined danger of "Communist influence" was a more common theme in the rhetoric of anti-communist politicians than was espionage or any other specific activity. An example of this was Leland Olds, an economist who was Chairman of the Federal Power Commission but failed renomination due to earlier suspected Communist sympathies.

Start of McCarthy's involvement

Senator Joseph McCarthy in 1954

McCarthy's involvement in these issues began publicly with a speech he made on Lincoln Day, February 9, 1950, to the Republican Women's Club of Wheeling, West Virginia. He brandished a piece of paper, which he claimed contained a list of known communists working for the State Department. McCarthy is usually quoted as saying: "I have here in my hand a list of 205—a list of names that were made known to the Secretary of State as being members of the Communist Party and who nevertheless are still working and shaping policy in the State Department." This speech resulted in a flood of press attention to McCarthy and helped establish his path to becoming one of the most recognized politicians in the United States.

The first recorded use of the term "McCarthyism" was in the Christian Science Monitor on March 28, 1950 ("Their little spree with McCarthyism is no aid to consultation"). The paper became one of the earliest and most consistent critics of the Senator. The next recorded use happened on the following day, in a political cartoon by Washington Post editorial cartoonist Herbert Block (Herblock). The cartoon depicts four leading Republicans trying to push an elephant (the traditional symbol of the Republican Party) to stand on a platform atop a teetering stack of ten tar buckets, the topmost of which is labeled "McCarthyism". Block later wrote: "Nothing particularly ingenious about the term, which is simply used to represent a national affliction that can hardly be described in any other way. If anyone has a prior claim on it, he's welcome to the word and to the junior senator from Wisconsin along with it. I will also throw in a set of free dishes and a case of soap."

Institutions

A number of anti-communist committees, panels, and "loyalty review boards" in federal, state, and local governments, as well as many private agencies, carried out investigations for small and large companies concerned about possible Communists in their work forces.

In Congress, the primary bodies that investigated Communist activities were the HUAC, the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee, and the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations. Between 1949 and 1954, a total of 109 investigations were carried out by these and other committees of Congress.

On December 2, 1954, the United States Senate voted 67 to 22 to condemn McCarthy for "conduct that tends to bring the Senate into dishonor and disrepute".

Executive branch

Loyalty-security reviews

Executive Order 9835, signed by President Truman in 1947

In the federal government, President Truman's Executive Order 9835 initiated a program of loyalty reviews for federal employees in 1947. It called for dismissal if there were "reasonable grounds ... for belief that the person involved is disloyal to the Government of the United States." Truman, a Democrat, was probably reacting in part to the Republican sweep in the 1946 Congressional election and felt a need to counter growing criticism from conservatives and anti-communists.

When President Dwight Eisenhower took office in 1953, he strengthened and extended Truman's loyalty review program, while decreasing the avenues of appeal available to dismissed employees. Hiram Bingham, chairman of the Civil Service Commission Loyalty Review Board, referred to the new rules he was obliged to enforce as "just not the American way of doing things." The following year, J. Robert Oppenheimer, scientific director of the Manhattan Project that built the first atomic bomb, then working as a consultant to the Atomic Energy Commission, was stripped of his security clearance after a four-week hearing. Oppenheimer had received a top-secret clearance in 1947, but was denied clearance in the harsher climate of 1954.

Similar loyalty reviews were established in many state and local government offices and some private industries across the nation. In 1958, an estimated one of every five employees in the United States was required to pass some sort of loyalty review. Once a person lost a job due to an unfavorable loyalty review, finding other employment could be very difficult. "A man is ruined everywhere and forever," in the words of the chairman of President Truman's Loyalty Review Board. "No responsible employer would be likely to take a chance in giving him a job."

The Department of Justice started keeping a list of organizations that it deemed subversive beginning in 1942. This list was first made public in 1948, when it included 78 groups. At its longest, it comprised 154 organizations, 110 of them identified as Communist. In the context of a loyalty review, membership in a listed organization was meant to raise a question, but not to be considered proof of disloyalty. One of the most common causes of suspicion was membership in the Washington Bookshop Association, a left-leaning organization that offered lectures on literature, classical music concerts, and discounts on books.

J. Edgar Hoover and the FBI

J. Edgar Hoover in 1961

FBI director J. Edgar Hoover designed President Truman's loyalty-security program, and its background investigations of employees were carried out by FBI agents. This was a major assignment that led to the number of agents in the bureau being increased from 3,559 in 1946 to 7,029 in 1952. Hoover's sense of the communist threat and the standards of evidence applied by his bureau resulted in thousands of government workers losing their jobs. Due to Hoover's insistence upon keeping the identity of his informers secret, most subjects of loyalty-security reviews were not allowed to cross-examine or know the identities of those who accused them. In many cases, they were not even told of what they were accused.

Hoover's influence extended beyond federal government employees and beyond the loyalty-security programs. The records of loyalty review hearings and investigations were supposed to be confidential, but Hoover routinely gave evidence from them to congressional committees such as HUAC.

From 1951 to 1955, the FBI operated a secret "Responsibilities Program" that distributed anonymous documents with evidence from FBI files of communist affiliations on the part of teachers, lawyers, and others. Many people accused in these "blind memoranda" were fired without any further process.

The FBI engaged in a number of illegal practices in its pursuit of information on communists, including burglaries, opening mail, and illegal wiretaps. The members of the left-wing National Lawyers Guild (NLG) were among the few attorneys who were willing to defend clients in communist-related cases, and this made the NLG a particular target of Hoover's; the office of the NLG was burgled by the FBI at least 14 times between 1947 and 1951. Among other purposes, the FBI used its illegally obtained information to alert prosecuting attorneys about the planned legal strategies of NLG defense lawyers.

The FBI also used illegal undercover operations to disrupt communist and other dissident political groups. In 1956, Hoover was becoming increasingly frustrated by Supreme Court decisions that limited the Justice Department's ability to prosecute communists. At this time, he formalized a covert "dirty tricks" program under the name COINTELPRO. COINTELPRO actions included planting forged documents to create the suspicion that a key person was an FBI informer, spreading rumors through anonymous letters, leaking information to the press, calling for IRS audits, and the like. The COINTELPRO program remained in operation until 1971.

Historian Ellen Schrecker calls the FBI "the single most important component of the anti-communist crusade" and writes: "Had observers known in the 1950s what they have learned since the 1970s, when the Freedom of Information Act opened the Bureau's files, 'McCarthyism' would probably be called 'Hooverism'."

Allen Dulles and the CIA

In March 1950, McCarthy had initiated a series of investigations into potential infiltration of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) by communist agents and came up with a list of security risks that matched one previously compiled by the Agency itself. At the request of CIA director Allen Dulles, President Eisenhower demanded that McCarthy discontinue issuing subpoenas against the CIA. Documents made public in 2004 revealed that the CIA, under Dulles' orders, had broken into McCarthy's Senate office and fed disinformation to him in order to discredit him and stop his investigation from proceeding any further.

Congress

House Committee on Un-American Activities

Main article: House Un-American Activities Committee

The House Committee on Un-American Activities (commonly referred to as the HUAC) was the most prominent and active government committee involved in anti-communist investigations. Formed in 1938 and known as the Dies Committee, named for Rep. Martin Dies, who chaired it until 1944, HUAC investigated a variety of "activities", including those of German-American Nazis during World War II. The committee soon focused on communism, beginning with an investigation into communists in the Federal Theatre Project in 1938. A significant step for HUAC was its investigation of the charges of espionage brought against Alger Hiss in 1948. This investigation ultimately resulted in Hiss's trial and conviction for perjury, and convinced many of the usefulness of congressional committees for uncovering communist subversion.

HUAC achieved its greatest fame and notoriety with its investigation into the Hollywood film industry. In October 1947, the committee began to subpoena screenwriters, directors, and other movie-industry professionals to testify about their known or suspected membership in the Communist Party, association with its members, or support of its beliefs. At these testimonies, this question was asked: "Are you now or have you ever been a member of the Communist Party of the United States?" Among the first film industry witnesses subpoenaed by the committee were ten who decided not to cooperate. These men, who became known as the "Hollywood Ten", cited the First Amendment's guarantee of free speech and free assembly, which they believed legally protected them from being required to answer the committee's questions. This tactic failed, and the ten were sentenced to prison for contempt of Congress. Two of them were sentenced to six months, the rest to a year.

In the future, witnesses (in the entertainment industries and otherwise) who were determined not to cooperate with the committee would claim their Fifth Amendment protection against self-incrimination. William Grooper and Rockwell Kent, the only two visual artists to be questioned by McCarthy, both took this approach, and emerged relatively unscathed by the experience. However, while this usually protected witnesses from a contempt-of-Congress citation, it was considered grounds for dismissal by many government and private-industry employers. The legal requirements for Fifth Amendment protection were such that a person could not testify about his own association with the Communist Party and then refuse to "name names" of colleagues with communist affiliations. Thus, many faced a choice between "crawl through the mud to be an informer," as actor Larry Parks put it, or becoming known as a "Fifth Amendment Communist"—an epithet often used by Senator McCarthy.

Senate committees

In the Senate, the primary committee for investigating communists was the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee (SISS), formed in 1950 and charged with ensuring the enforcement of laws relating to "espionage, sabotage, and the protection of the internal security of the United States". The SISS was headed by Democrat Pat McCarran and gained a reputation for careful and extensive investigations. This committee spent a year investigating Owen Lattimore and other members of the Institute of Pacific Relations. As had been done numerous times before, the collection of scholars and diplomats associated with Lattimore (the so-called China Hands) were accused of "losing China", and while some evidence of pro-communist attitudes was found, nothing supported McCarran's accusation that Lattimore was "a conscious and articulate instrument of the Soviet conspiracy". Lattimore was charged with perjuring himself before the SISS in 1952. After many of the charges were rejected by a federal judge and one of the witnesses confessed to perjury, the case was dropped in 1955.

McCarthy headed the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations in 1953 and 1954, and during that time, used it for a number of his communist-hunting investigations. McCarthy first examined allegations of communist influence in the Voice of America, and then turned to the overseas library program of the State Department. Card catalogs of these libraries were searched for works by authors McCarthy deemed inappropriate. McCarthy then recited the list of supposedly pro-communist authors before his subcommittee and the press. Yielding to the pressure, the State Department ordered its overseas librarians to remove from their shelves "material by any controversial persons, Communists, fellow travelers, etc." Some libraries actually burned the newly forbidden books. Though he did not block the State Department from carrying out this order, President Eisenhower publicly criticized the initiative as well, telling the graduating class of Dartmouth College President in 1953: "Don't join the book burners! … Don't be afraid to go to the library and read every book so long as that document does not offend our own ideas of decency—that should be the only censorship." The president then settled for a compromise by retaining the ban on Communist books written by Communists, while also allowing the libraries to keep books on Communism written by anti-Communists.

McCarthy's committee then began an investigation into the United States Army. This began at the Army Signal Corps laboratory at Fort Monmouth. McCarthy garnered some headlines with stories of a dangerous spy ring among the Army researchers, but ultimately nothing came of this investigation.

McCarthy next turned his attention to the case of a U.S. Army dentist who had been promoted to the rank of major despite having refused to answer questions on an Army loyalty review form. McCarthy's handling of this investigation, including a series of insults directed at a brigadier general, led to the Army–McCarthy hearings, with the Army and McCarthy trading charges and counter-charges for 36 days before a nationwide television audience. While the official outcome of the hearings was inconclusive, this exposure of McCarthy to the American public resulted in a sharp decline in his popularity. In less than a year, McCarthy was censured by the Senate, and his position as a prominent force in anti-communism was essentially ended.

Blacklists

Main article: Hollywood blacklist

On November 25, 1947, the day after the House of Representatives approved citations of contempt for the Hollywood Ten, Eric Johnston, president of the Motion Picture Association of America, issued a press release on behalf of the heads of the major studios that came to be referred to as the Waldorf Statement. This statement announced the firing of the Hollywood Ten and stated: "We will not knowingly employ a Communist or a member of any party or group which advocates the overthrow of the government of the United States..." This marked the beginning of the Hollywood blacklist. In spite of the fact that hundreds were denied employment, the studios, producers, and other employers did not publicly admit that a blacklist existed.

At this time, private loyalty review boards and anti-communist investigators began to appear to fill a growing demand among certain industries to certify that their employees were above reproach. Companies that were concerned about the sensitivity of their business, or which, like the entertainment industry, felt particularly vulnerable to public opinion, made use of these private services. For a fee, these teams investigated employees and questioned them about their politics and affiliations.

At such hearings, the subject usually did not have a right to the presence of an attorney, and as with HUAC, the interviewee might be asked to defend himself against accusations without being allowed to cross-examine the accuser. These agencies kept cross-referenced lists of leftist organizations, publications, rallies, charities, and the like, as well as lists of individuals who were known or suspected communists. Books such as Red Channels and newsletters such as Counterattack and Confidential Information were published to keep track of communist and leftist organizations and individuals. Insofar as the various blacklists of McCarthyism were actual physical lists, they were created and maintained by these private organizations.

Laws and arrests

See also: Smith Act trials of Communist Party leaders

Efforts to protect the United States from the perceived threat of communist subversion were particularly enabled by several federal laws. The Hatch Act of 1939 banned membership in subversive organizations, which was interpreted as being anti-labor legislation. The Hatch Act would allow for the reduction of influence of the Workers' Alliance, which was claimed to have been created by the Soviet Union based on a model of their unemployed councils. The Alien Registration Act or Smith Act of 1940 made the act of "knowingly or willfully advocate, abet, advise or teach the ... desirability or propriety of overthrowing the Government of the United States or of any State by force or violence, or for anyone to organize any association which teaches, advises or encourages such an overthrow, or for anyone to become a member of or to affiliate with any such association" a criminal offense.

Hundreds of communists and others were prosecuted under this law between 1941 and 1957. Eleven leaders of the Communist Party were convicted under the Smith Act in 1949 in the Foley Square trial. Ten defendants were given sentences of five years and the eleventh was sentenced to three years. The defense attorneys were cited for contempt of court and given prison sentences. In 1951, 23 other leaders of the party were indicted, including Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, a founding member of the American Civil Liberties Union. Many were convicted on the basis of testimony that was later admitted to be false.> By 1957, 140 leaders and members of the Communist Party had been charged under the law, of whom 93 were convicted.

The McCarran Internal Security Act, which became law in 1950, has been described by scholar Ellen Schrecker as "the McCarthy era's only important piece of legislation" (the Smith Act technically antedated McCarthyism). However, the McCarran Act had no real effect beyond legal harassment. It required the registration of Communist organizations with the U.S. Attorney General and established the Subversive Activities Control Board to investigate possible communist-action and communist-front organizations so they could be required to register. Due to numerous hearings, delays, and appeals, the act was never enforced, even with regard to the Communist Party of the United States itself, and the major provisions of the act were found to be unconstitutional in 1965 and 1967. In 1952, the Immigration and Nationality, or McCarran–Walter, Act was passed. This law allowed the government to deport immigrants or naturalized citizens engaged in subversive activities and also to bar suspected subversives from entering the country.

The Communist Control Act of 1954 was passed with overwhelming support in both houses of Congress after very little debate. Jointly drafted by Republican John Marshall Butler and Democrat Hubert Humphrey, the law was an extension of the Internal Security Act of 1950, and sought to outlaw the Communist Party by declaring that the party, as well as "Communist-Infiltrated Organizations" were "not entitled to any of the rights, privileges, and immunities attendant upon legal bodies." While the Communist Control Act had an odd mix of liberals and conservatives among its supporters, it never had any significant effect.

The act was successfully applied only twice. In 1954 it was used to prevent Communist Party members from appearing on the New Jersey state ballot, and in 1960, it was cited to deny the CPUSA recognition as an employer under New York state's unemployment compensation system. The New York Post called the act "a monstrosity", "a wretched repudiation of democratic principles," while The Nation accused Democratic liberals of a "neurotic, election-year anxiety to escape the charge of being 'soft on Communism' even at the expense of sacrificing constitutional rights."

Repression in the individual states

In addition to the federal laws and responding to the worries of the local opinion, several states enacted anti-communist statutes.

By 1952, several states had enacted statutes against criminal anarchy, criminal syndicalism, and sedition; banned communists and "subversives" from public employment, or even from receiving public aid; demanded on loyalty oaths from public servants; and severely restricted or banned the Communist Party. In addition, six states had equivalents to the HUAC. The California Senate Factfinding Subcommittee on Un-American Activities and the Florida Legislative Investigation Committee were established by their respective legislatures.

Some of these states had very severe, or even extreme, laws against communism. In 1950, Michigan enacted life imprisonment for subversive propaganda; the following year, Tennessee enacted the death penalty for advocating the violent overthrow of the government. The death penalty for membership in the Communist Party was discussed in Texas by Governor Allan Shivers, who described it as "worse than murder."

Municipalities and counties also enacted anti-communist ordinances: Los Angeles banned any communist or "Muscovite model of police-state dictatorship" from owning arms, while Birmingham, Alabama and Jacksonville, Florida banned any communist from being within the city's limits.

Popular support

Flier issued in May 1955 by the Keep America Committee urging readers to "fight communistic world government" by opposing public health programs

McCarthyism was supported by a variety of groups, including the American Legion and various other anti-communist organizations. One core element of support was a variety of militantly anti-communist women's groups such as the American Public Relations Forum and the Minute Women of the U.S.A. These organized tens of thousands of housewives into study groups, letter-writing networks, and patriotic clubs that coordinated efforts to identify and eradicate what they saw as subversion.

Although right-wing radicals were the bedrock of support for McCarthyism, they were not alone. A broad "coalition of the aggrieved" found McCarthyism attractive, or at least politically useful. Common themes uniting the coalition were opposition to internationalism, particularly the United Nations; opposition to social welfare provisions, particularly the various programs established by the New Deal; and opposition to efforts to reduce inequalities in the social structure of the United States.

One focus of popular McCarthyism concerned the provision of public health services, particularly vaccination, mental health care services, and fluoridation, all of which were denounced by some to be communist plots to poison or brainwash the American people. Such viewpoints led to collisions between McCarthyite radicals and supporters of public-health programs, most notably in the case of the Alaska Mental Health Bill controversy of 1956.

William F. Buckley Jr., the founder of the influential conservative political magazine National Review, wrote a defense of McCarthy, McCarthy and his Enemies, in which he asserted that "McCarthyism ... is a movement around which men of good will and stern morality can close ranks."

In addition, as Richard Rovere points out, many ordinary Americans became convinced that there must be "no smoke without fire" and lent their support to McCarthyism. The Gallup poll found that at his peak in January 1954, 50% of the American public supported McCarthy, while 29% had an unfavorable opinion. His support fell to 34% in June 1954. Republicans tended to like what McCarthy was doing and Democrats did not, though McCarthy had significant support from traditional Democratic ethnic groups, especially Catholics, as well as many unskilled workers and small-business owners. (McCarthy himself was a Catholic.) He had very little support among union members and Jews.

Portrayals of communists

Those who sought to justify McCarthyism did so largely through their characterization of communism, and American communists in particular. Proponents of McCarthyism claimed that the CPUSA was so completely under Moscow's control that any American communist was a puppet of the Soviet intelligence services. This view, if restricted to the Communist Party's leadership is supported by recent documentation from the archives of the KGB as well as post-war decodes of wartime Soviet radio traffic from the Venona project, showing that Moscow provided financial support to the CPUSA and had significant influence on CPUSA policies. J. Edgar Hoover commented in a 1950 speech, "Communist members, body and soul, are the property of the Party."

According to historian Richard G. Powers, McCarthy added "bogus specificity" to "sweeping accusation", gaining support among "countersubversive anticommunists" on one hand, who sought to find and punish perceived communists. On the other hand, "liberal anticommunists" believed that the Communist Party was "despicable and annoying" but ultimately politically irrelevant.

President Harry Truman, who pursued the anti-Soviet Truman Doctrine, called McCarthy "the greatest asset the Kremlin has" by "torpedo the bipartisan foreign policy of the United States."

Historian Landon R. Y. Storrs writes that the CPUSA's "secretiveness, its authoritarian internal structure, and the loyalty of its leaders to the Kremlin were fundamental flaws that help explain why and how it was demonized. On the other hand, most American Communists were idealists attracted by the party's militance against various forms of social injustice." Furthermore, based on later declassified evidence, "The paradoxical lesson from several decades of scholarship is that the same organization that inspired democratic idealists in the pursuit of social justice also was secretive, authoritarian, and morally compromised by ties to the Stalin regime."

In the mid 20th century, this attitude was not confined to arch-conservatives. In 1940, the American Civil Liberties Union ejected founding member Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, saying that her membership in the Communist Party was enough to disqualify her as a civil libertarian. In the government's prosecutions of Communist Party members under the Smith Act (see above), the prosecution case was based not on specific actions or statements by the defendants, but on the premise that a commitment to violent overthrow of the government was inherent in the doctrines of Marxism–Leninism. Passages of the CPUSA constitution that specifically rejected revolutionary violence were dismissed as deliberate deception.

In addition, it was often claimed that the party didn't allow members to resign; thus someone who had been a member for a short time decades previously could be thought a current member. Many of the hearings and trials of McCarthyism featured testimony by former Communist Party members such as Elizabeth Bentley, Louis Budenz, and Whittaker Chambers, speaking as expert witnesses.

Various historians and pundits have discussed alleged Soviet-directed infiltration of the U.S. government and the possible collaboration of high U.S. government officials.

Victims of McCarthyism

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See also: List of films by the Hollywood Ten, Hollywood blacklist, and Lavender scare

Estimating the number of victims of McCarthy is difficult. The number imprisoned is in the hundreds, and some ten or twelve thousand lost their jobs. In many cases, simply being subpoenaed by HUAC or one of the other committees was sufficient cause to be fired.

For the vast majority, both the potential for them to do harm to the nation and the nature of their communist affiliation were tenuous. After the extremely damaging "Cambridge Five" spy scandal (Guy Burgess, Donald Maclean, Kim Philby, Anthony Blunt and John Cairncross), suspected homosexuality was also a common cause for being targeted by McCarthyism. The hunt for "sexual perverts", who were presumed to be subversive by nature, resulted in over 5,000 federal workers being fired, and thousands were harassed and denied employment. Many have termed this aspect of McCarthyism the "lavender scare".

Homosexuality was classified as a psychiatric disorder in the 1950s. However, in the context of the highly politicized Cold War environment, homosexuality became framed as a dangerous, contagious social disease that posed a potential threat to state security. As the family was believed to be the cornerstone of American strength and integrity, the description of homosexuals as "sexual perverts" meant that they were both unable to function within a family unit and presented the potential to poison the social body. This era also witnessed the establishment of widely spread FBI surveillance intended to identify homosexual government employees.

The McCarthy hearings and according "sexual pervert" investigations can be seen to have been driven by a desire to identify individuals whose ability to function as loyal citizens had been compromised. McCarthy began his campaign by drawing upon the ways in which he embodied traditional American values to become the self-appointed vanguard of social morality.

Dalton Trumbo and his wife, Cleo, at the HUAC in 1947

In the film industry, more than 300 actors, authors, and directors were denied work in the U.S. through the unofficial Hollywood blacklist. Blacklists were at work throughout the entertainment industry, in universities and schools at all levels, in the legal profession, and in many other fields. A port-security program initiated by the Coast Guard shortly after the start of the Korean War required a review of every maritime worker who loaded or worked aboard any American ship, regardless of cargo or destination. As with other loyalty-security reviews of McCarthyism, the identities of any accusers and even the nature of any accusations were typically kept secret from the accused. Nearly 3,000 seamen and longshoremen lost their jobs due to this program alone.

Some of the notable people who were blacklisted or suffered some other persecution during McCarthyism include:

In 1953, Robert K. Murray, a young professor of history at Pennsylvania State University who had served as an intelligence officer in World War II, was revising his dissertation on the Red Scare of 1919–20 for publication until Little, Brown and Company decided that "under the circumstances ... it wasn't wise for them to bring this book out." He learned that investigators were questioning his colleagues and relatives. The University of Minnesota press published his volume, Red Scare: A Study in National Hysteria, 1919–1920, in 1955.

Critical reactions

The nation was by no means united behind the policies and activities that have come to be associated with McCarthyism. The critics of various aspects of McCarthyism included many figures not generally noted for their liberalism. In his overridden veto of the McCarran Internal Security Act of 1950, President Truman wrote, "In a free country, we punish men for the crimes they commit, but never for the opinions they have." Truman also unsuccessfully vetoed the Taft–Hartley Act, which among other provisions denied trade unions National Labor Relations Board protection unless union leaders signed affidavits swearing they were not and had never been Communists. In 1953, after he left office, Truman criticized the contemporary Eisenhower administration:

It is now evident that the present Administration has fully embraced, for political advantage, McCarthyism. I am not referring to the Senator from Wisconsin. He is only important in that his name has taken on the dictionary meaning of the word. It is the corruption of truth, the abandonment of the due process law. It is the use of the big lie and the unfounded accusation against any citizen in the name of Americanism or security. It is the rise to power of the demagogue who lives on untruth; it is the spreading of fear and the destruction of faith in every level of society.

On June 1, 1950, Senator Margaret Chase Smith, a Maine Republican, delivered a speech to the Senate she called a "Declaration of Conscience". In a clear attack upon McCarthyism, she called for an end to "character assassinations" and named "some of the basic principles of Americanism: The right to criticize; the right to hold unpopular beliefs; the right to protest; the right of independent thought". She said "freedom of speech is not what it used to be in America", and decried "cancerous tentacles of 'know nothing, suspect everything' attitudes". Six other Republican senators—Wayne Morse, Irving M. Ives, Charles W. Tobey, Edward John Thye, George Aiken, and Robert C. Hendrickson—joined Smith in condemning the tactics of McCarthyism.

Joseph N. Welch (left) and Senator McCarthy, June 9, 1954

Elmer Davis, one of the most highly respected news reporters and commentators of the 1940s and 1950s, often spoke out against what he saw as the excesses of McCarthyism. On one occasion he warned that many local anti-communist movements constituted a "general attack not only on schools and colleges and libraries, on teachers and textbooks, but on all people who think and write ... in short, on the freedom of the mind".

In 1952, the Supreme Court upheld a lower-court decision in Adler v. Board of Education, thus approving a law that allowed state loyalty review boards to fire teachers deemed "subversive". In his dissenting opinion, Justice William O. Douglas wrote: "The present law proceeds on a principle repugnant to our society—guilt by association.... What happens under this law is typical of what happens in a police state. Teachers are under constant surveillance; their pasts are combed for signs of disloyalty; their utterances are watched for clues to dangerous thoughts."

Broadcast journalist Edward R. Murrow

One of the most influential opponents of McCarthyism was the famed CBS newscaster and analyst Edward R. Murrow. On October 20, 1953, Murrow's show See It Now aired an episode about the dismissal of Milo Radulovich, a former reserve Air Force lieutenant who was accused of associating with Communists. The show was strongly critical of the Air Force's methods, which included presenting evidence in a sealed envelope that Radulovich and his attorney were not allowed to open.

On March 9, 1954, See It Now aired another episode on the issue of McCarthyism, this one attacking Joseph McCarthy himself. Titled "A Report on Senator Joseph R. McCarthy", it used footage of McCarthy speeches to portray him as dishonest, reckless, and abusive toward witnesses and prominent Americans. In his concluding comment, Murrow said:

We must not confuse dissent with disloyalty. We must remember always that accusation is not proof and that conviction depends upon evidence and due process of law. We will not walk in fear, one of another. We will not be driven by fear into an age of unreason, if we dig deep in our history and our doctrine, and remember that we are not descended from fearful men.

This broadcast has been cited as a key episode in bringing about the end of McCarthyism.

In April 1954, McCarthy was also under attack in the Army–McCarthy hearings. These hearings were televised live on the new American Broadcasting Company network, allowing the public to view first-hand McCarthy's interrogation of individuals and his controversial tactics. In one exchange, McCarthy reminded the attorney for the Army, Joseph Welch, that he had an employee in his law firm who had belonged to an organization that had been accused of Communist sympathies. In an exchange that reflected the increasingly negative public opinion of McCarthy, Welch rebuked the senator: "Have you no sense of decency, sir? At long last, have you left no sense of decency?"

Decline

In the mid and late 1950s, the attitudes and institutions of McCarthyism slowly weakened. Changing public sentiments heavily contributed to the decline of McCarthyism. Its decline may also be charted through a series of court decisions.

Notable events

A key figure in the end of the blacklisting of McCarthyism was John Henry Faulk. Host of an afternoon comedy radio show, Faulk was a leftist active in his union, the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists. He was scrutinized by AWARE, Inc., one of the private firms that examined individuals for signs of communist "disloyalty". Marked by AWARE as unfit, he was fired by CBS Radio. Almost uniquely among the many victims of blacklisting, Faulk decided to sue AWARE in 1957 and finally won the case in 1962.

With this court decision, the private blacklisters and those who used them were put on notice that they were legally liable for the professional and financial damage they caused. Although some informal blacklisting continued, the private "loyalty checking" agencies were soon a thing of the past. Even before the Faulk verdict, many in Hollywood had decided it was time to break the blacklist. In 1960, Dalton Trumbo, one of the best known members of the Hollywood Ten, was publicly credited with writing the films Exodus and Spartacus.

Warren Court

Much of the undoing of McCarthyism came at the hands of the U.S. Supreme Court under Chief Justice Earl Warren. As Richard Rovere wrote in his biography of Joseph McCarthy, "he United States Supreme Court took judicial notice of the rents McCarthy was making in the fabric of liberty and thereupon wrote a series of decisions that have made the fabric stronger than before." Two Eisenhower appointees to the court—Earl Warren (who was made Chief Justice) and William J. Brennan, Jr.—proved to be more liberal than Eisenhower had anticipated.

The Warren Court made a series of rulings that helped bring an end to the McCarthyism.

In 1956, the Warren Court heard the case of Slochower v. Board of Education. Harry Slochower was a professor at Brooklyn College who had been fired by New York City for invoking the Fifth Amendment when McCarthy's committee questioned him about his past membership in the Communist Party. The court prohibited such actions, ruling "...we must condemn the practice of imputing a sinister meaning to the exercise of a person's constitutional right under the Fifth Amendment… The privilege against self-incrimination would be reduced to a hollow mockery if its exercise could be taken as equivalent either to a confession of guilt or a conclusive presumption of perjury." In addition, the 1956 Cole v. Young ruling also greatly weakened the ability to discriminate in the federal civilian workforce.

Another key decision was in the 1957 case Yates v. United States, in which the convictions of fourteen Communists were reversed. In Justice Black's opinion, he wrote of the original "Smith Act" trials: "The testimony of witnesses is comparatively insignificant. Guilt or innocence may turn on what Marx or Engels or someone else wrote or advocated as much as a hundred years or more ago… When the propriety of obnoxious or unfamiliar view about government is in reality made the crucial issue, …prejudice makes conviction inevitable except in the rarest circumstances."

Also in 1957, the Supreme Court ruled on the case of Watkins v. United States, curtailing the power of HUAC to punish uncooperative witnesses by finding them in contempt of Congress. Justice Warren wrote in the decision: "The mere summoning of a witness and compelling him to testify, against his will, about his beliefs, expressions or associations is a measure of governmental interference. And when those forced revelations concern matters that are unorthodox, unpopular, or even hateful to the general public, the reaction in the life of the witness may be disastrous."

In its 1958 decision in Kent v. Dulles, the Supreme Court halted the State Department from using the authority of its own regulations to refuse or revoke passports based on an applicant's communist beliefs or associations.

Repercussions

Study and reactions to Constitutional implications

The political divisions McCarthyism created in the United States continue to make themselves manifest, and the politics and history of anti-communism in the United States are still contentious. Portions of the massive security apparatus established during the McCarthy era still exist. Loyalty oaths are still required by the California Constitution for all officials and employees of the government of California (which is highly problematic for Quakers and Jehovah's Witnesses whose beliefs preclude them from pledging absolute loyalty to the state). At the federal level, a few portions of the McCarran Internal Security Act remain in effect. However, the act's detention provision was repealed in 1971. The McCarran Act's Communist registration requirement was declared unconstitutional in the 1965 Supreme Court ruling in Albertson v. Subversive Activities Control Board as well. The McCarran Act's Subversive Activities Control Board, which enforced the law's investigation requirement for persons alleged to be involved in "subversive activities", was officially abolished through Congressional legislation in 1972 as well.

Historical study on anti-communism and Soviet espionage

McCarthyism also attracts controversy purely as a historical issue. Through declassified documents from Soviet archives and Venona project decryptions of coded Soviet messages, the Soviet Union was found to have engaged in substantial espionage activities in the United States during the 1940s. The Communist Party USA also was substantially funded and its policies controlled by the Soviet Union, and accusations existed that CPUSA members were often recruited as spies.

Liberal anti-communists like Edward Shils and Daniel Moynihan had a contempt for McCarthyism. Sociologist Edward Shils criticized an excessive policy of secrecy during the Cold War, that led to the misdirection of McCarthyism, which was addressed during the 1994–1997 Moynihan Commission. As Moynihan put it, "reaction to McCarthy took the form of a modish anti-anti-Communism that considered impolite any discussion of the very real threat Communism posed to Western values and security." After revelations of Soviet spy networks from the declassified Venona project, Moynihan wondered: "Might less secrecy have prevented the liberal overreaction to McCarthyism as well as McCarthyism itself?" He described the situation during the McCarthy era as "ignorant armies clashed by night". With McCarthy advocating an extremist view, the discussion of communist subversion was made into a civil rights issue instead of a counterintelligence one.

In the view of some contemporary commentators, the revelations from Venona and other archives on espionage stand as at least a partial vindication of McCarthyism. Some, such as Goldberg, feel that a genuinely dangerous subversive element was in the United States, and that this danger justified extreme measures. The opposing view holds that, recent revelations notwithstanding, by the time McCarthyism began in the late 1940s, the CPUSA was an ineffectual fringe group, and the damage done to U.S. interests by Soviet spies after World War II was minimal. Historian Ellen Schrecker states, "in this country, McCarthyism did more damage to the constitution than the American Communist Party ever did."

Historian John Earl Haynes, while acknowledging that inexcusable excesses occurred during McCarthyism, argues that some contemporary historians of McCarthyism underplay the un-democratic nature of the CPUSA. At the same time, Haynes, who studied the Venona decryptions extensively, argued that McCarthy's attempts to "make anti-communism a partisan weapon" actually "threatened anti-Communist consensus", thereby ultimately harming anti-Communist efforts more than helping them. Of the 159 people who were identified on lists used or referenced by McCarthy, evidence only substantially proved that nine of them had aided Soviet espionage efforts—while several hundred Soviet spies were actually known based on Venona and other evidence, most were never named by McCarthy.

Later political usage of term

A number of observers have compared the oppression of liberals and leftists during the McCarthy period to 2000s-era actions against suspected terrorists, most of them Muslims. In The Age of Anxiety: McCarthyism to Terrorism, author Haynes Johnson compares the "abuses suffered by aliens thrown into high-security U.S. prisons in the wake of 9/11" to the excesses of the McCarthy era. Similarly, David D. Cole has written that the Patriot Act "in effect resurrects the philosophy of McCarthyism, simply substituting 'terrorist' for 'communist'."

From the opposite pole, conservative writer Ann Coulter devotes much of her book Treason to drawing parallels between past opposition to McCarthy and McCarthyism and the policies and beliefs of modern-day liberals, arguing that the former hindered the anti-communist cause and the latter hindered the War on Terrorism. Other authors who have drawn on a comparison between current anti-terrorism policies and McCarthyism include Geoffrey R. Stone, Ted Morgan, and Jonah Goldberg.

Since the time of McCarthy, the word McCarthyism has entered American speech as a general term for a variety of practices: aggressively questioning a person's patriotism, making poorly supported accusations, using accusations of disloyalty to pressure a person to adhere to conformist politics or to discredit an opponent, subverting civil and political rights in the name of national security, and the use of demagoguery are all often referred to as McCarthyism.

In popular culture

See also

References

Citations

  1. Storrs, Landon R. Y. (July 2, 2015). "McCarthyism and the Second Red Scare". American History. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.013.6. ISBN 978-0199329175. Archived from the original on July 3, 2018. Retrieved July 3, 2018.
  2. ^ Lichtman, Robert M. "UI Press | Robert M. Lichtman | The Supreme Court and McCarthy-Era Repression: One Hundred Decisions". www.press.uillinois.edu. Archived from the original on May 12, 2019. Retrieved October 20, 2019.
  3. ^ "Revisiting McCarthyism in the Patriot Act Era". NPR.org. Archived from the original on October 20, 2019. Retrieved October 20, 2019.
  4. ^ Horwitz, Morton J. (1999). The Warren Court and the Pursuit of Justice. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0809016259. Archived from the original on November 13, 2020. Retrieved October 19, 2020.
  5. ^ "Yates v. United States". Oyez. Archived from the original on August 24, 2019. Retrieved October 20, 2019.
  6. ^ "Watkins v. United States". Oyez. Archived from the original on October 20, 2019. Retrieved October 20, 2019.
  7. Schrecker 1998, p. 203.
  8. For example, Yates v. United States (1957) and Watkins v. United States (1957): Fried 1997, pp. 205, 207
  9. For example, California's "Levering Oath" law, declared unconstitutional in 1967: Fried 1997, p. 124
  10. For example, Slochower v. Board of Education (1956): Fried 1997, p. 203
  11. For example, Faulk vs. AWARE Inc., et al. (1962): Fried 1997, p. 197
  12. Haynes, John Earl; Klehr, Harvey (1999). "Venona and the Cold War". Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America. Yale University Press. pp. 8–22. ISBN 978-0-300-07771-1. JSTOR j.ctt1npk87.
  13. Isserman, Maurice (May 9, 1999). "They Led Two Lives". The New York Times Book Review. ISSN 0028-7806. Retrieved December 10, 2024.
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  33. Schrecker 2002, p. 65.
  34. Schrecker 1998, p. 212.
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  • Selverstone, Marc J. "A Literature So Immense: The Historiography of Anticommunism." Organization of American Historians Magazine of History 24.4 (2010): 7–11.

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