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Snakehead Temporal range: Eocene to recent, 48.6–0 Ma PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N
Northern snakehead, Channa argus
Scientific classification
Domain:	Eukaryota
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Actinopterygii
Order:	Anabantiformes
Suborder:	Channoidei Berg, 1940
Family:	Channidae Fowler, 1934
Genera
see text

The snakeheads are members of the freshwater perciform fish family Channidae, native to parts of Africa and Asia. These elongated, predatory fish are distinguished by their long dorsal fins, large mouths, and shiny teeth. They breathe air with gills, which allows them to migrate short distances over land. They have suprabranchial organs, which are primitive forms of labyrinth organs, that develop when they grow older. The two extant genera are Channa in Asia and Parachanna in Africa, consisting of more than 50 species.

They are valuable as a food source and have become notorious as an intentionally released invasive species. These fish have been kept as pets but as they get larger, people let them go into ponds, lakes, and rivers, making these fish invasive.

Description

The various species of snakeheads differ greatly in size; dwarf snakeheads, such as Channa orientalis, do not surpass 25 cm (10 in) in length. Most other snakeheads reach between 30 and 90 cm (12 and 35 in). Five species (C. argus, C. barca, C. marulius, C. micropeltes, and C. striata) can reach 1 m (3 ft 3 in) or more.

Snakeheads are thrust-feeders that consume plankton, aquatic insects, and mollusks when small. As adults, they mostly feed on other fish (such as carp) or on frogs. In rare cases, small rodents such as rats are eaten.

History

The Channidae are well represented in the fossil record and known from numerous specimens. They likely originated in the south Himalayan region of the Indian subcontinent (modern-day northern India and eastern Pakistan) at least 50 million years ago (Mya), during the Early Eocene epoch. Two of the earliest known species, Eochanna chorlakkiensis and Anchichanna kuldanensis , have both been found in the Middle Eocene of Pakistan. By 17 Mya, during the Early Miocene, Channidae had spread into western and central Eurasia, and by 8 Mya, during the late Tortonian, they existed throughout Africa and East Asia. As Channidae are adapted to climates of high precipitation with mean temperatures of 20 °C (68 °F), their migrations into Europe and Asia correspond to the development of the Intertropical Convergence Zone, which increased air humidity, and the intensification of the East Asian monsoon. Both weather patterns emerged due to greater vertical growth of the Alps, Pyrenees, and Himalayas, which affected Eurasian climatic patterns.

Ecological concerns

Snakeheads can become invasive species and cause ecological damage because, in many areas to which they are not native, the absence of natural enemies makes them an apex predator. Not only can they breathe air, but they can also survive on land for up to four days, provided they are wet, and are known to migrate up to 400 m (1/4 mi) on wet land to other bodies of water by wriggling with their bodies and fins. National Geographic has referred to snakeheads as "fishzilla" and the National Geographic Channel reported the "northern snakehead reaches sexual maturity by age two or three. Each spawning-age female can release up to 15,000 eggs at once. Snakeheads can mate as often as five times a year. This means in just two years, a single female can release up to 150,000 eggs."

"Since 2002, it has been illegal to possess a live snakehead in many U.S. states, where they are considered a destructive invasive species." Virginia has criminalized the "introduction" of snakeheads into the state without specific authorization, although the relevant statute does not explain whether mere importation is sufficient to constitute "introduction into the Commonwealth" or whether instead release into the environment is required.

Intentional introductions

Humans have been introducing snakeheads to nonindigenous waters for over 100 years. In parts of Asia and Africa, the snakehead is considered a valuable food fish since the flesh is very tender, and is produced in aquacultures (fisheries motivation) or by accidental release (as was the case in Crofton, Maryland). Examples of the introduction of snakeheads to nonindigenous waters include:

• Channa maculata was introduced to Madagascar and to Hawaii around the end of the 19th century. It can still be found there today.
• Channa striata was introduced to islands east of the Wallace line by governmental programs in the latter half of the 20th century. In Fiji, the introduction failed.
• Channa asiatica, which is native to southern China, was introduced to Taiwan and southern Japan; the origin of and reason for the introduction are unknown.
• Channa argus, which is native to northern China's Amur River, was introduced to central Asia (Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan). It was introduced from the Korean Peninsula to Japan about 100 years ago due to fisheries' motivations. Its introduction to Czechoslovakia by its government in the 1960s failed.

Reported sightings

In the United States

Snakeheads became a national news topic in the United States because of the appearance of C. argus, commonly known as northern snakeheads, spawning in a Crofton, Maryland, pond in 2002. Northern snakeheads became permanently established in the Potomac River around 2004, and possibly established in Florida. In about 120 mi (190 km) of river, the population has surpassed 21,000 individuals.

According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency, snakeheads have also been spotted in California, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Virginia, Louisiana, and Rhode Island. Snakeheads have also been spotted in New York State according to the state's Department of Environmental Conservation. Snakeheads have been caught in New Jersey since at least 2008 and, according to the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, the snakehead population appears to be growing and expanding its distribution. Due to the extensive habitat available and sheer size of the Delaware River, complete eradication of the species does not appear to be feasible.

World record

According to the International Game Fish Association, two 13.61 kg (30 lb 0 oz) giant snakeheads, both from Rawang, Malaysia are tied for the record.

Culinary use

Snakeheads are valuable food fish. Called nga yant in Burmese and in Manipur as porom, they are prized fish eaten in a variety of ways.In south india specifically the state of Kerala natively called Varal (Malayalam: വരാൽ) this fish is used to make Varal curry which is very famous in the state. In Vietnam, they are called cá lóc, cá quả, or cá chuối, and are served in clay-pot, steamed, and pickled preparations. Larger species, such as C. striata, C. maculata, and Parachanna obscura, are farmed in aquaculture. In the United States, chefs have suggested controlling the snakehead invasion by serving them in restaurants. In Indonesia, snakehead fish, called ikan gabus, are served as the main parts of traditional dishes such as the Betawi people's pucung gabus, and considered to be a delicacy due to their rarity in the wild and in aquaculture, as they are harder to raise than other popular freshwater fish such as catfish and carp. In the Philippines, where it's called "Haluan" (the Tagalogs call it "Dalag"), it is a favorite among Maguindanaons and Iranuns.

Classification

The snakeheads comprise two extant genera:

• Channa Scopoli, 1777 (49 species native to Asia)
• Parachanna Teugels & Daget 1984 (three extant species, one fossil species, all native to Africa)

Two other genera are only known from fossils:

• †Anchichanna Murray & Thewissen, 2008 (one species)
• †Eochanna Roe, 1991 (one species)

The genus Aenigmachanna was initially classified in Channidae upon its discovery, but analysis supports it being reclassified into its own family Aenigmachannidae.

In popular culture

After its release in non-native North American waters, either accidentally or intentionally, the aggressive and predator-free snakehead's reputation as a "Frankenfish" or "monster fish" has become part of popular culture. Besides mentions on TV shows such as The Sopranos, The Office and CSI:NY episode "Sangre por Sangre" and Central Park episode "A Fish Called Snakehead", the snakehead has been featured in four Sci-fi Channel original pictures entitled Snakehead Terror, Frankenfish, Swarm of the Snakehead, and Snakehead Swamp.

In the Animal Planet TV series River Monsters, Jeremy Wade shows a dramatization of a snakehead, "the fish from hell", stalking an unsuspecting baby and a Chihuahua. With the help of a snakehead researcher, however, Wade shows that although it is capable of living outside of water and is able to move on land, its weak pectoral muscles make movement difficult and render the snakehead an unlikely "stalker" on land.

In the animated series Penguins of Madagascar, the snakehead is portrayed as a ferocious killer fish of monstrous size with a mouth full of razor-sharp teeth that scared off a family of ducks from their pond in Central Park. The penguins go to the park to investigate and end up running into the snakehead. All of the penguins (except Skipper) are terrified of the fish. But in the end, the penguins face their fears and build a submarine to hunt down and kill the snakehead. Eventually, the team defeats the fish by tossing a soda bottle, which was shaken up earlier by King Julien when he attempted to christen the penguin’s submarine, and the bottle explodes, killing the snakehead, which is later served as sushi by the penguins.

See also

• Amphibious fish
• Bowfin

References

1. Pinter, H. (1986). Labyrinth Fish. Barron's Educational Series, Inc., ISBN 0-8120-5635-3.
2. Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Species in genus Channa". FishBase. June 2014 version.
3. Murray, A. M.; Thewissen, J. G. M. (2008). "Eocene actinopterygian fishes from Pakistan, with the description of a new genus and species of channid (channiformes)". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 28: 41–52. doi:10.1671/0272-4634(2008)28[41:EAFFPW]2.0.CO;2. S2CID 85925173.
4. Roe, L. J. (1991). "Phylogenetic and Ecological Significance of Channidae (Osteichthyes Teleostei) from the Early Eocene Kuldana Formation of Kohat, Pakistan". Contributions from the Museum of Paleontology. 28 (5): 93–100. hdl:2027.42/48541.
5. ^ Böhme, M. (2004). "Migration history of air-breathing fishes reveals Neogene atmospheric circulation patterns". Geology. 32 (5): 393. Bibcode:2004Geo....32..393B. doi:10.1130/G20316.1.
6. Cruz, Elena (2007-12-03). "Snakehead Frenzy!". NGC Blog. National Geographic Channel. Archived from the original on December 8, 2007.
7. "Fishzilla: Snakehead Invasion". Wild. National Geographic Channel. Archived from the original on 2008-05-15. Video clip titled: "The Northern Snakehead fish wreaks havoc".
8. ^ Courtenay, Jr., Walter R. and James D. Williams. USGS Circular 1251: Snakeheads (Pisces, Chinnidae) - A Biological Synopsis and Risk Assessment. U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey. 2004-04-01. Retrieved 2021-07-05.
9. Code of Virginia § 18.2-313.2: "Any person who knowingly introduces into the Commonwealth any snakehead fish of the family Channidae without a permit from the Director of Game and Inland Fisheries is guilty of a class 1 misdemeanor ."
10. Fields, Helen (February 2005). "Invasion of the Snakeheads". Smithsonian. Science.
11. Potomac snakeheads not related to others Associated Press, Baltimore Sun, 27 April 2007.
12. Clark Howard, Brian (2016-03-17). "Fishermen Battle Invasive 'Frankenfish' Snakeheads". National Geographic News. Archived from the original on March 19, 2016. Retrieved 2016-03-18.
13. "The snakehead is here: Aggressive, air-breathing fish makes first appearance in Louisiana". 9 June 2023.
14. "History of introduction in the United States: Four species of snakeheads (Channa argus, C. marulius, C. micropeltes, and C. striata) have been recorded from open waters of the United States (California, Florida, Hawaii, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island), and two have become established as reproducing populations." Injurious Wildlife Species; Snakeheads Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved 17 February 2008.
15. "Invasive Northern Snakehead - NYS Dept. of Environmental Conservation". NYS DEC. New York State. Retrieved 18 November 2020.
16. ""Snakehead Management Activities: 2010"" (PDF).
17. "Snakehead, giant (Channa micropeltes)". International Game Fish Association. Retrieved 18 August 2024.
18. "Chefs' solution for invading 'Frankenfish'? Eat 'em". News.msn.com. Archived from the original on 2014-03-20. Retrieved 2014-03-20.
19. A. M. Murray & J.G.M. Thewissen (2008). "Eocene actinopterygian fishes from Pakistan, with the description of a new genus and species of channid (channiformes)". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 28 (1): 41–52. doi:10.1671/0272-4634(2008)28[41:EAFFPW]2.0.CO;2. S2CID 85925173.
20. Britz, Ralf; Dahanukar, Neelesh; Anoop, V. K.; Philip, Siby; Clark, Brett; Raghavan, Rajeev; Rüber, Lukas (2020-09-30). "Aenigmachannidae, a new family of snakehead fishes (Teleostei: Channoidei) from subterranean waters of South India". Scientific Reports. 10 (1): 16081. Bibcode:2020NatSR..1016081B. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-73129-6. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 7527459. PMID 32999397.
21. "B.C.'s snakehead caught after Burnaby pond drained. CBC News (Posted: June 8, 2012)". Cbc.ca. 2012-06-08. Retrieved 2014-03-20.
22. "The Ultimate Monster Fish: The Frankenfish Snakehead", Carina Suarez, 28 July 2014, National Geographic
23. "Soprano Home Movies" episode 13, season 6, The Sopranos, 8 April 2007, HBO
24. Blackmail - The Office US, 2018-02-24, retrieved 2018-04-01
25. "GIANT SNAKEHEAD". animal.discovery.com. Archived from the original on 2012-08-20.

Further reading

• Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Family Channidae". FishBase. January 2006 version.
• "Channidae". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 20 March 2006.

External links

• Snakeheads—A Biological Synopsis and Risk Assessment published by the U.S. Geological Survey
• About.com's article on Snakeheads
• snakeheads.org world's largest website for snakeheads
• Overview of Northern Snakehead biology
• Fish or Foul: Snakeheads near Washington, D.C., and the people who love them
• Sighting of snakehead predator fish in CT has DEEP 'concerned'

• Channidae
• Freshwater fish of China
• Fish of Indonesia
• Freshwater fish of Taiwan
• Fish of Central Asia
• Extant Eocene first appearances
• Taxa named by Henry Weed Fowler