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{{Short description|1500–500 BC Indo-Aryan religious practices of northwest India}}
{{sprotected2}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}
]. '']'' was limited to northwest India and the western Ganges plain, while ] in the east was occupied by non-Vedic Indo-Aryans.{{sfn|Bronkhorst|2007}}{{sfn|Samuel|2010}} The location of ]s is labeled in maroon.]]
{{Hinduism small}} {{Hinduism small}}
{{Indo-European topics |Religion and mythology}}
:''This article discusses the historical religious practices in the ] time period; see ''']''' and ''']''' for details of continued religious practices. See ] for the continuing practice of performance of rituals by an oral passing of hymns/chants through generations.''


The historical '''Vedic religion''', also called '''Vedicism''' or '''Vedism''', and sometimes '''ancient Hinduism''' or '''Vedic Hinduism''',{{efn|name="Vedic Hinduism"}} constituted the religious ideas and practices prevalent amongst some of the ] of the northwest Indian subcontinent (] and the western ] plain) during the ] ({{Circa}} 1500–500 BCE).{{sfn|Heesterman|2005|pp=9552–9553}}<ref name=britannicavedic>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Vedic-religion |title=Vedic religion |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|date=21 September 2024 }}</ref>{{sfn|Sullivan |2001|p=9}}{{sfn|Samuel |2010 |pp=97–99, 113–118}} These ideas and practices are found in the ], and some Vedic rituals are still practiced today.{{sfn|Knipe|2015|pp=41–45, 220–223}}<ref name=Witzel2004/><ref name=Witzel_Kalasha/> The Vedic religion is one of the major traditions which ], though present-day ] is significantly different from the historical Vedic religion.{{sfn|Sullivan |2001|p=9}}{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=38}}{{efn|name="Vedic Hinduism"}}
The '''religion of the ]''' (also known as '''Vedism''' or '''Vedic Brahmanism''' or, in a context of Indian antiquity, simply '''Brahmanism'''<ref>The ] of 2005 uses all of "Vedism", "Vedic Brahmanism" and "Brahmanism", but reserves "Vedism" for the earliest stage, predating the Brahmana period, and defines "Brahmanism" as ''"religion of ancient India that evolved out of Vedism. It takes its name both from the predominant position of its priestly class, the Brahmans, and from the increasing speculation about, and importance given to, Brahman, the supreme power."''</ref>) is the historical predecessor of ] and the other ]. Its ] is reflected in the ] portion of the four ]s. The religious practices centered on a ] administering ] ]. A small fraction of conservative ] continue this tradition today within contemporary ].


The Vedic religion has roots in the ] culture and religion of the ] ({{Circa}} 2200–1750 BCE) and ] ({{Circa}} 2000–1150 BCE) cultures of ].{{sfn|Anthony|2007}}{{efn|name="Indo-Aryans"}} This Indo-Iranian religion borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices"{{sfn|Beckwith|2011|p=32}}{{efn|name="BMAC"}} from the non-Indo-Aryan ] (BMAC; 2250–1700 BCE) of south of ], when pastoral Indo-Aryan tribes stayed there as a separate people in the early 2nd millennium BCE. From the BMAC Indo-Aryan tribes ] to the northwestern region of the ], and the Vedic religion developed there during the early Vedic period ({{Circa}} 1500–1100 BCE) as a variant of Indo-Aryan religion, influenced by the remnants of the late ] (2600–1900 BCE).{{sfn|White|2003}}
Texts dating to the Vedic period, composed in ], are mainly the four ], but the ], and some of the older ]s (], ], ]) are also considered Vedic. The Vedas record the ] connected with the rituals and sacrifices performed by the ]s. According to traditional views, the hymns of the ] and other Vedic hymns were divinely revealed to the ]s, who were considered "hearers" ('']'' means "what is heard"), rather than "authors". However, the Rigvedic hymns clearly speak about composing new hymns by individual authors who were in competition with their colleagues.


During the late Vedic period ({{Circa}} 1100–500 BCE) Brahmanism developed out of the Vedic religion, as an ideology of the ]-] realm which expanded into a wider area after the demise of the Kuru-Pancala realm and the domination of the non-Vedic Magadha cultural sphere. Brahmanism was one of the major influences that shaped contemporary ], when it was synthesized with the non-Vedic Indo-Aryan religious heritage of the eastern Ganges plain (which also gave rise to ] and ]), and with local religious traditions.{{sfn|Bronkhorst|2007}}{{sfn|Samuel|2010}}<ref group=web name="EB_Vedic religion"/>{{sfn|Witzel|1995}}{{efn|name="Vedic Hinduism"}}
The mode of worship was worship of the elements like fire and rivers, worship of heroic gods like ] (quite similar to the Greek religion), ] and performance of sacrifices. The ] helped the common man in performing rituals. People prayed for abundance of children, rain, cattle (wealth), long life and an afterlife in the heavenly world of the ancestors. This mode of worship has been preserved even today in ], which involve recitations from the ]s by a purohit (priest), for prosperity, wealth and general well-being.


Specific rituals and sacrifices of the Vedic religion include, among others: the ] rituals; ]s involving oblations (]); and the ] (]).<ref name="Prasoon"/><ref name="Griffith 1987">{{cite book|first=Ralph Thomas Hotchkin|last=Griffith|url=https://archive.org/details/textswhiteyajur00grifgoog|title=The Texts of the White Yajurveda. Translated with a popular commentary|orig-year=1899|place=Benaras|year=1987|edition=Reprint|isbn=81-215-0047-8|publisher=E. J. Lazarus and Co.}}</ref> The rites of grave burials as well as ] are seen since the Rigvedic period.<ref>{{cite book|author=Stephanie Jamison|title=The Rigveda — Earliest Religious Poetry of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1LTRDwAAQBAJ|year=2015|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0190633394|pages=1393, 1399}}</ref> Deities emphasized in the Vedic religion include ], ], ], ] and ], and important ethical concepts include '']'' and '']''.
Elements of Vedic religion reach back into ] times. The Vedic period is held to have ended around ], Vedic religion gradually metamorphosizing into the historical ], among them the ] school of ] and ], the former further evolving into ] ], the latter diversifying into ] and ] schools.


==Rituals== ==Terminology==
{{main|Yajurveda|yajna}}


===Vedism and Brahmanism===
Specific rituals and sacrifices of the Vedic religion include:
''Vedism'' refers to the oldest form of the Vedic ], when Indo-Aryans entered into the valley of the ] in multiple waves during the 2nd millennium BCE. ''Brahmanism'' refers to the further developed form of the late Vedic period which took shape at the Ganges basin around {{Circa}} 1000 BCE.<ref name="Heesterman1987">{{Cite web |title=Vedism and Brahmanism {{!}} Encyclopedia.com |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/vedism-and-brahmanism |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=www.encyclopedia.com}}</ref>{{efn|See {{harvnb|Witzel|1995}} for an elaborate description of the religious and socio-political development of the late Vedic society}} According to Heesterman, "It is loosely known as Brahmanism because of the religious and legal importance it places on the brāhmaṇa (priestly) class of society."<ref name="Heesterman1987"/> During the late Vedic period, the Brahmanas and early Upanishads were composed.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McClelland |first=Norman C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S_Leq4U5ihkC |title=Encyclopedia of Reincarnation and Karma |date=2018-10-15 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0-7864-5675-8 |pages=48 |language=en}}</ref> Both Vedism and Brahmanism regard the Veda as sacred, but Brahmanism is more inclusive, incorporating doctrines and themes beyond the Vedas with practices like temple worship, puja, meditation, renunciation, vegetarianism, the role of the guru, and other non-Vedic elements important to Hindu religious life.<ref name="Heesterman1987" />
*The ] cult described in the ], descended from a common ] practice.
*]s, also a common Indo-Iranian practice, cf. ]:
**The ] or oblation to ], a sun charm,
**The ], the sophisticated ritual of piling the ].
**The ] or ] sacrifice
*The ] or ] sacrifice
*The ], or symbolic sacrifice of a man, imitating that of the the cosmic Purusha, cf. ]
*The rituals described in the ] concerned with medicine and healing practises, as well as black and white ].


===Ancient Hinduism and Vedic Hinduism===
The ] (horse sacrifice) has parallels in the ] Sintashta and ], in India allegedly continued until the 4th and even the 18th century CE (Jaya Singh at Jaipur). The practice of vegetarianism may already have arisen in late Vedic times. Although in the Rigveda, the cow's description as ''aghnya'' (that which should not be killed) may refer to poetry <ref> J. Narten, ''Acta Orientalia Neerlandica'', Leiden 1971, 120-134</ref>, it is certain to be reflective of the social practice as were other practices like rituals and deity worship. The overall metamorphosis into contemporary vegetarianism is seen as early as the late Brahmanas and ] and may have continued under the influence of ], of the nascent ] reform and possibly of ], which began as a reform-movement of the Vedic religion.
The terms ''ancient Hinduism'' and ''Vedic Hinduism'' have also been used when referring to the ancient Vedic religion.{{efn|name="Vedic Hinduism"}}


According to ], in 19th&nbsp;century western publications, the Vedic religion was believed to be different from and unrelated to Hinduism. Instead, Hinduism was thought to be linked to the ] and the ] through sects based on ], ]s and '']''.{{sfn|von Stietencron|2005|pp=231–237 with footnotes}} In response to western colonialism and (Protestant) proselytizing, ] like the ] and the ] in the late 19th and early 20th century rejected the 'superstitions' of Puranic Hinduism, which in their view had deviated from the Vedic heritage, instead propagating a return to the Vedas and to restore an "imagined"{{sfn|Mannathukkaren|2024|p="an imagined 'Hinduism'"}} original, rational and monotheistic ancient Hinduism with an equal standing as Protestant Christianity.{{sfn|von Stietencron|2005|pp=231–237 with footnotes}}{{sfnp|Flood|2020|p=58}}
The Hindu rites of ] were developed during the Vedic period; while they are attested from early times in the ], there is a late Rigvedic reference in ].15.14, invoking forefathers "both cremated (''agnidagdhá-'') and uncremated (''ánagnidagdha-'')".


In the 20th&nbsp;century, the neo-Hindu emphasis on Vedic roots, and a better understanding of the Vedic religion and its shared heritage and theology with contemporary Hinduism, led scholars to view the historical Vedic religion as ancestral to modern Hinduism.{{sfn|von Stietencron|2005|pp=231–237 with footnotes}} The historical Vedic religion is now generally accepted to be a predecessor of modern ], but they are not the same because the textual evidence suggests significant differences between the two.{{efn|name="Vedic Hinduism"}} These include the belief in an ] instead of the later developed ] and ] concepts.{{sfn|Laumakis|2008}}{{page needed|date=October 2021}} Nevertheless, while "it is usually taught that the beginnings of historical Hinduism date from around the beginning of the Common Era," when "the key tendencies, the crucial elements that would be encompassed in Hindu traditions, collectively came together,"{{sfn|Welbon|2004|p=33}} some scholars have come to view the term "Hinduism" as encompassing Vedism and Brahmanism, in addition to the recent synthesis.{{sfn|von Stietencron|2005|pp=231}}
==Pantheon==
{{main|Rigvedic deities}}
The Vedic pantheon, similar to its ] or ] counterparts, comprises clans of anthropomorphic deities as well as deified natural phenomena, and like the Germanic ] and ] it knows two classes of gods, ]s and ]s. The Asuras (], ], ], ], ], etc.) are deities of cosmic and social order, from the universe and kingdoms down to the individual. The ] is a collection of hymns to various deities, most notably heroic ], ] the sacrificial fire and messenger of the gods, and ], the deified sacred drink of the Indo-Iranians. Also prominent is ] (often paired with Mitra) and the group of "all-gods", the ].


==Origins and development==
==Monistic tendencies==
{{see|Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan migrations|Vedic period|Indo-European migrations|Proto-Indo-European religion|Proto-Indo-Iranian religion}}
Already the ], in its youngest books (books 1 and 10) contains hymns for ] thought, that however need to be interpreted in the context of the individual hymn. Often quoted are ] 1.164.46c,


===Indo-Aryan Vedic religion===
:''{{IAST|ékam sád víprā́ bahudhā́ vadanti}}''
The Vedic religion refers to the religious beliefs of some Vedic ] tribes, the ''aryas'',{{sfn|Kuz'mina|2007|p=319}}{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=185}}{{efn|Michaels: "They called themselves ''arya'' ('Aryans', literally 'the hospitable', from the Vedic ''arya'', 'homey, the hospitable') but even in the Rgveda, ''arya'' denotes a cultural and linguistic boundary and not only a racial one."{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=33}}}} who migrated into the Indus River valley region of the Indian subcontinent after the collapse of the ].{{sfn|Heesterman|2005|pp=9552–9553}}{{efn|name="Indo-Aryans"}} The Vedic religion, and subsequent Brahmanism, center on the myths and ritual ideologies of the Vedas, as distinguished from ], ] and sectarian forms of Indian religion, which take recourse to the authority of non-Vedic textual sources.{{sfn|Heesterman|2005|pp=9552–9553}} The Vedic religion is described in the ] and associated with voluminous Vedic literature, including the early ], preserved into the modern times by the different priestly schools.{{sfn|Heesterman|2005|pp=9552–9553}}{{sfn|Jamison|Witzel|1992|p=2-4}} The religion existed in the western Ganges plain in the early Vedic period from {{Circa}} 1500–1100&nbsp;BCE,{{sfn|Michaels|2004|pp=32–36}}{{efn|There is no exact dating possible for the beginning of the Vedic period. Witzel mentions a range between 1900 and 1400&nbsp;BCE.{{sfn|Witzel|1995|pp=3–4}} Flood (1996) mentions 1500&nbsp;BCE.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=21}}}} and developed into Brahmanism in the late Vedic period ({{Circa}} 1100–500 BCE).{{sfn|Witzel|1995}}{{sfn|Bronkhorst|2016|pp=9–10}} The eastern Ganges plain was dominated by another Indo-Aryan complex, which rejected the later Brahmanical ideology and gave rise to ] and ], and the ].{{sfn|Bronkhorst|2007}}{{sfn|Samuel|2010}}
:"To what is One, sages give many a title" (trans. ])
and hymns ] and 10.130, dealing with a creator deity, especially verse 10.129.7:
:''{{IAST| iyám vísṛṣṭiḥ yátaḥ ābabhûva / yádi vā dadhé yádi vā ná / yáḥ asya ádhyakṣaḥ paramé vyóman / sáḥ aṅgá veda yádi vā ná véda}}''
:"He, the first origin of this creation, whether he formed it all or did not form it, / Whose eye controls this world in highest heaven, he verily knows it, or perhaps he knows not." (trans. Griffith)


==== Indo-European roots and syncreticism ====
''{{IAST|Ékam sát}}''<!--leave the -t. -d in samhita is just sandhi, this is the pausa form-->
The Indo-Aryans were speakers of a branch of the ] family which originated in the ] and further developed into the ], which in turn developed out of the ] culture of the ]n ].{{sfn|Anthony|2007}}<!-- **START OF NOTE** -->{{efn|name="Indo-Aryans"|The Indo-Aryans were pastoralists{{sfn|Witzel|1995}} who migrated into north-western India after the collapse of the ],{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=33}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=30–35}}{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2007|p=5}} bringing with them their language{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=53–56}} and religion.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=30}}{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2007|pp=5–7}} They were closely related to the Indo-Aryans who founded ] kingdom in northern Syria{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=454}} (c.1500–1300&nbsp;BCE).<br>Both groups were rooted in the ]-culture{{sfn|Anthony|2007|pp=410–411}} in the ]–] era, in present northern Afghanistan,{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=454}} and related to the ], from which they split off around 1800–1600&nbsp;BCE.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=408}} Their roots go back further to the ], with funeral sacrifices which show close parallels to the sacrificial funeral rites of the ''Rig Veda''.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|pp=375, 408–411}}<br>The immigrations consisted probably of small groups of people.{{sfn|Anthony|2007}} ] (1998) notes that "there is no archaeological or biological evidence for invasions or mass migrations into the Indus Valley between the end of the Harappan phase, about 1900&nbsp;B.C. and the beginning of the Early Historic period around 600&nbsp;B.C."<ref>{{cite book |author=Kenoyer, M. |year=1998 |title=Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization |page=174 |location=Oxford, U.K. |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref><br>For an overview of the current relevant research, see the following references.<ref>{{cite journal |author-link=Michael Witzel |first=Michael |last=Witzel |year=2001 |url=http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/EJVS-7-3.pdf |title=Autochthonous Aryans? The Evidence from Old Indian and Iranian Texts |journal=Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies (EJVS) |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=1–93}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author-link=Shereen Ratnagar |first=Shereen |last=Ratnagar |year=2008 |contribution=The Aryan homeland debate in India |editor1=Kohl, P. L. |editor2=Kozelsky, M. |editor3=Ben-Yehuda, N. |title=Selective Remembrances: Archaeology in the construction, commemoration, and consecration of national pasts |pages=349–378}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author-link=Suraj Bhan (archaeologist) |first=Suraj |last=Bhan |year=2002 |contribution=Aryanization of the Indus Civilization |editor1=Panikkar, K. N. |editor2=Byres, T. J. |editor3=Patnaik, U. |title=The Making of History |pages=41–55}}</ref>{{sfn|Anthony|2007}}}}<!-- **END OF NOTE** --><!-- **START OF NOTE** -->{{efn|Some writers and archaeologists have opposed the notion of a migration of Indo-Aryans into India,{{sfn|Bryant|2001}}<ref>Bryant, Edwin. 2001. ''The Indo-Aryan Controversy'', p.&nbsp;342{{clarify|reason=title / year mismatch?|date=November 2010}}</ref>{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=33}}{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=186}} due to a lack of archaeological evidence and signs of cultural continuity,{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=33}} hypothesizing instead a slow process of acculturation{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=33}} or transformation.{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=30–35}} According to Upinder Singh, "The original homeland of the Indo-Europeans and Indo-Aryans is the subject of continuing debate among philologists, linguists, historians, archaeologists, and others. The dominant view is that the Indo-Aryams came to the subcontinent as immigrants. Another view, advocated mainly by some Indian scholars, is that they were indigenous to the subcontinent."{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=186}} Edwin Bryant used the term "Indo-Aryan controversy" for an oversight of the Indo-Aryan migration theory, and some of its opponents.{{sfn|Bryant|Patton|2005}}<br>Mallory and Adams note that two types of models "enjoy significant international currency", namely the ], and a migration out of the Eurasian steppes.{{sfn|Mallory|Adams|2006|pp=460–461}} Linguistic and archaeological data clearly show a cultural change after 1750&nbsp;BCE,{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=33}} with the linguistic and religious data clearly showing links with Indo-European languages and religion.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=33}} According to Singh, "The dominant view is that the Indo-Aryans came to the subcontinent as immigrants."{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=186}}<br>An overview of the "Indigenist position" can be obtained from Bryant & Patton (2005).{{sfn|Bryant|Patton|2005}} See also the article ]}}<!-- **END OF NOTE** --> The commonly proposed period of earlier Vedic age is dated back to 2nd&nbsp;millennium BCE.<ref>{{cite book|title=The History of India|author=Pletcher, Kenneth|publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing|page=60|year=2010}}</ref>
in 1.164.46c means "One Being" or "One Truth". Such concepts received greater emphasis in classical ], from the time of ] at the latest, and they receive emphasis in contemporary Hinduism from pantheistic sects like ].

The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesized ],<ref name="Woodard2006">{{cite book|author=Roger D. Woodard|title=Indo-European Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EB4fB0inNYEC&pg=FA242|date=18 August 2006|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=978-0-252-09295-4|pages=242–}}</ref>{{efn|See Kuzʹmina (2007), ''The Origin of the Indo-Iranians'', p.&nbsp;339, for an overview of publications up to 1997 on this subject.}} and shows relations with rituals from the ], from which the Indo-Aryan people descended.{{sfn|Kuz'mina|2007|p=319}} According to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the contact zone between the ] (present-day ]) and (present-day) Iran.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=462}} It was "a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements"{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=462}} which borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices"{{sfn|Beckwith|2011|p=32}} from the ] (BMAC).{{sfn|Beckwith|2011|p=32}} This syncretic influence is supported by at least ] from this culture, including the god ] and the ritual drink ].{{sfn|Anthony|2007|pp=454–455}} According to Anthony,
{{blockquote|Many of the qualities of Indo-Iranian god of might/victory, ], were transferred to the adopted god Indra, who became the central deity of the developing Old Indic culture. Indra was the subject of 250&nbsp;hymns, a quarter of the ''Rig Veda''. He was associated more than any other deity with ''Soma'', a stimulant drug (perhaps derived from '']'') probably borrowed from the ] religion. His rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=454}}}}

The oldest inscriptions in Old Indic, the language of the ''Rig Veda'', are found in northern Syria, the location of the ] kingdom.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=49}} The Mitanni kings took Old Indic throne names, and Old Indic technical terms were used for horse-riding and chariot-driving.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=49}} The Old Indic term ], meaning "cosmic order and truth", the central concept of the ''Rig Veda'', was also employed in the Mitanni kingdom.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=49}} Old Indic gods, including ], were also known in the Mitanni kingdom.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=50}}{{sfn|Flood|2008|p=68}}{{sfn|Melton|Baumann|2010|p=1412}}

====South Asian influences====
The Vedic religion was the product of "a composite of the Indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures and civilizations".{{sfn|White|2006|p=28}} White (2003) cites three other scholars who "have emphatically demonstrated" that Vedic religion is partially derived from the ].{{sfn|White|2003|p=28}}

It is unclear if the theory in diverse Vedic texts actually reflect the folk practices, iconography, and other practical aspects of the Vedic religion. The Vedic religion changed when Indo-Aryan people migrated into the ] after {{Circa}} 1100&nbsp;BCE and became settled farmers,{{sfn|Witzel|1995}}{{sfn|Samuel|2010|pp=48–51, 61–93}}{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2007|pp=8–10}} further syncretizing with the native cultures of northern India.{{sfn|Samuel|2010}}{{page needed|date=August 2018}}{{sfn|Heesterman|2005|pp=9552–9553}} The evidence suggests that the Vedic religion evolved in "two superficially contradictory directions", namely an ever more "elaborate, expensive, and specialized system of rituals",{{sfn|Jamison|Witzel|1992|p=1–5, 47–52, 74–77}} which survives in the present-day ''srauta''-ritual,<ref name="West2010"/> and "abstraction and internalization of the principles underlying ritual and cosmic speculation" within oneself,{{sfn|Jamison|Witzel|1992|p=1–5, 47–52, 74–77}}{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=113}} akin to the Jain and Buddhist tradition.

Aspects of the historical Vedic religion still continue in modern times. For instance, the ] Brahmins continue the ancient Śrauta rituals, and the complex Vedic rituals of ] are practiced in ] and ].{{sfn|Knipe|2015|pp=1–50}} The ] residing in northwest Pakistan also continue to practice a form of the ancient Vedic religion.<ref name="West2010"/><!-- **START OF NOTE** -->{{efn|Up to the late 19th century, the ] of Afghanistan observed a primitive form of Hinduism until they were ] to Islam under the rule of ].<ref name="Minahan2014">{{cite book |last=Minahan |first=James B. |title=Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Central Asia: An Encyclopedia |year= 2014 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |language=en |isbn=9781610690188|page=205 |quote=Living in the high mountain valleys, the Nuristani retained their ancient culture and their religion, a form of the ancient Vedic religion with many customs and rituals developed locally. Certain deities were revered only by one tribe or community, but one deity was universally worshipped by all Nuristani as the Creator, the Hindu god Yama Raja, called ''imr'o'' or ''imra'' by the Nuristani tribes.}}</ref><ref name="BarringtonKendrick2006">{{cite book |last1=Barrington |first1=Nicholas |last2=Kendrick |first2=Joseph T. |last3=Schlagintweit |first3=Reinhard |title=A Passage to Nuristan: Exploring the mysterious Afghan hinterland |date=18 April 2006 |publisher=] |language=en |isbn=9781845111755 |page=111 |quote=Prominent sites include Hadda, near Jalalabad, but Buddhism never seems to have penetrated the remote valleys of Nuristan, where the people continued to practice an early form of polytheistic Hinduism.}}</ref><ref name="WeissMaurer2012">{{cite book |last1=Weiss |first1=Mitch |last2=Maurer |first2=Kevin |title=No Way Out: A story of valor in the mountains of Afghanistan |date=31 December 2012 |publisher=Berkley Caliber |language=en |isbn=9780425253403 |page=299 |quote=Up until the late nineteenth century, many Nuristanis practiced a primitive form of Hinduism. It was the last area in Afghanistan to convert to Islam—and the conversion was accomplished by the sword.}}</ref> However, aspects of the historical Vedic religion survived in other corners of the Indian subcontinent, such as ], where the ] Brahmins continue the ancient Śrauta rituals. The ] residing in northwest Pakistan also continue to practice a form of the ancient Vedic religion.<ref name="West2010">{{cite book |last=West |first=Barbara A. |title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania |date=19 May 2010 |publisher=] |language=en |isbn=9781438119137 |page=357 |quote=The Kalasha are a unique people living in just three valleys near Chitral, Pakistan, the capital of North-West Frontier Province, which borders Afghanistan. Unlike their neighbors in the Hindu Kush Mountains on both the Afghani and Pakistani sides of the border the Kalasha have not converted to Islam. During the mid-20th century a few Kalasha villages in Pakistan were forcibly converted to this dominant religion, but the people fought the conversion and once official pressure was removed the vast majority continued to practice their own religion. Their religion is a form of Hinduism that recognizes many gods and spirits&nbsp;... given their Indo-Aryan language,&nbsp;... the religion of the Kalasha is much more closely aligned to the Hinduism of their Indian neighbors that to the religion of Alexander the Great and his armies.}}</ref><ref name="Bezhan2017">{{cite web |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/28439107.html |title=Pakistan's Forgotten Pagans get their Due |last=Bezhan |first=Frud |date=19 April 2017 |publisher=] |language=en |access-date=31 July 2017 |quote=About half of the Kalash practice a form of ancient Hinduism infused with old pagan and animist beliefs.}}</ref>}}<!-- **END OF NOTE** --> It has also been suggested by ] that ], the native religion of ], contains some influences from the ancient Vedic religion.<ref>{{cite book|last=Witzel|first=Michael|title=The Origin of the World's Mythologies|year=2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Witzel|first=Michael|title=Vala and Iwato: The Myth of the Hidden Sun in India, Japan, and beyond|year=2005|url=https://www.onmarkproductions.com/monkey-mythology-compare-india-japan-by-michael-witzel.pdf}}</ref>

===Brahmanism===
{{redirect|Brahamic|the writing scripts|Brahmic scripts}}
{{redirect-distinguish|Brahmanism|Branhamism}}
====Historical Brahminism====
Brahmanism, also called Brahminism or Brahmanical Hinduism, developed out of the Vedic religion, incorporating non-Vedic religious ideas, and expanding to a ] the northwest Indian subcontinent to the Ganges valley.{{sfn|Heesterman|2005|pp=9552–9553}}{{sfn|Witzel|1995}} Brahmanism included the Vedic corpus, but also post-Vedic texts such as the ''Dharmasutras'' and ''Dharmasastras'', which gave prominence to the priestly (]) class of the society,{{sfn|Heesterman|2005|pp=9552–9553}} Heesterman also mentions the post-Vedic ] (] and the Epics),{{sfn|Heesterman|2005|pp=9552–9553}} which are also incorporated in the later ]. The emphasis on ritual and the dominant position of Brahmans developed as an ideology in the ], and expanded over a wider area after the demise of the Kuru-Pancala kingdom{{sfn|Witzel|1995}} and its incorporation into the Magadha-based empires. It co-existed with local religions, such as the ] cults.{{sfn|Samuel|2010}}{{sfn|Basham|1989|pp=74–75}}<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/651312/yaksha |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |title=yaksha|date=12 July 2024 }}</ref>

The word ''Brahmanism'' was coined by Gonçalo Fernandes Trancoso (1520–1596) in the 16th century.<ref name="Županov2005">{{cite book |last=Županov |first=Ines G. |title=Missionary Tropics: The Catholic Frontier in India (16th–17th Centuries) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nix4M4dy7nQC&pg=PA18 |year=2005 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=0-472-11490-5 |pages=18ff}}</ref> Historically, and still by some modern authors, the word 'Brahmanism' was used in English to refer to the ], treating the term Brahmanism as synonymous with ], and using it interchangeably.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Jacques |last1=Maritain |first2=E. I. |last2=Watkin |title=An Introduction to Philosophy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n9GnOWELyRYC |year=2005|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-7425-5053-7 |page=7 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Catherine A. |last=Robinson |title=Interpretations of the Bhagavad-Gita and Images of the Hindu Tradition: The song of the Lord |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NKHKAgAAQBAJ |year=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-27891-6 |at=page&nbsp;164, footnote&nbsp;9}}</ref> Michael S. Allen criticises the use of "Brahminism" for the "greater Vedic tradition", arguing that it obscures the contribution of non-Brahmins to the tradition.<ref>{{harvnb|Allen|2022|p=208}}: "This greater Vedic tradition is sometimes referred to as "Brahminism," but that label is less than ideal. First, as McGovern (2019) has pointed out in a recent book, the term "Brahmin" was originally not exclusive to followers of the Vedas, but was also used by Buddhists, Jains, and others. Second, although (Vedic) Brahmins were jealous of their teaching authority, they regarded the Vedas as the ultimate source of that authority, and referring to their tradition as "Brahminism" rather than "Vedism" would be subject to the same objections that have led scholars of Tibetan Buddhism to abandon the term "Lamaism." Third, and perhaps most importantly, the term obscures the participation of non-Brahmins in the greater Vedic tradition."</ref> In the 18th and 19th centuries, Brahminism was the most common term used in English for Hinduism.
Brahmanism gave importance to Absolute Reality (Brahman) speculations in the early ], as these terms are etymologically linked, which developed from post-Vedic ideas during the late Vedic era.<ref name="britannicavedic" /><ref name="Maritain2005p6">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n9GnOWELyRYC&pg=PA7 |title=An Introduction to Philosophy |first=Jacques |last=Maritain |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7425-5053-7 |at=pages&nbsp;6–7 footnote&nbsp;1 |quote=This resulted, after a period of confusion, in the formation of a new system, Brahmanism (or Hinduism), which is essentially a philosophy, a metaphysic, a work of human speculation, ...; ...&nbsp;the neuter, ''Brahman'', as the one impersonal substance.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FLuEAgAAQBAJ |title=Eastern Philosophy: Key Readings |first=Oliver |last=Leaman |publisher=Routledge |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-134-68918-7 |pages=64–65 |quote=The early Upanishads are primarily metaphysical treatises concerned with identifying the Brahman, the ground of the universe.&nbsp;... The essence of early Brahmanism is the search for the Absolute and its natural development is in Vedantin monism which claims that the soul is identical with the Absolute.}}</ref><ref name="Biardeau1994p17">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/hinduism00made |url-access=registration |title=Hinduism: The anthropology of a civilization |first=Madeleine |last=Biardeau |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1994 |pages=–22|isbn=978-0-19-563389-4 }}</ref> The concept of Brahman is posited as that which existed before the creation of the universe, which constitutes all of existence thereafter, and into which the universe will dissolve, followed by similar endless creation-maintenance-destruction cycles.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/pli.kerala.rare.1673 |title=Brāhmanism and Hindūism: Or, Religious Thought and Life in India, as Based on the Veda and Other Sacred Books of the Hindūs |first=Monier |last=Monier-Williams |publisher=J. Murray |year=1891 |pages=–3}}</ref>{{sfn|Sullivan|2001|p=137}}<ref name="james122">{{cite book |first=James |last=Lochtefeld |article=Brahman |title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism |volume=1: A–M |publisher=Rosen Publishing |isbn=978-0823931798 |page= |date=2001 |url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch/page/122 }}</ref>{{efn|For the metaphysical concept of Brahman, see: {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qv3fCgAAQBAJ|title=Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices |first=Julius |last=Lipner |author-link=Julius Lipner |publisher=Routledge |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-135-24061-5 |pages=251–252, 283, 366–369|postscript=;}} {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pv4jgvvAaQMC |title=Hindu Ethics: A Philosophical Study |first=Roy W. |last=Perrett |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-8248-2085-5 |pages=53–54}}}}

The post-Vedic period of the Second Urbanisation saw a decline of Brahmanism.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|pp=37–39}}{{sfn|Bronkhorst|2017|p=363}} With the growth of political entities, which threatened the income and patronage of the rural Brahmins including; the ], the conquests of eastern empires from ] including the ] and the ],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bronkhorst |first=Johannes |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/729756183 |title=Buddhism in the Shadow of Brahmanism |date=2011 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-20140-8 |location=Leiden |oclc=729756183}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Chande |first=M. B. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/71205138 |title=Kautilyan Arthasastra |date=1998 |publisher=Atlantic Publishers and Distributors |isbn=81-7156-733-9 |location=New Delhi |oclc=71205138}}</ref> and also invasions and foreign rule of the northwestern Indian Subcontinent which brought in new political entities.{{sfn|Bronkhorst|2016|pp=9–10}} This was overcome by providing new services{{sfn|Bronkhorst|2015|p=2}} and incorporating the non-Vedic Indo-Aryan religious heritage of the eastern Ganges plain and local religious traditions, giving rise to contemporary ].{{sfn|Bronkhorst|2016|pp=9–10}}<ref group=web name="EB_Vedic religion" />{{sfn|Samuel|2010}}{{sfn|Bronkhorst|2007}}{{sfn|Witzel|1995}}{{sfn|Heesterman|2005|pp=9552–9553}}{{efn|name="Vedic Hinduism"}} This "new Brahmanism" appealed to rulers, who were attracted to the supernatural powers and the practical advice Brahmins could provide,{{sfn|Bronkhorst|2015|p=2}} and resulted in a resurgence of Brahmanical influence, dominating Indian society since the classical Age of Hinduism in the early centuries CE.{{sfn|Bronkhorst|2016|pp=9–10}}

====As a polemical term====
Nowadays, the term Brahmanism, used interchangeably with ''Brahminism'', is used in several ways. It denotes the specific Brahmanical rituals and worldview as preserved in the ] ritual, as distinct from the wide range of popular cultic activity with little connection with them. Brahminism also refers specifically to the Brahminical ideology, which sees Brahmins as naturally privileged people entitled to rule and dominate society.<ref>{{cite q|Q108732338|url=https://www.hindutvaharassmentfieldmanual.org/glossary#brahmanism}}</ref> The term is frequently used by ], who object against their domination of Indian society and their exclusivist ideology.<ref>, ''Outlook'', 5 April 2002.</ref> They follow the outline of 19th century colonial rulers, who viewed India's culture as corrupt and degenerate, and its population as irrational. In this view, derived from a Christian understanding of religion, the original "God-given religion" was corrupted by priests, in this case Brahmins, and their religion, "Brahminism", which was supposedly imposed on the Indian population.<ref name="Gelders_Delders_2003">Raf Gelders, Willem Delders (2003),, Economic and Political Weekly 38(43):4611–4617. DOI:10.2307/4414197</ref> Reformist Hindus, and others such as ], structured their criticism along similar lines.<ref name="Gelders_Delders_2003"/>

==Textual history==
] sacrificial post of the time of ], 3rd century CE. Isapur, near ]. ].]]
Texts dating to the Vedic period, composed in ], are mainly the four Vedic ]s, but the ]s, ]s, and some of the older ]{{efn|Upanishads thought to date from the Vedic period are ], ], ].}} are also placed in this period. The Vedas record the ] connected with the rituals and sacrifices. These texts are also considered as a part of the scripture of contemporary Hinduism.<ref name="Goodall2001ix">{{cite book |first=Dominic |last=Goodall |title=Hindu Scriptures |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EKUteclXOK8C |year=2001 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1770-8 |pages=ix–xx}}</ref>
<blockquote>
<poem>
Who really knows?
Who will here proclaim it?
Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation?
The gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe.
Who then knows whence it has arisen?
— ], '']'', 10:129-6<ref name="Kramer1986">{{cite book |first=Kenneth |last=Kramer |title=World Scriptures: An Introduction to Comparative Religions |url=https://archive.org/details/worldscripturesi0000kram |url-access=registration |date=January 1986 |publisher=Paulist Press |isbn=978-0-8091-2781-8 |pages=34ff}}</ref><ref name="Christian2011">{{cite book |author=David Christian |title=Maps of Time: An Introduction to Big History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7RdVmDjwTtQC&pg=PA18 |date=1 September 2011 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-95067-2 |pages=18ff}}</ref>{{sfn|Singh|2008|pp=206ff}}
</poem>
</blockquote>

==Characteristics==
{{See also|Proto-Indo-Iranian religion}}

The idea of ], or ], is not mentioned in the early layers of the historic Vedic religion texts such as the ''Rigveda''.<ref>{{cite journal |first=A. M. |last=Boyer |title=Etude sur l'origine de la doctrine du samsara |journal=Journal Asiatique |year=1901 |volume=9 |issue=18 |pages=451–453, 459–468}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Yuvraj |last=Krishan |title=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan |year=1997 |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan |isbn=978-81-208-1233-8}}</ref> The later layers of the ''Rigveda'' do mention ideas that suggest an approach towards the idea of rebirth, according to Ranade.{{sfn|Laumakis |2008|pp=90–99}}<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/stream/A.Constructive.Survey.of.Upanishadic.Philosophy.by.R.D.Ranade.1926.djvu/A.Constructive.Survey.of.Upanishadic.Philosophy.by.R.D.Ranade.1926#page/n181/mode/2up |title=A Constructive Survey of Upanishadic Philosophy |first=R. D. |last=Ranade |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan |year=1926 |pages=147–148 |quote=...&nbsp;in certain other places , an approach is being made to the idea of Transmigration. ... There we definitely know that the whole hymn is address to a departed spirit, and the poet says that he is going to recall the departed soul in order that it may return again and live.}}</ref>

The early layers of the Vedas do not mention the doctrine of ] and rebirth, but mention the belief in an ].{{sfn|Laumakis|2008|p=90}}<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w7LtAgAAQBAJ |title=Circulation of Fire in the Veda |author=Atsushi Hayakawa |publisher=LIT Verlag Münster |year=2014 |isbn=978-3-643-90472-0 |pages=66–67, 101–103}}</ref> According to Sayers, these earliest layers of the Vedic literature show ancestor worship and rites such as ''sraddha'' (offering food to the ancestors). The later Vedic texts such as the ''Aranyakas'' and the ''Upanisads'' show a different soteriology based on reincarnation, they show little concern with ancestor rites, and they begin to philosophically interpret the earlier rituals.<ref>{{cite book |first=Matthew R. |last=Sayers |title=Feeding the Dead: Ancestor worship in ancient India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3AOBwiZBjRMC |year=2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-989643-1 |pages=1–9}}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |first=Matthew Rae |last=Sayers |title=Feeding the ancestors: ancestor worship in ancient Hinduism and Buddhism |degree=PhD |publisher=University of Texas |url=https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/handle/2152/3945 |page=12}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |editor-last=McGovern |editor-first=Nathan |date=1 November 2015 |title=Feeding the Dead: Ancestor worship in ancient India |first=Matthew R. |last=Sayers |url=https://academic.oup.com/jhs/article/8/3/336/2358466| journal=The Journal of Hindu Studies |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=336–338 |doi=10.1093/jhs/hiv034 |issn=1756-4255}}</ref> The idea of reincarnation and karma have roots in the ] of the late ], predating the ] and the ].<ref name="damienkeown32">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_QXX0Uq29aoC |title=Buddhism: A very short introduction |first=Damien |last=Keown |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-966383-5|pages=28, 32–38}}</ref>{{sfn|Laumakis|2008}} Similarly, the later layers of the Vedic literature such as the ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'' ({{Circa}}&nbsp;800&nbsp;BCE) – such as in section&nbsp;4.4 – discuss the earliest versions of the Karma doctrine as well as causality.<ref name="Tull1989p2">{{cite book |first=Herman Wayne |last=Tull |title=The Vedic Origins of Karma: Cosmos as man in ancient Indian myth and ritual |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=auqGWz2l9pYC |year=1989 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-0094-4 |pages=1–3, 11–12}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/quotes/brihadaranyaka-upanishad-4-4-5-6 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130413042723/http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/quotes/brihadaranyaka-upanishad-4-4-5-6 |archive-date=13 April 2013 |title=Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4.4.5–6 |department=Berkley Center for Religion Peace & World Affairs |publisher=Georgetown University |year=2012}}</ref>

The ancient Vedic religion lacked the belief in reincarnation and concepts such as ] or ]. It was a complex ] religion with ] and ] aspects. ] was an important, maybe the central component, of the ancient Vedic religion. Elements of the ancestors cult are still common in modern Hinduism in the form of ].{{sfn|Laumakis|2008}}{{page needed|date=October 2021}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sayers|first=Matthew R.|date=2015|title=The Śrāddha: The Development of Ancestor Worship in Classical Hinduism|journal=Religion Compass|language=en|volume=9|issue=6|pages=182–197|doi=10.1111/rec3.12155|issn=1749-8171}}</ref>

According to Olivelle, some scholars state that the renouncer tradition was an "organic and logical development of ideas found in the Vedic religious culture", while others state that these emerged from the "indigenous non-Aryan population". This scholarly debate is a longstanding one, and is ongoing.{{sfn|Flood|2008|p=273}}

===Rituals===
{{Main|Yajurveda|yajna}}
] yajna being performed in ]]]

Specific rituals and sacrifices of the Vedic religion include, among others:<ref name="Prasoon">{{cite book |last=Prasoon |first=Shrikant |title=Indian Scriptures |publisher=Pustak Mahal |date=11 August 2010 |chapter=Ch.&nbsp;2, Vedang, Kalp |isbn=978-81-223-1007-8}}</ref>{{vn|date=August 2018}}
*]s involving oblations (]):
**The Agnyadheya, or installation of the fire<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|last=Renou|first=Louis |author-link=Louis Renou|title=Vedic India|publisher=Susil Gupta|year=1947|pages=101–110}}</ref>
**The ] or oblation to ], a sun charm<ref name=":12" />
**The Darshapurnamsa, the new and full moon sacrifices<ref name=":12" />
**The four seasonal (]) sacrifices<ref name=":12" />
**The ], the sophisticated ritual of piling the ]<ref name=":12" />
*The Pashubandhu, the (semi-)annual animal sacrifice<ref name=":12" />
*The ] rituals, which involved the extraction, utility and consumption of Soma:<ref name=":12" />
**The Jyotishtoma<ref name=":12" />
***The Agnishtoma<ref name=":12" />
****The ] (originally an independent rite, later absorbed into the soma rituals)<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Jamison|first1=Stephanie|title=The Rigveda: The Earliest Religious Poetry of India|last2=Brereton|first2=Joel|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2014|pages=32}}</ref>
***The Ukthya<ref name=":12" />
***The Sodashin<ref name=":12" />
***The Atyagnishtoma<ref name=":12" />
***The Atiratra<ref name=":12" />
***The Aptoryama<ref name=":12" />
***The Vajapeya<ref name=":12" />
*The royal consecration (]) sacrifice
*The ] (]) or a Yajna dedicated to the glory, wellbeing and prosperity of the kingdom or empire<ref name="Griffith 1987"/>
*The ]<ref name=":12" />
*The rituals and ] referred to in the ] are concerned with medicine and healing practices<ref>{{cite book |last=Bloomfield |first=Maurice |title=Hymns of the Atharva Veda |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |date=1 June 2004 |pages=1–8 |isbn=1419125087}}</ref>
*The Gomedha or cow sacrifice:
**The Taittiriya Brahmana of the Yajur Veda gives instructions for selecting the cow for the sacrifice depending on the deity.<ref name=gomedha>{{cite book|title=The Vedas: With Illustrative Extracts|translator1=Ralph Thomas Hotchkin Griffith |translator2=T. B. Griffith|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BtpcpsZEiYMC&pg=PA52|publisher=Book Tree, 2003|pages=56–57|isbn=9781585092239 |year=2003 }}</ref>
**Panchasaradiya sava – celebration where 17 cows are immolated once every five years. The Taittiriya Brahmana advocates the Panchasaradiya for those who want to be great.<ref name=gomedha/>
**Sulagava – sacrifice where roast beef is offered. It is mentioned in the Grihya Sutra<ref name=gomedha/>
**According to Dr. R. Mitra, the offered animal was intended for consumption as detailed in the Asvalayana Sutra. The Gopatha Brahmana lists the different individuals who are to receive the various parts like Pratiharta (neck and hump), the Udgatr, the Neshta, the Sadasya, the householder who performs the sacrifice (the two right feet), his wife (the two left feet) and so on.<ref name=gomedha/>

The Hindu rites of ] are seen since the Rigvedic period; while they are attested from early times in the ], there is a late Rigvedic reference invoking forefathers "both cremated (''agnidagdhá-'') and uncremated (''ánagnidagdha-'')". (RV&nbsp;10.15.14)

===Pantheon===
{{Main|Rigvedic deities}}
] ("Temple of Dawn") in ], ], showing the ancient Vedic god ] and three-headed Erawan (]).{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}]]

Though a large number of names for ]s occur in the Rigveda, only 33&nbsp;devas are counted, eleven each of earth, space, and heaven.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Singhal, K. C. |author2=Gupta, Roshan |title=The Ancient History of India |chapter=Vedic period: A new interpretation |publisher=Atlantic Publishers and Distributors |isbn=8126902868 |page=150|year=2003 }}</ref> The Vedic pantheon knows two classes, Devas and ]s. The Devas (], ], ], ], Amsa, etc.) are deities of cosmic and social order, from the universe and kingdoms down to the individual. The ] is a collection of hymns to various deities, most notably heroic ], ] the sacrificial fire and messenger of the gods, and ], the deified sacred drink of the Indo-Iranians.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |article-url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/haoma-i |article=Haoma i. Botany |encyclopedia=] }}</ref> Also prominent is ] (often paired with Mitra) and the group of "All-gods", the ].<ref>{{cite book |author=Renou, Louis |title=L'Inde Classique |volume=1 |page=328 |series=Librairie d'Ameriqe et d'Orient |place=Paris |orig-year=1947 |year=1985 |isbn=2-7200-1035-9}}</ref>

===Sages===
{{See also|Timeline of Eastern philosophers#Vedic Period}}

In the Hindu tradition, the revered sages of this era were ],<ref name=staal3>{{cite book |first=Frits |last=Staal |author-link=Frits Staal |title=Discovering the Vedas: Origins, mantras, rituals, insights |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HcE23SjLX8sC&pg=PA3 |year=2008 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-309986-4 |pages=3, 365}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Patrick |last=Olivelle |title=The Samnyasa Upanisads: Hindu scriptures on asceticism and renunciation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fB8uneM7q1cC |year=1992 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-536137-7|pages=92, 140–146}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite book |first=Roshen |last=Dalal |title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC |year=2010 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-341421-6 |page=48}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite book |first=Roshen |last=Dalal |title=Hinduism: An alphabetical guide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC |year=2010 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-341421-6 |page=49}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite book |first=Roshen |last=Dalal |title=Hinduism: An alphabetical guide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC |year=2010 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-341421-6 |pages=66–67}}</ref> ], ],<ref>{{cite book |first=Roshen |last=Dalal |title=Hinduism: An alphabetical guide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC |year=2010 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-341421-6 |page=175}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite book |first=Roshen |last=Dalal |title=Hinduism: An alphabetical guide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC |year=2010 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-341421-6 |pages=200–201}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite book |first=Roshen |last=Dalal |title=Hinduism: An alphabetical guide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC |year=2010 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-341421-6 |pages=447–448}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite book |first=Roshen |last=Dalal |title=Hinduism: An alphabetical guide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC |year=2010 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-341421-6 |page=74}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite book |first=Roshen |last=Dalal |title=Hinduism: An alphabetical guide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC|year=2010 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-341421-6 |page=218}}</ref> ], ], ], ] Narayana, Kanva, ], ], and ].{{citation needed|date=March 2020}}

===Ethics – satya and rta===
{{See also|Asha|ṛta}}

Ethics in the Vedas are based on concepts like '']'' and '']''.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=us79wQEACAAJ&q=ethics+and+vedic|title=Vedic Cosmology and Ethics: Selected Studies|last=Bodewitz|first=Henk W.|date=2019|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-39864-1|language=en}}</ref>

In the ] and later ]s, the meaning of the word satya ({{linktext|सत्य}}) evolves into an ethical concept about truthfulness and is considered an important virtue.<ref name="knt">{{cite book |first=K. N. |last=Tiwari |year=1998 |title=Classical Indian Ethical Thought |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-8120816077 |page=87}}</ref><ref>A Dhand (2002), The dharma of ethics, the ethics of dharma: Quizzing the ideals of Hinduism, Journal of Religious Ethics, 30(3), pages 347–372</ref> It means being true and consistent with reality in one's thought, speech and action.<ref name="knt" />

] {{IAST|ṛtá}} and its ] equivalent ''{{lang|ae|]}}'' are both thought by some to derive from ] ] "truth",<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/asa-means-truth-in-avestan |title=AṦA (Asha "Truth") |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica|access-date=21 February 2013 }}</ref> which in turn may continue from a possible ] ''*{{PIE|h<sub>2</sub>r-tós}}'' "properly joined, right, true", from a presumed root ''*{{PIE|h<sub>2</sub>er-}}''. The derivative noun ''ṛta'' is defined as "fixed or settled order, rule, divine law or truth".<ref>Monier-Williams (1899:223b)</ref> As Mahony (1998) notes, however, the term can be translated as "that which has moved in a fitting manner" – although this meaning is not actually cited by authoritative Sanskrit dictionaries it is a regular derivation from the verbal root -, and abstractly as "universal law" or "cosmic order", or simply as "truth".<ref>Mahony (1998:3).</ref> The latter meaning dominates in the ] cognate to ''Ṛta'', '']''.<ref>Oldenberg (1894) p&nbsp;30. Cf. also Thieme (1960) p&nbsp;308.</ref>

Owing to the nature of ], the term ''Ṛta'' can be used to indicate numerous things, either directly or indirectly, and both Indian and European scholars have experienced difficulty in arriving at fitting interpretations for ''Ṛta'' in all of its various usages in the ], though the underlying sense of "ordered action" remains universally evident.<ref>Cf. Ramakrishna (1965) pp.&nbsp;45–46</ref>

The term is also found in the ], the religion of the ].<ref name="DG_1963_46">{{harvnb|Duchesne-Guillemin|1963|p=46}}.</ref> The term '']'' was already used in the later Brahmanical thoughts, where it was conceived as an aspect of ''ṛta''.<ref>{{cite book |author=Day, Terence P. |year=1982 |title=The Conception of Punishment in Early Indian Literature |place=Ontario |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |pages=42–45 |isbn=0-919812-15-5}}</ref>

===Vedic mythology===
The central myth at the base of Vedic ritual surrounds ] who, inebriated by ], slays the dragon (''ahi'') ], freeing the ], the cows, and ].

Vedic mythology contains numerous elements which are common to Indo-European mythological traditions, like the mythologies of ], ], and ], and those of the Celtic, Germanic, Baltic, and Slavic peoples. The Vedic god ] in part corresponds to ]r, the Sky Father, ], ], ] and ], or ]. The deity ], the lord of the dead, is hypothesized to be related to ] of ]n mythology. Vedic hymns refer to these and other deities, often 33, consisting of 8&nbsp;Vasus, 11&nbsp;Rudras, 12&nbsp;Adityas, and in the late Rigvedas, ]. These deities belong to the 3&nbsp;regions of the universe or heavens, the earth, and the intermediate space.

Some major deities of the Vedic tradition include ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ].<ref name = AAM>{{cite book |author=] |title=Vedic Mythology |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |location=Delhi |year=1995 |isbn=81-208-1113-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b7Meabtj8mcC |via=Google Books}}</ref>


==Post-Vedic religions== ==Post-Vedic religions==
]
{{main|Indian religions}}
Vedic religion gradually diversified into the ] paths of ] and ], a religious path considering itself the 'essence' of the Vedas. The Vedic pantheon was interpreted as a unitary view of the universe with ] seen as immanent and transcendent in the forms of ] (God's Personal Feature), ] (God's localised feature) and ] (God's Impersonal Energies). There are also conservative schools which continue portions of the historical Vedic religion largely unchanged until today (see ], ]).


The Vedic period is held to have ended around 500&nbsp;BCE. The period between 800 BCE and 200 BCE is the formative period for later ], ] and ].{{sfn|Michaels|2004|pp=36-38}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=82, 224–49}} According to Michaels, the period between 500 BCE and 200 BCE is a time of "ascetic reformism",{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=36}} while the period between 200&nbsp;BCE and 1100&nbsp;CE is the time of "classical Hinduism", since there is "a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions".{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=38}} Muesse discerns a longer period of change, namely between 800 BCE and 200&nbsp;BCE, which he calls the "Classical Period", when "traditional religious practices and beliefs were reassessed. The Brahmins and the rituals they performed no longer enjoyed the same prestige they had in the Vedic period".{{sfn|Muesse|2003|p=115}}
Religions that have continued from the Vedic religion :
*] traditions ('']''):<ref>These were not direct outgrowths of Vedism, but counter-movements heavily influenced by Brahmanical traditions.
S. Cromwell Crawford, review of L. M. Joshi, ''Brahmanism, Buddhism and Hinduism'', Philosophy East and West (1972): "Alongside Brahmanism was the non-Aryan Shramanic culture with its roots going back to prehistoric times."</ref>
**], from the 6th century BC
**], from ca. 500 BC; ] in India over the 8th to 12th centuries in favour of Pauranic Hinduism.
*] is an umbrella term for '']'' traditions in India (see ])
**], ]<ref>] s.v. '']'': "The great epic ] represents the attempt of Vedic Brahmanism to adjust itself to the new circumstances reflected in the process of the aryanization (integration of Aryan beliefs, practices, and institutions) of the various non-Aryan communities."</ref>
**the classical schools of ], of which only ] is extant.
**]
**]
**]
**] traditions, maintaining much of the original form of the Vedic religion.


Brahmanism evolved into Hinduism, which is significantly different from the preceding Brahmanism,{{efn|name="Vedic Hinduism"}} though "it is also convenient to have a single term for the whole complex of interrelated traditions."{{sfn|Sullivan |2001|p=9}} The transition from ancient Brahmanism to schools of Hinduism was a form of evolution in interaction with non-Vedic traditions. This transition preserved many central ideas and theosophy found in the Vedas while synergistically integrating non-Vedic ideas.{{sfn|Bronkhorst|2007}}{{sfn|Samuel|2010}}{{sfn|Witzel|1995}}<ref>{{cite book |first=Mircea |last=Eliade |series=History of Religious Ideas |volume=2 |title=From Gautama Buddha to the Triumph of Christianity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EumnAwAAQBAJ |year=2011|publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-02735-7 |pages=44–46 }}</ref><!-- **START OF NOTE** -->{{efn|name="Synthesis"|Scholars regard Hinduism as a synthesis{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2007|p=12}}{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=193}} of various Indian cultures and traditions,{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2007|p=12}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=16}} with diverse roots and no single founder.{{sfn|Osborne|2005|p=9}} Among its roots are the Vedic religion{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=16}} of the late ] and its emphasis on the status of Brahmans,{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=48-53}} but also the religions of the ],{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2007|p=3}} the ]{{sfn|Gomez|2013|p=42}} or renouncer traditions{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=16}} of ],{{sfn|Gomez|2013|p=42}} and "popular or ]".{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=16}} This ] emerged after the Vedic period, between ca. 500{{sfn|Hiltebeitel |2007|p=12}}–200{{sfn|Larson|2009}} BCE and ca. 300 CE,{{sfn|Hiltebeitel |2007|p=12}} in the period of the ] and the early ], when the ] and the first Purānas were composed.{{sfn|Hiltebeitel |2007|p=12}}{{sfn|Larson|2009}}}}<!-- **END OF NOTE** --> While part of Hinduism, ], ] and ] schools of Hinduism share their concern with escape from the suffering of existence with Buddhism.<ref>{{cite book |first=Mircea |last=Eliade |series=History of Religious Ideas |volume=2 |title=From Gautama Buddha to the Triumph of Christianity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EumnAwAAQBAJ |year=2011 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-02735-7 |pages=49–54 }}</ref>
==Notes==

{{reflist}}
===Continuation of orthodox ritual===
{{Main|Śrauta}}

According to ], the Vedic gods declined but did not disappear, and local cults were assimilated into the Vedic-Brahmanic pantheon, which changed into the Hindu pantheon. Deities such as ] and ] became more prominent and gave rise to ] and ].{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=40}}

According to David Knipe, some communities in India have preserved and continue to practice portions of the historical Vedic religion, as observed in ] and ] states and elsewhere.{{sfn|Knipe|2015|pp=41–45, 220–223}} According to the historian and ] linguist ], some of the rituals of the ] have elements of the historical Vedic religion, but there are also some differences such as the presence of fire next to the altar instead of "in the altar" as in the Vedic religion.<ref name=Witzel2004>{{cite book |author=Witzel, Michael |year=2004 |article=Kalash Religion (extract from 'The Ṛgvedic Religious System and its Central Asian and Hindukush Antecedents |editor1-first=A. |editor1-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=J.E.M. |editor2-last=Houben |title=The Vedas: Texts, language, and ritual |place=Groningen |publisher=Forsten |pages=581–636}}</ref><ref name=Witzel_Kalasha>{{cite web |title=Kalasha religion |url=http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/KalashaReligion.pdf |at=section&nbsp;1.5.2}}</ref>

===Mīmāṃsā and Vedanta===
] philosophers argue that there was no need to postulate a maker for the world, just as there was no need for an author to compose the Vedas or a god to validate the rituals.<ref>{{cite book |title=Religious Truth |first=Robert |last=Neville |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ThLR13JpCWsC |page=51|isbn=9780791447789 |date=2001|publisher=SUNY Press }}</ref> Mīmāṃsā argues that the gods named in the Vedas have no existence apart from the '']s'' that speak their names. To that regard, the power of the mantras is what is seen as the power of gods.<ref>{{cite book |title=The perfectibility of human nature in eastern and western thought |author-first=Harold |author-last=Coward |author-link=Harold Coward |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LkE_8uch5P0C |page=114|isbn=9780791473368 |date=2008|publisher=SUNY Press }}</ref>

Of the continuation of the Vedic tradition in the Upanishads, Fowler writes the following:
{{cquote|Despite the radically different nature of the Upanishads in relation to the ''Vedas'' it has to be remembered that the material of both form the ''Veda'' or "knowledge" which is ''sruti'' literature. So the ''Upanishads'' develop the ideas of the ''Vedas'' beyond their ritual formalism and should not be seen as isolated from them. The fact that the Vedas that are more particularly emphasized in the Vedanta: the efficacy of the Vedic ritual is not rejected, it is just that there is a search for the Reality that informs it.<ref>{{cite book |page=46 |title=Perspectives of Reality: An introduction to the philosophy of Hinduism |first=Jeaneane D. |last=Fowler}}</ref>}}

The ] gradually evolved into ], which is one of the primary schools of thought within ]. ] considers itself "the purpose or goal of the Vedas".<ref>{{cite book |first=Robert E. |last=Hume <!-- Professor Emeritus of History of Religions at the ] --> |publisher=] |title=The American College Dictionary |year=1966 |quote= is concerned with the end of the Vedas, both chronologically and teleologically.}}</ref>

===Sramana tradition===
{{Main|Śramaṇa|Jainism|Buddhism|Ājīvika}}

The non-Vedic śramaṇa traditions existed alongside Brahmanism.<ref name="S. Cromwell Crawford 1972">{{cite book |first=S. Cromwell |last=Crawford |chapter=review of L. M. Joshi, ''Brahmanism, Buddhism and Hinduism'' |title=Philosophy East and West |year=1972}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Kalghatgi, Dr. T.G. |year=1988 |title=Study of Jainism |publisher=Prakrit Bharti Academy |place=Jaipur}}</ref>{{efn|Cromwell: "Alongside Brahmanism was the non-Aryan Shramanic culture with its roots going back to prehistoric times."<ref name="S. Cromwell Crawford 1972" />}}<ref>{{cite book |first=Y. |last=Masih |year=2000 |title=A Comparative Study of Religions |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |place=Delhi, IN |isbn=81-208-0815-0 |page=18 |quote=There is no evidence to show that Jainism and Buddhism ever subscribed to Vedic sacrifices, Vedic deities or caste. They are parallel or native religions of India and have contributed ... much to the growth of even classical Hinduism of the present times.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=P.S. |last=Jaini |year=1979 |title=The Jaina Path to Purification |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |place=Delhi, IN |page=169 |quote=Jainas themselves have no memory of a time when they fell within the Vedic fold. Any theory that attempts to link the two traditions, moreover fails to appreciate rather distinctive and very non-Vedic character of Jaina cosmology, soul theory, karmic doctrine and atheism.}}</ref> These were not direct outgrowths of Vedism, but movements with mutual influences with Brahmanical traditions,<ref name="S. Cromwell Crawford 1972"/> reflecting "the cosmology and anthropology of a much older, pre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India".{{sfn|Zimmer|1989|p=217}} Jainism and Buddhism evolved out of the Shramana tradition.<ref>{{cite book |author=Svarghese, Alexander P. |year=2008 |title=India : History, religion, vision and contribution to the world |pages=259–260}}</ref>

There are Jaina references to 22 prehistoric ]s. In this view, Jainism peaked at the time of ] (traditionally put in the 6th century BCE).<ref>Helmuth von Glasenapp, Shridhar B. Shrotri. 1999. Jainism: an Indian religion of salvation. P.24. "Thus not only nothing, from the philosophical and the historical point of view, comes in the way of the supposition that Jainism was established by Parsva around 800&nbsp;BCE, but it is rather confirmed in everything that we know of the spiritual life of that period."</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Dundas, Paul |year=2002 |title=The Jains |page=17 |quote=Jainism, then, was in origin merely one component of a north Indian ascetic culture that flourished in the Ganges basin from around the eighth or seventh centuries&nbsp;BCE.}}</ref> ], traditionally put from c.&nbsp;500&nbsp;BCE, ] in India over the 5th to 12th&nbsp;centuries in favor of Puranic Hinduism<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Buddhism |year=2009 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica <!-- Retrieved 26 November 2009 --> |edition=Online Library}}</ref> and Islam.<ref>{{cite book |pages=78–83 |title=Freeing the Buddha: Diversity on a sacred path – large scale concerns |first=Brian |last=Ruhe}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |page=110 |title=A text book of the history of Theravāda Buddhism |first=K.T.S. |last=Sarao |publisher=University of Delhi |department=Dept. of Buddhist Studies}}</ref>


==See also== ==See also==
{{EB1911 poster|Brahmanism}}
*]
{{col div|colwidth=30em}}
*]
*] * ]
*] * ]
*] * ]
* ]
* ] – Vedic ritual site in Nepal
* ]
* '']''
* ]
{{colend}}

==Notes==
{{notelist|refs=
<!-- B -->
<!-- "BMAC" -->
{{efn|name="BMAC"|BMAC-influences:
* {{harvtxt|Beckwith|2011|p=32}}: "Although the Indo-Europeans settled in new lands, in some cases (such as Greece) evidently by conquest, they did not always dominate the local people in the beginning. Instead, they often served the local peoples as mercenary warriors, or came under their domination in general. In either case, the Indo-European migrants–who were mostly men–married local women and, by mixing with them, developed their distinctive creole dialect features. The most influential of the new dialects was Proto-Indo-Iranian, the speakers of which appear to have been influenced linguistically by a non-Indo-European people from whom the Indo-Iranians borrowed their distinctive religious beliefs and practices. The locus of this convergence is increasingly thought to have been the area of the advanced, non-Indo-European-speaking Bactria–Margiana Culture's centered in what is now northwestern Afghanistan and southern Turkmenistan. The other Indo-Europeans developed different dialects and beliefs under the influence of other non-Indo-European languages and cultures."
* {{harvtxt|Anthony|2007|pp=454–455}} states that at least 383 non-Indo-European words were borrowed from this culture, including the god ] and the ritual drink ], which was "probably borrowed from the BMAC religion."
* {{harvtxt|Anthony|2007|p=454}}: "Many of the qualities of Indo-Iranian god of might/victory, ], were transferred to the adopted god Indra, who became the central deity of the developing Old Indic culture. Indra was the subject of 250 hymns, a quarter of the ''Rigveda''. He was associated more than any other deity with ''Soma'', a stimulant drug (perhaps derived from ''Ephedra'') probably borrowed from the BMAC religion. His rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers."{{pb}}}}
<!-- V -->
<!-- "Vedic Hinduism" -->
{{efn|name="Vedic Hinduism"|Scholars such as Jan Gonda have used the term '''ancient Hinduism''', distinguishing it from "recent Hinduism".<br>{{harvtxt|Jamison|Witzel|1992|p=3}} use the term "Vedic Hinduism," but state:"...&nbsp;to call this period Vedic Hinduism is a '']'' since Vedic religion is very different from what we generally call Hindu religion – at least as much as Old Hebrew religion is from medieval and modern Christian religion. However, Vedic religion is treatable as a predecessor of Hinduism".<br>{{harvtxt|Michaels|2004|p=38}} also emphasizes the differences: "The legacy of the Vedic religion in Hinduism is generally overestimated. The influence of the mythology is indeed great, but the religious terminology changed considerably: all the key terms of Hinduism either do not exist in Vedic or have a completely different meaning. The religion of the Veda does not know the ethicised migration of the soul with retribution for acts (''karma''), the cyclical destruction of the world, or the idea of salvation during one's lifetime (''jivanmukti; moksa; nirvana''); the idea of the world as illusion (''maya'') must have gone against the grain of ancient India, and an omnipotent creator god emerges only in the late hymns of the rgveda. Nor did the Vedic religion know a caste system, the burning of widows, the ban on remarriage, images of gods and temples, Puja worship, Yoga, pilgrimages, vegetarianism, the holiness of cows, the doctrine of stages of life (''asrama''), or knew them only at their inception. Thus, it is justified to see a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions."<br>See also {{harvtxt|Halbfass|1991|pp=1–2}}<br>The explains that from the Vedic religion emerged '''Brahmanism''', a religious tradition of ancient India. It states, "Brahmanism emphasized the rites performed by, and the status of, the Brahman, or priestly, class as well as speculation about Brahman (the Absolute reality) as theorized in the Upanishads (speculative philosophical texts that are considered to be part of the Vedas, or scriptures)." From Brahmanism developed Hinduism, when it was synthesized, around the start of the Common Era, with the non-Vedic Indo-Aryan religious heritage of the eastern Ganges plain and with local religious traditions; see {{harvnb|Witzel|1995}}; {{harvnb|Hiltebeitel|2002}}; {{harvnb|Samuel|2010}}; {{harvnb|Welbon|2004}}; {{harvnb|Bronkhorst|2007}}.}}
}}

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{{reflist|30em}}

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{{refend}}

===Web-sources===
{{reflist|group=web|refs=
<!-- E -->
<!-- "EB_Brahmanism" -->
<!-- <ref name="EB_Brahmanism" group="web">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Brahmanism |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/77141/Brahmanism |date=15 September 2023}}</ref> -->
<!-- "EB_Vedic religion" -->
<ref name="EB_Vedic religion" group="web">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Vedic religion |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica |date=21 September 2024 |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Vedic-religion |quote=It takes its name from the collections of sacred texts known as the Vedas. Vedism is the oldest stratum of religious activity in India for which there exist written materials. It was one of the major traditions that shaped Hinduism.}}</ref>
}}

==Further reading==
* {{Citation | last =Bronkhorst | first =Johannes | title =Brahmanism: Its place in ancient Indian society | journal =Contributions to Indian Sociology |volume=51 |issue=3 |year=2017 |pages=361–369| doi =10.1177/0069966717717587 | s2cid =220050987 | url =https://serval.unil.ch/notice/serval:BIB_9E92BE209619 |author-link=Johannes Bronkhorst |ref=none}}

==External links==
* {{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Vedic-religion |title=Vedic religion |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=21 September 2024 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/The_Vedas/ |title=The Vedas |encyclopedia=]}}


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Latest revision as of 05:36, 15 December 2024

1500–500 BC Indo-Aryan religious practices of northwest India

The spread of the Vedic culture in the late Vedic period. Aryavarta was limited to northwest India and the western Ganges plain, while Greater Magadha in the east was occupied by non-Vedic Indo-Aryans. The location of shakhas is labeled in maroon.
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The historical Vedic religion, also called Vedicism or Vedism, and sometimes ancient Hinduism or Vedic Hinduism, constituted the religious ideas and practices prevalent amongst some of the Indo-Aryan peoples of the northwest Indian subcontinent (Punjab and the western Ganges plain) during the Vedic period (c. 1500–500 BCE). These ideas and practices are found in the Vedic texts, and some Vedic rituals are still practiced today. The Vedic religion is one of the major traditions which shaped modern Hinduism, though present-day Hinduism is significantly different from the historical Vedic religion.

The Vedic religion has roots in the Indo-Iranian culture and religion of the Sintashta (c. 2200–1750 BCE) and Andronovo (c. 2000–1150 BCE) cultures of Eurasian Steppe. This Indo-Iranian religion borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices" from the non-Indo-Aryan Bactria–Margiana culture (BMAC; 2250–1700 BCE) of south of Central Asia, when pastoral Indo-Aryan tribes stayed there as a separate people in the early 2nd millennium BCE. From the BMAC Indo-Aryan tribes migrated to the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent, and the Vedic religion developed there during the early Vedic period (c. 1500–1100 BCE) as a variant of Indo-Aryan religion, influenced by the remnants of the late Indus Valley Civilisation (2600–1900 BCE).

During the late Vedic period (c. 1100–500 BCE) Brahmanism developed out of the Vedic religion, as an ideology of the Kuru-Panchala realm which expanded into a wider area after the demise of the Kuru-Pancala realm and the domination of the non-Vedic Magadha cultural sphere. Brahmanism was one of the major influences that shaped contemporary Hinduism, when it was synthesized with the non-Vedic Indo-Aryan religious heritage of the eastern Ganges plain (which also gave rise to Buddhism and Jainism), and with local religious traditions.

Specific rituals and sacrifices of the Vedic religion include, among others: the Soma rituals; Fire rituals involving oblations (havir); and the Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice). The rites of grave burials as well as cremation are seen since the Rigvedic period. Deities emphasized in the Vedic religion include Dyaus, Indra, Agni, Rudra and Varuna, and important ethical concepts include satya and ṛta.

Terminology

Vedism and Brahmanism

Vedism refers to the oldest form of the Vedic religion, when Indo-Aryans entered into the valley of the Indus River in multiple waves during the 2nd millennium BCE. Brahmanism refers to the further developed form of the late Vedic period which took shape at the Ganges basin around c. 1000 BCE. According to Heesterman, "It is loosely known as Brahmanism because of the religious and legal importance it places on the brāhmaṇa (priestly) class of society." During the late Vedic period, the Brahmanas and early Upanishads were composed. Both Vedism and Brahmanism regard the Veda as sacred, but Brahmanism is more inclusive, incorporating doctrines and themes beyond the Vedas with practices like temple worship, puja, meditation, renunciation, vegetarianism, the role of the guru, and other non-Vedic elements important to Hindu religious life.

Ancient Hinduism and Vedic Hinduism

The terms ancient Hinduism and Vedic Hinduism have also been used when referring to the ancient Vedic religion.

According to Heinrich von Stietencron, in 19th century western publications, the Vedic religion was believed to be different from and unrelated to Hinduism. Instead, Hinduism was thought to be linked to the Hindu epics and the Puranas through sects based on purohita, tantras and Bhakti. In response to western colonialism and (Protestant) proselytizing, Hindu reform movements like the Brahmo Samaj and the Neo-Vedanta in the late 19th and early 20th century rejected the 'superstitions' of Puranic Hinduism, which in their view had deviated from the Vedic heritage, instead propagating a return to the Vedas and to restore an "imagined" original, rational and monotheistic ancient Hinduism with an equal standing as Protestant Christianity.

In the 20th century, the neo-Hindu emphasis on Vedic roots, and a better understanding of the Vedic religion and its shared heritage and theology with contemporary Hinduism, led scholars to view the historical Vedic religion as ancestral to modern Hinduism. The historical Vedic religion is now generally accepted to be a predecessor of modern Hinduism, but they are not the same because the textual evidence suggests significant differences between the two. These include the belief in an afterlife instead of the later developed reincarnation and samsāra concepts. Nevertheless, while "it is usually taught that the beginnings of historical Hinduism date from around the beginning of the Common Era," when "the key tendencies, the crucial elements that would be encompassed in Hindu traditions, collectively came together," some scholars have come to view the term "Hinduism" as encompassing Vedism and Brahmanism, in addition to the recent synthesis.

Origins and development

Further information: Indo-Aryans, Indo-Aryan migrations, Vedic period, Indo-European migrations, Proto-Indo-European religion, and Proto-Indo-Iranian religion

Indo-Aryan Vedic religion

The Vedic religion refers to the religious beliefs of some Vedic Indo-Aryan tribes, the aryas, who migrated into the Indus River valley region of the Indian subcontinent after the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilisation. The Vedic religion, and subsequent Brahmanism, center on the myths and ritual ideologies of the Vedas, as distinguished from Agamic, Tantric and sectarian forms of Indian religion, which take recourse to the authority of non-Vedic textual sources. The Vedic religion is described in the Vedas and associated with voluminous Vedic literature, including the early Upanishads, preserved into the modern times by the different priestly schools. The religion existed in the western Ganges plain in the early Vedic period from c. 1500–1100 BCE, and developed into Brahmanism in the late Vedic period (c. 1100–500 BCE). The eastern Ganges plain was dominated by another Indo-Aryan complex, which rejected the later Brahmanical ideology and gave rise to Jainism and Buddhism, and the Maurya Empire.

Indo-European roots and syncreticism

The Indo-Aryans were speakers of a branch of the Indo-European language family which originated in the Sintashta culture and further developed into the Andronovo culture, which in turn developed out of the Kurgan culture of the Central Asian steppes. The commonly proposed period of earlier Vedic age is dated back to 2nd millennium BCE.

The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesized Proto-Indo-European religion, and shows relations with rituals from the Andronovo culture, from which the Indo-Aryan people descended. According to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the contact zone between the Zeravshan River (present-day Uzbekistan) and (present-day) Iran. It was "a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements" which borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices" from the Bactria–Margiana culture (BMAC). This syncretic influence is supported by at least 383 non-Indo-European words that were borrowed from this culture, including the god Indra and the ritual drink Soma. According to Anthony,

Many of the qualities of Indo-Iranian god of might/victory, Verethraghna, were transferred to the adopted god Indra, who became the central deity of the developing Old Indic culture. Indra was the subject of 250 hymns, a quarter of the Rig Veda. He was associated more than any other deity with Soma, a stimulant drug (perhaps derived from Ephedra) probably borrowed from the BMAC religion. His rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers.

The oldest inscriptions in Old Indic, the language of the Rig Veda, are found in northern Syria, the location of the Mitanni kingdom. The Mitanni kings took Old Indic throne names, and Old Indic technical terms were used for horse-riding and chariot-driving. The Old Indic term r'ta, meaning "cosmic order and truth", the central concept of the Rig Veda, was also employed in the Mitanni kingdom. Old Indic gods, including Indra, were also known in the Mitanni kingdom.

South Asian influences

The Vedic religion was the product of "a composite of the Indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures and civilizations". White (2003) cites three other scholars who "have emphatically demonstrated" that Vedic religion is partially derived from the Indus Valley civilization.

It is unclear if the theory in diverse Vedic texts actually reflect the folk practices, iconography, and other practical aspects of the Vedic religion. The Vedic religion changed when Indo-Aryan people migrated into the Ganges Plain after c. 1100 BCE and became settled farmers, further syncretizing with the native cultures of northern India. The evidence suggests that the Vedic religion evolved in "two superficially contradictory directions", namely an ever more "elaborate, expensive, and specialized system of rituals", which survives in the present-day srauta-ritual, and "abstraction and internalization of the principles underlying ritual and cosmic speculation" within oneself, akin to the Jain and Buddhist tradition.

Aspects of the historical Vedic religion still continue in modern times. For instance, the Nambudiri Brahmins continue the ancient Śrauta rituals, and the complex Vedic rituals of Śrauta are practiced in Kerala and coastal Andhra. The Kalash people residing in northwest Pakistan also continue to practice a form of the ancient Vedic religion. It has also been suggested by Michael Witzel that Shinto, the native religion of Japan, contains some influences from the ancient Vedic religion.

Brahmanism

"Brahamic" redirects here. For the writing scripts, see Brahmic scripts. "Brahmanism" redirects here. Not to be confused with Branhamism.

Historical Brahminism

Brahmanism, also called Brahminism or Brahmanical Hinduism, developed out of the Vedic religion, incorporating non-Vedic religious ideas, and expanding to a region stretching from the northwest Indian subcontinent to the Ganges valley. Brahmanism included the Vedic corpus, but also post-Vedic texts such as the Dharmasutras and Dharmasastras, which gave prominence to the priestly (Brahmin) class of the society, Heesterman also mentions the post-Vedic Smriti (Puranas and the Epics), which are also incorporated in the later Smarta tradition. The emphasis on ritual and the dominant position of Brahmans developed as an ideology in the Kuru-Pancala realm, and expanded over a wider area after the demise of the Kuru-Pancala kingdom and its incorporation into the Magadha-based empires. It co-existed with local religions, such as the Yaksha cults.

The word Brahmanism was coined by Gonçalo Fernandes Trancoso (1520–1596) in the 16th century. Historically, and still by some modern authors, the word 'Brahmanism' was used in English to refer to the Hindu religion, treating the term Brahmanism as synonymous with Hinduism, and using it interchangeably. Michael S. Allen criticises the use of "Brahminism" for the "greater Vedic tradition", arguing that it obscures the contribution of non-Brahmins to the tradition. In the 18th and 19th centuries, Brahminism was the most common term used in English for Hinduism. Brahmanism gave importance to Absolute Reality (Brahman) speculations in the early Upanishads, as these terms are etymologically linked, which developed from post-Vedic ideas during the late Vedic era. The concept of Brahman is posited as that which existed before the creation of the universe, which constitutes all of existence thereafter, and into which the universe will dissolve, followed by similar endless creation-maintenance-destruction cycles.

The post-Vedic period of the Second Urbanisation saw a decline of Brahmanism. With the growth of political entities, which threatened the income and patronage of the rural Brahmins including; the Sramanic movement, the conquests of eastern empires from Magadha including the Nanda Empire and the Mauryan Empire, and also invasions and foreign rule of the northwestern Indian Subcontinent which brought in new political entities. This was overcome by providing new services and incorporating the non-Vedic Indo-Aryan religious heritage of the eastern Ganges plain and local religious traditions, giving rise to contemporary Hinduism. This "new Brahmanism" appealed to rulers, who were attracted to the supernatural powers and the practical advice Brahmins could provide, and resulted in a resurgence of Brahmanical influence, dominating Indian society since the classical Age of Hinduism in the early centuries CE.

As a polemical term

Nowadays, the term Brahmanism, used interchangeably with Brahminism, is used in several ways. It denotes the specific Brahmanical rituals and worldview as preserved in the Śrauta ritual, as distinct from the wide range of popular cultic activity with little connection with them. Brahminism also refers specifically to the Brahminical ideology, which sees Brahmins as naturally privileged people entitled to rule and dominate society. The term is frequently used by anti-Brahmin opponents, who object against their domination of Indian society and their exclusivist ideology. They follow the outline of 19th century colonial rulers, who viewed India's culture as corrupt and degenerate, and its population as irrational. In this view, derived from a Christian understanding of religion, the original "God-given religion" was corrupted by priests, in this case Brahmins, and their religion, "Brahminism", which was supposedly imposed on the Indian population. Reformist Hindus, and others such as Ambedkar, structured their criticism along similar lines.

Textual history

A Yupa sacrificial post of the time of Vasishka, 3rd century CE. Isapur, near Mathura. Mathura Museum.

Texts dating to the Vedic period, composed in Vedic Sanskrit, are mainly the four Vedic Samhitas, but the Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and some of the older Upanishads are also placed in this period. The Vedas record the liturgy connected with the rituals and sacrifices. These texts are also considered as a part of the scripture of contemporary Hinduism.

Who really knows?
Who will here proclaim it?
Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation?
The gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe.
Who then knows whence it has arisen?
— Nasadiya Sukta, Rig Veda, 10:129-6

Characteristics

See also: Proto-Indo-Iranian religion

The idea of reincarnation, or saṃsāra, is not mentioned in the early layers of the historic Vedic religion texts such as the Rigveda. The later layers of the Rigveda do mention ideas that suggest an approach towards the idea of rebirth, according to Ranade.

The early layers of the Vedas do not mention the doctrine of Karma and rebirth, but mention the belief in an afterlife. According to Sayers, these earliest layers of the Vedic literature show ancestor worship and rites such as sraddha (offering food to the ancestors). The later Vedic texts such as the Aranyakas and the Upanisads show a different soteriology based on reincarnation, they show little concern with ancestor rites, and they begin to philosophically interpret the earlier rituals. The idea of reincarnation and karma have roots in the Upanishads of the late Vedic period, predating the Buddha and the Mahavira. Similarly, the later layers of the Vedic literature such as the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (c. 800 BCE) – such as in section 4.4 – discuss the earliest versions of the Karma doctrine as well as causality.

The ancient Vedic religion lacked the belief in reincarnation and concepts such as Saṃsāra or Nirvana. It was a complex animistic religion with polytheistic and pantheistic aspects. Ancestor worship was an important, maybe the central component, of the ancient Vedic religion. Elements of the ancestors cult are still common in modern Hinduism in the form of Śrāddha.

According to Olivelle, some scholars state that the renouncer tradition was an "organic and logical development of ideas found in the Vedic religious culture", while others state that these emerged from the "indigenous non-Aryan population". This scholarly debate is a longstanding one, and is ongoing.

Rituals

Main articles: Yajurveda and yajna
A Śrauta yajna being performed in Kerala

Specific rituals and sacrifices of the Vedic religion include, among others:

  • Fire rituals involving oblations (havir):
    • The Agnyadheya, or installation of the fire
    • The Agnihotra or oblation to Agni, a sun charm
    • The Darshapurnamsa, the new and full moon sacrifices
    • The four seasonal (Cāturmāsya) sacrifices
    • The Agnicayana, the sophisticated ritual of piling the fire altar
  • The Pashubandhu, the (semi-)annual animal sacrifice
  • The Soma rituals, which involved the extraction, utility and consumption of Soma:
    • The Jyotishtoma
      • The Agnishtoma
        • The Pravargya (originally an independent rite, later absorbed into the soma rituals)
      • The Ukthya
      • The Sodashin
      • The Atyagnishtoma
      • The Atiratra
      • The Aptoryama
      • The Vajapeya
  • The royal consecration (Rajasuya) sacrifice
  • The Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) or a Yajna dedicated to the glory, wellbeing and prosperity of the kingdom or empire
  • The Purushamedha
  • The rituals and charms referred to in the Atharvaveda are concerned with medicine and healing practices
  • The Gomedha or cow sacrifice:
    • The Taittiriya Brahmana of the Yajur Veda gives instructions for selecting the cow for the sacrifice depending on the deity.
    • Panchasaradiya sava – celebration where 17 cows are immolated once every five years. The Taittiriya Brahmana advocates the Panchasaradiya for those who want to be great.
    • Sulagava – sacrifice where roast beef is offered. It is mentioned in the Grihya Sutra
    • According to Dr. R. Mitra, the offered animal was intended for consumption as detailed in the Asvalayana Sutra. The Gopatha Brahmana lists the different individuals who are to receive the various parts like Pratiharta (neck and hump), the Udgatr, the Neshta, the Sadasya, the householder who performs the sacrifice (the two right feet), his wife (the two left feet) and so on.

The Hindu rites of cremation are seen since the Rigvedic period; while they are attested from early times in the Cemetery H culture, there is a late Rigvedic reference invoking forefathers "both cremated (agnidagdhá-) and uncremated (ánagnidagdha-)". (RV 10.15.14)

Pantheon

Main article: Rigvedic deities
Detail of the Phra Prang, the central tower of the Wat Arun ("Temple of Dawn") in Bangkok, Thailand, showing the ancient Vedic god Indra and three-headed Erawan (Airavata).

Though a large number of names for devas occur in the Rigveda, only 33 devas are counted, eleven each of earth, space, and heaven. The Vedic pantheon knows two classes, Devas and Asuras. The Devas (Mitra, Varuna, Aryaman, Bhaga, Amsa, etc.) are deities of cosmic and social order, from the universe and kingdoms down to the individual. The Rigveda is a collection of hymns to various deities, most notably heroic Indra, Agni the sacrificial fire and messenger of the gods, and Soma, the deified sacred drink of the Indo-Iranians. Also prominent is Varuna (often paired with Mitra) and the group of "All-gods", the Vishvadevas.

Sages

See also: Timeline of Eastern philosophers § Vedic Period

In the Hindu tradition, the revered sages of this era were Yajnavalkya, Atharvan, Atri, Bharadvaja, Gautama Maharishi, Jamadagni, Kashyapa, Vasistha, Bhrigu, Kutsa, Pulastya, Kratu, Pulaha, Vishwamitra Narayana, Kanva, Rishabha, Vamadeva, and Angiras.

Ethics – satya and rta

See also: Asha and ṛta

Ethics in the Vedas are based on concepts like satya and ṛta.

In the Vedas and later sutras, the meaning of the word satya (सत्य) evolves into an ethical concept about truthfulness and is considered an important virtue. It means being true and consistent with reality in one's thought, speech and action.

Vedic ṛtá and its Avestan equivalent aša are both thought by some to derive from Proto-Indo-Iranian *Hr̥tás "truth", which in turn may continue from a possible Proto-Indo-European *h2r-tós "properly joined, right, true", from a presumed root *h2er-. The derivative noun ṛta is defined as "fixed or settled order, rule, divine law or truth". As Mahony (1998) notes, however, the term can be translated as "that which has moved in a fitting manner" – although this meaning is not actually cited by authoritative Sanskrit dictionaries it is a regular derivation from the verbal root -, and abstractly as "universal law" or "cosmic order", or simply as "truth". The latter meaning dominates in the Avestan cognate to Ṛta, aša.

Owing to the nature of Vedic Sanskrit, the term Ṛta can be used to indicate numerous things, either directly or indirectly, and both Indian and European scholars have experienced difficulty in arriving at fitting interpretations for Ṛta in all of its various usages in the Vedas, though the underlying sense of "ordered action" remains universally evident.

The term is also found in the Proto-Indo-Iranian religion, the religion of the Indo-Iranian peoples. The term dharma was already used in the later Brahmanical thoughts, where it was conceived as an aspect of ṛta.

Vedic mythology

The central myth at the base of Vedic ritual surrounds Indra who, inebriated by Soma, slays the dragon (ahi) Vritra, freeing the rivers, the cows, and Dawn.

Vedic mythology contains numerous elements which are common to Indo-European mythological traditions, like the mythologies of Persia, Greece, and Rome, and those of the Celtic, Germanic, Baltic, and Slavic peoples. The Vedic god Indra in part corresponds to Dyaus Pitar, the Sky Father, Zeus, Jupiter, Thor and Tyr, or Perun. The deity Yama, the lord of the dead, is hypothesized to be related to Yima of Persian mythology. Vedic hymns refer to these and other deities, often 33, consisting of 8 Vasus, 11 Rudras, 12 Adityas, and in the late Rigvedas, Prajapati. These deities belong to the 3 regions of the universe or heavens, the earth, and the intermediate space.

Some major deities of the Vedic tradition include Indra, Dyaus, Surya, Agni, Ushas, Vayu, Varuna, Mitra, Aditi, Yama, Soma, Sarasvati, Prithvi, and Rudra.

Post-Vedic religions

The hymn 10.85 of the Rigveda includes the Vivaha-sukta (above). Its recitation continues to be a part of Hindu wedding rituals.

The Vedic period is held to have ended around 500 BCE. The period between 800 BCE and 200 BCE is the formative period for later Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. According to Michaels, the period between 500 BCE and 200 BCE is a time of "ascetic reformism", while the period between 200 BCE and 1100 CE is the time of "classical Hinduism", since there is "a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions". Muesse discerns a longer period of change, namely between 800 BCE and 200 BCE, which he calls the "Classical Period", when "traditional religious practices and beliefs were reassessed. The Brahmins and the rituals they performed no longer enjoyed the same prestige they had in the Vedic period".

Brahmanism evolved into Hinduism, which is significantly different from the preceding Brahmanism, though "it is also convenient to have a single term for the whole complex of interrelated traditions." The transition from ancient Brahmanism to schools of Hinduism was a form of evolution in interaction with non-Vedic traditions. This transition preserved many central ideas and theosophy found in the Vedas while synergistically integrating non-Vedic ideas. While part of Hinduism, Vedanta, Samkhya and Yoga schools of Hinduism share their concern with escape from the suffering of existence with Buddhism.

Continuation of orthodox ritual

Main article: Śrauta

According to Axel Michaels, the Vedic gods declined but did not disappear, and local cults were assimilated into the Vedic-Brahmanic pantheon, which changed into the Hindu pantheon. Deities such as Shiva and Vishnu became more prominent and gave rise to Shaivism and Vaishnavism.

According to David Knipe, some communities in India have preserved and continue to practice portions of the historical Vedic religion, as observed in Kerala and Andhra Pradesh states and elsewhere. According to the historian and Sanskrit linguist Michael Witzel, some of the rituals of the Kalash people have elements of the historical Vedic religion, but there are also some differences such as the presence of fire next to the altar instead of "in the altar" as in the Vedic religion.

Mīmāṃsā and Vedanta

Mīmāṃsā philosophers argue that there was no need to postulate a maker for the world, just as there was no need for an author to compose the Vedas or a god to validate the rituals. Mīmāṃsā argues that the gods named in the Vedas have no existence apart from the mantras that speak their names. To that regard, the power of the mantras is what is seen as the power of gods.

Of the continuation of the Vedic tradition in the Upanishads, Fowler writes the following:

Despite the radically different nature of the Upanishads in relation to the Vedas it has to be remembered that the material of both form the Veda or "knowledge" which is sruti literature. So the Upanishads develop the ideas of the Vedas beyond their ritual formalism and should not be seen as isolated from them. The fact that the Vedas that are more particularly emphasized in the Vedanta: the efficacy of the Vedic ritual is not rejected, it is just that there is a search for the Reality that informs it.

The Upanishads gradually evolved into Vedanta, which is one of the primary schools of thought within Hinduism. Vedanta considers itself "the purpose or goal of the Vedas".

Sramana tradition

Main articles: Śramaṇa, Jainism, Buddhism, and Ājīvika

The non-Vedic śramaṇa traditions existed alongside Brahmanism. These were not direct outgrowths of Vedism, but movements with mutual influences with Brahmanical traditions, reflecting "the cosmology and anthropology of a much older, pre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India". Jainism and Buddhism evolved out of the Shramana tradition.

There are Jaina references to 22 prehistoric tirthankaras. In this view, Jainism peaked at the time of Mahavira (traditionally put in the 6th century BCE). Buddhism, traditionally put from c. 500 BCE, declined in India over the 5th to 12th centuries in favor of Puranic Hinduism and Islam.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Scholars such as Jan Gonda have used the term ancient Hinduism, distinguishing it from "recent Hinduism".
    Jamison & Witzel (1992, p. 3) use the term "Vedic Hinduism," but state:"... to call this period Vedic Hinduism is a contradictio in terminis since Vedic religion is very different from what we generally call Hindu religion – at least as much as Old Hebrew religion is from medieval and modern Christian religion. However, Vedic religion is treatable as a predecessor of Hinduism".
    Michaels (2004, p. 38) also emphasizes the differences: "The legacy of the Vedic religion in Hinduism is generally overestimated. The influence of the mythology is indeed great, but the religious terminology changed considerably: all the key terms of Hinduism either do not exist in Vedic or have a completely different meaning. The religion of the Veda does not know the ethicised migration of the soul with retribution for acts (karma), the cyclical destruction of the world, or the idea of salvation during one's lifetime (jivanmukti; moksa; nirvana); the idea of the world as illusion (maya) must have gone against the grain of ancient India, and an omnipotent creator god emerges only in the late hymns of the rgveda. Nor did the Vedic religion know a caste system, the burning of widows, the ban on remarriage, images of gods and temples, Puja worship, Yoga, pilgrimages, vegetarianism, the holiness of cows, the doctrine of stages of life (asrama), or knew them only at their inception. Thus, it is justified to see a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions."
    See also Halbfass (1991, pp. 1–2)
    The Encyclopædia Britannica explains that from the Vedic religion emerged Brahmanism, a religious tradition of ancient India. It states, "Brahmanism emphasized the rites performed by, and the status of, the Brahman, or priestly, class as well as speculation about Brahman (the Absolute reality) as theorized in the Upanishads (speculative philosophical texts that are considered to be part of the Vedas, or scriptures)." From Brahmanism developed Hinduism, when it was synthesized, around the start of the Common Era, with the non-Vedic Indo-Aryan religious heritage of the eastern Ganges plain and with local religious traditions; see Witzel 1995; Hiltebeitel 2002; Samuel 2010; Welbon 2004; Bronkhorst 2007.
  2. ^ The Indo-Aryans were pastoralists who migrated into north-western India after the collapse of the Indus Valley civilization, bringing with them their language and religion. They were closely related to the Indo-Aryans who founded Mitanni kingdom in northern Syria (c.1500–1300 BCE).
    Both groups were rooted in the Andronovo-culture in the Bactria–Margiana era, in present northern Afghanistan, and related to the Indo-Iranians, from which they split off around 1800–1600 BCE. Their roots go back further to the Sintashta culture, with funeral sacrifices which show close parallels to the sacrificial funeral rites of the Rig Veda.
    The immigrations consisted probably of small groups of people. Kenoyer (1998) notes that "there is no archaeological or biological evidence for invasions or mass migrations into the Indus Valley between the end of the Harappan phase, about 1900 B.C. and the beginning of the Early Historic period around 600 B.C."
    For an overview of the current relevant research, see the following references.
  3. BMAC-influences:
    • Beckwith (2011, p. 32): "Although the Indo-Europeans settled in new lands, in some cases (such as Greece) evidently by conquest, they did not always dominate the local people in the beginning. Instead, they often served the local peoples as mercenary warriors, or came under their domination in general. In either case, the Indo-European migrants–who were mostly men–married local women and, by mixing with them, developed their distinctive creole dialect features. The most influential of the new dialects was Proto-Indo-Iranian, the speakers of which appear to have been influenced linguistically by a non-Indo-European people from whom the Indo-Iranians borrowed their distinctive religious beliefs and practices. The locus of this convergence is increasingly thought to have been the area of the advanced, non-Indo-European-speaking Bactria–Margiana Culture's centered in what is now northwestern Afghanistan and southern Turkmenistan. The other Indo-Europeans developed different dialects and beliefs under the influence of other non-Indo-European languages and cultures."
    • Anthony (2007, pp. 454–455) states that at least 383 non-Indo-European words were borrowed from this culture, including the god Indra and the ritual drink Soma, which was "probably borrowed from the BMAC religion."
    • Anthony (2007, p. 454): "Many of the qualities of Indo-Iranian god of might/victory, Verethraghna, were transferred to the adopted god Indra, who became the central deity of the developing Old Indic culture. Indra was the subject of 250 hymns, a quarter of the Rigveda. He was associated more than any other deity with Soma, a stimulant drug (perhaps derived from Ephedra) probably borrowed from the BMAC religion. His rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers."
  4. See Witzel 1995 for an elaborate description of the religious and socio-political development of the late Vedic society
  5. Michaels: "They called themselves arya ('Aryans', literally 'the hospitable', from the Vedic arya, 'homey, the hospitable') but even in the Rgveda, arya denotes a cultural and linguistic boundary and not only a racial one."
  6. There is no exact dating possible for the beginning of the Vedic period. Witzel mentions a range between 1900 and 1400 BCE. Flood (1996) mentions 1500 BCE.
  7. Some writers and archaeologists have opposed the notion of a migration of Indo-Aryans into India, due to a lack of archaeological evidence and signs of cultural continuity, hypothesizing instead a slow process of acculturation or transformation. According to Upinder Singh, "The original homeland of the Indo-Europeans and Indo-Aryans is the subject of continuing debate among philologists, linguists, historians, archaeologists, and others. The dominant view is that the Indo-Aryams came to the subcontinent as immigrants. Another view, advocated mainly by some Indian scholars, is that they were indigenous to the subcontinent." Edwin Bryant used the term "Indo-Aryan controversy" for an oversight of the Indo-Aryan migration theory, and some of its opponents.
    Mallory and Adams note that two types of models "enjoy significant international currency", namely the Anatolian hypothesis, and a migration out of the Eurasian steppes. Linguistic and archaeological data clearly show a cultural change after 1750 BCE, with the linguistic and religious data clearly showing links with Indo-European languages and religion. According to Singh, "The dominant view is that the Indo-Aryans came to the subcontinent as immigrants."
    An overview of the "Indigenist position" can be obtained from Bryant & Patton (2005). See also the article Indigenous Aryans
  8. See Kuzʹmina (2007), The Origin of the Indo-Iranians, p. 339, for an overview of publications up to 1997 on this subject.
  9. Up to the late 19th century, the Nuristanis of Afghanistan observed a primitive form of Hinduism until they were forcibly converted to Islam under the rule of Abdur Rahman Khan. However, aspects of the historical Vedic religion survived in other corners of the Indian subcontinent, such as Kerala, where the Nambudiri Brahmins continue the ancient Śrauta rituals. The Kalash people residing in northwest Pakistan also continue to practice a form of the ancient Vedic religion.
  10. For the metaphysical concept of Brahman, see: Lipner, Julius (2012). Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. Routledge. pp. 251–252, 283, 366–369. ISBN 978-1-135-24061-5; Perrett, Roy W. (1998). Hindu Ethics: A Philosophical Study. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 53–54. ISBN 978-0-8248-2085-5.
  11. Upanishads thought to date from the Vedic period are Bṛhadāraṇyaka, Chāndogya, Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana.
  12. Scholars regard Hinduism as a synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no single founder. Among its roots are the Vedic religion of the late Vedic period and its emphasis on the status of Brahmans, but also the religions of the Indus Valley civilisation, the Sramana or renouncer traditions of east India, and "popular or local traditions". This Hindu synthesis emerged after the Vedic period, between ca. 500–200 BCE and ca. 300 CE, in the period of the Second Urbanisation and the early classical period of Hinduism, when the Epics and the first Purānas were composed.
  13. Cromwell: "Alongside Brahmanism was the non-Aryan Shramanic culture with its roots going back to prehistoric times."

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  137. Cf. Ramakrishna (1965) pp. 45–46
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  153. Hiltebeitel 2007, p. 3.
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  164. Masih, Y. (2000). A Comparative Study of Religions. Delhi, IN: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 18. ISBN 81-208-0815-0. There is no evidence to show that Jainism and Buddhism ever subscribed to Vedic sacrifices, Vedic deities or caste. They are parallel or native religions of India and have contributed ... much to the growth of even classical Hinduism of the present times.
  165. Jaini, P.S. (1979). The Jaina Path to Purification. Delhi, IN: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 169. Jainas themselves have no memory of a time when they fell within the Vedic fold. Any theory that attempts to link the two traditions, moreover fails to appreciate rather distinctive and very non-Vedic character of Jaina cosmology, soul theory, karmic doctrine and atheism.
  166. Zimmer 1989, p. 217.
  167. Svarghese, Alexander P. (2008). India : History, religion, vision and contribution to the world. pp. 259–260.
  168. Helmuth von Glasenapp, Shridhar B. Shrotri. 1999. Jainism: an Indian religion of salvation. P.24. "Thus not only nothing, from the philosophical and the historical point of view, comes in the way of the supposition that Jainism was established by Parsva around 800 BCE, but it is rather confirmed in everything that we know of the spiritual life of that period."
  169. Dundas, Paul (2002). The Jains. p. 17. Jainism, then, was in origin merely one component of a north Indian ascetic culture that flourished in the Ganges basin from around the eighth or seventh centuries BCE.
  170. "Buddhism". Encyclopædia Britannica (Online Library ed.). 2009.
  171. Ruhe, Brian. Freeing the Buddha: Diversity on a sacred path – large scale concerns. pp. 78–83.
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Sources

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Web-sources

  1. ^ "Vedic religion". Encyclopedia Britannica. 21 September 2024. It takes its name from the collections of sacred texts known as the Vedas. Vedism is the oldest stratum of religious activity in India for which there exist written materials. It was one of the major traditions that shaped Hinduism.

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