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| {{short description|Arab transformation of agriculture in Medieval Spain}} | |||
| The ] from the ] to the ] witnessed a fundamental transformation in ] known as the '''Muslim ]''', '''Arab Agricultural Revolution''' or ''']'''.<ref name=Glick/> Due to the ] established by Muslim traders across the ], this enabled the ] of many ]s and ] techniques between different parts of the Islamic world, as well as the adaptation of plants and techniques from beyond the Islamic world. ] from ] such as ], crops from ] such as ]s, and numerous crops from ] such as ]s, ], and especially ] and ], were distributed throughout Islamic lands which normally would not be able to grow these crops.<ref name=Watson/> Some have referred to the diffusion of numerous crops during this period as the "] of Crops",<ref>, FSTC</ref> which, along with an increased ] of agriculture (see ] below), led to major changes in ], ], ] cover,<ref>Andrew M. Watson (1983), ''Agricultural Innovation in the Early Islamic World'', ], ISBN 052124711X.</ref> agricultural production and ], ] levels, ], the distribution of the ] force, linked ], ] and ], ], and numerous other aspects of ] in the Islamic world.<ref name=Watson>Andrew M. Watson (1974), "The Arab Agricultural Revolution and Its Diffusion, 700-1100", ''The Journal of Economic History'' '''34''' (1), p. 8-35.</ref> | |||
| {{good article}} | |||
| ] during the ] by spreading major crops and techniques such as ] across the ].]] | |||
| The '''Arab Agricultural Revolution'''{{efn|The Arab Agricultural Revolution{{sfn|Watson|1974|pp=8–35}} has also variously been called the Medieval Green Revolution,{{sfn|Watson|1981|pp=}}{{sfn|Glick|1977|pp=644–650}} the Muslim Agricultural Revolution,{{sfn|Idrisi|2005|pp=}} the Islamic Agricultural Revolution{{sfn|Decker|2009}} and the Islamic Green Revolution.{{sfn|Burke|2009|p=174}}}} was the transformation in ] in the ] during the ] (8th to 13th centuries). The ] literature of the time, with major books by ] and ], demonstrates the extensive diffusion of useful plants to Medieval Spain (]), and the growth in ] of agriculture and ]. Medieval Arab historians and geographers described al-Andalus as a fertile and prosperous region with abundant water, full of fruit from trees such as the ] and ]. Archaeological evidence demonstrates improvements in ] and in ] such as with the '']'' waterwheel. These changes made agriculture far more productive, supporting population growth, urbanisation, and increased stratification of society. | |||
| The revolution was first described by the historian Antonio Garcia Maceira in 1876.{{sfn|Ruggles|2000|pages=31–32}} The name was coined by the historian Andrew Watson in an influential{{sfn|Decker|2009}}{{sfn|Squatriti|2014|pp=1205–1220}} but at the time controversial 1974 paper. However, by 2014 it had proven useful to historians, and had been supported by findings in archaeology and ].{{sfn|Squatriti|2014|pp=1205–1220}} | |||
| ==Age of discovery== | |||
| :''See also: ], ], and ] | |||
| ==Medieval history== | |||
| The earliest forms of ] began emerging during the ] and the Islamic Golden Age, when the ], ] and ] from many previously ] regions and ]s began integrating due to contacts with ] ]s, ]s, scholars, traders, and ]ers. Some have called this period the "Pax Islamica" or "Afro-Asiatic ]", in reference to the Muslim ]n and ]n traders and explorers who travelled most of the ], and established an early ]<ref name=Hobson-29-30/> across most of ] and ] and much of ], with their trade ]s extending from the ] and ] in the west to the ] and ] in the east.<ref name=Labib>Subhi Y. Labib (1969), "Capitalism in Medieval Islam", ''The Journal of Economic History'' '''29''' (1), p. 79-96.</ref> This helped establish the ] (including the ], ], ] and ] ]s) as the world's leading extensive economic power throughout the 7th-13th centuries.<ref name=Hobson-29-30>John M. Hobson (2004), ''The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation'', p. 29-30, ], ISBN 0521547245.</ref> | |||
| {{see also|Science in the medieval Islamic world}} | |||
| ===Islamic agronomy=== | |||
| Apart from the ], ] and ], navigable rivers were uncommon, so transport by sea was very important. Navigational sciences were highly developed making use of a magnetic ] and a rudimentary ] known as a ], used for ] and for measuring the ]s and ]s of the ]s. When combined with detailed maps of the period, sailors were able to sail across ]s rather than skirt along the coast. Muslim sailors were also responsible for introducing the ] ]s and large three-] ]s to the ]. The origins of the ] ], used for long distance travel by the Spanish and Portuguese since the 15th century, also date back to the ''qarib'' used by ] explorers by the 13th century.<ref name=Hobson>John M. Hobson (2004), ''The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation'', p. 141, ], ISBN 0521547245.</ref> | |||
| ]: ] and ] described in detail how to propagate and care for trees such as ] and ].]] | |||
| ] (1304-1368) was a traveler and ], whose account documents his travels and excursions over a period of almost thirty years, covering some 73,000 miles (117,000 km). These journeys covered most of the known ], extending from ], ], ] and ] in the west, to the ], ], ], ] and ] in the east, a distance readily surpassing that of his predecessors and his near-contemporary ]. | |||
| {{see also|Andalusi agricultural corpus}} | |||
| Several contemporary medieval Arabic reports suggest that Muslim explorers from ] and ] may have travelled in expeditions across the ], possibly even to the ], between the 9th and 14th centuries. ] (896-956) reported that the navigator Khashkhash Ibn Saeed Ibn Aswad, from ], ], sailed from Delba (]) in 889, crossed the Atlantic, reached an unknown land, and returned with fabulous treasures.<ref>Tabish Khair (2006). ''Other Routes: 1500 Years of African and Asian Travel Writing'', p. 12. Signal Books. ISBN 1904955118.</ref><ref name=Mroueh>Dr. Youssef Mroueh (2003). . Media Monitors Network.</ref><ref>] (940). ''Muruj Adh-Dhahab'' (''The Book of Golden Meadows''), Vol. 1, p. 138.</ref> Another Muslim navigator, Ibn Farrukh, from ], sailed into the Atlantic on February 999, landed in Gando (]) visiting King Guanariga, and continued westward where he eventually saw and named two islands, Capraria and Pluitana. He arrived back in Spain in May 999.<ref name=Mroueh/><ref>Abu Bakr Ibn Umar Al-Gutiyya.</ref> Other theories suggest that explorers from the Muslim ]n ] may have reached the Americas, or possibly the ] Muslim explorer ] according to the ]. When ] made his first voyage to the Americas in 1492, he was accompanied by a number of Muslim sailors (] ]), who travelled with him to the ].<ref>S. A. H. Ahsani (July 1984). "Muslims in Latin America: a survey", ''Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs'' '''5''' (2), p. 454-463.</ref> | |||
| The first Arabic book on ] to reach ], in the 10th century, was ]'s {{transliteration|ar|]}} (] Agriculture), from Iraq; it was followed by texts written in al-Andalus, such as the ''Mukhtasar kitab al-filaha'' (Abridged Book of Agriculture) by ] (Abulcasis) from Cordoba, around 1000 AD.{{sfn|Ruggles|2008|pp=32–35}} | |||
| ==Agricultural innovations== | |||
| During the Muslim Agricultural Revolution, ] production was refined and transformed into a large-scale ] by the ]s, who built the first ] and sugar ]s. The Arabs and ] diffused sugar throughout the ] from the 8th century.<ref name=Hassan/> | |||
| The eleventh century agronomist ] of ] described 177 species in his ''Dīwān al-filāha'' (The Court of Agriculture). Ibn Bassal had travelled widely across the Islamic world, returning with a detailed knowledge of agronomy. His practical and systematic book both gives detailed descriptions of useful plants including leaf and root vegetables, herbs, spices and trees, and explains how to propagate and care for them.<ref name=IbnBassal>{{cite web |title=Ibn Baṣṣāl: Dīwān al-filāḥa / Kitāb al-qaṣd wa'l-bayān |url=http://www.filaha.org/author_Ibn_bassal.html |website=The Filaha Texts Project: The Arabic Books of Husbandry |access-date=11 April 2017}}</ref> | |||
| Muslims introduced ]ping<ref name=Banaji/> and the modern ] system where land was cropped four or more times in a two-year period. Winter crops were followed by summer ones, and in some cases there was in between. In areas where plants of shorter growing season were used, such as ] and ]s, the land could be cropped three or more times a year. In parts of ], ] ]ed two ]s a year on the same land, as did ] in Iraq.<ref name=Watson/> Muslims developed a ] approach based on three major elements; sophisticated systems of crop rotation, highly developed ] techniques, and the introduction of a large variety of ] which were studied and catalogued according to the ], type of ] and amount of ] they require. Numerous ]s on ] and ] were produced, with highly accurate ] and details.<ref>Al-Hassani, Woodcock and Saoud (2007), ''Muslim heritage in Our World'', FSTC publishing, 2nd Edition, p. 102-123.</ref> The earliest ]s on ] were also written, such as the '']'' (''The Book of Dishes'') of Ibn Sayyiir al-Warraq (10th century) and the ''Kitab al-Tabikh'' of ] (1226).<ref>David Waines (1987), "Cereals, Bread and Society: An Essay on the Staff of Life in Medieval Iraq", ''Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient'' '''30''' (3), p. 255-285 .</ref> | |||
| ]'' illustrated by ], 1237]] | |||
| ]-operated ] ] ] ] of ], the father of modern day ].]] | |||
| The twelfth century agronomist ] described in detail in his ''Kitāb al-Filāha'' (Treatise on Agriculture) how ] trees should be grown, ]ed (with an account of his own experiments), treated for disease, and harvested, and gave similar detail for crops such as cotton.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ibn al-'Awwām: Kitāb al-filāḥa | website=The Filāḥa Texts Project |url=http://www.filaha.org/author_ibn_al_awwam.html |access-date=8 December 2019}}</ref> | |||
| Many other agricultural innovations were introduced by Muslim farmers and engineers, such as new forms of ], improvements in ], a variety of sophisticated irrigation methods,<ref>Elias H. Tuma (1987), "''Agricultural Innovation in the Early Islamic World: The Diffusion of Crops and Farming Techniques, 700-1100'' by Andrew M. Watson", ''The Journal of Economic History'' '''47''' (2), p. 543-544.</ref> the introduction of ]s and widespread artificial irrigation systems, the development of ]-flow irrigation systems from ]s and ],<ref name=Glick/> the first uses of ] and ]s for irrigation purposes,<ref name=Idrisi>Zohor Idrisi (2005), , FSTC.</ref> the establishment of the ] industry in the ] and ]ation in ] cultivation,<ref>J. H. Galloway (1977), "The Mediterranean Sugar Industry", ''Geographical Review'' '''67''' (2), p. 177-194.</ref> numerous advances in industrial ]ing and water-raising machines (see ] below), and many other improvements and innovations. | |||
| Medieval Islamic agronomists including Ibn Bassal and Ibn al-'Awwam described ] and ] techniques including how to propagate the olive and the ], ] of ] with ] or ], and ] of ] and olive.{{sfn|Ruggles|2008|pp=32–35}} These books demonstrate the importance of agriculture both as a traditional practice and as a scholarly science.{{sfn|Ruggles|2008|pp=32–35}} In al-Andalus, there is evidence that the almanacs and manuals of agronomy helped to catalyse change, causing scholars to seek out new kinds of vegetable and fruit, and to carry out experiments in botany; in turn, these helped to improve actual practice in the region's agriculture.{{sfn|Ruggles|2008|p=36}} During the 11th century ] in Seville, the ] took a personal interest in fruit production, discovering from a peasant the method he had used to grow some exceptionally large ]s—pinching off all but ten of the buds, and using wooden props to hold the stems off the ground.{{sfn|Ruggles|2008|p=36}} | |||
| The ] understood that real ]s were needed to increase ] and ], thus enhancing ]s, hence they introduced a social transformation through the changed ] of land,<ref name=Idrisi/> where any individual of any ]<ref>Maya Shatzmiller, p. 263.</ref> or any ] or ] background had the right to ], ], ] and ] land for ] or any other purposes. They also introduced the ] of a ] for every major ] concerning ], ], ], and ]. Copies of the contract was usually kept by both parties involved.<ref name=Idrisi/> | |||
| ===Islamic animal husbandry=== | |||
| The two types of ]s that prompted agricultural development in the Islamic world were either ]ally-driven, by the conscious decisions of the central authority to develop under-exploited lands; or ]-driven, involving the spread of ], ], and free ]s, and the introduction of high value ] or ]s to areas where they were previously unknown. These led to increased ], a high level of ] that ensured ] for all citizens, and a higher ] due to the introduction of ]s, ], ]s, ]s, ], and various exotic ]s; ]s being available all year round without the need to dry them for winter; ] and ] plantations becoming a common sight, ]s and ]s springing up in every Muslim ]; intense ] and the technique of intensive ] agriculture with land ] replacement; a major increase in ]; higher quality of ] and other ] materials; and the introduction of ] of animals from different parts of the ] resulting in improved ] stocks and the best load-carrying ]s.<ref name=Idrisi/> | |||
| ]]] | |||
| ] evidence from the measurement of bones (]) demonstrates that ] in southern Portugal ] during the Islamic period, while cattle increased when the area became Christian after ]. The archaeologist Simon Davis assumes that the change in size signifies improvement by ], while in his view the choice of sheep is readily explained by the Islamic liking for ].{{sfn|Davis|2008|pp=991–1010}} | |||
| Many ]s, ] and ] ] systems and "Tribunal of Waters" ] systems were built during the Islamic Golden Age and are still in use today in the Islamic world and in formerly Islamic regions of Europe such as ] and the ], particularly in the ], ] and ] provinces of ]. The Arabic systems of irrigation and water distribution were later adopted in the ] and ] due to the ] and are still used in places like ], ], ], and ].<ref name=Hassan>], </ref> | |||
| ===Islamic irrigation=== | |||
| ==Botany== | |||
| ] canal connects the ] depression to the ] some 25 km away.]] | |||
| :''Main article: ]'' | |||
| During the period, irrigated cultivation developed due to the growing use of ], ] and ].{{sfn|Mazoyer|Roudart|2006|p=147}}{{sfn|Glick|1996}} ]s were used to pump water since at least the 9th century in what is now ], ] and ].{{sfn|Lucas|2006|p=65}} | |||
| ==Capitalist market economy== | |||
| The origins of ] and ]s can be traced back to the Caliphate,<ref>''The Cambridge economic history of Europe'', p. 437. ], ISBN 0521087090.</ref> where the first ] and earliest forms of ] took root between the 8th-12th centuries, which some refer to as "Islamic capitalism".<ref>Subhi Y. Labib (1969), "Capitalism in Medieval Islam", ''The Journal of Economic History'' '''29''' (1), p. 79-96 .</ref> A vigorous ] was created on the basis of the expanding levels of ] of a stable high-value ] (the ]) and the integration of ] areas that were previously independent. Innovative new ] techniques and forms of ] were introduced by ]s, ]s and traders during this time. Such innovations included the earliest ], ]es, ]s, ], long-distance ], the first forms of ] (''mufawada'') such as ]s (''mudaraba''), and the earliest forms of ], ], ], ], ] (''al-mal''), ] (''nama al-mal''),<ref name=Banaji/> ], ], ], ]s, ]s,<ref>Robert Sabatino Lopez, Irving Woodworth Raymond, Olivia Remie Constable (2001), ''Medieval Trade in the Mediterranean World: Illustrative Documents'', ], ISBN 0231123574.</ref> ] (''waqf''), ],<ref>Timur Kuran (2005), "The Absence of the Corporation in Islamic Law: Origins and Persistence", ''American Journal of Comparative Law'' '''53''', p. 785-834 .</ref> ]s, ]s, ]ing, ]ing, ]s, ]ers, ]s, ]s, ]s, ], and the ].<ref>Subhi Y. Labib (1969), "Capitalism in Medieval Islam", ''The Journal of Economic History'' '''29''' (1), p. 79-96 .</ref> ]al ]s similar to ]s independant from the ] also existed in the medieval Islamic world.<ref>Said Amir Arjomand (1999), "The Law, Agency, and Policy in Medieval Islamic Society: Development of the Institutions of Learning from the Tenth to the Fifteenth Century", ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'' '''41''', p. 263-293. ].</ref><ref>Samir Amin (1978), "The Arab Nation: Some Conclusions and Problems", ''MERIP Reports'' '''68''', p. 3-14 .</ref> Many of these early capitalist concepts were adopted and further advanced in ] from the 13th century onwards.<ref name=Banaji>Jairus Banaji (2007), "Islam, the Mediterranean and the rise of capitalism", ''Journal Historical Materialism'' '''15''' (1), p. 47-74, ].</ref> | |||
| The Islamic period in the ] depression of Middle Egypt, like medieval Islamic Spain (al-Andalus), was characterised by extremely large-scale systems of ], with both the supply, via gravity-fed ]s, and the management of water under local tribal control.{{sfn|Rapoport|Shahar|2012|pp=1–31}} In the Islamic period in al-Andalus, whose rural parts were equally tribal,{{sfn|Rapoport|Shahar|2012|pp=1–31}} the irrigation canal network was much enlarged.{{sfn|Jayyusi|1994|pp=974–986}} Similarly, in the Fayyum, new villages were established in the period, and new water-dependent orchards and sugar plantations were developed.{{sfn|Rapoport|Shahar|2012|pp=1–31}} | |||
| A ] was established in the Islamic world on the basis of merchant capitalism. ] was promoted by ] in medieval Islamic society, and ] was developed by a considerable number of owners of ] ] and ]s. ] (]) was prohibited by the ], but this did not hamper the development of capital in any way. The capitalists (''sahib al-mal'') were at the height of their power between the 9th-12th centuries, but their influence declined after the arrival of the ''ikta'' (]s) and after ] was ] by the state, both of which hampered the development of ] in the Islamic world.<ref>Maya Shatzmiller, p. 402-403.</ref> | |||
| ]'' irrigation wheel was improved in and diffused further from Islamic Spain.]] | |||
| During the 11th-13th centuries, the "Karimis", the earliest ], enterprise and ] controlled by capitalistic ]s, came to dominate much of the Islamic world's economy.<ref>Subhi Y. Labib (1969), "Capitalism in Medieval Islam", ''The Journal of Economic History'' '''29''' (1), p. 79-96 .</ref> The group was controlled by about fifty Muslim ]s labelled as "Karimis" who were of ]i, ]ian and sometimes ] origins.<ref>''The Cambridge economic history of Europe'', p. 438-440. ], ISBN 0521087090.</ref> Each Karimi merchant had considerable wealth, ranging from at least 100,000 ]s to as much as 10 million dinars. The group had considerable influence in most important eastern ]s and sometimes in ] through its financing activities and through a variety of ]s, including ]s, ]s, ]s, foreign merchants, and common ]s. The Karimis dominated many of the ] across the ], ], and ], and as far as ] in the north, ] in the east, and ] in the south, where they obtained ] from ]s. Innovations introduced by the Karimis include the use of ], the financing of ]s as a method of acquiring capital, and a ] for ]s and ]s. Another important difference between the Karimis and other entrepreneurs before and during their time was that they were not ]s or ]s, but their capitalism was due entirely to trade and financial ]s.<ref>Subhi Y. Labib (1969), "Capitalism in Medieval Islam", ''The Journal of Economic History'' '''29''' (1), p. 79-96 .</ref> | |||
| The '']''{{efn|Glick uses the term '']'', but states that it is animal-powered,{{sfn|Glick|1977|pp=644–50}} for which '']'' is the more usual name.}} or animal-powered irrigation wheel was likely introduced to Islamic Spain in early ] times (in the 8th century). Improvements to it were described by Hispano-Arabic agronomists in the 11th and 12th centuries. From there, ''sakia'' irrigation was spread further around Spain and Morocco.{{sfn|Glick|1977|pp=644–50}} A 13th century observer claimed there were "5000" waterwheels along the ] in Islamic Spain; even allowing for medieval exaggeration,{{sfn|Ruggles|2007}} irrigation systems were certainly extensive in the region at that time. The supply of water was sufficient for cities as well as agriculture: the ] network into the city of ] was repaired in the ] period, and extended.{{sfn|Ruggles|2007}}{{sfn|Bolens|1972}} | |||
| ==Commerce== | |||
| ] were officially unrecognized by the medieval Islamic city, but trades were supervised by an official recognized by the city. Each trade developed its own identity, whose members would attend the same mosque, and serve together in the militia. Slaves were often employed on sugar plantations and salt mines, but more likely as domestic house servants or professional soldiers. | |||
| ===Early accounts of Islamic Spain=== | |||
| Technology and Industry of Islamic civilization was highly developed. ] techniques supported a flourishing ] industry, while ] ]s were developed constantly to compete with ceramics imported from ]. A scientific approach to ] made it easier to adopt and improve ] technologies from India and China. Primary ]s included manufactured ], such as ] carving, ] and ], ]s, and ]s. | |||
| Medieval Andalusian historians such as ], ], and ], and geographers such as ],{{sfn|Lévi-Provençal|2012}}{{sfn|Meri|2006|p=96}} ],<ref name=IdrisiFilaha/> and ], described Islamic Spain as a fortunate entity.{{sfn|Scales|1993|p=3}}{{sfn|Decter|2007|pp=20–21, 35}} Indeed, the tenth-century Jewish scribe Menahem Ben Saruq wrote to the Khazar king "The name of our land in which we dwell ... in the language of the Arabs, the inhabitants of the land, ] ... the land is rich, abounding in rivers, springs, and aqueducts; a land of ], ], and ], of fruits and all manner of delicacies; it has pleasure-gardens and orchards, fruitful trees of every kind, including ... ]] upon which the ] feeds".{{sfn|Decter|2007|pp=20–21, 35}} ], quoting the ninth-century ], describes al-Andalus as a rich land "with good, arable soil, fertile settlements, flowing copiously with plentiful rivers and fresh springs."{{sfn|Decter|2007|pp=20–21, 35}} Al-Andalus was associated with cultivated trees like olive and ]. After the ], arable farming was frequently abandoned, the land reverting to pasture, though some farmers tried to adopt Islamic agronomy.<!--p. 35-->{{sfn|Decter|2007|p=35}} Western historians have wondered if the Medieval Arab historians were reliable, given that they had a motive to emphasize the splendour of al-Andalus, but evidence from archaeology has broadly supported their claims.{{sfn|Schildgen|2016|p=84}}{{sfn|Ruggles|2000|pp=31–32}} | |||
| The systems of ] relied upon by ]s was very effective. Merchants would buy and sell on ], with money ]ed to them by wealthy ]s, or a joint ] of several merchants, who were often Muslim, Christian and Jewish. Recently, a collection of documents was found in an ]ian ] shedding a very detailed and human light on the life of medieval Middle Eastern merchants. Business ]s would be made for many ], and bonds of ] enabled trade ]s to form over huge distances. Networks developed during this time enabled a world in which ] could be promised by a ] in ] and cashed in ], creating the ] system of today. Each time items passed through the cities along this extraordinary network, the city imposed a ], resulting in high prices once reaching the final destination. These innovations made by Muslims and Jews laid the foundations for the modern ]. | |||
| ==Scholarly debate== | |||
| ] was simple yet highly effective. Each city had an area outside its gates where pack animals were assembled, found in the cities markets were large secure warehouses, while accommodations were provided for merchants in cities and along trade routes by a sort of medieval motel. | |||
| ] (Islamic Spain) c. 1200]] | |||
| In 1876, the historian Antonia Garcia Maceira argued that where the Romans and then the Goths who farmed in Spain made little effort to improve their crops or to import species from other regions, under "the Arabs", there was an agricultural "revolution" in al-Andalus caused "by implementing the knowledge that they acquired through observation during their peregrinations,{{efn|However "mythical"{{sfn|Ruggles|2000|pages=31–32}} the idea of the wandering Arab, Ibn Bassal was indeed widely travelled and wrote from his own observations.<ref name=IbnBassal/>}} and the result was extensive agricultural settlement."{{sfn|Ruggles|2000|pages=31–32}} | |||
| ==Economic thought== | |||
| :''Main article: ]'' | |||
| In 1974, the historian Andrew Watson published a paper{{sfn|Watson|1974|pp=8–35}} proposing an extension of Garcia Maceira's hypothesis of agricultural revolution in Al-Andalus.{{sfn|Ruggles|2000|pages=15–34}}{{efn|In Paolo Squatriti's view, Watson's thesis also recalled the Belgian economic historian ]'s 1939 view of the way that a seventh century Islamic maritime power in the Mediterranean had prevented Europe from trading there.{{sfn|Squatriti|2014|pp=1205–1220}}}} Watson argued that the economy established by ] and other ] across the ] enabled the diffusion of many crops and farming techniques throughout the Islamic world, as well as the adaptation of crops and techniques from and to regions outside it. Crops from Africa, such as ], from China, such as ]s, and from India, such as ], ], ] and ], were distributed throughout Islamic lands, which he believed had not previously grown these plants.{{sfn|Watson|1974|pp=8–35}} He listed eighteen such crops.{{sfn|Decker|2009|pp=187–188}}{{efn|Decker wrote: "In support of his thesis, Watson charted the advance of seventeen food crops and one fiber crop that became important over a large area of the Mediterranean world during the first four centuries of Islamic rule (roughly the seventh through eleventh centuries C.E.)"{{sfn|Decker|2009|pp=187–188}} The food crops named by Watson were ], ], ], ], ], ] (eggplant), ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ]; the fibre was ].}} Watson suggested that these introductions, along with an increased ] of agriculture and ], led to major changes in economy, ], vegetation cover,{{sfn|Watson|2008}} agricultural production and income, population, ], distribution of the labour force, industries linked to agriculture, cooking, diet and clothing in the Islamic world.{{sfn|Watson|1974|pp=8–35}} | |||
| ==Industrial growth== | |||
| {{see|Inventions in the Muslim world}} | |||
| ] | |||
| Muslim engineers in the Islamic world were responsible for numerous innovative ] uses of ], the first industrial uses of ], ], ], and ]s such as ], and the earliest large ] complexes (''tiraz'' in Arabic).<ref>Maya Shatzmiller, p. 36.</ref> The industrial uses of ]s in the Islamic world date back to the 7th century, while horizontal-] and vertical-wheeled water mills were both in widespread use since at least the 9th century. A variety of industrial ]s were first invented in the Islamic world, including ] mills, ]s, ]s, ]s, ]s, shipmills, ]s, ]s, ], ]s, and ]s. By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial mills in operation, from ] and ] to the ] and ].<ref>Adam Robert Lucas (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", ''Technology and Culture'' '''46''' (1), p. 1-30 .</ref> Muslim engineers also invented ]s and ]s, first employed ]s in mills and water-raising ]s, and pioneered the use of ]s as a source of water power, used to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines.<ref name=Hassan/> Such advances made it possible for many industrial tasks that were previously driven by ] in ] to be ] and driven by ]ry instead in the medieval Islamic world. The transfer of these technologies to medieval Europe later laid the foundations for the ] in 18th century Europe.<ref>Adam Robert Lucas (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", ''Technology and Culture'' '''46''' (1), p. 1-30.</ref> | |||
| In 1997, the historian of science Howard R. Turner wrote that Islamic study of soil, climate, seasons and ecology "promoted a remarkably advanced horticulture and agriculture. The resulting knowledge, transmitted to Europe after the eleventh century, helped to improve farming techniques, widen the variety of crops, and increase yields on the continent's farmlands. In addition, an enormous variety of crops was introduced to the West from or through Muslim lands".{{sfn|Turner|1997|p=173}} | |||
| Many industries were generated due to the Muslim Agricultural Revolution, including the earliest industries for ], ], ], ], ] technologies, ]s, ], mechanical ]ed and ]ed ]ry, ]ting, ]s, ], ]ry, ], ], ]-making, ], ], ], ], ], ], ]s, and the ] of ]s such as ], ], ] and ]. The first large ] complexes (''tiraz'') were built for many of these industries. Knowledge of these industries were later transmitted to ], especially during the ], as well as before and after. For example, the first glass factories in Europe were founded in the 11th century by ]ian craftsmen in ].<ref>], </ref> The ] and ] industries also experienced high levels of growth during this period.<ref name=Labib/> | |||
| In 2006, James E. McClellan III and Harold Dorn stated in their book ''Science and Technology in World History'' that Islam had depended as much on its farmers as its soldiers, and that the farmers had helped to create a "scientific civilisation": "in what amounted to an agricultural revolution they adapted new and more diversified food crops to the Mediterranean ecosystem: rice, sugar cane, cotton, melons, citrus fruits, and other products. With rebuilt and enlarged systems of irrigation, Islamic farming extended the growing season and increased productivity."{{sfn|McClellan|Dorn|2006|p=102}} They stated further that the importance of these efforts was indicated by the "uninterrupted series" of books on agriculture and irrigation; another indication was provided by the many books on particular animals of importance to Islamic farming and government, including horses and bees. They ascribed the population growth, urbanisation, social stratification, centralisation of politics and state-controlled scholarship to the improvement in agricultural productivity.{{sfn|McClellan|Dorn|2006|p=102}} | |||
| Muslim engineers pioneered two solutions to achieve the maximum output from a ]. The first solution was to mount them to ]s of ]s to take advantage of the increased flow. The second solution was the shipmill, a unique type of ] powered by ]s mounted on the sides of ]s ] in ]. This was first employed along the ] and ] rivers in 10th century ], where large shipmills made of ] and ] could produce 10 ]s of ] every day for the ] in ].<ref name=Hill2>], "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East", ''Scientific American'', May 1991, p. 64-69. (] ], )</ref> Industrial water mills were also employed in the first large ] complexes built in ] between the 11th and 13th centuries. Fulling mills, paper mills, steel mills, and other mills, spread from Islamic Spain to Christian Spain by the 12th century.<ref>Adam Robert Lucas (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", ''Technology and Culture'' '''46''' (1), p. 1-30 .</ref> | |||
| ] innovation: the ] brought a new architecture, including gardens with water engineering, as in the ]'s Generalife Palace, to ].]] | |||
| ]s were first built in ], ], from the ]. These were verticle ] windmills, which had long vertical ]s with rectangle shaped ]s.<ref>], ] (1986). ''Islamic Technology: An illustrated history'', p. 54. ]. ISBN 0-521-42239-6.</ref> The first windmill was built by the ] ] ] (634-644).<ref>Dietrich Lohrmann (1995). "Von der östlichen zur westlichen Windmühle", ''Archiv für Kulturgeschichte'' '''77''' (1), p. 1-30 (8).</ref> Made of six to twelve ]s covered in ]ting or ] material, these windmills were used to grind ] and draw up ], and were used in the ]ing and ].<ref name=Hill2>], "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East", ''Scientific American'', May 1991, p. 64-69. (] ], )</ref> | |||
| By 2008, the ] Simon Davis could write without qualification that in the Iberian peninsula "Agriculture flourished: the Moslems introduced new irrigation techniques and new plants like sugar cane, rice, cotton, spinach, pomegranates and citrus trees, to name just a few... ] had become a Mecca for agronomists, and its hinterland, or ''Aljarafe''<!--original italics-->, their laboratory."{{sfn|Davis|2008|pp=991–1010}} | |||
| After ] was introduced into the Islamic world by Chinese prisoners following the ], Muslims made significant improvements to ] and built the first ]s in ], ], as early as ]. Papermaking was transformed from an art into a major industry as a result.<ref>, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.</ref> This allowed the ] of paper in the Islamic world to be performed using water power rather than manual labour. The first ] mills were later invented in the 10th century, followed by the first ]s and ]s in the 11th century.<ref>Adam Robert Lucas (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", ''Technology and Culture'' '''46''' (1), p. 1-30 .</ref> | |||
| In 2011, the Arabist {{ill|Paulina B. Lewicka|pl|Anna Paulina Lewicka}} wrote that in ], the Arab Agricultural Revolution was followed by a "commercial revolution" as the ] (in power 909-1171) made Egypt a major trade centre for the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean, and in the more cosmopolitan and sophisticated society that resulted, a "culinary revolution" which transformed ].{{sfn|Lewicka|2011|pp=72-74}} | |||
| The first ]s were invented by Muslim engineers in the Islamic world, and were used for ] ] and other ]s to produce ]s, and many other ] uses such as ] cloth, ], ], ], and ] before extraction. Gristmills in the Islamic world were often made from both ]s and ]s. In order to adapt ]s for gristmilling purposes, ]s were used for raising and releasing ]s to fall on a material.<ref name=Hill2/> The first ], which had ]s with curved blades onto which ] flow was directed ], was also first invented in the Islamic world, and was described in a 9th century Arabic text for use in a ].<ref name=Hill2/> | |||
| ===Early scepticism=== | |||
| ] and ] (saqiya) machines became more widespread during the Muslim Agricultural Revolution, when Muslim engineers made a number of improvements to the device.<ref name=Glick>Thomas F. Glick (1977), "Noria Pots in Spain", ''Technology and Culture'' '''18''' (4), p. 644-650.</ref> These include the first uses of noria and chain pumps for ] purposes,<ref name=Idrisi/> and the invention of the ] mechanism, used to smooth out the delivery of power from a driving device to a driven machine, which was first invented by Ibn Bassal (fl. 1038-1075) of ], who pioneered the use of the flywheel in the saqiya and noria.<ref>], .</ref> | |||
| Watson's work was met with some early scepticism, such as from the historian Jeremy Johns in 1984. Johns argued that Watson's selection of 18 plants was "peculiar", since the ], ], ] and ] were unimportant in the Islamic region at the time, detracting from the discussion of the staple crops. Johns further noted that the evidence of diffusion of crops was imperfect, that Watson made "too many minor slips and larger errors" such as getting dates wrong or claiming that a 1439 document was ], and had failed to make best use of the evidence that was available, such as of the decline of classical agriculture, or even to mention the changing ]. Johns however concluded that "The hypothesis of an 'Abbasid agricultural revolution is challenging and may well prove useful".{{sfn|Johns|1984|pp=343–344}}{{sfn|Cahen|1986|p=217}} | |||
| ] (Geber) is considered the father of ], particularly for introducing the ] in chemistry. He also established the ] and ]ry industry.]] | |||
| The historian ] wrote in 1976 that agricultural production declined in the period immediately after the ] in areas of ] and ], on the limited basis of records of taxes collected on cultivated areas.{{sfn|Ashtor|1976|pp=58–63}} In a 2012 paper focusing on the ] area of Iraq, Michele Campopiano concluded that Iraqi agricultural output declined in the 7th to 10th century; he attributed this decline to "competition of the different ruling groups to gain access to land surplus".{{sfn|Campopiano|2012|pp=1–37}} | |||
| The ] and ] were established in the 8th century, when the ]s (such as ]) were first produced through ], and when the ]s of ] were paved with ], derived from ] through ]. In the 9th century, ]s were exploited in the area around modern ], ], to produce ]. These fields were described by ] in the 10th century, and by ] in the 13th century, who described the output of those ]s as hundreds of shiploads.<ref>K. Ajram (1992). ''Miracle of Islamic Science'', Appendix B. Knowledge House Publishers. ISBN 0911119434.</ref> Petroleum was ] by ] in the 9th century, producing chemicals such as ] in the ], which he used to invent ]s for use in the ] industry.<ref>Zayn Bilkadi (]), "The Oil Weapons", '']'', January-February 1995, p. 20-27.</ref> | |||
| ===Diffusion not revolution=== | |||
| The first industrial use of ] dates back to the ]ry industry established by ] such as ], ], and ], who pioneered and perfected the extraction of ]s and ]s through ], introduced new raw ]s, and developed cheap methods for the ] of perfumery and ]s. Both the raw ingredients and ] technology significantly influenced Western perfumery. Muslim traders had wide access to a variety of different ]s, ]s, and other fragrance materials. In addition to trading them, many of these exotic materials were cultivated by the Muslims such that they could be successfully grown outside of their native climates. Two examples of this include ], which is native to ] and ], and various ]s native to ]. Both of these ingredients are still highly important in modern perfumery. | |||
| ] in front of ], Spain.{{sfn|Brebbia|2017|p=341}}{{efn|The website 'Alcazar of the Christian Monarchs' explains: "The most plausible hypothesis points to an Almoravid construction from 1136-1137. The structure was later reused in the Almohad period to supply the lower part of the Alcazaba with water. The watermill was operational up until the end of the fifteenth century, when, according to tradition, Queen Isabella the Catholic ordered it to be taken down because the noise it produced prevented her from sleeping."<ref name=Albolafia>{{cite web |title=Albolafia |url=https://alcazardelosreyescristianos.cordoba.es/?id=666&ad=true&lang=3 |website=Alcazar of the Christian Monarchs |access-date=28 December 2017 |date=2011}}</ref>}}<ref name=Albolafia/>]] | |||
| In 2009, the historian Michael Decker{{sfn|Decker|2009|p=191}}{{efn|Decker wrote "Nothing has been written, however that attacks the central pillar of Watson's thesis, namely the 'basket' of plants that is inextricably linked to all other elements of his analysis. This work will therefore assess the place and importance of four crops of the 'Islamic Agricultural Revolution' for which there is considerable pre-Islamic evidence in the Mediterranean world."{{sfn|Decker|2009|p=191}}}} stated that widespread cultivation and consumption of four staples, namely ], ], ] and ] were already commonplace under the ] and ], centuries before the Islamic period.{{sfn|Decker|2009|p=191}} He suggested that their actual role in Islamic agriculture had been exaggerated, arguing that the agricultural practices of Muslim cultivators did not fundamentally differ from those of pre-Islamic times, but evolved from the hydraulic know-how and 'basket' of agricultural plants inherited from their Roman and Persian predecessors.{{sfn|Decker|2009|p=187}} In the case of cotton, which the Romans grew mainly in Egypt, the plant remained a minor crop in the classical Islamic period: the major fibre was flax, as in Roman times.{{sfn|Decker|2009|p=205}} Decker further asserted that the advanced state of ancient ] practices "rebuts sizeable parts of the Watson thesis," since for example in Spain, archaeological work indicated that the Islamic irrigation system was developed from the existing Roman network, rather than replacing it.{{sfn|Decker|2009|p=190}} Decker agreed that "Muslims made an important contribution to world farming through the westward diffusion of some crops", but that the introduction of "agronomic techniques and materials" had been less widespread and less consistent than Watson had suggested.{{sfn|Decker|2009|p=191}} Furthermore, there is clear evidence that agricultural devices such as ]s and ]s, ]s, ]s, ]s, ]s and ]s were widely known and applied in ]-] long before the Muslim conquests.{{sfn|Oleson|2000|pp=183–216}}{{sfn|Wikander|2000|pp=371–400}} | |||
| In 1206, ] invented a variety of machines for raising water, which were the most efficient in his time, as well as ]s with ]s on their ] used to operate ]. He invented the ] and ], and employed them in a crank-connecting rod system for two of these water-raising machines. His invention of the crankshaft is considered the most important single mechanical invention after the ], as it transforms continuous ] into a linear ], and is central to modern machinery such as the ] and the ].<ref name=Vallely/><ref>]. .</ref> Al-Jazari's most sophisticated water-raising machine featured the first ] pipes and suction ], the first use of the ] principle, the first ], the earliest ] operations, and the use of a water wheel and a system of ]s. This invention is important to the development of modern machinery, including the steam engine, modern reciprocating pumps,<ref>]. </ref> internal combustion engine,<ref>] (1998). ''Studies in Medieval Islamic Technology'' II, p. 231-232.</ref> ],<ref>, ].</ref> ], ], etc.<ref>'']'', Episode 1, "The Islamic World", ] & ].</ref> | |||
| ===Revolution driven by social institutions=== | |||
| In 1551, after the decline of the golden age, the ]ian engineer ] invented the first practical ] as a ] for rotating a ]. This was the first time ] was used to operate a practical ] or ]. A similar steam turbine later appeared in Europe a century later, which eventually led to the ] and ] in 18th century Europe.<ref>] (1976). ''Taqi al-Din and Arabic Mechanical Engineering'', p. 34-35. Instiute for the History of Arabic Science, ].</ref> | |||
| {| class="wikitable floatright" width=300px | |||
| ==Labour== | |||
| | The main trade of is in oils which are exported to the east and the west by land and sea. These oils come from a district called al-Sharaf which extends for 40 milles and which is entirely planted with olives and figs. It reaches from Seville as far as Niébla, having a width of more than 12 milles. It comprises, it is said, eight thousand thriving villages, with a great number of baths and fine houses.—], 12th century<ref name=IdrisiFilaha>{{cite web|title=Description of Aljarafe, Al-Andalus, in the mid-12th century, by the geographer Abū Abd Allāh Muḥammad al-Idrīsi|url=http://www.filaha.org/abu-abd-allah-muhammad-al-Idrisi-12-century.html|website=The Filaha Texts Project {{!}} The Arabic Books of Husbandry|access-date=6 February 2018}}</ref> | |||
| The ] force in the ] were ] from diverse ] and ] backgrounds, while both men and women were involved in diverse ] and ] activities.<ref>Maya Shatzmiller, p. 6-7.</ref> Women were employed in a wide range of commercial activities and diverse ]s<ref name=Maya-400-401/> in the primary sector (as ]s for example), secondary sector (as ]s, ]rs, ], etc.) and tertiary sector (as ]s, ]s, ]s, ]s of ]s, ]s, ]s, ]s, ]s, etc.).<ref>Maya Shatzmiller, p. 350-362.</ref> Muslim women also had a ] over certain branches of the ] industry.<ref name=Maya-400-401/> | |||
| |} | |||
| ] rejected the view that the medieval Arab historians had been wrong to claim that agriculture had been revolutionised, and that it had instead simply been restored to a state like that before the collapse of the ]. She argued that while the medieval Arab historians may not have had a reliable picture of agricultural knowledge before their time, they were telling the truth about a dramatic change to the landscape of Islamic Spain. A whole new "system of crop rotation, fertilization, transplanting, grafting, and irrigation" was swiftly and systematically put into place under a new legal framework of land ownership and tenancy. In her view, therefore, there was indeed an agricultural revolution in al-Andalus, but it consisted principally of new social institutions rather than of new agronomic techniques.{{sfn|Ruggles|2000|pp=31–32}} Ruggles stated that this "dramatic economic, scientific, and social transformation" began in al-Andalus and had spread throughout the Islamic Mediterranean by the 10th century.{{sfn|Ruggles|2008|p=36}} | |||
| The ] was diverse and had been evolving over the centuries. During the 8th-11th centuries, there were 63 unique occupations in the ] (]ive), 697 unique occupations in the ] (]), and 736 unique occupations in the ] (]). By the 12th century, the number of unique occupations in the primary sector and secondary sector decreased to 35 and 679 respectively, while the number of unique occupations in the tertiary sector increased to 1,175. These changes in the division of labour reflect the increased ] and use of ]ry to replace ] and the increased ] and ] of most citizens in the Caliphate.<ref>Maya Shatzmiller, p. 169-170.</ref> | |||
| ===Historiography=== | |||
| An economic transition occurred during this period, due to the diversity of the service sector being far greater than any other previous or contemporary society, and the high degree of ] between the labour force and the ]. Islamic society also experienced a change in attitude towards ]. In previous civilizations such as ] and in contemporary civilizations such as ] Europe, intellectuals saw manual labour in a negative light and looked down on them with contempt. This resulted in technological stagnation as they did not see the need for ]ry to replace manual labour. In the Islamic world, however, manual labour was seen in a far more positive light, as intellectuals such as the ] likened them to a participant in the act of ], while ] alluded to the benefits of manual labour to the progress of society.<ref name=Maya-400-401>Maya Shatzmiller, p. 400-401.</ref> | |||
| Looking back over 40 years of scholarship since Watson's theory, the historian of land use Paolo Squatriti{{efn|Squatriti is known for works on medieval land use such as ''Landscape and Change in Early Medieval Italy'', Cambridge University Press, 2013.}} wrote in 2014 that the thesis had been widely used and cited by historians and archaeologists working in different fields. It had "proved to be applicable in scholarly debates about technological diffusion in pre-industrial societies, the 'decline' of Islamic civilization, the relations between elite and peasant cultural systems, Europe's historical ] in the second millennium CE, the origins of globalization, the nature of Mediterraneity." Squatriti noted that Watson had originally trained in economics, and applied this interest to his historical studies. Squatriti described Watson's paper as concise and elegant, and popular for its usefulness in supporting the theses of many different historians<!--p. 1215-->. He observed that Watson's thesis did not depend on claims of new introductions of plants into any region, but of their "diffusion and normalization", i.e. of their becoming widely and generally used, even if they were known from Roman times. Calling Watson's "philological" approach "old fashioned", and given that Watson had worked "virtually without archaeology"<!--p. 1215-->, Squatrini expressed surprise that recent research in ] had failed to "decisively undermine" Watson's thesis.{{sfn|Squatriti|2014|pp=1205–1220}} | |||
| ==Technology== | |||
| {{main|Inventions in the Muslim world}} | |||
| :''Further information: ] and ] | |||
| == Notes == | |||
| A significant number of inventions and technological advances were made in the Muslim world, as well as adopting and improving technologies centuries before they were used in the West. For example, ] was adopted from China many centuries before it was known in the West.<ref>Huff (2003), p.74</ref> Iron was a vital industry in Muslim lands and was given importance in the Qur'an.<ref>{{cite quran|57|25|style=ref}}</ref><ref>Hobson (2004), p. 130</ref> The knowledge of ] was also transmitted from China to ], where ] were the first to purify ] to the ] purity for use in ], as ] must be purified to be used effectively. This purification process was first described by Ibn Bakhtawayh in his ''Al-Muqaddimat'' in the early 11th century.<ref>], </ref><ref>], </ref> ] were employed by ] against ] armies during the ] and ].<ref>Phillips (1992), p. 76</ref> Knowledge of chemical processes (] and ]) and ] (], ] and other ]s) also spread to Europe from the Muslim world. Numerous contributions were made in laboratory practices such as "refined techniques of ], the preparation of ]s, and the production of ]s."<ref>Levere (2001), p.6</ref> Advances were made in ] and farming, using technology such as the ]. Crops such as ]s and ] fruit were brought to Europe through ], and ] cultivation was gradually adopted by the Europeans.<ref>Mintz (1986), p. 23-29</ref> | |||
| {{notelist}} | |||
| == References == | |||
| ] wrote in the ''History of Medicine'': | |||
| {{reflist|24em}} | |||
| {{quote|"The ]s themselves were the originators not only of ], ], and ], but of many of the so-called improvements or refinements of civilization, such as ]s, window-], ], ], ] ]s, ]s, ]s, etc..."}} | |||
| == Sources == | |||
| ] ] of ], the father of ].]] | |||
| {{refbegin|36em}} | |||
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| * {{cite book |last=Scales |first=Peter C. |title=The Fall of the Caliphate of Córdoba: Berbers and Andalusis in Conflict |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m-Wvg__iHPAC&pg=PA3 |year=1993 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden |isbn=90-04-09868-2}} | |||
| * {{cite book |last=Schildgen |first=B. |title=Heritage or Heresy: Preservation and Destruction of Religious Art and Architecture in Europe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BcNyCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA84 |year=2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-230-61315-7}} | |||
| * {{cite journal |last=Squatriti |first=Paolo |title=Of Seeds, Seasons, and Seas: Andrew Watson's Medieval Agrarian Revolution Forty Years Later |journal=The Journal of Economic History |date=2014 |volume=74 |issue=4 |pages=1205–1220 |doi=10.1017/S0022050714000904|doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |s2cid=154969169 }} | |||
| * {{cite book |last=Turner |first=Howard R. |title=Science in Medieval Islam |url=https://archive.org/details/scienceinmedieva0000turn |url-access=registration |date=1997 |publisher=University of Texas Press |isbn=0-292-70469-0}} | |||
| * {{cite journal | last=Watson | first=Andrew M. | year=1974 | title=The Arab Agricultural Revolution and Its Diffusion, 700–1100 | journal=The Journal of Economic History | volume=34 | issue=1 | pages=8–35 | doi=10.1017/S0022050700079602 |jstor=2116954| s2cid=154359726 }} | |||
| * {{cite book |last=Watson |first=Andrew M. |year=1981 |contribution=A Medieval Green Revolution: New Crops and Farming Techniques in the Early Islamic World |title=The Islamic Middle East, 700–1900: Studies in Economic and Social History |publisher=Darwin Press |editor=Abraham L. Udovitch |isbn=978-0-87850-030-7}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Watson | first=Andrew | title=Agricultural innovation in the early Islamic world : the diffusion of crops and farming techniques 700-1100 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | location=Cambridge | year=2008 |orig-year=1983 | isbn=978-0-521-06883-3}} | |||
| * {{cite book |last=Wikander |first=Örjan |editor-last=Wikander |editor-first=Örjan |author-link=Örjan Wikander |contribution=The Water-Mill |title=Handbook of Ancient Water Technology |series=Technology and Change in History |volume=2 |year=2000 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden |isbn=90-04-11123-9}} | |||
| {{refend}} | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| A significant number of other inventions were also produced by medieval Muslim scientists and engineers, including inventors such as ], ], and especially ], who is considered the "father of ]"<ref name=Vallely/> and "father of modern day ]".<ref>, MTE Studios.</ref> | |||
| * {{citation | url=http://www.filaha.org/introduction.html | publisher=The Filāḥa Texts Project | title=Introduction}} | |||
| * | |||
| {{Agriculture footer}} | |||
| Some of the other inventions and discoveries from the Islamic Golden Age include the ], ], ], ], ], pure ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] ], ], ], ], ], ], ] ] ] ], ]s driven by ] and ]s, ] ], ], ], pointed ], ], bone ], ], surgical ], ], ], ], ], ], ], three-course ], ] and ], ], modern ], ], ] ]s and ]s, ], and royal ].<ref name=Vallely>Paul Vallely, , '']'', ] ].</ref> | |||
| {{Islamic studies}} | |||
| ] | |||
| ==Urbanization== | |||
| ] | |||
| As ] increased, Muslim ] grew unregulated, resulting in narrow winding city ]s and ]s separated by different ethnic backgrounds and religious affiliations. These qualities proved efficient for transporting goods to and from major ] centers while preserving the privacy valued by Islamic family life. Suburbs lay just outside the walled city, from wealthy residential communities, to working class semi-slums. City garbage dumps were located far from the city, as were clearly defined cemeteries which were often homes for criminals. A place of prayer was found just near one of the main gates, for religious festivals and public executions. Similarly, Military Training grounds were found near a main gate. | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| While varying in appearance due to climate and prior local traditions, Islamic cities were almost always dominated by a merchant middle class. Some peoples' loyalty towards their neighborhood was very strong, reflecting ethnicity and religion, while a sense of citizenship was at times uncommon (but not in every case). The extended family provided the foundation for social programs, business deals, and negotiations with authorities. Part of this economic and social unit were often the tenants of a wealthy landlord. | |||
| ] | |||
| State power normally focused on Dar al Imara, the governor's office in the ]. These fortresses towered high above the city built on thousands of years of human settlement. The primary function of the city governor was to provide for defence and to maintain legal order. This system would be responsible for a mixture of autocracy and autonomy within the city. Each neighborhood, and many of the large tenement blocks, elected a representative to deal with urban authorities. These neighborhoods were also expected to organize their young men into a militia providing for protection of their own neighborhoods, and as aid to the professional armies defending the city as a whole. | |||
| The head of the family was given the position of authority in his household, although a ], or judge was able to negotiate and resolve differences in issues of disagreements within families and between them. The two senior representatives of municipal authority were the qadi and the ], who held the responsibilities of many issues, including quality of water, maintenance of city streets, containing outbreaks of disease, supervising the markets, and a prompt burial of the dead. | |||
| Another aspect of Islamic urban life was ], a religious charity directly dealing with the ] and religious leaders. Through donations, the waqf owned many of the ]s and ], using the revenue to fund education, and to provide ] for ]s outside the city. Following expansion, this system was introduced into ] by ]. | |||
| While religious foundations of all faiths were tax exempt in the Muslim world, civilians paid their taxes to the urban authorities, soldiers to the superior officer, and landowners to the state treasury. Taxes were also levied on an unmarried man until he was wed. Instead of ], the mandatory charity required of Muslims, non-Muslims were required to pay the ], a discriminatory religious tax, imposed on Christians and Jews. During the Muslim Conquests of the 7th and 8th centuries conquered populations were given the three choices of either converting to Islam, paying the jizya, or dying by the sword. | |||
| Animals brought to the city for slaughter were restricted to areas outside the city, as were any other industries seen as unclean. The more valuable a good was, the closer its market was to the center of town. Because of this, booksellers and goldsmiths clustered around the main mosque at the heart of the city. | |||
| Muslim cities also had advanced ]s with ]s, ]s, drinking ]s, ] ] supplies,<ref>Fiona MacDonald (2006), ''The Plague and Medicine in the Middle Ages'', p. 42-43, Gareth Stevens, ISBN 0836859073.</ref> and widespread private and ] and ] facilities.<ref>Tor Eigeland, "The Tiles of Iberia", '']'', March-April 1992, p. 24-31.</ref> By the 10th century, ] had 700 ]s, 60,000 ]s, and 70 ], the largest of which had 600,000 books, while as many as 60,000 ]s, ], ]s and ]s were published each year in ].<ref>Dato' Dzulkifli Abd Razak, , '']'', ] ].</ref> The library of ] had more than 100,000 books, while the library of ] is said to have had as many as three million books. The number of important and original Arabic works on science that have survived is much larger than the combined total of ] and ] works on science.<ref>N. M. Swerdlow (1993). "Montucla's Legacy: The History of the Exact Sciences", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '''54''' (2), p. 299-328 .</ref> | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| *] | |||
| ==References== | |||
| {{reflist}} | |||
| ] | |||
Latest revision as of 13:54, 17 December 2024
Arab transformation of agriculture in Medieval Spain
The Arab Agricultural Revolution was the transformation in agriculture in the Old World during the Islamic Golden Age (8th to 13th centuries). The agronomic literature of the time, with major books by Ibn Bassal and Ibn al-'Awwam, demonstrates the extensive diffusion of useful plants to Medieval Spain (al-Andalus), and the growth in Islamic scientific knowledge of agriculture and horticulture. Medieval Arab historians and geographers described al-Andalus as a fertile and prosperous region with abundant water, full of fruit from trees such as the olive and pomegranate. Archaeological evidence demonstrates improvements in animal husbandry and in irrigation such as with the saqiyah waterwheel. These changes made agriculture far more productive, supporting population growth, urbanisation, and increased stratification of society.
The revolution was first described by the historian Antonio Garcia Maceira in 1876. The name was coined by the historian Andrew Watson in an influential but at the time controversial 1974 paper. However, by 2014 it had proven useful to historians, and had been supported by findings in archaeology and archaeobotany.
Medieval history
See also: Science in the medieval Islamic worldIslamic agronomy
The first Arabic book on agronomy to reach al-Andalus, in the 10th century, was Ibn Wahshiyya's al-Filāḥa al-Nabaṭiyya (Nabatean Agriculture), from Iraq; it was followed by texts written in al-Andalus, such as the Mukhtasar kitab al-filaha (Abridged Book of Agriculture) by Al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis) from Cordoba, around 1000 AD.
The eleventh century agronomist Ibn Bassal of Toledo described 177 species in his Dīwān al-filāha (The Court of Agriculture). Ibn Bassal had travelled widely across the Islamic world, returning with a detailed knowledge of agronomy. His practical and systematic book both gives detailed descriptions of useful plants including leaf and root vegetables, herbs, spices and trees, and explains how to propagate and care for them.
The twelfth century agronomist Ibn al-'Awwam described in detail in his Kitāb al-Filāha (Treatise on Agriculture) how olive trees should be grown, grafted (with an account of his own experiments), treated for disease, and harvested, and gave similar detail for crops such as cotton.
Medieval Islamic agronomists including Ibn Bassal and Ibn al-'Awwam described agricultural and horticultural techniques including how to propagate the olive and the date palm, crop rotation of flax with wheat or barley, and companion planting of grape and olive. These books demonstrate the importance of agriculture both as a traditional practice and as a scholarly science. In al-Andalus, there is evidence that the almanacs and manuals of agronomy helped to catalyse change, causing scholars to seek out new kinds of vegetable and fruit, and to carry out experiments in botany; in turn, these helped to improve actual practice in the region's agriculture. During the 11th century Abbadid dynasty in Seville, the sultan took a personal interest in fruit production, discovering from a peasant the method he had used to grow some exceptionally large melons—pinching off all but ten of the buds, and using wooden props to hold the stems off the ground.
Islamic animal husbandry
Archaeological evidence from the measurement of bones (osteometry) demonstrates that sheep in southern Portugal increased in size during the Islamic period, while cattle increased when the area became Christian after its reconquest. The archaeologist Simon Davis assumes that the change in size signifies improvement by animal husbandry, while in his view the choice of sheep is readily explained by the Islamic liking for mutton.
Islamic irrigation
During the period, irrigated cultivation developed due to the growing use of animal power, water power and wind power. Windpumps were used to pump water since at least the 9th century in what is now Afghanistan, Iran and Pakistan.
The Islamic period in the Fayyum depression of Middle Egypt, like medieval Islamic Spain (al-Andalus), was characterised by extremely large-scale systems of irrigation, with both the supply, via gravity-fed canals, and the management of water under local tribal control. In the Islamic period in al-Andalus, whose rural parts were equally tribal, the irrigation canal network was much enlarged. Similarly, in the Fayyum, new villages were established in the period, and new water-dependent orchards and sugar plantations were developed.
The sakia or animal-powered irrigation wheel was likely introduced to Islamic Spain in early Umayyad times (in the 8th century). Improvements to it were described by Hispano-Arabic agronomists in the 11th and 12th centuries. From there, sakia irrigation was spread further around Spain and Morocco. A 13th century observer claimed there were "5000" waterwheels along the Guadalquivir in Islamic Spain; even allowing for medieval exaggeration, irrigation systems were certainly extensive in the region at that time. The supply of water was sufficient for cities as well as agriculture: the Roman aqueduct network into the city of Cordoba was repaired in the Umayyad period, and extended.
Early accounts of Islamic Spain
Medieval Andalusian historians such as Ibn Bassam, Ibn Hayyan, and Ibn Hazm, and geographers such as al-Bakri, al-Idrisi, and al-Zuhri, described Islamic Spain as a fortunate entity. Indeed, the tenth-century Jewish scribe Menahem Ben Saruq wrote to the Khazar king "The name of our land in which we dwell ... in the language of the Arabs, the inhabitants of the land, al-Andalus ... the land is rich, abounding in rivers, springs, and aqueducts; a land of corn, oil, and wine, of fruits and all manner of delicacies; it has pleasure-gardens and orchards, fruitful trees of every kind, including ... upon which the silkworm feeds". al-Maqqari, quoting the ninth-century Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Musa al-Razi, describes al-Andalus as a rich land "with good, arable soil, fertile settlements, flowing copiously with plentiful rivers and fresh springs." Al-Andalus was associated with cultivated trees like olive and pomegranate. After the Christian reconquest, arable farming was frequently abandoned, the land reverting to pasture, though some farmers tried to adopt Islamic agronomy. Western historians have wondered if the Medieval Arab historians were reliable, given that they had a motive to emphasize the splendour of al-Andalus, but evidence from archaeology has broadly supported their claims.
Scholarly debate
In 1876, the historian Antonia Garcia Maceira argued that where the Romans and then the Goths who farmed in Spain made little effort to improve their crops or to import species from other regions, under "the Arabs", there was an agricultural "revolution" in al-Andalus caused "by implementing the knowledge that they acquired through observation during their peregrinations, and the result was extensive agricultural settlement."
In 1974, the historian Andrew Watson published a paper proposing an extension of Garcia Maceira's hypothesis of agricultural revolution in Al-Andalus. Watson argued that the economy established by Arab and other Muslim traders across the Old World enabled the diffusion of many crops and farming techniques throughout the Islamic world, as well as the adaptation of crops and techniques from and to regions outside it. Crops from Africa, such as sorghum, from China, such as citrus fruits, and from India, such as mango, rice, cotton and sugar cane, were distributed throughout Islamic lands, which he believed had not previously grown these plants. He listed eighteen such crops. Watson suggested that these introductions, along with an increased mechanization of agriculture and irrigation, led to major changes in economy, population distribution, vegetation cover, agricultural production and income, population, urban growth, distribution of the labour force, industries linked to agriculture, cooking, diet and clothing in the Islamic world.
In 1997, the historian of science Howard R. Turner wrote that Islamic study of soil, climate, seasons and ecology "promoted a remarkably advanced horticulture and agriculture. The resulting knowledge, transmitted to Europe after the eleventh century, helped to improve farming techniques, widen the variety of crops, and increase yields on the continent's farmlands. In addition, an enormous variety of crops was introduced to the West from or through Muslim lands".
In 2006, James E. McClellan III and Harold Dorn stated in their book Science and Technology in World History that Islam had depended as much on its farmers as its soldiers, and that the farmers had helped to create a "scientific civilisation": "in what amounted to an agricultural revolution they adapted new and more diversified food crops to the Mediterranean ecosystem: rice, sugar cane, cotton, melons, citrus fruits, and other products. With rebuilt and enlarged systems of irrigation, Islamic farming extended the growing season and increased productivity." They stated further that the importance of these efforts was indicated by the "uninterrupted series" of books on agriculture and irrigation; another indication was provided by the many books on particular animals of importance to Islamic farming and government, including horses and bees. They ascribed the population growth, urbanisation, social stratification, centralisation of politics and state-controlled scholarship to the improvement in agricultural productivity.
By 2008, the archaeozoologist Simon Davis could write without qualification that in the Iberian peninsula "Agriculture flourished: the Moslems introduced new irrigation techniques and new plants like sugar cane, rice, cotton, spinach, pomegranates and citrus trees, to name just a few... Seville had become a Mecca for agronomists, and its hinterland, or Aljarafe, their laboratory."
In 2011, the Arabist Paulina B. Lewicka [pl] wrote that in Medieval Egypt, the Arab Agricultural Revolution was followed by a "commercial revolution" as the Fatimids (in power 909-1171) made Egypt a major trade centre for the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean, and in the more cosmopolitan and sophisticated society that resulted, a "culinary revolution" which transformed Egyptian cuisine.
Early scepticism
Watson's work was met with some early scepticism, such as from the historian Jeremy Johns in 1984. Johns argued that Watson's selection of 18 plants was "peculiar", since the banana, coconut, mango and pomelo were unimportant in the Islamic region at the time, detracting from the discussion of the staple crops. Johns further noted that the evidence of diffusion of crops was imperfect, that Watson made "too many minor slips and larger errors" such as getting dates wrong or claiming that a 1439 document was Norman, and had failed to make best use of the evidence that was available, such as of the decline of classical agriculture, or even to mention the changing geomorphology. Johns however concluded that "The hypothesis of an 'Abbasid agricultural revolution is challenging and may well prove useful".
The historian Eliyahu Ashtor wrote in 1976 that agricultural production declined in the period immediately after the Arab conquest in areas of Mesopotamia and Egypt, on the limited basis of records of taxes collected on cultivated areas. In a 2012 paper focusing on the Sawād area of Iraq, Michele Campopiano concluded that Iraqi agricultural output declined in the 7th to 10th century; he attributed this decline to "competition of the different ruling groups to gain access to land surplus".
Diffusion not revolution
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In 2009, the historian Michael Decker stated that widespread cultivation and consumption of four staples, namely durum wheat, Asiatic rice, sorghum and cotton were already commonplace under the Roman Empire and Sassanid Empire, centuries before the Islamic period. He suggested that their actual role in Islamic agriculture had been exaggerated, arguing that the agricultural practices of Muslim cultivators did not fundamentally differ from those of pre-Islamic times, but evolved from the hydraulic know-how and 'basket' of agricultural plants inherited from their Roman and Persian predecessors. In the case of cotton, which the Romans grew mainly in Egypt, the plant remained a minor crop in the classical Islamic period: the major fibre was flax, as in Roman times. Decker further asserted that the advanced state of ancient irrigation practices "rebuts sizeable parts of the Watson thesis," since for example in Spain, archaeological work indicated that the Islamic irrigation system was developed from the existing Roman network, rather than replacing it. Decker agreed that "Muslims made an important contribution to world farming through the westward diffusion of some crops", but that the introduction of "agronomic techniques and materials" had been less widespread and less consistent than Watson had suggested. Furthermore, there is clear evidence that agricultural devices such as watermills and waterwheels, shadufs, norias, sakias, water screws and water pumps were widely known and applied in Greco-Roman agriculture long before the Muslim conquests.
Revolution driven by social institutions
| The main trade of is in oils which are exported to the east and the west by land and sea. These oils come from a district called al-Sharaf which extends for 40 milles and which is entirely planted with olives and figs. It reaches from Seville as far as Niébla, having a width of more than 12 milles. It comprises, it is said, eight thousand thriving villages, with a great number of baths and fine houses.—Muhammad al-Idrisi, 12th century |
D. Fairchild Ruggles rejected the view that the medieval Arab historians had been wrong to claim that agriculture had been revolutionised, and that it had instead simply been restored to a state like that before the collapse of the Roman Empire. She argued that while the medieval Arab historians may not have had a reliable picture of agricultural knowledge before their time, they were telling the truth about a dramatic change to the landscape of Islamic Spain. A whole new "system of crop rotation, fertilization, transplanting, grafting, and irrigation" was swiftly and systematically put into place under a new legal framework of land ownership and tenancy. In her view, therefore, there was indeed an agricultural revolution in al-Andalus, but it consisted principally of new social institutions rather than of new agronomic techniques. Ruggles stated that this "dramatic economic, scientific, and social transformation" began in al-Andalus and had spread throughout the Islamic Mediterranean by the 10th century.
Historiography
Looking back over 40 years of scholarship since Watson's theory, the historian of land use Paolo Squatriti wrote in 2014 that the thesis had been widely used and cited by historians and archaeologists working in different fields. It had "proved to be applicable in scholarly debates about technological diffusion in pre-industrial societies, the 'decline' of Islamic civilization, the relations between elite and peasant cultural systems, Europe's historical Sonderweg in the second millennium CE, the origins of globalization, the nature of Mediterraneity." Squatriti noted that Watson had originally trained in economics, and applied this interest to his historical studies. Squatriti described Watson's paper as concise and elegant, and popular for its usefulness in supporting the theses of many different historians. He observed that Watson's thesis did not depend on claims of new introductions of plants into any region, but of their "diffusion and normalization", i.e. of their becoming widely and generally used, even if they were known from Roman times. Calling Watson's "philological" approach "old fashioned", and given that Watson had worked "virtually without archaeology", Squatrini expressed surprise that recent research in archaeobotany had failed to "decisively undermine" Watson's thesis.
Notes
- The Arab Agricultural Revolution has also variously been called the Medieval Green Revolution, the Muslim Agricultural Revolution, the Islamic Agricultural Revolution and the Islamic Green Revolution.
- Glick uses the term noria, but states that it is animal-powered, for which sakia is the more usual name.
- However "mythical" the idea of the wandering Arab, Ibn Bassal was indeed widely travelled and wrote from his own observations.
- In Paolo Squatriti's view, Watson's thesis also recalled the Belgian economic historian Henri Pirenne's 1939 view of the way that a seventh century Islamic maritime power in the Mediterranean had prevented Europe from trading there.
- Decker wrote: "In support of his thesis, Watson charted the advance of seventeen food crops and one fiber crop that became important over a large area of the Mediterranean world during the first four centuries of Islamic rule (roughly the seventh through eleventh centuries C.E.)" The food crops named by Watson were rice, sorghum, durum wheat, sugar cane, watermelon, aubergine (eggplant), spinach, artichoke, taro, sour orange, lemon, lime, banana, plantain, mango, and coconut; the fibre was cotton.
- The website 'Alcazar of the Christian Monarchs' explains: "The most plausible hypothesis points to an Almoravid construction from 1136-1137. The structure was later reused in the Almohad period to supply the lower part of the Alcazaba with water. The watermill was operational up until the end of the fifteenth century, when, according to tradition, Queen Isabella the Catholic ordered it to be taken down because the noise it produced prevented her from sleeping."
- Decker wrote "Nothing has been written, however that attacks the central pillar of Watson's thesis, namely the 'basket' of plants that is inextricably linked to all other elements of his analysis. This work will therefore assess the place and importance of four crops of the 'Islamic Agricultural Revolution' for which there is considerable pre-Islamic evidence in the Mediterranean world."
- Squatriti is known for works on medieval land use such as Landscape and Change in Early Medieval Italy, Cambridge University Press, 2013.
References
- ^ Watson 1974, pp. 8–35.
- Watson 1981.
- Glick 1977, pp. 644–650.
- Idrisi 2005.
- ^ Decker 2009.
- Burke 2009, p. 174.
- ^ Ruggles 2000, pp. 31–32.
- ^ Squatriti 2014, pp. 1205–1220.
- ^ Ruggles 2008, pp. 32–35.
- ^ "Ibn Baṣṣāl: Dīwān al-filāḥa / Kitāb al-qaṣd wa'l-bayān". The Filaha Texts Project: The Arabic Books of Husbandry. Retrieved 11 April 2017.
- "Ibn al-'Awwām: Kitāb al-filāḥa". The Filāḥa Texts Project. Retrieved 8 December 2019.
- ^ Ruggles 2008, p. 36.
- ^ Davis 2008, pp. 991–1010.
- Mazoyer & Roudart 2006, p. 147.
- Glick 1996.
- Lucas 2006, p. 65.
- ^ Rapoport & Shahar 2012, pp. 1–31.
- Jayyusi 1994, pp. 974–986.
- ^ Glick 1977, pp. 644–50.
- ^ Ruggles 2007.
- Bolens 1972.
- Lévi-Provençal 2012.
- Meri 2006, p. 96.
- ^ "Description of Aljarafe, Al-Andalus, in the mid-12th century, by the geographer Abū Abd Allāh Muḥammad al-Idrīsi". The Filaha Texts Project | The Arabic Books of Husbandry. Retrieved 6 February 2018.
- Scales 1993, p. 3.
- ^ Decter 2007, pp. 20–21, 35.
- Decter 2007, p. 35.
- Schildgen 2016, p. 84.
- Ruggles 2000, pp. 15–34.
- ^ Decker 2009, pp. 187–188.
- Watson 2008.
- Turner 1997, p. 173.
- ^ McClellan & Dorn 2006, p. 102.
- Lewicka 2011, pp. 72–74.
- Johns 1984, pp. 343–344.
- Cahen 1986, p. 217.
- Ashtor 1976, pp. 58–63.
- Campopiano 2012, pp. 1–37.
- Brebbia 2017, p. 341.
- ^ "Albolafia". Alcazar of the Christian Monarchs. 2011. Retrieved 28 December 2017.
- ^ Decker 2009, p. 191.
- Decker 2009, p. 187.
- Decker 2009, p. 205.
- Decker 2009, p. 190.
- Oleson 2000, pp. 183–216.
- Wikander 2000, pp. 371–400.
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- Ruggles, D. Fairchild (2008). Islamic Gardens and Landscapes. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0812240252.
- Scales, Peter C. (1993). The Fall of the Caliphate of Córdoba: Berbers and Andalusis in Conflict. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 90-04-09868-2.
- Schildgen, B. (2016). Heritage or Heresy: Preservation and Destruction of Religious Art and Architecture in Europe. Springer. ISBN 978-0-230-61315-7.
- Squatriti, Paolo (2014). "Of Seeds, Seasons, and Seas: Andrew Watson's Medieval Agrarian Revolution Forty Years Later". The Journal of Economic History. 74 (4): 1205–1220. doi:10.1017/S0022050714000904 (inactive 1 November 2024). S2CID 154969169.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link) - Turner, Howard R. (1997). Science in Medieval Islam. University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-70469-0.
- Watson, Andrew M. (1974). "The Arab Agricultural Revolution and Its Diffusion, 700–1100". The Journal of Economic History. 34 (1): 8–35. doi:10.1017/S0022050700079602. JSTOR 2116954. S2CID 154359726.
- Watson, Andrew M. (1981). "A Medieval Green Revolution: New Crops and Farming Techniques in the Early Islamic World". In Abraham L. Udovitch (ed.). The Islamic Middle East, 700–1900: Studies in Economic and Social History. Darwin Press. ISBN 978-0-87850-030-7.
- Watson, Andrew (2008) . Agricultural innovation in the early Islamic world : the diffusion of crops and farming techniques 700-1100. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-06883-3.
- Wikander, Örjan (2000). "The Water-Mill". In Wikander, Örjan (ed.). Handbook of Ancient Water Technology. Technology and Change in History. Vol. 2. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 90-04-11123-9.
External links
- Introduction, The Filāḥa Texts Project
- Crop Diffusion in the Early Islamic World
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