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{{Short description|Roman civilization from the 8th century BCE to the 5th century CE}} {{Short description|Roman civilisation from the 8th century BC to the 5th century AD}}
{{About|the ] in ]|the history of the city of Rome|Rome|other uses|}} {{About|the history of Roman civilisation in antiquity|the history of the city of Rome|History of Rome|other uses|}}
{{EngvarB|date=October 2022}}
{{pp|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2022}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2019}}
{{Infobox former country {{Infobox former country
|native_name = ''Roma'' | native_name = ''Roma''
|conventional_long_name = Ancient Rome | common_name = Ancient Rome
| capital = ] (and others during the late Empire, notably ] and ])
|common_name = Ancient Rome
| common_languages = ]
|capital = ] (and others during the late Empire, notably ] and ])
|common_languages = ] | era = ]
| government_type = *Elective ] {{Small|(753–509 BC)}}
|era = ]
*] diarchic ] {{Small|(509 BC–476 AD, only ''de jure'' after 27 BC)}}
|government_type = ] (753–509 BC)<br />] (509–27 BC)<br />] (27 BC–476 AD)
*absolute monarchy {{Small|(27 BC–476 AD, ''de facto'')}}
|year_start = 753 BC
| footnote1 = {{Note|lifespan||While the deposition of Emperor ] in 476 is the most commonly cited end date for the Western Roman Empire, the last Western Roman emperor ], was assassinated in 480, when the title and notion of a separate Western Empire were abolished. Another suggested end date is the reorganization of the Italian peninsula and abolition of separate Western Roman administrative institutions under Emperor ] during the latter half of the 6th century.}}
|year_end = 476 AD
| status = {{Ubl|]<br/>&nbsp;{{Small|(753–509 BC)}}|]<br />&nbsp;{{Small|(509–27 BC)}}|]<br />&nbsp;{{Small|(27 BC–476 AD)}}}}
|event_start = ]
| year_start = 753 BC
|event1 = ] of ]
|date_event1 = 509 BC | year_end = 476/480{{Ref|lifespan|1}} AD
|event2 = Octavian proclaimed ] | event_start = ]
| event1 = ] of ]
|date_event2 = 27 BC
| date_event1 = 509 BC
|event_end = ]
|image_coat = Spqrstone.jpg | event2 = Octavian proclaimed ]
| date_event2 = 27 BC
|symbol_type = {{lang|la|]}}
|image_map = Roman Republic Empire map.gif | event_end = ]
| national_motto = {{Lang|la|]}}
|image_map_caption = Territories of the Roman civilization:
| image_map = Roman Republic Empire map.gif
| image_map_caption = Territories of the Roman civilisation:
{{Legend|#a64|]}} {{Legend|#a64|]}}
{{Legend|#a6a|]}} {{Legend|#a6a|]}}
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{{Legend|#bc4|]}} {{Legend|#bc4|]}}
}} }}
{{Roman government}}


In modern ], '''ancient Rome''' refers to ] civilization from the founding of the city of ] in the 8th century BC to the collapse of the ] in the 5th century AD. It encompasses the ] (753–509 BC), ] (509–27 BC) and ] (27 BC–476 AD) until the fall of the western empire.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/ancient-Rome|title=ancient Rome {{!}} Facts, Maps, & History|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=5 September 2017|language=en}}</ref> In modern ], '''ancient Rome''' is the ] civilisation from the founding of the Italian city of ] in the 8th century BC to the ] of the ] in the 5th century AD. It encompasses the ] (753–509 BC), the ] (509–27 BC), and the ] (27 BC–476 AD) until the fall of the western empire.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=ancient Rome {{!}} Facts, Maps, & History |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/ancient-Rome |access-date=5 September 2017 |language=en}}</ref>{{Efn|The specific dates vary, depending on whether one follows Roman tradition, modern archaeology, or competing views of which particular events mark endpoints.}}


Ancient Rome began as an ] settlement, traditionally dated to 753 BC, beside the ] in the ]. The settlement grew into the city and polity of Rome, and came to control its neighbours through a combination of treaties and military strength. It eventually dominated the Italian peninsula, and acquired an Empire that took in much of Europe and the nations surrounding the Mediterranean. It was among the ] in the ancient world, with an estimated 50 to 90&nbsp;million inhabitants, roughly 20% of the world's population at the time. It covered around {{convert|5|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=off}} at its height in AD 117.<ref>There are several different estimates for the population of the Roman Empire. Ancient Rome began as an ] settlement, traditionally dated to 753 BC, beside the ] in the ]. The settlement grew into the city and polity of Rome, and came to control its neighbours through a combination of treaties and military strength. It eventually controlled the Italian Peninsula, assimilating the ] culture of southern ] (]) and the ] culture, and then became the dominant power in the Mediterranean region and parts of Europe. At its height it controlled the ] coast, ], Southern Europe, and most of Western Europe, the ], ], and much of the Middle East, including ], ], and parts of ] and ]. That empire was among the ] in the ancient world, covering around {{Convert|5|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=off}} in AD 117,<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Taagepera |first=Rein |author-link=Rein Taagepera |year=1979 |title=Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600&nbsp;B.C. to 600&nbsp;A.D. |journal=Social Science History |volume=3 |issue=3/4 |pages=125 |doi=10.2307/1170959 |jstor=1170959 |issn = 0145-5532 }}<br />{{Cite journal|last1=Turchin|first1=Peter|last2=Adams|first2=Jonathan M.|last3=Hall|first3=Thomas D|date=December 2006 |title=East-West Orientation of Historical Empires |journal=Journal of World-Systems Research |volume=12 |issue=2 |page=222 |issn=1076-156X |doi=10.5195/JWSR.2006.369|doi-access=free}}</ref> with an estimated 50 to 90&nbsp;million inhabitants, roughly 20% of the world's population at the time.{{Efn|There are several different estimates for the population of the Roman Empire.
* Scheidel (2006, p. 2) estimates 60. * {{Harvnb|Scheidel|Saller|Morris|2007|p=2}} estimates 60 million.
* {{Cite journal |last=Goldsmith |first=Raymond W. |date=September 1984 |title=An Estimate of the Size And Structure of the National Product of the Early Roman Empire |journal=Review of Income and Wealth |volume=30 |issue=3 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.1984.tb00552.x |page=263 |ref=none}} estimates 55.
* Goldsmith (1984, p. 263) estimates 55.
* {{Cite book |last=Beloch |first=Karl Julius |title=Bevölkerung der griechisch-römischen Welt |language=de |date=1886 |publisher=Duncker |page=507 |ref=none}} estimates 54.
* Beloch (1886, p. 507) estimates 54.
* {{Cite book |last=Maddison |first=Angus |title=Contours of the World Economy, 1–2030 AD. Essays in Macro-Economic History |date=2007 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-1992-2721-1 |author-link=Angus Maddison |ref=none |pages=51, 120}} estimates 48.
* Maddison (2006, pp. 51, 120) estimates 48.
* estimates 65 (while mentioning several other estimates between 55 and 120). * estimates 65 (while mentioning several other estimates between 55 and 120).
* {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xvcAhdF-VlgC&pg=PA3|title=Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor|last=McLynn|first=Frank|date=2011|publisher=Random House|isbn=9781446449332|page=3|language=en|quote=he most likely estimate for the reign of Marcus Aurelius is somewhere between seventy and eighty million.}} * {{Cite book |last=McLynn |first=Frank |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xvcAhdF-VlgC&pg=PA3 |title=Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor |date=2011 |publisher=Random House |isbn=978-1-4464-4933-2 |page=3 |language=en |quote=he most likely estimate for the reign of Marcus Aurelius is somewhere between seventy and eighty million. |ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last1=McEvedy |first1=Colin |last2=Jones |first2=Richard |title=Atlas of world population history |publisher=Penguin |location=New York |date=1978 |isbn=0-1405-1076-1 |ol=4292284M |oclc=4150954 |ref=none}}
* McEvedy and Jones (1978).
* an average of figures from different sources as listed at the US Census Bureau's {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131013110506/http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/worldhis.html |date=13 October 2013 }} * an average of figures from different sources as listed at the US Census Bureau's {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131013110506/http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/worldhis.html |date=13 October 2013}}
* ] (1993). "Population Growth and Technological Change: One Million B.C. to 1990" in ''The Quarterly Journal of Economics'' 108(3): 681–716. * ] (1993). "Population Growth and Technological Change: One Million B.C. to 1990" in ''The Quarterly Journal of Economics'' 108(3): 681–716.}} The Roman state evolved from an elective monarchy to a ] and then to an increasingly ] ] during the Empire.
</ref><ref name=":0">* {{cite journal|last=Taagepera|first=Rein|author-link=Rein Taagepera|year=1979|title=Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600&nbsp;B.C. to 600&nbsp;A.D.|journal=Social Science History|volume=3|issue=3/4|pages=125|doi=10.2307/1170959|jstor=1170959}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Turchin|first1=Peter|last2=Adams|first2=Jonathan M.|last3=Hall|first3=Thomas D|date=December 2006|title=East-West Orientation of Historical Empires|journal=Journal of World-Systems Research|volume=12|issue=2|page=222|issn=1076-156X|doi=10.5195/JWSR.2006.369|doi-access=free}}</ref>


Ancient Rome is often grouped into ] together with ], and their similar cultures and societies are known as the ]. Ancient Roman civilisation has contributed to modern language, religion, society, technology, law, politics, government, warfare, art, literature, architecture, and engineering. Rome professionalised and expanded its military and created a system of government called ''{{Lang|la|]}}'', the inspiration for modern republics such as the ] and ].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bGxiE6jvzOcC |title=A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution |date=1989 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-6741-7728-4 |editor-last=Furet |editor-first=François |page=793 |editor-last2=Ozouf |editor-first2=Mona}}; {{Cite book |last1=Luckham |first1=Robin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RMDnAAAAIAAJ |title=Democratization in the South: The Jagged Wave |last2=White |first2=Gordon |date=1996 |publisher=Manchester University Press |isbn=978-0-7190-4942-2 |page=11}}; {{Cite book |last=Sellers |first=Mortimer N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zN7lgzjettgC |title=American Republicanism: Roman Ideology in the United States Constitution |date=1994 |publisher=NYU Press |isbn=978-0-8147-8005-3 |page=90}}</ref> It achieved impressive ] and ] feats, such as the empire-wide construction of ] and ], as well as more grandiose monuments and facilities.
The Roman state evolved from an ] to a ] ] and then to an increasingly ] ] ] during the Empire. Through conquest, ], and ] ], at its height it controlled the ] coast, ], ], and most of ], the ], ] and much of the ], including ], ] and parts of ] and ]. It is often grouped into ] together with ], and their similar cultures and societies are known as the ].


==History==
Ancient Roman civilisation has contributed to modern language, religion, society, technology, law, politics, government, warfare, art, literature, architecture and engineering. Rome professionalised and expanded its military and created a system of government called '']'', the inspiration for modern ]s such as the United States and France.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bGxiE6jvzOcC|title=A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution|page=793|editor1-last=Furet|editor1-first=François|editor2-last=Ozouf|editor2-first=Mona|publisher=Harvard University Press|date=1989|isbn=978-0674177284}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RMDnAAAAIAAJ|title=Democratization in the South: The Jagged Wave|page=11|last1=Luckham|first1=Robin|last2=White|first2=Gordon|publisher=Manchester University Press|date=1996|isbn=978-0719049422}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zN7lgzjettgC|title=American Republicanism: Roman Ideology in the United States Constitution|page=90|last=Sellers|first=Mortimer N.|publisher=NYU Press|date=1994|isbn=978-0814780053}}</ref> It achieved impressive ] and ] feats, such as the empire-wide construction of ] and ], as well as more grandiose monuments and facilities.


===Early Italy and the founding of Rome===
The ] with ] gave Rome supremacy in the Mediterranean. The Roman Empire emerged with the ] of ] (from 27 BC); Rome's imperial domain now extended from the Atlantic to ] and from the mouth of the ] to North Africa. In 92 AD, Rome came up against the resurgent ] and became involved in history's longest-running conflict, the ], which would have lasting effects on both empires. Under ], Rome's empire reached its territorial peak, encompassing the entire ], the southern margins of the ], and the shores of the ] and ] Seas. Republican ] started to decline during the imperial period, with civil wars becoming a common prelude to the rise of a new emperor.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_TsTAAAAYAAJ|title=The Greatness and Decline of Rome, Volume 2|page=215|last=Ferrero|first=Guglielmo|translator1-last=Zimmern|translator1-first=Sir Alfred Eckhard|translator2-last=Chaytor|translator2-first=Henry John|publisher=G.P. Putnam's Sons|date=1909}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ssm3UQYmsYIC|title=Shakespeare and Republicanism|page=68|last=Hadfield|first=Andrew Hadfield|publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=2005|isbn=978-0521816076}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=symGBDPyd5YC|title=The Philosophy of Law: An Encyclopedia, Volume 1|page=741|last=Gray|first=Christopher B|publisher=Taylor & Francis|date=1999|isbn=978-0815313441}}</ref> Splinter states, such as the ], would temporarily divide the Empire during the ] before some stability was restored in the ] phase of imperial rule.
{{Further|Founding of Rome}}
{{Multiple image
| align = right
| total_width = 420px


| image1 = Capitoline she-wolf Musei Capitolini MC1181.jpg
Plagued by internal instability and ] by various migrating peoples, the western part of the empire ] into independent ] in the 5th century.{{efn|This splintering is a landmark historians use to divide the ancient period of ] from the pre-medieval "]" of Europe.}} The ] remained a power through the Middle Ages until its ] in 1453 AD.{{efn|Although the citizens of the empire made no distinction, the empire is most commonly referred to as the "Byzantine Empire" by modern historians to differentiate between the state in antiquity and the state during the Middle Ages.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/|title=Byzantine Empire|last=Cartwright|first=Mark|date=19 September 2018|encyclopedia=World History Encyclopedia}}</ref>}}
| alt1 = Capitoline Wolf
| caption1 = The ], now illustrating the legend that a ] suckled ] after ]'s imprisonment in ]


| image2 = Rome in 753 BC.png
==Founding myth==
{{Main|Founding of Rome}} | alt2 = Rome 753 BC
| caption2 = Modern reconstruction of the marshy conditions of early Rome, along with a conjectural placement of the ] and ]
According to the ] of Rome, the ] on 21 April 753&nbsp;BC on the banks of the river ] in central Italy, by the twin brothers ], who descended from the ] prince ],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Adkins|first1=Lesley|last2=Adkins|first2=Roy|title=Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome|page=3|date=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-512332-6}}</ref> and who were grandsons of the Latin King ] of ]. King Numitor was deposed by his brother, ], while Numitor's daughter, ], gave birth to the twins.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Cavazzi|first1=F.|title=The Founding of Rome|url=http://www.roman-empire.net/founding/found-index.html|website=Illustrated History of the Roman Empire|access-date=8 March 2007}}</ref><ref name=livy8 >{{cite book|last1=Livius|first1=Titus (Livy)|translator-last1=Luce|translator-first1=T.J.|title=The Rise of Rome, Books 1–5|date=1998|publisher=Oxford World's Classics|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-282296-3|pages=|url=https://archive.org/details/riseofromebookso00livy/page/8}}</ref> Since Rhea Silvia had been raped and impregnated by ], the Roman ], the twins were considered ].


| footer =
] in 753&nbsp;BC by ], who were raised by a she-wolf]]
}}
The new king, Amulius, feared Romulus and Remus would take back the throne, so he ordered them to be drowned.<ref name=livy8 /> A ] (or a shepherd's wife in some accounts) saved and raised them, and when they were old enough, they returned the throne of Alba Longa to Numitor.<ref name="Caesarandchrist" >{{cite book|last1=Durant|first1=Will|last2=Durant|first2=Ariel|title=The Story of Civilization – Volume III: Caesar and Christ|date=1944|publisher=Simon and Schuster, Inc.|isbn=978-1567310238|pages=12–14|title-link=The Story of Civilization}}</ref><ref name=livy8 />


Archaeological evidence of settlement around Rome starts to emerge {{Circa|1000&nbsp;BC}}.{{Sfn|Boatwright|2012|p=519}} Large-scale organisation appears only {{Circa|800&nbsp;BC}}, with the first graves in the ]'s necropolis, along with a ] on the bottom of the ] dating to the middle of the 8th century&nbsp;BC. Starting from {{Circa|650&nbsp;BC}}, the Romans started to drain the valley between the ] and Palatine Hills, where today sits the ].{{Sfn|Boatwright|2012|p=29}} By the sixth century BC, the Romans were constructing the ] on the Capitoline and expanding to the ] located between the Capitoline and ]s.{{Sfn|Boatwright|2012|p=31}}
The twins then founded their own city, but Romulus killed Remus in a quarrel over the location of the ], though some sources state the quarrel was about who was going to rule or give his name to the city.<ref>Roggen, Hesse, Haastrup, Omnibus I, H. Aschehoug & Co 1996</ref> Romulus became the source of the city's name.<ref name=livy8 /> In order to attract people to the city, Rome became a sanctuary for the indigent, exiled, and unwanted. This caused a problem, in that Rome came to have a large male population but was bereft of women. Romulus visited neighboring towns and tribes and attempted to secure marriage rights, but as Rome was so full of undesirables he was refused. Legend says that the Latins invited the ]s to a festival and ], leading to the integration of the Latins with the Sabines.<ref>. Retrieved 8 March 2007.</ref>


Another legend, recorded by Greek historian ], says that Prince Aeneas led a group of Trojans on a sea voyage to found a new Troy, since the original was destroyed at the end of the ]. After a long time in rough seas, they landed on the banks of the ]. Not long after they landed, the men wanted to take to the sea again, but the women who were traveling with them did not want to leave. One woman, named Roma, suggested that the women burn the ships out at sea to prevent their leaving. At first, the men were angry with Roma, but they soon realized that they were in the ideal place to settle. They named the settlement after the woman who torched their ships.<ref>Mellor, Ronald and McGee Marni, ''The Ancient Roman World'' p. 15 (Cited 15 March 2009)</ref> The Romans themselves had a ], attributing their city to ], offspring of Mars and a princess of the mythical city of ].{{Sfn|Boatwright|2012|pp=31–32}} The sons, sentenced to death, were rescued by a wolf and returned to restore the Alban king and found a city. After a dispute, Romulus killed Remus and became the city's sole founder. The area of his initial settlement on the Palatine Hill was later known as ] ("Square Rome"). The story dates at least to the third century BC, and the later Roman antiquarian ] placed the city's foundation to 753&nbsp;BC.{{Sfn|Boatwright|2012|p=32}} Another legend, recorded by Greek historian ], says that Prince Aeneas led a group of Trojans on a sea voyage to found a new Troy after the ]. They landed on the banks of the ] and a woman travelling with them, Roma, torched their ships to prevent them leaving again. They named the settlement after her.<ref>Mellor, Ronald and McGee Marni, ''The Ancient Roman World'' p. 15 (Cited 15 March 2009).</ref> The Roman poet ] recounted this legend in his classical epic poem the '']'', where the Trojan prince ] is destined to found a new Troy.

The Roman poet ] recounted this legend in his classical epic poem the '']'', where the Trojan prince ] is destined by the gods to found a new Troy. In the epic, the women also refuse to go back to the sea, but they were not left on the Tiber. After reaching Italy, Aeneas, who wanted to marry ], was forced to wage war with her former suitor, ]. According to the poem, the ] were descended from Aeneas, and thus Romulus, the founder of Rome, was his descendant.


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==Kingdom== ===Kingdom===
{{Main|Roman Kingdom}} {{Main|Roman Kingdom}}
] ]; dancer and musicians, ], in Tarquinia, Italy]] ] ] of dancer and musicians from the ] in ]]]


Literary and archaeological evidence is clear on there having been kings in Rome, attested in fragmentary 6th century BC texts.<ref>{{Harvnb|Boatwright|2012|p=35|ps=. "{{Lang|la|Rex}}, the Latin word for king, appears in two fragmentary sixth-century texts, one an inscription from the shrine of ], and the other a potsherd found in the ]".}}</ref> Long after the abolition of the Roman monarchy, a vestigial ''rex sacrorum'' was retained to exercise the monarch's former priestly functions. The Romans believed that their monarchy was elective, with seven legendary kings who were largely unrelated by blood.{{Sfn|Boatwright|2012|p=36}}
The city of Rome grew from settlements around a ford on the river ], a crossroads of traffic and trade.<ref name="Caesarandchrist" /> According to ] evidence, the village of Rome was probably founded some time in the 8th century BC, though it may go back as far as the 10th century BC, by members of the ] of Italy, on the top of the ].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Matyszak|first1=Philip|title=Chronicle of the Roman Republic|date=2003|publisher=Thames & Hudson|location=London|isbn=978-0-500-05121-4|page=19}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Duiker|first1=William|last2=Spielvogel|first2=Jackson|title=World History|date=2001|publisher=Wadsworth|isbn=978-0-534-57168-9|page=|edition=Third|url=https://archive.org/details/worldhistoryto1500duik/page/129}}</ref>


Evidence of Roman expansion is clear in the sixth century&nbsp;BC; by its end, Rome controlled a territory of some {{Convert|780|km2|mi2|abbr=off}} with a population perhaps as high as 35,000.{{Sfn|Boatwright|2012|p=36}} A palace, the ], was constructed {{Circa|625&nbsp;BC}};{{Sfn|Boatwright|2012|p=36}} the Romans attributed the creation of their first popular organisations and the ] to the regal period as well.{{Sfn|Boatwright|2012|p=37}} Rome also started to extend its control over its Latin neighbours. While later Roman stories like the '']'' asserted that all Latins descended from the character ],{{Sfn|Boatwright|2012|p=39}} a common culture is attested to archaeologically.{{Sfn|Boatwright|2012|p=40}} Attested to reciprocal rights of marriage and citizenship between Latin cities—the {{Lang|la|]}}—along with shared religious festivals, further indicate a shared culture. By the end of the 6th century, most of this area had become dominated by the Romans.{{Sfn|Boatwright|2012|p=42}}
The ], who had previously settled to the north in ], seem to have established political control in the region by the late 7th century BC, forming an aristocratic and monarchical elite. The Etruscans apparently lost power by the late 6th century BC, and at this point, the original Latin and Sabine tribes reinvented their government by creating a republic, with much greater restraints on the ability of rulers to exercise power.<ref>''Ancient Rome and the Roman Empire'' by Michael Kerrigan. ], London: 2001. {{ISBN|0-7894-8153-7}}. p. 12.</ref>


===Republic===
Roman tradition and archaeological evidence point to a complex within the ] as the seat of power for the king and the beginnings of the religious center there as well. ], the second ] succeeding ], began Rome's building projects with his royal palace, the ], and the complex of the ].

==Republic==
{{Main|Roman Republic}} {{Main|Roman Republic}}
{{Multiple image
] from the ] is traditionally identified as a portrait of ], ] ], 4th to late 3rd centuries BC]]
| align = right
According to tradition and later writers such as ], the ] was established around 509&nbsp;BC,<ref>Langley, Andrew and Souza, de Philip, "The Roman Times", Candle Wick Press, Massachusetts</ref> when the last of the seven kings of Rome, ], was ] by ] and a system based on annually elected ] and various representative assemblies was established.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Matyszak|first1=Philip|title=Chronicle of the Roman Republic|date=2003|publisher=Thames & Hudson|location=London|isbn=978-0-500-05121-4|pages=43–44}}</ref> A ] set a series of ], and a ]. The most important magistrates were the two ], who together exercised executive authority such as '']'', or military command.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Adkins|first1=Lesley|last2=Adkins|first2=Roy|title=Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome|pages=41–42|date=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-512332-6}}</ref> The consuls had to work with the ], which was initially an advisory council of the ranking nobility, or ], but grew in size and power.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/ROME/REPUBLIC.HTM |title=Rome: The Roman Republic |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514025151/http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/ROME/REPUBLIC.HTM |archive-date=14 May 2011 |first=Richard |last=Hooker |publisher=Washington State University |date=6 June 1999}}</ref>
| total_width = 420px


| image1 = Capitoline Brutus Musei Capitolini MC1183 02.jpg
Other magistrates of the Republic include ]s, ]s, ]s, ]s and ].<ref name="Lacus"> by George Long, M.A. Appearing on pp. 723–724 of ''A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities'' by William Smith, D.C.L., LL.D. Published by John Murray, London, 1875. Website, 8 December 2006. Retrieved 24 March 2007.</ref> The magistracies were originally restricted to ], but were later opened to common people, or ].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Livius|first1=Titus (Livy)|translator-last1=Luce|translator-first1=T.J.|title=The Rise of Rome, Books 1–5|date=1998|publisher=Oxford World's Classics|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-282296-3|chapter=Book II|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/riseofromebookso00livy|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/riseofromebookso00livy}}</ref> Republican voting assemblies included the '']'' (centuriate assembly), which voted on matters of war and peace and elected men to the most important offices, and the '']'' (tribal assembly), which elected less important offices.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Adkins|first1=Lesley|last2=Adkins|first2=Roy|title=Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome|page=39|date=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-512332-6}}</ref>
| alt1 = Capitoline Brutus
] (as defined by today's borders) in 400 BC.]]
| caption1 = The ], a bust traditionally identified as ], one of the founders of the Republic
In the 4th century BC, Rome had come under attack by the ], who now extended their power in the Italian peninsula beyond the ] and through Etruria. On 16 July 390&nbsp;BC, a Gallic army under the leadership of tribal chieftain ], ] on the banks of the Allia River ten miles north of Rome. Brennus defeated the Romans, and the Gauls marched to Rome. Most Romans had fled the city, but some barricaded themselves upon the Capitoline Hill for a last stand. The Gauls looted and burned the city, then laid siege to the Capitoline Hill. The siege lasted seven months. The Gauls then agreed to give the Romans peace in exchange for 1000 pounds of gold.<ref>These are literally Roman ''librae'', from which the pound is derived.</ref> According to later legend, the Roman supervising the weighing noticed that the Gauls were using false scales. The Romans then took up arms and defeated the Gauls. Their victorious general ] remarked "With iron, not with gold, Rome buys her freedom."<ref> Plutarch, ''Parallel Lives'', ''Life of Camillus'', XXIX, 2.</ref>


| image2 = Italy 400bC en.svg
The Romans ] the other peoples on the Italian peninsula, including the ].<ref name="haywood">{{cite book|last1=Haywood|first1=Richard|title=The Ancient World|url=https://archive.org/details/ancientworld0000unse|url-access=registration|date=1971|publisher=David McKay Company, Inc.|location=United States|pages=–358}}</ref> The last threat to Roman ] in Italy came when ], a major ] colony, enlisted the aid of ] in 281&nbsp;BC, but this effort failed as well.<ref> and by Jona Lendering. Livius.org. Retrieved 21 March 2007.</ref><ref name=haywood /> The Romans secured their conquests by founding ] in strategic areas, thereby establishing stable control over the region of Italy they had conquered.<ref name=haywood/>
| alt2 = Italy in 400 BC
| caption2 = Italy in 400 BC, just prior to the ] ] under ]


| footer =
===Punic Wars===
}}
{{Main|Punic Wars}}
{{See also|Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula}}
{{more citations needed section|date=September 2014}}
[[File:Domain changes during the Punic Wars.gif|300px|thumb|upright=2|Rome and Carthage possession changes during the Punic Wars
{{legend|#ffcb90|Carthaginian possessions}}
{{legend|#b4d5b1|Roman possessions}}]]
] stronghold of ] in present north-central Spain by ] in 133 BC<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bennett |first1=Matthew |last2=Dawson |first2=Doyne |last3=Field |first3=Ron |last4=Hawthornwaite |first4=Philip |last5=Loades |first5=Mike |title=The History of Warfare: The Ultimate Visual Guide to the History of Warfare from the Ancient World to the American Civil War |date=2016 |page=61}}</ref>]]


By the end of the sixth century, Rome and many of its Italian neighbours entered a period of turbulence. Archaeological evidence implies some degree of large-scale warfare.{{Sfn|Boatwright|2012|p=43}} According to tradition and later writers such as ], the ] was established {{Circa|509&nbsp;BC}}, {{Sfn|Cornell|1995|pages=215 et seq}} when the last of the seven kings of Rome, ], was ] and a system based on annually elected ] and various representative assemblies was established.{{Sfn|Matyszak|2003|pages=43–44}} A ] set a series of ], and a ]. The most important magistrates were the two ], who together exercised executive authority such as '']'', or military command.{{Sfn|Adkins|Adkins|1998|pp=41–42}} The consuls had to work with the ], which was initially an advisory council of the ranking nobility, or ], but grew in size and power.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hooker |first=Richard |date=6 June 1999 |title=Rome: The Roman Republic |url=http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/ROME/REPUBLIC.HTM |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514025151/http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/ROME/REPUBLIC.HTM |archive-date=14 May 2011 |publisher=Washington State University}}</ref>
In the 3rd century BC Rome faced a new and formidable opponent: ]. Carthage was a rich, flourishing ]n ] that intended to dominate the Mediterranean area. The two cities were allies in the times of Pyrrhus, who was a menace to both, but with Rome's hegemony in mainland Italy and the Carthaginian ], these cities became the two major powers in the Western Mediterranean and their contention over the Mediterranean led to conflict.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=25–26}}{{sfn|Miles|2011|pp=175–176}}


Other magistrates of the Republic include ]s, ]s, ]s, ]s and ].<ref name="Lacus"> by George Long, M.A. Appearing on pp. 723–724 of ''A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities'' by William Smith, D.C.L., LL.D. Published by John Murray, London, 1875. Website, 8 December 2006. Retrieved 24 March 2007.</ref> The magistracies were originally restricted to ], but were later opened to common people, or ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Livius |first=Titus (Livy) |url=https://archive.org/details/riseofromebookso00livy |title=The Rise of Rome, Books 1–5 |date=1998 |publisher=Oxford World's Classics |isbn=978-0-1928-2296-3 |translator-last=Luce |translator-first=T.J. |chapter=Book II |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/riseofromebookso00livy |url-access=registration}}</ref> Republican voting assemblies included the '']'' (centuriate assembly), which voted on matters of war and peace and elected men to the most important offices, and the '']'' (tribal assembly), which elected less important offices.{{Sfn|Adkins|Adkins|1998|p=39}}
The ] began in 264&nbsp;BC, when the city of ] asked for Carthage's help in their conflicts with ]. After the Carthaginian intercession, Messana asked Rome to expel the Carthaginians. Rome entered this war because ] and Messana were too close to the newly conquered Greek cities of Southern Italy and Carthage was now able to make an offensive through Roman territory; along with this, Rome could extend its domain over ].<ref> Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', XI, XLIII.</ref>


In the 4th century BC, Rome had come under attack by the ], who now extended their power in the Italian peninsula beyond the ] and through Etruria. On 16 July 390&nbsp;BC, a Gallic army under the leadership of tribal chieftain ], defeated the Romans at the ] and marched to Rome. The Gauls looted and burned the city, then laid siege to the Capitoline Hill, where some Romans had barricaded themselves, for seven months. The Gauls then agreed to give the Romans peace in exchange for 1000 pounds of gold.<ref>These are literally Roman ''librae'', from which the pound is derived.</ref> According to later legend, the Roman supervising the weighing noticed that the Gauls were using false scales. The Romans then took up arms and defeated the Gauls. Their victorious general ] remarked "With iron, not with gold, Rome buys her freedom."<ref> Plutarch, ''Parallel Lives'', ''Life of Camillus'', XXIX, 2.</ref>
Although the Romans had experience in land battles, defeating this new enemy required naval battles. Carthage was a maritime power, and the Roman lack of ships and naval experience made the path to the victory a long and difficult one for the ]. Despite this, after more than 20 years of war, Rome defeated Carthage and a peace treaty was signed. Among the reasons for the ]<ref>New historical atlas and general history By Robert Henlopen Labberton. p. 35.</ref> was the subsequent war reparations Carthage acquiesced to at the end of the First Punic War.<ref>{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Punic Wars|display=Punic Wars § The Interval between the First and Second Wars|volume=22|page=850|first=Maximilian Otto Bismarck|last=Caspari}}</ref>


The Romans ] the other peoples on the Italian peninsula, including the ].{{Sfn|Haywood|1971|pages=–358}} The last threat to Roman ] in Italy came when ], a major ] colony, enlisted the aid of ] in 281&nbsp;BC, but this effort failed as well.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160414161122/http://www.livius.org/ps-pz/pyrrhus/pyrrhus02.html |date=14 April 2016 }} and {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303193524/http://www.livius.org/ps-pz/pyrrhus/pyrrhus03.html |date=3 March 2016 }} by Jona Lendering. Livius.org. Retrieved 21 March 2007.</ref>{{Sfn|Haywood|1971|pages=–358}} The Romans secured their conquests by founding ] in strategic areas, thereby establishing stable control over the region.{{Sfn|Haywood|1971|pages=–358}}
The Second Punic War is famous for its brilliant generals: on the Punic side ] and ]; on the Roman, ], ] and ]. Rome fought this war simultaneously with the ]. The war began with the audacious invasion of Hispania by Hannibal, son of ], a Carthaginian general who had led operations on Sicily towards the end of the First Punic War. Hannibal rapidly marched through ] to the Italian ], causing panic among Rome's Italian allies. The best way found to defeat Hannibal's purpose of causing the Italians to abandon Rome was to delay the Carthaginians with a ] war of attrition, a strategy propounded by Quintus Fabius Maximus, who would be nicknamed ''Cunctator'' ("delayer" in Latin), and whose strategy would be forever after known as ]. Due to this, Hannibal's goal was unachieved: he could not bring enough Italian cities to revolt against Rome and replenish his diminishing army, and he thus lacked the machines and manpower to besiege Rome.
] of an unknown man, traditionally identified as ] from the ] (Inv. No. 5634), <br>dated to mid 1st century BC<ref>AncientRome.ru. "." Retrieved 25 August 2016.</ref> <br>Excavated from the ] at ] by ], 1750–65<ref>AncientRome.ru. "." Retrieved 27 November 2021.</ref>]]
Still, Hannibal's invasion lasted over 16 years, ravaging Italy. Finally, when the Romans perceived the depletion of Hannibal's supplies, they sent Scipio, who had defeated Hannibal's brother Hasdrubal in modern-day Spain, to invade the unprotected Carthaginian hinterland and force Hannibal to return to defend Carthage itself. The result was the ending of the Second Punic War by the famously decisive ] in October 202&nbsp;BC, which gave to Scipio his ] ''Africanus''. At great cost, Rome had made significant gains: the conquest of Hispania by Scipio, and of Syracuse, the last Greek realm in Sicily, by Marcellus.


====Punic Wars====
More than a half century after these events, Carthage was humiliated and Rome was no more concerned about the African menace. The Republic's focus now was only to the ] kingdoms of Greece and ]. However, Carthage, after having paid the war indemnity, felt that its commitments and submission to Rome had ceased, a vision not shared by the ]. When in 151&nbsp;BC ] invaded Carthage, Carthage asked for Roman intercession. Ambassadors were sent to Carthage, among them was ], who after seeing that Carthage could make a comeback and regain its importance, ended all his speeches, no matter what the subject was, by saying: "'']''" ("Furthermore, I think that Carthage must be destroyed").
{{Main|Punic Wars}}
{{See also|Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula}}
]:
{{Legend|#b4d5b1|Roman possessions and close allies}}
{{Legend|#ffcb90|] and close allies }}]]
] stronghold of ] in Spain in 133 BC<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bennett |first1=Matthew |title=The History of Warfare: The Ultimate Visual Guide to the History of Warfare from the Ancient World to the American Civil War |last2=Dawson |first2=Doyne |last3=Field |first3=Ron |last4=Hawthornwaite |first4=Philip |last5=Loades |first5=Mike |date=2016 |page=61}}</ref>]]


In the 3rd century BC Rome faced a new and formidable opponent: ], the other major power in the Western Mediterranean.<ref>{{Harvnb|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=25–26}}; {{Harvnb|Miles|2011|pp=175–176}}.</ref> The ] began in 264&nbsp;BC, when the city of ] asked for Carthage's help in their conflicts with ]. After the Carthaginian intercession, Messana asked Rome to expel the Carthaginians. Rome entered this war because ] and Messana were too close to the newly conquered Greek cities of Southern Italy and Carthage was now able to make an offensive through Roman territory; along with this, Rome could extend its domain over ].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cassius Dio – Fragments of Book 11 |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/11*.html |access-date=6 September 2022 |website=penelope.uchicago.edu}}</ref>
As Carthage fought with Numidia without Roman consent, the ] began when Rome declared war against Carthage in 149&nbsp;BC. Carthage resisted well at the first strike, with the participation of all the inhabitants of the city. However, Carthage could not withstand the attack of ], who entirely destroyed the city and its walls, enslaved and sold all the citizens and gained control of that region, which became the province of ]. Thus ended the Punic War period. All these wars resulted in Rome's first overseas conquests (Sicily, Hispania and Africa) and the rise of Rome as a significant imperial power and began the end of democracy.
<ref name=haywood2 >{{cite book|last1=Haywood|first1=Richard|title=The Ancient World|url=https://archive.org/details/ancientworld0000unse|url-access=registration|date=1971|publisher=David McKay Company, Inc.|location=United States|pages=–393}}</ref><ref> by Richard Hooker. Washington State University. 6 June 1999. Retrieved 22 March 2007.</ref>


Carthage was a maritime power, and the Roman lack of ships and naval experience made the path to the victory a long and difficult one for the ]. Despite this, after more than 20 years of war, Rome defeated Carthage and a peace treaty was signed. Among the reasons for the ]<ref>{{Cite book |title=New historical atlas and general history |first=Robert Henlopen |last=Labberton |page=35}}</ref> was the subsequent war reparations Carthage acquiesced to at the end of the First Punic War.<ref>{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Punic Wars|display=Punic Wars § The Interval between the First and Second Wars|volume=22|page=850|first=Maximilian Otto Bismarck|last=Caspari}}</ref> The war began with the audacious invasion of Hispania by ], who marched through ] to the Italian ], causing panic among Rome's Italian allies. The best way found to defeat Hannibal's purpose of causing the Italians to abandon Rome was to delay the Carthaginians with a ] war of attrition, a strategy propounded by ]. Hannibal's invasion lasted over 16 years, ravaging Italy, but ultimately Carthage was defeated in the decisive ] in October 202&nbsp;BC.
== Late Republic ==
After defeating the ]ian and ]s in the 2nd century BC, the ] became the dominant people of the ].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/e/roman/texts/secondary/burlat/home.html|title=History of the Later Roman Empire|last=Bury|first=John Bagnell|publisher=MacMillan and Co.|year=1889|location=London, New York|author-link=J. B. Bury}}</ref><ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501115720/http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/ROME/CONQHELL.HTM |date=1 May 2011 }} by Richard Hooker. Washington State University. 6 June 1999. Retrieved 22 March 2007.</ref> The conquest of the Hellenistic kingdoms brought the Roman and Greek cultures in closer contact and the Roman elite, once rural, became a luxurious and cosmopolitan one. At this time Rome was a consolidated empire—in the military view—and had no major enemies.


More than a half century after these events, Carthage was left humiliated and the Republic's focus was now directed towards the ] kingdoms of Greece and ]. However, Carthage, having paid the war indemnity, felt that its commitments and submission to Rome had ceased, a vision not shared by the ]. The ] began when Rome declared war against Carthage in 149&nbsp;BC. Carthage resisted well at the first strike but could not withstand the attack of ], who entirely destroyed the city, enslaved all the citizens and gained control of that region, which became the province of ]. All these wars resulted in Rome's first overseas conquests (Sicily, Hispania and Africa) and the rise of Rome as a significant imperial power.<ref>{{Harvnb|Haywood|1971|pages=–393}}; {{Cite web |last=Hooker |first=Richard |date=6 June 1999 |title=Rome: The Punic Wars |url=http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/ROME/PUNICWAR.HTM |access-date=22 March 2007 |website=Washington State University}}</ref>
], a Roman general and politician who dramatically reformed the ]]]Foreign dominance led to internal strife. Senators became rich at the ]' expense; soldiers, who were mostly small-scale farmers, were away from home longer and could not maintain their land; and the increased reliance on foreign ] and the growth of '']'' reduced the availability of paid work.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Duiker|first1=William|last2=Spielvogel|first2=Jackson|title=World History|date=2001|publisher=Wadsworth|isbn=978-0-534-57168-9|pages=|edition=Third|url=https://archive.org/details/worldhistoryto1500duik/page/136}}</ref><ref>. ]. Retrieved 24 March 2007.</ref>


=== Late Republic ===
Income from war booty, ] in the new provinces, and ] created new economic opportunities for the wealthy, forming a new class of ]s, called the ].<ref name="Liviuseques"> by Jona Lendering. Livius.org. Retrieved 24 March 2007.</ref> The '']'' forbade members of the Senate from engaging in commerce, so while the equestrians could theoretically join the Senate, they were severely restricted in political power.<ref name="Liviuseques" /><ref>{{cite book|last1=Adkins|first1=Lesley|last2=Adkins|first2=Roy|title=Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome|page=38|date=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-512332-6}}</ref> The Senate squabbled perpetually, repeatedly blocked important ]s and refused to give the equestrian class a larger say in the government.
After defeating the ]ian and ]s in the 2nd century BC, the ] became the dominant people of the ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bury |first=John Bagnell |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/e/roman/texts/secondary/burlat/home.html |title=History of the Later Roman Empire |publisher=MacMillan and Co. |year=1889|author-link=J. B. Bury}}; {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501115720/http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/ROME/CONQHELL.HTM |date=1 May 2011}} by Richard Hooker. Washington State University. 6 June 1999. Retrieved 22 March 2007.</ref> The conquest of the Hellenistic kingdoms brought the Roman and Greek cultures in closer contact and the Roman elite, once rural, became cosmopolitan. At this time Rome was a consolidated empire—in the military view—and had no major enemies.


{{Multiple image
Violent gangs of the urban unemployed, controlled by rival Senators, intimidated the electorate through violence. The situation came to a head in the late 2nd century BC under the ] brothers, a pair of ]s who attempted to pass land reform legislation that would redistribute the major patrician landholdings among the plebeians. Both brothers were killed and the Senate passed reforms reversing the Gracchi brother's actions.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kmZHKOHgvFQC|title=Twenty-six Centuries of Agrarian Reform: A Comparative Analysis|page=34|last=Tuma|first=Elias H.|publisher=University of California Press|date=1965}}</ref> This led to the growing divide of the plebeian groups (]) and equestrian classes (]).
| align = right
| total_width = 400


=== Marius and Sulla === | image1 = Marius and the Ambassadors of the Cimbri.jpg
| alt1 = Gaius Marius
], a '']'', who started his political career with the help of the powerful ] family, soon become a leader of the Republic, holding the first of his seven consulships (an unprecedented number) in 107&nbsp;BC by arguing that his former patron ] was not able to defeat and capture the Numidian king ]. Marius then started his military reform: in his recruitment to fight Jugurtha, he levied the very poor (an innovation), and many landless men entered the army; this was the seed of securing loyalty of the army to the General in command.
| caption1 = ], a general who dramatically reformed the ] and was repeatedly elected ] to handle invasions of the ] and ]


| image2 = Q. Pompeius Rufus, denarius, 54 BC, RRC 434-1 (Sulla only).jpg
] was born into a poor family that used to be a ] family. He had a good education but became poor when his father died and left none of his will. Sulla joined the theater and found many friends there, prior to becoming a general in the ].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Plutarch|title=Life of Sulla}}</ref>
| alt2 = L. Cornelius Sulla
| caption2 = ], leader of the rival ], who ultimately marched on Rome twice, established himself as ], ] and ] of the ] and ]

| footer =
}}
Foreign dominance led to internal strife. Senators became rich at the ]' expense; soldiers, who were mostly small-scale farmers, were away from home longer and could not maintain their land; and the increased reliance on foreign ] and the growth of '']'' reduced the availability of paid work.<ref>{{Harvnb|Duiker|Spielvogel|2001|pages=}}; . ]. Retrieved 24 March 2007.</ref> Income from war booty, ] in the new provinces, and ] created new economic opportunities for the wealthy, forming a new class of merchants, called the ].<ref name="Liviuseques"> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140807190312/http://www.livius.org/ei-er/eques/eques.html |date=7 August 2014}} by Jona Lendering. Livius.org. Retrieved 24 March 2007.</ref> The '']'' forbade members of the Senate from engaging in commerce, so while the equestrians could theoretically join the Senate, they were severely restricted in political power.<ref name="Liviuseques"/>{{Sfn|Adkins|Adkins|1998|p=38}} The Senate squabbled perpetually, repeatedly blocked important ]s and refused to give the equestrian class a larger say in the government.


Violent gangs of the urban unemployed, controlled by rival Senators, intimidated the electorate through violence. The situation came to a head in the late 2nd century BC under the ] brothers, a pair of ]s who attempted to pass land reform legislation that would redistribute the major patrician landholdings among the plebeians. Both brothers were killed and the Senate passed reforms reversing the Gracchi brother's actions.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tuma |first=Elias H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kmZHKOHgvFQC |title=Twenty-six Centuries of Agrarian Reform: A Comparative Analysis |date=1965 |publisher=University of California Press |page=34}}</ref> This led to the growing divide of the plebeian groups (]) and equestrian classes (]).
At this time, Marius began his quarrel with Sulla: Marius, who wanted to capture Jugurtha, asked ], son-in-law of Jugurtha, to hand him over. As Marius failed, Sulla, a ] of Marius at that time, in a dangerous enterprise, went himself to Bocchus and convinced Bocchus to hand Jugurtha over to him. This was very provocative to Marius, since many of his enemies were encouraging Sulla to oppose Marius. Despite this, Marius was elected for five consecutive consulships from 104 to 100&nbsp;BC, as Rome needed a military leader to defeat the ] and the ], who were threatening Rome.


] soon become a leader of the Republic, holding the first of his seven consulships (an unprecedented number) in 107&nbsp;BC by arguing that his former patron ] was not able to defeat and capture the Numidian king ]. Marius then started his military reform: in his recruitment to fight Jugurtha, he levied the very poor (an innovation), and many landless men entered the army. Marius was elected for five consecutive consulships from 104 to 100&nbsp;BC, as Rome needed a military leader to defeat the ] and the ], who were threatening Rome. After Marius's retirement, Rome had a brief peace, during which the Italian ''socii'' ("allies" in Latin) requested Roman citizenship and voting rights. The reformist ] supported their legal process but was assassinated, and the ''socii'' revolted against the Romans in the ]. At one point both consuls were killed; Marius was appointed to command the army together with ] and ].<ref name="WHdP-EBp760"/>
]]]
After Marius's retirement, Rome had a brief peace, during which the Italian ''socii'' ("allies" in Latin) requested Roman citizenship and voting rights. The reformist ] supported their legal process but was assassinated, and the ''socii'' revolted against the Romans in the ]. At one point both consuls were killed; Marius was appointed to command the army together with ] and Sulla.<ref name="WHdP-EBp760"/>


By the end of the Social War, Marius and Sulla were the premier military men in Rome and their partisans were in conflict, both sides jostling for power. In 88&nbsp;BC, Sulla was elected for his first consulship and his first assignment was to defeat ] of ], whose intentions were to conquer the Eastern part of the Roman territories. However, Marius's partisans managed his installation to the military command, defying Sulla and the ], and this caused Sulla's wrath. To consolidate his own power, Sulla conducted a surprising and illegal action: he marched to Rome with his legions, killing all those who showed support to Marius's cause and impaling their heads in the ]. In the following year, 87&nbsp;BC, Marius, who had fled at Sulla's march, returned to Rome while Sulla was campaigning in Greece. He seized power along with the consul ] and killed the other consul, ], achieving his seventh consulship. In an attempt to raise Sulla's anger, Marius and Cinna revenged their partisans by conducting a massacre.<ref name="WHdP-EBp760">{{cite book|author=William Harrison De Puy|title=The Encyclopædia britannica: a dictionary of arts, sciences, and general literature; the R.S. Peale reprint, with new maps and original American articles|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nGxJAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA760|year=1893|publisher=Werner Co.|page=760}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Henry George Liddell|title=A history of Rome, to the establishment of the empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8mQBAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA305|year=1855|page=305}}</ref> By the end of the Social War, Marius and Sulla were the premier military men in Rome and their partisans were in conflict, both sides jostling for power. In 88&nbsp;BC, Sulla was elected for his first consulship and his first assignment was to defeat ] of ], whose intentions were to conquer the Eastern part of the Roman territories. However, Marius's partisans managed his installation to the military command, defying Sulla and the ]. To consolidate his own power, Sulla conducted a surprising and illegal action: he marched to Rome with his legions, killing all those who showed support to Marius's cause. In the following year, 87&nbsp;BC, Marius, who had fled at Sulla's march, returned to Rome while Sulla was campaigning in Greece. He seized power along with the consul ] and killed the other consul, ], achieving his seventh consulship. Marius and Cinna revenged their partisans by conducting a massacre.<ref name="WHdP-EBp760">{{Cite book |last=William Harrison De Puy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nGxJAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA760 |title=The Encyclopædia britannica: a dictionary of arts, sciences, and general literature; the R.S. Peale reprint, with new maps and original American articles |publisher=Werner Co. |year=1893 |page=760}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Henry George Liddell |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8mQBAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA305 |title=A history of Rome, to the establishment of the empire |year=1855 |page=305}}</ref>


Marius died in 86&nbsp;BC, due to age and poor health, just a few months after seizing power. Cinna exercised absolute power until his death in 84&nbsp;BC. After returning from his Eastern campaigns, Sulla had a free path to reestablish his own power. In 83&nbsp;BC he made his ] and began a time of terror: thousands of nobles, knights and senators were executed. Sulla also held two ] and one more consulship, which began the crisis and decline of Roman Republic.<ref name="WHdP-EBp760"/> Marius died in 86&nbsp;BC, due to age and poor health, just a few months after seizing power. Cinna exercised absolute power until his death in 84&nbsp;BC. After returning from his Eastern campaigns, Sulla had a free path to reestablish his own power. In 83&nbsp;BC he made his ] and began a time of terror: thousands of nobles, knights and senators were executed. Sulla held two ] and one more consulship, which began the crisis and decline of Roman Republic.<ref name="WHdP-EBp760"/>


===Caesar and the First Triumvirate=== ====Caesar and the First Triumvirate====
], 55 BC: Caesar with 100 ships and two legions made an opposed landing, probably near ]. After pressing a little way inland against fierce opposition and losing ships in a storm, he retired back across the ] to Gaul from what was a reconnaissance in force, only to return the following year for a more serious ].]] ], 55 BC: Caesar with 100 ships and two legions made an opposed landing, probably near ]. After pressing a little way inland against fierce opposition and losing ships in a storm, he retired back across the ] to Gaul from what was a reconnaissance in force, only to return the following year for a more serious ].]]


In the mid-1st century BC, Roman politics were restless. Political divisions in Rome became identified with two groupings, '']'' (who hoped for the support of the people) and '']'' (the "best", who wanted to maintain exclusive aristocratic control). Sulla overthrew all populist leaders and his constitutional reforms removed powers (such as those of the ]) that had supported populist approaches. Meanwhile, social and economic stresses continued to build; Rome had become a metropolis with a super-rich aristocracy, debt-ridden aspirants, and a large proletariat often of impoverished farmers. The latter groups supported the ]—a resounding failure, since the consul ] quickly arrested and executed the main leaders of the conspiracy. In the mid-1st century BC, Roman politics were restless. Political divisions in Rome split into one of two groups, '']'' (who hoped for the support of the people) and '']'' (the "best", who wanted to maintain exclusive aristocratic control). Sulla overthrew all populist leaders and his constitutional reforms removed powers (such as those of the ]) that had supported populist approaches. Meanwhile, social and economic stresses continued to build; Rome had become a metropolis with a super-rich aristocracy, debt-ridden aspirants, and a large proletariat often of impoverished farmers. The latter groups supported the ]—a resounding failure since the consul ] quickly arrested and executed the main leaders.


Onto this turbulent scene emerged ], from an aristocratic family of limited wealth. ] was Marius' wife,<ref name=Plutarch>, ''Life of Caesar'', I,2</ref> and Caesar identified with the populares. To achieve power, Caesar reconciled the two most powerful men in Rome: ], who had financed much of his earlier career, and Crassus' rival, ] (anglicized as Pompey), to whom he married ]. He formed them into a new informal alliance including himself, the ] ("three men"). This satisfied the interests of all three: Crassus, the richest man in Rome, became richer and ultimately achieved high military command; Pompey exerted more influence in the Senate; and Caesar obtained the consulship and military command in ].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Scullard|first1=Howard Hayes|title=From the Gracchi to Nero|date=1982|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-02527-0|edition=5th|url=https://archive.org/details/fromgracchitoner00scul}} Chapters VI–VIII.</ref> So long as they could agree, the three were in effect the rulers of Rome. ] reconciled the two most powerful men in Rome: ], who had financed much of his earlier career, and Crassus' rival, ] (anglicised as Pompey), to whom he married ]. He formed them into a new informal alliance including himself, the ] ("three men"). Caesar's daughter died in childbirth in 54 BC, and in 53&nbsp;BC, Crassus invaded ] and was killed in the ]; the Triumvirate disintegrated. Caesar ], obtained immense wealth, respect in Rome and the loyalty of battle-hardened legions. He became a threat to Pompey and was loathed by many ''optimates''. Confident that Caesar could be stopped by legal means, Pompey's party tried to strip Caesar of his legions, a prelude to Caesar's trial, impoverishment, and exile.


To avoid this fate, Caesar ] River and invaded Rome in 49&nbsp;BC. The ] was a brilliant victory for Caesar and in this and other campaigns, he destroyed all of the ''optimates'' leaders: ], ], and Pompey's son, ]. Pompey was murdered in Egypt in 48&nbsp;BC. Caesar was now pre-eminent over Rome: in five years he held four consulships, two ordinary dictatorships, and two special dictatorships, one for perpetuity. He was murdered in 44&nbsp;BC, on the ] by the '']''.<ref>. BBC. Retrieved 21 March 2007.</ref>
In 54&nbsp;BC, Caesar's daughter, Pompey's wife, died in childbirth, unraveling one link in the alliance. In 53&nbsp;BC, Crassus invaded ] and was killed in the ]. The Triumvirate disintegrated at Crassus' death. Crassus had acted as mediator between Caesar and Pompey, and, without him, the two generals manoeuvred against each other for power. Caesar ], obtaining immense wealth, respect in Rome and the loyalty of battle-hardened legions. He also became a clear menace to Pompey and was loathed by many ''optimates''. Confident that Caesar could be stopped by legal means, Pompey's party tried to strip Caesar of his legions, a prelude to Caesar's trial, impoverishment, and exile.


====Octavian and the Second Triumvirate====
To avoid this fate, Caesar ] River and invaded Rome in 49&nbsp;BC. Pompey and his party fled from Italy, pursued by Caesar. The ] was a brilliant victory for Caesar and in this and other campaigns he destroyed all of the ''optimates''' leaders: ], ], and Pompey's son, ]. Pompey was murdered in Egypt in 48&nbsp;BC. Caesar was now pre-eminent over Rome, attracting the bitter enmity of many aristocrats. He was granted many offices and honours. In just five years, he held four consulships, two ordinary dictatorships, and two special dictatorships: one for ten years and another for perpetuity. He was murdered in 44&nbsp;BC, on the ] by the '']''.<ref>. BBC. Retrieved 21 March 2007.</ref>
Caesar's assassination caused political and social turmoil in Rome; the city was ruled by his friend and colleague, ]. Soon afterward, ], whom Caesar adopted through his will, arrived in Rome. Octavian (historians regard Octavius as Octavian due to the ]) tried to align himself with the Caesarian faction. In 43&nbsp;BC, along with Antony and ], Caesar's best friend,<ref> Plutarch, Life of Caesar. Retrieved 1 October 2011</ref> he legally established the ]. Upon its formation, 130–300 senators were executed, and their property was confiscated, due to their supposed support for the '']''.<ref> by Garrett G. Fagan. ''De Imperatoribus Romanis''. 5 July 2004. Retrieved 21 March 2007.</ref>


In 42&nbsp;BC, the Senate ] Caesar as '']''; Octavian thus became '']'',<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090525075317/http://www.usask.ca/antiquities/coins/augustus.html |date=25 May 2009}}; examples are a coin of 38&nbsp;BC inscribed "Divi Iuli filius", and another of 31&nbsp;BC bearing the inscription "Divi filius" ( {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090319090301/http://www2.unine.ch/webdav/site/antic/shared/documents/latin/Memoires/mlreid.pdf |date=19 March 2009}}).</ref> the son of the deified. In the same year, Octavian and Antony defeated both Caesar's assassins and the leaders of the ''Liberatores'', ] and ], in the ]. The Second Triumvirate was marked by the ]s of many senators and ''equites'': after a revolt led by Antony's brother ], more than 300 senators and ''equites'' involved were executed, although Lucius was spared.<ref> Suetonius, ''The Twelve Caesars'', ''Augustus'', XV.</ref>
===Octavian and the Second Triumvirate===
]'', by ], painted 1672, National Maritime Museum, London]]
Caesar's assassination caused political and social turmoil in Rome; without the dictator's leadership, the city was ruled by his friend and colleague, ]. Soon afterward, ], whom Caesar adopted through his will, arrived in Rome. Octavian (historians regard Octavius as Octavian due to the ]) tried to align himself with the Caesarian faction. In 43&nbsp;BC, along with Antony and ], Caesar's best friend,<ref> Plutarch, Life of Caesar. Retrieved 1 October 2011</ref> he legally established the ]. This alliance would last for five years. Upon its formation, 130–300 senators were executed, and their property was confiscated, due to their supposed support for the '']''.<ref> by Garrett G. Fagan. ''De Imperatoribus Romanis''. 5 July 2004. Retrieved 21 March 2007.</ref>


The Triumvirate divided the Empire among the triumvirs: Lepidus was given charge of ], Antony, the eastern provinces, and Octavian remained in ] and controlled ] and ]. The Second Triumvirate expired in 38&nbsp;BC but was renewed for five more years. However, the relationship between Octavian and Antony had deteriorated, and Lepidus was forced to retire in 36&nbsp;BC after betraying Octavian in ]. By the end of the Triumvirate, Antony was living in ], ruled by his lover, ]. Antony's affair with Cleopatra was seen as an act of treason, since she was queen of another country. Additionally, Antony adopted a lifestyle considered too extravagant and ] for a Roman statesman.<ref> Plutarch, ''Parallel Lives'', ''Life of Antony'', LXXI, 3–5.</ref> Following Antony's ], which ] the title of "]", and to Antony's and Cleopatra's children the regal titles to the newly conquered Eastern territories, ]. Octavian annihilated Egyptian forces in the ] in 31&nbsp;BC. ]. Now Egypt was conquered by the Roman Empire.
In 42&nbsp;BC, the Senate ] Caesar as '']''; Octavian thus became '']'',<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090525075317/http://www.usask.ca/antiquities/coins/augustus.html |date=25 May 2009 }}; examples are a coin of 38&nbsp;BC inscribed "Divi Iuli filius", and another of 31&nbsp;BC bearing the inscription "Divi filius" ( {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090319090301/http://www2.unine.ch/webdav/site/antic/shared/documents/latin/Memoires/mlreid.pdf |date=19 March 2009 }}).</ref> the son of the deified. In the same year, Octavian and Antony defeated both Caesar's assassins and the leaders of the ''Liberatores'', ] and ], in the ]. The Second Triumvirate was marked by the ]s of many senators and ''equites'': after a revolt led by Antony's brother ], more than 300 senators and ''equites'' involved were executed on the anniversary of the ], although Lucius was spared.<ref> Suetonius, ''The Twelve Caesars'', ''Augustus'', XV.</ref> The Triumvirate proscribed several important men, including ], whom Antony hated;<ref> Plutarch, ''Parallel Lives'', ''Life of Antony'', II, 1.</ref> ], the younger brother of the orator; and ], cousin and friend of the acclaimed general, for his support of Cicero. However, Lucius was pardoned, perhaps because his sister Julia had intervened for him.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605231545/http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/0547.html |date=5 June 2011 }}. Retrieved 9 September 2011</ref>


===Empire – the Principate===
The Triumvirate divided the Empire among the triumvirs: Lepidus was given charge of ], Antony, the eastern provinces, and Octavian remained in ] and controlled ] and ]. The Second Triumvirate expired in 38&nbsp;BC but was renewed for five more years. However, the relationship between Octavian and Antony had deteriorated, and Lepidus was forced to retire in 36&nbsp;BC after betraying Octavian in ]. By the end of the Triumvirate, Antony was living in ], an independent and rich kingdom ruled by his lover, ]. Antony's affair with Cleopatra was seen as an act of treason, since she was queen of another country. Additionally, Antony adopted a lifestyle considered too extravagant and ] for a Roman statesman.<ref> Plutarch, ''Parallel Lives'', ''Life of Antony'', LXXI, 3–5.</ref> Following Antony's ], which ] the title of "]", and to Antony's and Cleopatra's children the regal titles to the newly conquered Eastern territories, ]. Octavian annihilated Egyptian forces in the ] in 31&nbsp;BC. ]. Now Egypt was conquered by the Roman Empire, and for the Romans, a new era had begun.

==Empire – the Principate==
{{Main|Roman Empire}} {{Main|Roman Empire}}
], 1st century AD, depicting ], the first ]]]
In 27&nbsp;BC and at the age of 36, Octavian was the sole Roman leader. In that year, he took the name '']''. That event is usually taken by historians as the beginning of Roman Empire—although Rome was an "imperial" state since 146&nbsp;BC, when Carthage was razed by ] and Greece was conquered by ]. Officially, the government was republican, but Augustus assumed absolute powers.<ref> from ]. Retrieved 12 March 2007.</ref><ref name="autogenerated14">Langley, Andrew and Souza, de Philip: "The Roman Times" p.14, Candle Wick Press, 1996</ref> His ] brought about a two-century period colloquially referred to by Romans as the ].


In 27&nbsp;BC and at the age of 36, Octavian was the sole Roman leader. In that year, he took the name '']''. That event is usually taken by historians as the beginning of Roman Empire. Officially, the government was republican, but Augustus assumed absolute powers.<ref> from ]. Retrieved 12 March 2007; {{Cite book |last1=Langley |first1=Andrew |last2=Souza |first2=de Philip |title=The Roman Times |page=14 |publisher=Candle Wick Press |date=1996}}</ref> His ] brought about a two-century period colloquially referred to by Romans as the ].
===Julio-Claudian dynasty===
The ] was established by ]. The emperors of this dynasty were Augustus, ], ], ] and ]. The dynasty is so called due to the '']'', family of Augustus, and the '']'', family of Tiberius. The Julio-Claudians started the destruction of republican values, but on the other hand, they boosted Rome's status as the central power in the Mediterranean region.<ref>. by the Department of Greek and ], The ]. October 2000. Retrieved 18 March 2007.</ref> While Caligula and Nero are usually remembered in popular culture as dysfunctional emperors, Augustus and Claudius are remembered as emperors who were successful in politics and the military. This dynasty instituted imperial tradition in Rome<ref>{{cite book|author=James Orr|title=The International Standard Bible Encyclopaedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tn4PAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA2598|year=1915|publisher=Howard-Severance Company|page=2598}}</ref> and frustrated any attempt to reestablish a Republic.<ref>{{cite book|author=Charles Phineas Sherman|title=Roman law in the modern world|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F1iuAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA50|year=1917|publisher=The Boston book company|page=50}}</ref>


====Augustus==== ====Julio-Claudian dynasty====
The ] was established by ]. The emperors of this dynasty were Augustus, ], ], ] and ]. The Julio-Claudians started the destruction of republican values, but on the other hand, they boosted Rome's status as the central power in the Mediterranean region.<ref>. by the Department of Greek and ], The ]. October 2000. Retrieved 18 March 2007.</ref> While Caligula and Nero are usually remembered in popular culture as dysfunctional emperors, Augustus and Claudius are remembered as successful in politics and the military. This dynasty instituted imperial tradition in Rome<ref>{{Cite book |first=James |last=Orr |title=The International Standard Bible Encyclopaedia |publisher=Howard-Severance Company |year=1915 |page=}}</ref> and frustrated any attempt to reestablish a Republic.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Charles Phineas |last=Sherman |title=Roman law in the modern world |publisher=The Boston book company |year=1917 |page=}}</ref>
], 1st century AD, depicting ], the first ]]]
Augustus gathered almost all the republican powers under his official title, '']'': he had the powers of consul, '']'', ], ] and ]—including tribunician sacrosanctity.<ref> Suetonius, ''The Twelve Caesars'', ''Augustus'', XXVII, 3.</ref> This was the base of an emperor's power. Augustus also styled himself as ''] Gaius Julius Caesar divi filius'', "Commander Gaius Julius Caesar, son of the deified one". With this title he not only boasted his familial link to deified Julius Caesar, but the use of ''Imperator'' signified a permanent link to the Roman tradition of victory.


He also diminished the political influence of the ] by boosting the ]. The senators lost their right to rule certain provinces, like Egypt, since the governor of that province was directly nominated by the emperor. The creation of the ] and his reforms in the military, creating a ] with a fixed size of 28 legions, ensured his total control over the army.<ref>Werner Eck, ''The Age of Augustus''</ref> Compared with the Second Triumvirate's epoch, Augustus' reign as ''princeps'' was very peaceful. This peace and wealth (obtained from the agrarian province of Egypt)<ref> Suetonius, ''The Twelve Caesars'', ''Augustus'', XVIII, 2.</ref> led the people and the nobles of Rome to support Augustus, increasing his strength in political affairs.<ref>{{cite EB1911|wstitle=Augustus|volume=2|page=912|first=Henry Francis|last=Pelham|author-link=Henry Francis Pelham}}</ref> Augustus was absent at battles. His generals were responsible for the field command; gaining such commanders as ], ] and ] much respect from the populace and the legions. Augustus intended to extend the Roman Empire to the whole known world, and in his reign, Rome conquered ], ], ], ], ] and ].<ref> Suetonius, ''The Twelve Caesars'', ''Augustus'', XXI, 1.</ref> Augustus ({{Reign|27 BC|AD 14}}) gathered almost all the republican powers under his official title, '']'', and diminished the political influence of the ] by boosting the ]. The senators lost their right to rule certain provinces, like Egypt, since the governor of that province was directly nominated by the emperor. The creation of the ] and his reforms in the military, creating a ] with a fixed size of 28 legions, ensured his total control over the army.<ref>Werner Eck, ''The Age of Augustus''</ref> Compared with the Second Triumvirate's epoch, Augustus' reign as ''princeps'' was very peaceful, which led the people and the nobles of Rome to support Augustus, increasing his strength in political affairs.<ref>{{Cite EB1911 |wstitle=Augustus |volume=2 |page=912 |first=Henry Francis |last=Pelham |author-link=Henry Francis Pelham}}</ref> His generals were responsible for the field command, gaining such commanders as ], ] and ] much respect from the populace and the legions. Augustus intended to extend the Roman Empire to the whole known world, and in his reign, Rome conquered ], ], ], ], ] and ].<ref> Suetonius, ''The Twelve Caesars'', ''Augustus'', XXI, 1.</ref>
Under Augustus' reign, Roman literature grew steadily in what is known as the ]. Poets like ], ], ] and ] developed a rich literature, and were close friends of Augustus. Along with ], he sponsored patriotic poems, such as Virgil's epic '']'' and historiographical works like those of ]. Augustus continued the changes to the calendar promoted by ], and the month of August is named after him.<ref> Suetonius, ''The Twelve Caesars'', ''Augustus'', XXI.</ref> Augustus brought a peaceful and thriving era to Rome, known as '']'' or ''Pax Romana''. Augustus died in 14&nbsp;AD, but the empire's glory continued after his era.


]s; areas under Roman control shown here were subject to change even during Augustus' reign, especially in ].]]
Under Augustus' reign, Roman literature grew steadily in what is known as the ]. Poets like ], ], ] and ] developed a rich literature, and were close friends of Augustus. Along with ], he sponsored patriotic poems, as Virgil's epic '']'' and also historiographical works, like those of ]. The works of this literary age lasted through Roman times, and are classics. Augustus also continued the changes to the calendar promoted by ], and the month of August is named after him.<ref> Suetonius, ''The Twelve Caesars'', ''Augustus'', XXI.</ref> Augustus brought a peaceful and thriving era to Rome, known as '']'' or ''Pax Romana''. Augustus died in 14&nbsp;AD, but the empire's glory continued after his era.
The Julio-Claudians continued to rule Rome after Augustus' death and remained in power until the death of Nero in 68&nbsp;AD.{{Sfn|Duiker|Spielvogel|2001|page=}} Influenced by his wife, ], Augustus appointed her son from another marriage, ], as his heir.<ref> Suetonius, ''The Twelve Caesars'', ''Augustus'', LXIII.</ref> The Senate agreed with the succession, and granted to Tiberius the same titles and honours once granted to Augustus: the title of ''princeps'' and '']'', and the ]. However, Tiberius was not an enthusiast for political affairs: after agreement with the Senate, he retired to ] in 26&nbsp;AD,<ref> Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', LVII, 12.</ref> and left control of the city of Rome in the hands of the ] ] (until 31&nbsp;AD) and ] (from 31 to 37&nbsp;AD).


Tiberius died (or was killed)<ref name="tarver1902">{{Cite book |last=John Charles Tarver |title=Tiberius, the tyrant |publisher=A. Constable |date=1902 |pages=}}</ref> in 37&nbsp;AD. The male line of the Julio-Claudians was limited to Tiberius' nephew ], his grandson ] and his grand-nephew ]. As Gemellus was still a child, Caligula was chosen to rule the empire. He was a popular leader in the first half of his reign, but became a crude and insane tyrant in his years controlling government.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Johann Jakob Herzog |title=The Protestant Theological and Ecclesiastical Encyclopedia: Being a Condensed Translation of Herzog's Real Encyclopedia |last2=John Henry Augustus Bomberger |publisher=Lindsay & Blakiston |year=1858 |page=}}; {{Cite book |title=The Chautauquan |publisher=M. Bailey |year=1881 |page=}}</ref> The Praetorian Guard murdered Caligula four years after the death of Tiberius,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Compendium |title=A compendium of universal history. Ancient and modern, by the author of 'Two thousand questions on the Old and New Testaments' |year=1858 |page=}}</ref> and, with belated support from the senators, proclaimed his uncle ] as the new emperor.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sir William Smith |title=Abaeus-Dysponteus |publisher=J. Murray |year=1890 |page=}}</ref> Claudius was not as authoritarian as Tiberius and Caligula. Claudius conquered ] and ]; his most important deed was the beginning of the ].<ref> Suetonius, ''The Twelve Caesars'', ''Claudius'', XVII.</ref> Claudius was poisoned by his wife, ] in 54&nbsp;AD.<ref>Claudius By Barbara Levick. p. 77.</ref> His heir was ], son of Agrippina and her former husband, since Claudius' son ] had not reached manhood upon his father's death.
====From Tiberius to Nero====
]s; areas under Roman control shown here were subject to change even during Augustus' reign, especially in ].]]
The Julio-Claudians continued to rule Rome after Augustus' death and remained in power until the death of Nero in 68&nbsp;AD.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Duiker|first1=William|last2=Spielvogel|first2=Jackson|title=World History|date=2001|publisher=Wadsworth|isbn=978-0-534-57168-9|page=|edition=Third|url=https://archive.org/details/worldhistoryto1500duik/page/140}}</ref> Augustus' favorites to succeed him were already dead in his senescence: his nephew ] died in 23&nbsp;BC, his friend and military commander ] in 12&nbsp;BC and his grandson ] in 4&nbsp;AD. Influenced by his wife, ], Augustus appointed her son from another marriage, ], as his heir.<ref> Suetonius, ''The Twelve Caesars'', ''Augustus'', LXIII.</ref>


Nero sent his general, ], to invade modern-day ], where he encountered stiff resistance. The ] there were independent, tough, resistant to tax collectors, and fought Paulinus as he battled his way across from east to west. It took him a long time to reach the north west coast, and in 60 AD he finally crossed the ] to the sacred island of Mona (]), the last stronghold of the ]s.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Brief History: Brief History of Great Britain |date=2009 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |page=34}}</ref> His soldiers ] and massacred the druids: men, women and children,<ref>{{Cite book |title=England Invaded |date=2014 |publisher=Amberley Publishing Limited |page=27}}</ref> destroyed the shrine and the ]s and threw many of the sacred standing stones into the sea. While Paulinus and his troops were massacring druids in Mona, the tribes of modern-day ] staged a revolt led by queen ] of the ].<ref>{{Cite book |title=In the Name of Rome: The Men Who Won the Roman Empire |date=2010 |publisher=Hachette UK |page=30}}</ref> The rebels sacked and burned ], ] and ] (modern-day ], London and ] respectively) before they were ].<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 September 2016 |title=Gaius Suetonius Paulinus |url=https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/daily/military-history/gaius-suetonius-paulinus/ |access-date=21 February 2023 |archive-date=13 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210713102217/https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/2016/09/27/gaius-suetonius-paulinus/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Boadicea, like ] before her, committed suicide to avoid the disgrace of being paraded in triumph in Rome.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Making Europe: The Story of the West, Volume I to 1790 |date=2013 |page=162}}</ref> Nero is widely known as the first persecutor of ] and for the ], rumoured to have been started by the emperor himself.<ref> Suetonius, ''The Twelve Caesars'', ''Nero'', XVI.; Tacitus, ''Annales'', XXXVIII.</ref> A conspiracy against Nero in 65 AD under ] failed, but in 68 AD the armies under ] in Gaul and ] in modern-day Spain revolted. Deserted by the Praetorian Guards and condemned to death by the senate, Nero killed himself.<ref> by Herbert W. Benario. De Imperatoribus Romanis. 10 November 2006. Retrieved 18 March 2007.</ref>
The Senate agreed with the succession, and granted to Tiberius the same titles and honors once granted to Augustus: the title of ''princeps'' and '']'', and the ]. However, Tiberius was not an enthusiast for political affairs: after agreement with the Senate, he retired to ] in 26&nbsp;AD,<ref> Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', LVII, 12.</ref> and left control of the city of Rome in the hands of the ] ] (until 31&nbsp;AD) and ] (from 31 to 37&nbsp;AD). Tiberius was regarded as an evil and melancholic man, who may have ordered the murder of his relatives, the popular general ] in 19&nbsp;AD,<ref name=tarver1902>{{cite book|author=John Charles Tarver|title=Tiberius, the tyrant|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3MHPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA342|access-date=31 May 2012|year=1902|publisher=A. Constable|pages=342–428}}</ref> and his own son ] in 23&nbsp;AD.<ref name=tarver1902/>


As ] were being established throughout the Mediterranean, Italy maintained a special status which made it {{lang|la|] provinciarum}} ("ruler of the provinces"),<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/362374|chapter=The Glory of Italy and Rome's Universal Destiny in Strabo's Geographika |editor1=A. Fear |editor2=P. Liddel |title=Historiae Mundi. Studies in Universal History |publisher=Duckworth |location=London |year=2010 |pages=87–101 |access-date=20 November 2021}}</ref><ref name="books.google.it">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ojoOAAAAQAAJ|title=Arthur Keaveney: ''Rome and the Unification of Italy''|isbn=9780709931218|access-date=20 November 2021|last1=Keaveney|first1=Arthur|date=January 1987|publisher=Croom Helm }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fVylk1KUS84C&dq=Italia+domina+provinciarum&pg=PR13|title=Libreria Universitaria Hoepli, Lezioni di filologia, Giuseppe Billanovich e Roberto Pesce: ''Corpus Iuris Civilis, Italia non erat provincia, sed domina provinciarum'', Feltrinelli, p.363|isbn=9788896543092|access-date=20 November 2021|language=it|last1=Billanovich|first1=Giuseppe|year=2008|publisher=Roberto Pesce }}</ref> and – especially in relation to the ] – {{lang|la|rectrix mundi}} ("governor of the world")<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OXqfCgAAQBAJ&dq=Italia+roman+homeland&pg=PT375|title=Italy: the absolute center of the Republic and the Roman Empire|isbn=9780241003909|access-date=20 November 2021|last1=Bleicken|first1=Jochen|date=15 October 2015|publisher=Penguin UK }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hb6OAQAAQBAJ&dq=Rectrix+mundi+omnium+terrarum+parens&pg=PA97|last=Morcillo |first=Martha García |chapter= The Roman Italy: ''Rectrix Mundi'' and ''Omnium Terrarum Parens'' |editor1=A. Fear |editor2=P. Liddel |title=Historiae Mundi. Studies in Universal History |location=London |year=2010 |publisher=Bloomsbury|isbn=9781472519801|access-date=20 November 2021}}</ref> and {{lang|la|omnium terrarum parens}} ("parent of all lands").<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hb6OAQAAQBAJ&dq=Rectrix+mundi+omnium+terrarum+parens&pg=PA97|title= Altri nomi e appellativi relazionati allo status dell'Italia in epoca romana|date= 20 November 2013|publisher= Bloomsbury|isbn= 9781472519801|access-date=20 November 2021|language=it}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.abebooks.it/servlet/BookDetailsPL?bi=22910180903&searchurl=sortby%3D20%26tn%3Ditalia%2Bomnium%2Bterrarum%2Bparens&cm_sp=snippet-_-srp1-_-title1|title=Antico appellativo dell'Italia romana: ''Italia Omnium Terrarum Parens''|access-date=20 November 2021|language=it}}</ref>
Tiberius died (or was killed)<ref name=tarver1902/> in 37&nbsp;AD. The male line of the Julio-Claudians was limited to Tiberius' nephew ], his grandson ] and his grand-nephew ]. As Gemellus was still a child, Caligula was chosen to rule the empire. He was a popular leader in the first half of his reign, but became a crude and insane tyrant in his years controlling government.{{clarify|date=November 2021}}<ref>{{cite book|author1=Johann Jakob Herzog|author2=John Henry Augustus Bomberger|title=The Protestant Theological and Ecclesiastical Encyclopedia: Being a Condensed Translation of Herzog's Real Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VOkXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA99|year=1858|publisher=Lindsay & Blakiston|page=99}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Chautauquan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g8fmAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA445|year=1881|publisher=M. Bailey|page=445}}</ref> ] states that he committed ] with his sisters, killed some men just for amusement and nominated ] for a consulship.<ref> Suetonius, ''The Twelve Caesars'', ''Caligula'', LV, 3.</ref> The Praetorian Guard murdered Caligula four years after the death of Tiberius,<ref>{{cite book|author=Compendium|title=A compendium of universal history. Ancient and modern, by the author of 'Two thousand questions on the Old and New Testaments'.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d4ADAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA109|year=1858|page=109}}</ref> and, with belated support from the senators, proclaimed his uncle ] as the new emperor.<ref>{{cite book|author=Sir William Smith|title=Abaeus-Dysponteus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ok4pAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA776|year=1890|publisher=J. Murray|page=776}}</ref> Claudius was not as authoritarian as Tiberius and Caligula. Claudius conquered ] and ]; his most important deed was the beginning of the ].<ref> Suetonius, ''The Twelve Caesars'', ''Claudius'', XVII.</ref> Claudius was poisoned by his wife, ] in 54&nbsp;AD.<ref>Claudius By Barbara Levick. p. 77.</ref> His heir was ], son of Agrippina and her former husband, since Claudius' son ] had not reached manhood upon his father's death.


====Flavian dynasty====
Nero sent his general, ], to invade modern-day ], where he encountered stiff resistance. The ] there were independent, tough and resistant to tax collectors and fought Paulinus, as he battled his way across from east to west. It took him a long time to reach the north west coast, and in 60 AD he finally crossed the ] to the sacred island of Mona (]), the last stronghold of the ]s.<ref>{{cite book |title=Brief History: Brief History of Great Britain |date=2009 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |page=34}}</ref> His soldiers ] and massacred the druids: men, women and children,<ref>{{cite book |title=England Invaded |date=2014 |publisher=Amberley Publishing Limited |page=27}}</ref> destroyed the shrine and the ]s and threw many of the sacred standing stones into the sea. While Paulinus and his troops were massacring druids in Mona, the tribes of modern-day ] staged a revolt led by queen ] of the ].<ref>{{cite book |title=In the Name of Rome: The Men Who Won the Roman Empire |date=2010 |publisher=Hachette UK |page=30}}</ref> The rebels sacked and burned ], ] and ] (modern-day ], ] and ] respectively) before they were ].<ref>{{cite web |title=Gaius Suetonius Paulinus |url=https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/daily/military-history/gaius-suetonius-paulinus/|date=27 September 2016}}</ref> Boadicea, like ] before her, committed suicide to avoid the disgrace of being paraded in triumph in Rome.<ref>{{cite book |title=Making Europe: The Story of the West, Volume I to 1790 |date=2013 |page=162}}</ref> The fault of Nero in this rebellion is debatable but there was certainly an impact (both positive and negative) upon the prestige of his regime.{{citation needed|date=February 2019}}

Nero is widely known as the first persecutor of Christians and for the ], rumoured to have been started by the emperor himself.<ref> Suetonius, ''The Twelve Caesars'', ''Nero'', XVI.</ref><ref> Tacitus, ''Annales'', XXXVIII.</ref> In 59 AD he murdered his mother and in 62 AD, his wife ]. Never very stable, he allowed his advisers to run the government while he slid into debauchery, excess, and madness. He was married three times, and had numerous affairs with both men and women, and, according to some rumors, even his mother. A conspiracy against Nero in 65 AD under ] failed, but in 68 AD the armies under ] in Gaul and ] in modern-day Spain revolted. Deserted by the Praetorian Guards and condemned to death by the senate, Nero killed himself.<ref> by Herbert W. Benario. De Imperatoribus Romanis. 10 November 2006. Retrieved 18 March 2007.</ref>

===Flavian dynasty===
], founder of the ]]] ], founder of the ]]]
The ] were the second dynasty to rule Rome.<ref name=suetonius>Suetonius</ref> By 68&nbsp;AD, the year of Nero's death, there was no chance of a return to the ], and so a new emperor had to arise. After the turmoil in the ], ] (anglicized as Vespasian) took control of the empire and established a new dynasty. Under the Flavians, Rome continued its expansion, and the state remained secure.<ref>{{cite book|last1=O'Connell|first1=Robert|title=Of Arms and Men: A History of War, Weapons, and Aggression|url=https://archive.org/details/ofarmsmenhisto00ocon|url-access=registration|date=1989|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-505359-3|page=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Kreis|first1=Stephen|title=Augustus Caesar and the Pax Romana|url=http://www.historyguide.org/ancient/lecture12b.html|website=The History Guide|access-date=21 March 2007}}</ref> The ] were the second dynasty to rule Rome.<ref name="suetonius">Suetonius</ref> By 68&nbsp;AD, the year of Nero's death, there was no chance of a return to the ], and so a new emperor had to arise. After the turmoil in the ], ] (anglicised as Vespasian) took control of the empire and established a new dynasty. Under the Flavians, Rome continued its expansion, and the state remained secure.<ref>{{Harvnb|O'Connell|1989|page=}}; {{Cite web |last=Kreis |first=Stephen |title=Augustus Caesar and the Pax Romana |url=http://www.historyguide.org/ancient/lecture12b.html |access-date=21 March 2007 |website=The History Guide}}</ref> Under Trajan, the Roman Empire reached the peak of its territorial expansion.{{Sfn| Scarre|1995}} Rome's dominion now spanned {{Convert|5.0|e6km2|e6mi2|abbr=off|sigfig=2}}.<ref name=":0"/>


The most significant ] undertaken during the Flavian period was the ] of ] in 70 by ]. The destruction of the city was the culmination of the Roman campaign in ] following the Jewish uprising of 66. The Second Temple was completely demolished, after which Titus' soldiers proclaimed him '']'' in honor of the victory. Jerusalem was sacked and much of the population killed or dispersed. ] claims that 1,100,000 people were killed during the siege, of whom a majority were Jewish.<ref>Josephus, The Wars of the Jews VI.9.3</ref> 97,000 were captured and ], including ] and ]. Many fled to areas around the Mediterranean. Titus reportedly refused to accept a wreath of victory, as there was "no merit in vanquishing people forsaken by their own God". The most significant ] undertaken during the Flavian period was the ] of ] in 70 AD by ]. The destruction of the city was the culmination of the Roman campaign in ] following the Jewish uprising of 66 AD. The Second Temple was completely demolished, after which Titus' soldiers proclaimed him '']'' in honour of the victory. Jerusalem was sacked and much of the population killed or dispersed. ] claims that 1,100,000 people were killed during the siege, of whom a majority were Jewish.<ref>Josephus, The Wars of the Jews VI.9.3</ref> 97,000 were captured and ], including ] and ]. Many fled to areas around the Mediterranean.


Vespasian was a general under ] and ] and fought as a commander in the ]. Following the turmoil of the ], in 69&nbsp;AD, four emperors were enthroned in turn: ], ], ], and, lastly, Vespasian, who crushed Vitellius' forces and became emperor.<ref name="Suetonius Vespasian">{{Cite book |last=] |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Vespasian*.html |title=The Twelve Caesars: Vespasian}}</ref> He reconstructed many buildings which were uncompleted, like a statue of ] and the temple of '']'' ("the deified Claudius"), both initiated by Nero. Buildings destroyed by the ] were rebuilt, and he revitalised the ]. Vespasian started the construction of the Flavian Amphitheater, commonly known as the ].<ref name="Suetonius Vespasian"/> The historians ] and ] wrote their works during Vespasian's reign. Vespasian was Josephus' sponsor and Pliny dedicated his '']'' to Titus, son of Vespasian. Vespasian sent legions to defend the eastern frontier in ], extended the occupation in Britannia (modern-day England, Wales and southern ]) and reformed the tax system. He died in 79&nbsp;AD.
====Vespasian====
Vespasian had been a general under ] and ]. He fought as a commander in the ] along with his son ]. Following the turmoil of the ], in 69&nbsp;AD, four emperors were enthroned in turn: ], ], ], and, lastly, Vespasian, who crushed Vitellius' forces and became emperor.<ref> Suetonius, ''The Twelve Caesars'', ''Vespasian'', I.</ref> He reconstructed many buildings which were uncompleted, like a statue of ] and the temple of '']'' ("the deified Claudius"), both initiated by Nero. Buildings destroyed by the ] were rebuilt, and he revitalized the ]. Vespasian also started the construction of the Flavian Amphitheater, more commonly known as the ].<ref> Suetonius, ''The Twelve Caesars'', ''Vespasian'', IX.</ref> The historians ] and ] wrote their works during Vespasian's reign. Vespasian was Josephus' sponsor and Pliny dedicated his '']'' to Titus, son of Vespasian. Vespasian sent legions to defend the eastern frontier in ], extended the occupation in Britannia (modern-day ], Wales and southern ]) and reformed the tax system. He died in 79&nbsp;AD.


Titus became emperor in 79. He finished the Flavian Amphitheater, using war spoils from the First Jewish-Roman War, and hosted victory games that lasted for a hundred days. These games included ], horse races and a sensational mock naval battle on the flooded grounds of the Colosseum.<ref> Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', LXVI.; Suetonius, ''The Twelve Caesars'', ''Titus'', VII, 3.</ref> Titus died of fever in 81&nbsp;AD, and was succeeded by his brother ]. As emperor, Domitian showed the characteristics of a ].<ref> Suetonius, ''The Twelve Caesars'', ''Domitian'', X.</ref> He ruled for fifteen years, during which time he acquired a reputation for self-promotion as a living god. He constructed at least two temples in honour of Jupiter, the supreme deity in ].<ref>. Retrieved 29 October 2011.</ref> He was murdered following a plot within his own household.
====Titus and Domitian====
Titus had a short-lived rule; he was emperor from 79 to 81&nbsp;AD. He finished the Flavian Amphitheater, which was constructed with war spoils from the First Jewish-Roman War, and promoted games celebrating the victory over the Jews that lasted for a hundred days. These games included ], ]s and a sensational mock naval battle on the flooded grounds of the Colosseum.<ref> Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', LXVI.</ref><ref> Suetonius, ''The Twelve Caesars'', ''Titus'', VII, 3.</ref> Titus died of fever in 81&nbsp;AD, and was succeeded by his brother ]. As emperor, Domitian assumed ] characteristics,<ref> Suetonius, ''The Twelve Caesars'', ''Domitian'', X.</ref> thought he could be a new Augustus, and tried to make a personal cult of himself. Domitian ruled for fifteen years, and his reign was marked by his attempts to compare himself to the gods. He constructed at least two temples in honour of Jupiter, the supreme deity in ]. He also liked to be called "''Dominus et Deus''" ("Master and God").<ref>. Retrieved 29 October 2011.</ref>


===Nerva–Antonine dynasty=== ====Nerva–Antonine dynasty====
] reached its greatest extent under ] in AD&nbsp;117]] ] reached its greatest extent under ] in AD&nbsp;117]]
Following Domitian's murder, the Senate rapidly appointed Nerva as Emperor. Nerva had noble ancestry, and he had served as an advisor to Nero and the Flavians. His rule restored many of the traditional liberties of Rome's upper classes, which Domitian had over-ridden.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/68*.html | title=Cassius Dio — Epitome of Book 68}}; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', LXVIII, 1.</ref> The ] from 96 AD to 192 AD included the "five good emperors" ], ], ], ] and ]. Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius were part of Italic families settled in Roman colonies outside of Italy: the families of Trajan and Hadrian had settled in ] (]), that of Antoninus Pius in ] (]), and that of Marcus Aurelius in ] (Hispania Baetica). The Nerva-Antonine dynasty came to an end with ], son of Marcus Aurelius.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Encyclopedia of European Peoples |date=2006 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |page=406}}</ref>
The ] from 96 AD to 192 AD included the reigns of the emperors ], Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, Lucius Verus, and Commodus. During this time, Rome reached its greatest territorial and economic extent.<ref> from UNRV History. Retrieved 12 March 2007.</ref> This was a time of peace for Rome. The criteria for choosing an emperor were the qualities of the candidate and no longer ties of kinship; additionally, there were no civil wars or military defeats in this period. Following Domitian's murder, the Senate rapidly appointed Nerva to hold the imperial dignity. This was the first time that senators chose the emperor since Octavian had been honored with the titles of '']'' and '']''. Nerva had a noble ancestry, and he had served as an advisor to Nero and the Flavians. His rule restored many of the liberties once assumed{{clarify|date=November 2021}} by Domitian<ref> Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', LXVIII, 1.</ref> and started the last golden era of Rome.


Nerva abdicated and died in 98&nbsp;AD, and was succeeded by the general ]. Trajan is credited with the restoration of traditional privileges and rights of commoner and senatorial classes, which later Roman historians claim to have been eroded during Domitian's autocracy.<ref> Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', LXVIII, 6.</ref> Trajan fought three ], winning territories roughly equivalent to modern-day ] and ]. He undertook an ambitious public building program in Rome, including ], ] and ], with the architect ]. He remodelled the ] and extended the ].<ref> Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', LXVIII, 13.</ref> When ] appointed a king for ] without consulting Rome, Trajan declared ] and deposed the king of Armenia. In 115 he took the Northern Mesopotamian cities of ] and ], organised a province of ] (116), and issued coins that claimed Armenia and Mesopotamia were under the authority of the Roman people.<ref> Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', LXVIII, 17–30.</ref> In that same year, he captured ] and the Parthian capital ] (near modern ]).<ref>{{Cite book |title=Emperors of Rome: The Story of Imperial Rome from Julius Caesar to the Last Emperor |date=2014 |publisher=Hachette UK |page=64}}</ref> After defeating a Parthian revolt and a ], he withdrew due to health issues, and in 117, he died of ].
====Trajan====
]]]
Nerva died in 98&nbsp;AD and his successor and heir was the general ]. Trajan was born in a non-patrician family from ] (modern-day ]) and his preeminence emerged in the army, under Domitian. He is the second of the ], the first being Nerva. Trajan was greeted by the people of Rome with enthusiasm, which he justified by governing well and without the bloodiness that had marked Domitian's reign. He freed many people who had been unjustly imprisoned by Domitian and returned private property that Domitian had confiscated; a process begun by Nerva before his death.<ref> Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', LXVIII, 6.</ref>


] and the ] in Scotland and Northern England]] Trajan's successor Hadrian withdrew all the troops stationed in Parthia, Armenia and Mesopotamia (modern-day ]), abandoning Trajan's conquests. Hadrian's army crushed a revolt in ] and the ] in Judea. This was the last large-scale Jewish revolt against the Romans, and was suppressed with massive repercussions in Judea. Hundreds of thousands of Jews were killed. Hadrian renamed the province of Judea "]", after one of Judea's most hated enemies.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofch0001unse_t6f2/page/15 |title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 4 |date=2005 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |isbn=978-0-8028-2416-5 |page=}}</ref> He constructed fortifications and walls, like the celebrated ] which separated Roman Britannia and the tribes of modern-day Scotland. Hadrian promoted culture, especially the Greek. He forbade ] and humanised the laws. His many building projects included aqueducts, baths, libraries and theatres; additionally, he travelled nearly every province in the Empire to review military and infrastructural conditions.<ref> Historia Augusta, ''Life of Hadrian''.</ref> Following Hadrian's death in 138 AD, his successor ] built temples, theatres, and mausoleums, promoted the arts and sciences, and bestowed honours and financial rewards upon the teachers of ] and ]. On becoming emperor, Antoninus made few initial changes, leaving intact as far as possible the arrangements instituted by his predecessor. Antoninus expanded Roman Britannia by invading what is now southern Scotland and building the ].<ref> ''Historia Augusta'', ''Life of Antoninus Pius'', V, 4.</ref> He also continued Hadrian's policy of humanising the laws. He died in 161&nbsp;AD.
] (roughly modern-day ] and ]), and defeated the king ], who had ]. In the ] (101–102), the defeated ] became a client kingdom; in the ] (105–106), Trajan completely devastated the enemy's resistance and annexed Dacia to the Empire. Trajan also annexed the client state of ] to form the province of ], which included the lands of southern Syria and northwestern Arabia.<ref> Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', LXVIII, 14.</ref> He erected many buildings that survive to this day, such as ], ] and ]. His main architect was ]; Apollodorus made the project of the Forum and of the Column, and also reformed the ]. Trajan's triumphal arches in ] and ] are other constructions projected by him. In the Second Dacian War, Apollodorus made a ] for Trajan.<ref> Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', LXVIII, 13.</ref>


], built during the reign of ], which still contains the largest unreinforced concrete ] in the world]]
] was against ]. When Parthia appointed a king for ] who was unacceptable to Rome (Parthia and Rome shared dominance over Armenia), he declared war. He probably wanted to be the first Roman leader to conquer Parthia, and repeat the glory of ], conqueror of Asia, whom Trajan next followed in the clash of Greek-Romans and the Persian cultures.<ref>{{cite book|author=Ferdinand Gregorovius|title=The Emperor Hadrian: A Picture of the Graeco-Roman World in His Time|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D20G5zMpPfUC&pg=PA16|year=1898|publisher=Macmillan|page=16|isbn=9780790552286}}</ref> In 113 he marched to Armenia and deposed the local king. In 115 Trajan turned south into the core of Parthian hegemony, took the Northern Mesopotamian cities of ] and ], organized a province of ] (116), and issued coins announcing that Armenia and Mesopotamia were under the authority of the Roman people.<ref> Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', LXVIII, 17–30.</ref> In that same year, he captured ] and the Parthian capital ] (near modern ]).<ref>{{cite book |title=Emperors of Rome: The Story of Imperial Rome from Julius Caesar to the Last Emperor |date=2014 |publisher=Hachette UK |page=64}}</ref> After defeating a Parthian revolt and a ], he withdrew due to health issues. In 117, his illness grew and he died of ]. He nominated ] as his heir. Under Trajan's leadership the Roman Empire reached the peak of its territorial expansion;<ref name= Atlas>{{cite book|last1=Scarre|first1=Chris|title=The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Rome|date=1995|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-0-14-051329-5}}</ref> Rome's dominion now spanned {{convert|5.0|e6km2|e6mi2|abbr=off|sigfig=2}}.<ref name=":0" />


], known as the Philosopher, was the last of the ]. He was a stoic philosopher and wrote the '']''. He defeated barbarian tribes in the ] as well as the ].<ref name="Dio LXXII">{{Citation |chapter-url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/72*.html#36 |author=Cassius Dio |title=Roman History |chapter=Epitome of Book LXXII |author-link=Cassius Dio}}</ref> His co-emperor, ], died in 169&nbsp;AD, probably from the ], a pandemic that killed nearly five million people through the Empire in 165–180&nbsp;AD.<ref> by Verity Murphy. ]. 7 November 2005.</ref>
====From Hadrian to Commodus====
] and the ] in Scotland and Northern England]]
Many Romans emigrated to Hispania (modern-day ] and ]) and stayed for generations, in some cases intermarrying with ]; one of these families produced the emperor ].<ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of European Peoples |date=2006 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |page=406}}</ref> Hadrian withdrew all the troops stationed in Parthia, Armenia and Mesopotamia (modern-day ]), abandoning Trajan's conquests. Hadrian's army crushed a revolt in ] and the ] in Judea. This was the last large-scale Jewish revolt against the Romans, and was suppressed with massive repercussions in Judea. Hundreds of thousands of Jews were killed. Hadrian renamed the province of Judea "]," after one of Judea's most hated enemies.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 4 |date=2005 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |isbn=9780802824165 |page= |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofch0001unse_t6f2/page/15 }}</ref> He constructed fortifications and walls, like the celebrated ] which separated Roman Britannia and the tribes of modern-day Scotland. Hadrian promoted culture, especially the Greek. He also forbade ] and humanized the laws. His many building projects included aqueducts, baths, libraries and theaters; additionally, he travelled nearly every province in the Empire to check the military and infrastructural conditions.<ref> Historia Augusta, ''Life of Hadrian''.</ref> Following Hadrian's death in 138 AD, his successor ] built temples, theaters, and mausoleums, promoted the arts and sciences, and bestowed honours and financial rewards upon the teachers of ] and philosophy. On becoming emperor, Antoninus made few initial changes, leaving intact as far as possible the arrangements instituted by his predecessor. Antoninus expanded Roman Britannia by invading what is now southern Scotland and building the ].<ref> ''Historia Augusta'', ''Life of Antoninus Pius'', V, 4.</ref> He also continued Hadrian's policy of humanizing the laws. He died in 161&nbsp;AD.


From Nerva to Marcus Aurelius, the empire achieved an unprecedented status. The powerful influence of laws and manners had gradually cemented the union of the provinces. All the citizens enjoyed and abused the advantages of wealth. The image of a free constitution was preserved with decent reverence. The Roman senate appeared to possess the sovereign authority, and devolved on the emperors all the executive powers of government. Gibbon declared the rule of these "Five Good Emperors" the golden era of the Empire.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gibbon |first=Edward |title=The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire |date=1906 |publisher=Fred de Fau and Co. |editor-last=Bury |editor-first=J.B. |language=en |chapter=Chapter I |chapter-url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/731}}</ref> During this time, Rome reached its greatest territorial extent.<ref> from UNRV History. Retrieved 12 March 2007.</ref>
], built during the reign of ], which still contains the largest unreinforced ] ] in the world]]


], son of Marcus Aurelius, became emperor after his father's death. He is not counted as one of the Five Good Emperors, due to his direct kinship with the latter emperor; in addition, he was militarily passive. ] identifies his reign as the beginning of Roman ]: "(Rome has transformed) from a kingdom of gold to one of iron and rust."<ref name="Dio LXXII"/>
], known as the Philosopher, was the last of the ]. He was a stoic philosopher and wrote the '']''. He defeated barbarian tribes in the ] as well as the ].<ref> Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', LXXVII.</ref> His co-emperor, ], died in 169&nbsp;AD, probably victim of the ], a pandemic that killed nearly five million people through the Empire in 165–180&nbsp;AD.<ref> by Verity Murphy. ]. 7 November 2005.</ref>


====Severan dynasty====
From Nerva to Marcus Aurelius, the empire achieved an unprecedented status. The powerful influence of laws and manners had gradually cemented the union of the provinces. All the citizens enjoyed and abused the advantages of wealth. The image of a free constitution was preserved with decent reverence. The Roman senate appeared to possess the sovereign authority, and devolved on the emperors all the executive powers of government.{{clarify|date=June 2016}} The Five Good Emperors' rule is considered the golden era of the Empire.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gibbon|first1=Edward|editor1-last=Bury|editor1-first=J.B.|title=The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire|date=1906|publisher=Fred de Fau and Co.|language=en|chapter=Chapter I|chapter-url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/731}}</ref>


Commodus was killed by a conspiracy involving ] and his wife Marcia in late 192&nbsp;AD. The following year is known as the ], during which ], ], ], ] and ] held the imperial dignity. Pertinax, a member of the senate who had been one of Marcus Aurelius's right-hand men, was the choice of Laetus, and he ruled vigorously and judiciously. Laetus soon became jealous and instigated Pertinax's murder by the Praetorian Guard, who then auctioned the empire to the highest bidder, Didius Julianus, for 25,000 sesterces per man.{{Sfn|Cary|1967|page=704}} The people of Rome were appalled and appealed to the frontier legions to save them. The legions of three frontier provinces—], ], and ]—resented being excluded from the "]" and replied by declaring their individual generals to be emperor. Lucius Septimius Severus Geta, the Pannonian commander, bribed the opposing forces, pardoned the Praetorian Guards and installed himself as emperor. He and his successors governed with the legions' support. The changes on ]age and military expenditures were the root of the financial crisis that marked the ].
], son of Marcus Aurelius, became emperor after his father's death. He is not counted as one of the Five Good Emperors. Firstly, this was due to his direct kinship with the latter emperor; in addition, he was militarily passive compared to his predecessors, who had frequently led their armies in person. Commodus usually participated in gladiatorial combats, which were frequently brutal and rough. He killed many citizens, and ] identifies his reign as the beginning of Roman ]: "(Rome has transformed) from a kingdom of gold to one of iron and rust."<ref> Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', LXXII, 36, 4.</ref>


===Severan dynasty===
Commodus was killed by a conspiracy involving ] and his wife Marcia in late 192&nbsp;AD. The following year is known as the ], during which ], ], ], ] and ] held the imperial dignity. Pertinax, a member of the senate who had been one of Marcus Aurelius's right hand men, was the choice of Laetus, and he ruled vigorously and judiciously. Laetus soon became jealous and instigated Pertinax's murder by the Praetorian Guard, who then auctioned the empire to the highest bidder, Didius Julianus, for 25,000 sesterces per man.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Cary|first1=Max|title=A History of Rome Down to the Reign of Constantine|date=1967|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York|page=704|edition=Second}}</ref> The people of Rome were appalled and appealed to the frontier legions to save them. The legions of three frontier provinces—], ], and ]—resented being excluded from the "]" and replied by declaring their individual generals to be emperor. Lucius Septimius Severus Geta, the Pannonian commander, bribed the opposing forces, pardoned the Praetorian Guards and installed himself as emperor. He and his successors governed with the legions' support. The changes on ]age and military expenditures were the root of the financial crisis that marked the ].

==== Septimius Severus ====
], c.&nbsp;199, Severus, Julia Domna, Caracalla and Geta, whose face is erased]] ], c.&nbsp;199, Severus, Julia Domna, Caracalla and Geta, whose face is erased]]
Severus was enthroned after invading Rome and having ] killed. His two other rivals, ] and ], were both hailed by other factions as ''Imperator''. Severus quickly subdued Niger in ] and promised to Albinus the title of Caesar (which meant he would be a co-emperor).<ref> Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', LXXV, 13.</ref> However, Severus betrayed Albinus by blaming him for a plot against his life. Severus marched to Gaul and defeated Albinus. For these acts, ] said that Severus was "a ferocious lion and a clever fox".<ref> Machiavelli, ''Il Principe'', XIX (in Italian).</ref> Severus was enthroned after invading Rome and having ] killed. Severus attempted to revive totalitarianism and, addressing the Roman people and Senate, praised the severity and cruelty of Marius and Sulla, which worried the senators.<ref> Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', LXXVI, 7.</ref> When ] invaded Roman territory, Severus successfully waged war against that country. Notwithstanding this military success, Severus failed in invading ], a rich Arabian city. Severus killed his legate, who was gaining respect from the legions; and his soldiers fell victim to famine. After this disastrous campaign, he withdrew.<ref> Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', LXXVI, 9–12.</ref> Severus also intended to vanquish the whole of Britannia. To achieve this, he ] against the ]. After many casualties in the army due to the terrain and the barbarians' ambushes, Severus himself went to the field. However, he became ill and died in 211&nbsp;AD, at the age of 65.

Severus attempted to revive totalitarianism and, addressing the Roman people and Senate, praised the severity and cruelty of Marius and Sulla, which worried the senators.<ref> Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', LXXVI, 7.</ref> When ] invaded Roman territory, Severus waged war against that country and seized the cities of ], ] and ]. Reaching ], the Parthian capital, he ordered plundering and his army slew and captured many people. Notwithstanding this military success, Severus failed in invading ], a rich Arabian city. Severus killed his legate, who was gaining respect from the legions; and his soldiers fell victim to famine. After this disastrous campaign, he withdrew.<ref> Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', LXXVI, 9–12.</ref> Severus also intended to vanquish the whole of Britannia. To achieve this, he ] against the ]. After many casualties in the army due to the terrain and the barbarians' ambushes, Severus himself went to the field. However, he became ill and died in 211&nbsp;AD, at the age of 65.


====From Caracalla to Alexander Severus====
] from the ], Rome]] ] from the ], Rome]]
Upon the death of Severus, his sons ] and ] were made emperors. During their youth, their squabbles had divided Rome. In that same year Caracalla had his brother, a youth, assassinated in his mother's arms, and may have murdered 20,000 of Geta's followers. Like his father, Caracalla was warlike. He continued Severus' policy and gained respect from the legions. A cruel man, Caracalla was pursued by the guilt of his brother's murder. He ordered the death of people of his own circle, like his tutor, Cilo, and a friend of his father, ]. Upon the death of Severus, his sons ] and ] were made emperors. Caracalla had his brother, a youth, assassinated in his mother's arms, and may have murdered 20,000 of Geta's followers. Like his father, Caracalla was warlike. He continued Severus' policy and gained respect from the legions. Knowing that the citizens of ] disliked him and were denigrating his character, Caracalla served a banquet for its notable citizens, after which his soldiers killed all the guests. From the security of the temple of Sarapis, he then directed an indiscriminate slaughter of Alexandria's people.<ref> Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', LXXVIII, 22–23.; ''Historia Augusta'', ''The Life of Caracalla'', VI.</ref> In 212, he issued the ], giving full Roman citizenship to all free men living in the Empire, with the exception of the ''dediticii'', people who had become subject to Rome through surrender in war, and freed slaves.<ref name="dediticii">Giessen Papyrus, 40, 7–9 "I grant to all the inhabitants of the Empire the Roman citizenship and no one remains outside a civitas, with the exception of the dediticii"</ref>


] points to the edict as a fundamental turning point, after which ''Rome'' was "effectively a new state masquerading under an old name".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Beard |first=Mary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x795CgAAQBAJ |title=SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome |date=2015-10-20 |publisher=Profile |isbn=978-1-8476-5441-0 |pages=529–530 |language=en}}</ref>
Knowing that the citizens of ] disliked him and were denigrating his character, Caracalla served a banquet for its notable citizens, after which his soldiers killed all the guests. From the security of the temple of Sarapis, he then directed an indiscriminate slaughter of Alexandria's people.<ref> Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', LXXVIII, 22–23.</ref><ref> ''Historia Augusta'', ''The Life of Caracalla'', VI.</ref> In 212, he issued the ], giving full Roman citizenship to all free men living in the Empire, with the exception of the ''dediticii'', people who had become subject to Rome through surrender in war, and freed slaves.<ref name=dediticii>Giessen Papyrus, 40,7-9 "I grant to all the inhabitants of the Empire the Roman citizenship and no one remains outside a civitas, with the exception of the dediticii"</ref> and at the same time raised the inheritance tax, levied only on Roman citizens, to ten percent. A report that a soothsayer had predicted that the ] ] and his son were to rule over the empire was dutifully sent to Caracalla. But the report fell into the hands of Macrinus, who felt he must act or die. Macrinus conspired to have Caracalla assassinated by one of his soldiers during a pilgrimage to the Temple of the Moon in Carrhae, in 217&nbsp;AD.


The incompetent Macrinus assumed power, but soon removed himself from Rome to the east and Antioch. His brief reign ended in 218, when the youngster Bassianus, high priest of the temple of the Sun at Emesa, and supposedly illegitimate son of Caracalla, was declared Emperor by the disaffected soldiers of Macrinus. Bribes gained Bassianus support from the legionaries and they fought against Macrinus and his Praetorian guards. He adopted the name of Antoninus but history has named him after his Sun god ], represented on Earth in the form of a large black stone. An incompetent and lascivious ruler,<ref name=haywood2 /> Elagabalus offended all but his favourites. ], ] and the '']'' give many accounts of his notorious extravagance. Elagabalus adopted his cousin ], as Caesar, but subsequently grew jealous and attempted to assassinate him. However, the Praetorian guard preferred Alexander, murdered Elagabalus, dragged his mutilated corpse through the streets of Rome, and threw it into the Tiber. Severus Alexander then succeeded him. Alexander waged war against many foes, including the revitalized ] and also the ], who invaded Gaul. His losses generated dissatisfaction among his soldiers, and some of them murdered him during his Germanic campaign in 235&nbsp;AD.<ref> ''Historia Augusta'', ''The Life of Alexander Severus'', LIX.</ref> ] conspired to have Caracalla assassinated by one of his soldiers during a pilgrimage to the Temple of the Moon in Carrhae, in 217&nbsp;AD. Macrinus assumed power, but soon removed himself from Rome to the east and Antioch. His brief reign ended in 218, when the youngster Bassianus, high priest of the temple of the Sun at Emesa, and supposedly illegitimate son of Caracalla, was declared Emperor by the disaffected soldiers of Macrinus. He adopted the name of Antoninus but history has named him after his Sun god ], represented on Earth in the form of a large black stone. An incompetent and lascivious ruler,{{Sfn|Haywood|1971|pages=–393}} Elagabalus offended all but his favourites. ], ] and the '']'' give many accounts of his notorious extravagance. Elagabalus adopted his cousin ], as Caesar, but subsequently grew jealous and attempted to assassinate him. However, the Praetorian guard preferred Alexander, murdered Elagabalus, dragged his mutilated corpse through the streets of Rome, and threw it into the Tiber. Severus Alexander then succeeded him. Alexander waged war against many foes, including the revitalised ] and also the ], who invaded Gaul. His losses generated dissatisfaction among his soldiers, and some of them murdered him during his Germanic campaign in 235&nbsp;AD.<ref> ''Historia Augusta'', ''The Life of Alexander Severus'', LIX.</ref>


=== Crisis of the Third Century === ==== Crisis of the Third Century ====
{{main|Crisis of the Third Century}} {{Main|Crisis of the Third Century}}
] and the ]]] ] and the ]]]


A disastrous scenario emerged after the death of ]: the Roman state was plagued by civil wars, external ]s, political chaos, ] and ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://history.boisestate.edu/westciv/empire/15.shtml |title=Crisis of the Third Century (235–285) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070503114611/http://history.boisestate.edu/westciv/empire/15.shtml |archive-date=3 May 2007 |work=History of Western Civilization |first=E.L. |last=Skip Knox |publisher=Boise State University}}</ref><ref name=haywood2 /> The old Roman values had fallen, and ] and Christianity had begun to spread through the populace. Emperors were no longer men linked with nobility; they usually were born in lower-classes of distant parts of the Empire. These men rose to prominence through military ranks, and became emperors through civil wars. A disastrous scenario emerged after the death of ]: the Roman state was plagued by civil wars, external ]s, political chaos, ] and ].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Skip Knox |first=E.L. |title=Crisis of the Third Century (235–285) |url=http://history.boisestate.edu/westciv/empire/15.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070503114611/http://history.boisestate.edu/westciv/empire/15.shtml |archive-date=3 May 2007 |website=History of Western Civilization |publisher=Boise State University}}; {{Harvnb|Haywood|1971|pages=–393}}.</ref> The old Roman values had fallen, and ] and Christianity had begun to spread through the populace. Emperors were no longer men linked with nobility; they usually were born in lower-classes of distant parts of the Empire. These men rose to prominence through military ranks, and became emperors through civil wars.


There were 26 emperors in a 49-year period, a signal of political instability. ] was the first ruler of that time, governing for just three years. Others ruled just for a few months, like ], ], ] and ]. The population and the frontiers were abandoned, since the emperors were mostly concerned with defeating rivals and establishing their power. The economy also suffered during that epoch. The massive military expenditures from the ] caused a devaluation of Roman coins. ] came at this time as well. The ] broke out in 250 and killed a huge portion of the population.<ref name="Gibbon10">{{cite book|last1=Gibbon|first1=Edward|editor1-last=Bury|editor1-first=J.B.|title=The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire|date=1906|publisher=Fred de Fau and Co.|chapter-url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/731/731-h/731-h.htm#link102HCH0001|language=en|chapter-format=Online version|chapter=Chapter X}}</ref> In 260&nbsp;AD, the provinces of ], ] and ] separated from the rest of the Roman state to form the ], ruled by Queen ] and centered on ]. In that same year the ] was created by ], retaining Britannia and Gaul.<ref> ''Historia Augusta'', ''The Lives of the Thirty Pretenders'', III et XXX.</ref> These countries separated from Rome after the capture of emperor ] by the ]s of ], the first Roman ruler to be captured by his enemies; it was a humiliating fact for the Romans.<ref name="Gibbon10"/> The crisis began to recede during the reigns of ] (268–270), who ] the ] invaders, and ] (271–275), who reconquered both the Gallic and Palmyrene Empires.<ref> ''Historia Augusta'', ''The Life of Aurelian'', XXXII.</ref><ref> ''Historia Augusta'', ''The Life of Claudius'', I.</ref> The crisis was overcome during the reign of ]. There were 26 emperors in a 49-year period, a signal of political instability. ] was the first ruler of that time, governing for just three years. Others ruled just for a few months, like ], ], ] and ]. The population and the frontiers were abandoned, since the emperors were mostly concerned with defeating rivals and establishing their power. The economy also suffered: massive military expenditures from the ] caused a devaluation of Roman coins. ] came at this time as well. The ] broke out in 250 and killed a huge portion of the population.<ref name="Gibbon10">{{Cite book |last=Gibbon |first=Edward |title=The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire |date=1906 |publisher=Fred de Fau and Co. |editor-last=Bury |editor-first=J.B. |language=en |chapter=Chapter X |chapter-url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/731/731-h/731-h.htm#link102HCH0001 |chapter-format=Online version}}</ref> In 260&nbsp;AD, the provinces of ], ] and ] separated from the rest of the Roman state to form the ], ruled by Queen ] and centered on ]. In that same year the ] was created by ], retaining Britannia and Gaul.<ref> ''Historia Augusta'', ''The Lives of the Thirty Pretenders'', III et XXX.</ref> These countries separated from Rome after the capture of emperor ] by the ]s of ], the first Roman ruler to be captured by his enemies; it was a humiliating fact for the Romans.<ref name="Gibbon10"/> The crisis began to recede during the reigns of ] (268–270), who ] the ] invaders, and ] (271–275), who reconquered both the Gallic and Palmyrene Empires.<ref> ''Historia Augusta'', ''The Life of Aurelian'', XXXII.; ''Historia Augusta'', ''The Life of Claudius'', I.</ref> The crisis was overcome during the reign of ].


==Empire – The Tetrarchy== ===Empire – The Tetrarchy===
{{Main|Tetrarchy}} {{Main|Tetrarchy}}


===Diocletian=== ====Diocletian====
] depicting the profile of ]]] ] depicting the profile of ]]]
In 284&nbsp;AD, Diocletian was hailed as Imperator by the eastern army. Diocletian healed the empire from the crisis, by political and economic shifts. A new form of government was established: the ]. The Empire was divided among four emperors, two in the West and two in the East. The first tetrarchs were Diocletian (in the East), ] (in the West), and two junior emperors, ] (in the East) and ] (in the West). To adjust the economy, Diocletian made several tax reforms.<ref> Lactantius, ''De Mortibus Persecutorum'', VII.</ref> In 284&nbsp;AD, Diocletian was hailed as Imperator by the eastern army. Diocletian healed the empire from the crisis, by political and economic shifts. A new form of government was established: the ]. The Empire was divided among four emperors, two in the West and two in the East. The first tetrarchs were Diocletian (in the East), ] (in the West), and two junior emperors, ] (in the East) and ] (in the West). To adjust the economy, Diocletian made several tax reforms.<ref>{{Citation |chapter-url=http://people.ucalgary.ca/~vandersp/Courses/texts/lactant/lactpers.html#VII |author=Lactantius |title=De Mortibus Persecutorum |chapter=VII}}</ref>


Diocletian expelled the Persians who plundered Syria and conquered some barbarian tribes with Maximian. He adopted many behaviors of Eastern monarchs, like wearing pearls and golden sandals and robes. Anyone in the presence of the emperor had now to prostrate himself—a common act in the East, but never practiced in Rome before.<ref>Joannes Zonaras, ''Epitome: From Diocletian to the death of Galerius''</ref> Diocletian did not use a disguised form of Republic, as the other emperors since ] had done.<ref> by Ralph W. Mathisen. De Imperatoribus Romanis. 17 March 1997. Retrieved 20 March 2007.</ref> Between 290 and 330, half a dozen new capitals had been established by the members of the Tetrarchy, officially or not: Antioch, Nicomedia, Thessalonike, Sirmium, Milan, and Trier.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ward-Perkins|first1=John Bryan|title=Roman Imperial Architecture|date=1994|publisher=Yale University Press|location=New Haven, CT|isbn=978-0-300-05292-3|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/romanimperialarc00jbwa}}</ref> Diocletian was also responsible for a significant Christian persecution. In 303 he and ] started the persecution and ordered the destruction of all the Christian churches and scripts and forbade Christian worship.<ref> Lactantius, ''De Mortibus Persecutorum'', X–XVI.</ref> Diocletian abdicated in 305&nbsp;AD together with Maximian, thus, he was the first Roman emperor to resign. His reign ended the traditional form of imperial rule, the ] (from ]) and started the Tetrarchy. Diocletian expelled the Persians who plundered Syria and conquered some barbarian tribes with Maximian. He adopted many behaviours of Eastern monarchs. Anyone in the presence of the emperor had now to prostrate himself—a common act in the East, but never practised in Rome before.<ref>Joannes Zonaras, ''Epitome: From Diocletian to the death of Galerius''</ref> Diocletian did not use a disguised form of Republic, as the other emperors since ] had done.<ref> by Ralph W. Mathisen. De Imperatoribus Romanis. 17 March 1997. Retrieved 20 March 2007.</ref> Between 290 and 330, half a dozen new capitals had been established by the members of the Tetrarchy, officially or not: Antioch, Nicomedia, Thessalonike, Sirmium, Milan, and Trier.{{Sfn|Ward-Perkins |1994}} Diocletian was also responsible for a significant Christian persecution. In 303 he and ] started the persecution and ordered the destruction of all the Christian churches and scripts and forbade Christian worship.<ref>{{Citation |chapter-url=http://people.ucalgary.ca/~vandersp/Courses/texts/lactant/lactpers.html#X |author=Lactantius |title=De Mortibus Persecutorum |chapter=X–XVI}}</ref> Diocletian abdicated in 305&nbsp;AD together with Maximian, thus, he was the first Roman emperor to resign. His reign ended the traditional form of imperial rule, the ] (from ]) and started the Tetrarchy.
] of ], Germany (then part of the ] of ]), a ] ] built during the reign of ] (r. 306–337 AD)]] ] of ], Germany (then part of the ] of ]), a ] ] built during the reign of ] (r. 306–337 AD)]]


=== Constantine and Christianity === ==== Constantine and Christianity ====
] assumed the empire as a tetrarch in 306. He conducted many wars against the other tetrarchs. Firstly he defeated ] in 312. In 313, he issued the ], which granted liberty for Christians to profess their religion.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gibbon|first1=Edward|editor1-last=Bury|editor1-first=J.B.|title=The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire|date=1906|publisher=Fred de Fau and Co.|language=en|chapter=Chapter XX}}</ref> Constantine was converted to Christianity, enforcing the Christian faith. He began the Christianization of the Empire and of Europe—a process concluded by the Catholic Church in the ]. He was defeated by the ] and the ] during 306–308. In 324 he defeated another tetrarch, ], and controlled all the empire, as it was before ]. To celebrate his victories and Christianity's relevance, he rebuilt ] and renamed it Nova Roma ("New Rome"); but the city soon gained the informal name of ] ("City of Constantine").<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gibbon|first1=Edward|editor1-last=Bury|editor1-first=J.B.|title=The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire|date=1906|publisher=Fred de Fau and Co.|chapter-url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/25717/25717-h/25717-h.htm#Blink182HCH0001|language=en|chapter-format=Online version|chapter=Chapter XVII}}</ref><ref> by Hans A. Pohlsander. De Imperatoribus Romanis. 8 January 2004. Retrieved 20 March 2007.</ref> ] assumed the empire as a tetrarch in 306. He conducted many wars against the other tetrarchs. Firstly he defeated ] in 312. In 313, he issued the ], which granted liberty for Christians to profess their religion.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gibbon |first=Edward |title=The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire |date=1906 |publisher=Fred de Fau and Co. |editor-last=Bury |editor-first=J.B. |language=en |chapter=Chapter XX}}</ref> Constantine was converted to Christianity, enforcing the Christian faith. He began the Christianization of the Empire and of Europe—a process concluded by the Catholic Church in the ]. He was defeated by the ] and the ] during 306–308. In 324 he defeated another tetrarch, ], and controlled all the empire, as it was before ]. To celebrate his victories and Christianity's relevance, he rebuilt ] and renamed it Nova Roma ("New Rome"); but the city soon gained the informal name of ] ("City of Constantine").<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gibbon |first=Edward |title=The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire |date=1906 |publisher=Fred de Fau and Co. |editor-last=Bury |editor-first=J.B. |language=en |chapter=Chapter XVII |chapter-url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/25717/25717-h/25717-h.htm#Blink182HCH0001 |chapter-format=Online version}}; by Hans A. Pohlsander. De Imperatoribus Romanis. 8 January 2004. Retrieved 20 March 2007.</ref>


The reign of ], who under the influence of his adviser ] attempted to restore ] and ], only briefly interrupted the succession of Christian emperors. Constantinople served as a new capital for the Empire. In fact, Rome had lost its central importance since the Crisis of the Third Century—] was the western capital from 286 to 330, until the reign of ], when ] was made capital, in the 5th century.<ref> by Ralph W. Mathisen. De Imperatoribus Romanis. 2 June 1999. Retrieved 21 March 2007.</ref> Constantine's administrative and monetary reforms, that reunited the Empire under one emperor, and rebuilt the city of Byzantium changed the high period of the ]. The reign of ], who under the influence of his adviser ] attempted to restore ] and ], only briefly interrupted the succession of Christian emperors. Constantinople served as a new capital for the Empire. In fact, Rome had lost its central importance since the Crisis of the Third Century—] was the western capital from 286 to 330, until the reign of ], when ] was made capital, in the 5th century.<ref> by Ralph W. Mathisen. De Imperatoribus Romanis. 2 June 1999. Retrieved 21 March 2007.</ref> Constantine's administrative and monetary reforms, that reunited the Empire under one emperor, and rebuilt the city of Byzantium, as Constantinopolis Nova Roma, changed the high period of the ].


== Fall of the Western Roman Empire == === Fall of the Western Roman Empire ===
{{Main|Fall of the Western Roman Empire}} {{Main|Fall of the Western Roman Empire}}
In the late 4th and 5th centuries the Western Empire entered a critical stage which terminated with the ].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Duiker|first1=William|last2=Spielvogel|first2=Jackson|title=World History|date=2001|publisher=Wadsworth|isbn=978-0-534-57168-9|page=|edition=Third|url=https://archive.org/details/worldhistoryto1500duik/page/155}}</ref> Under the last emperors of the ] and the ], Rome lost decisive battles against the ] and ] ]s: in 363, emperor ] was killed in the ], against the Persians and the ] cost the life of emperor ] (364–378); the victorious ] were never expelled from the Empire nor assimilated.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gibbon|first1=Edward|editor1-last=Bury|editor1-first=J.B.|title=The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire|date=1906|publisher=Fred de Fau and Co.|chapter-url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/25717/25717-h/25717-h.htm#Blink262HCH0001|language=en|chapter-format=Online version|chapter=Chapter XXVI}}</ref> The next emperor, ] (379–395), gave even more force to the Christian faith, and after his death, the Empire was divided into the ], ruled by ] and the ], commanded by ], both of which were Theodosius' sons.{{citation needed|date=June 2016}} In the late 4th and 5th centuries the Western Empire entered a critical stage which terminated with the ].{{Sfn|Duiker|Spielvogel|2001|pages=}} Under the last emperors of the ] and the ], Rome lost decisive battles against the ] and ] ]s: in 363, emperor ] was killed in the ], against the Persians and the ] cost the life of emperor ] (364–378); the victorious ] were never expelled from the Empire nor assimilated.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gibbon |first=Edward |title=The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire |date=1906 |publisher=Fred de Fau and Co. |editor-last=Bury |editor-first=J.B. |language=en |chapter=Chapter XXVI |chapter-url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/25717/25717-h/25717-h.htm#Blink262HCH0001 |chapter-format=Online version}}</ref> The next emperor, ] (379–395), gave even more force to the Christian faith, and after his death, the Empire was divided into the ], ruled by ] and the ], commanded by ], both of which were Theodosius' sons.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/un-dittico-imperiale-oriente-e-occidente-dopo-il-395_%28Storia-della-civilt%C3%A0-europea-a-cura-di-Umberto-Eco%29/|title=Un dittico imperiale: Oriente e Occidente dopo il 395|access-date=12 August 2023|language=it}}</ref>


{{Multiple image {{Multiple image
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|footer = Ending ] on Roman Empire between AD 100–500. ] entering ]. ''The Sack of Rome by the Barbarians in 410'' by ]. |footer = Ending ] on Roman Empire between AD 100–500. ] entering ]. ''The Sack of Rome by the Barbarians in 410'' by ].
}} }}
The situation became more critical in 408, after the death of ], a general who tried to reunite the Empire and repel barbarian invasion in the early years of the 5th century. The professional field army collapsed. In 410, the ] saw the ].<ref>Lapham, Lewis (1997). ''The End of the World.'' New York: Thomas Dunne Books. {{ISBN|0-312-25264-1}}. pp. 47–50.</ref> During the 5th century, the Western Empire experienced a significant reduction of its territory. The ] conquered ], the ] claimed the southern part of ], ] was taken by the ], ] was abandoned by the central government, and the Empire suffered further from the invasions of ], chief of the ].<ref> Bury, J.B.: ''History of the Later Roman Empire'', 8, §2.</ref><ref> Bury, J.B.: ''History of the Later Roman Empire'', 6, §4.</ref><ref> Bury, J.B.: ''History of the Later Roman Empire'', 6, §3.</ref><ref> Bury, J.B.: ''History of the Later Roman Empire'', 9.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/firsteuro/invas.html |title=The Germanic Invasions of Western Europe |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130812103150/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/firsteuro/invas.html |archive-date=12 August 2013 |work=University of Calgary |date=August 1996 |access-date=22 March 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Duiker|first1=William|last2=Spielvogel|first2=Jackson|title=World History|date=2001|publisher=Wadsworth|isbn=978-0-534-57168-9|page=|edition=Third|url=https://archive.org/details/worldhistoryto1500duik/page/157}}</ref> General ] refused to meet the demands of the barbarian "allies" who now formed the army, and tried to expel them from Italy. Unhappy with this, their chieftain ] defeated and killed Orestes, invaded ] and dethroned ], son of Orestes. This event of 476, usually marks the end of ] and beginning of the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.roman-emperors.org/auggiero.htm|title=Roman Emperors – DIR Romulus Augustulus|website=www.roman-emperors.org}}</ref><ref> by Ralph W. Mathisen and Geoffrey S. Nathan. De Imperatoribus Romanis. 26 August 1997. Retrieved 22 March 2007.</ref> The Roman noble and former emperor ] continued to rule as emperor from ] even after the deposition of Romulus Augustus until his death in 480. Some historians consider him to be the last emperor of the Western Empire instead of Romulus Augustus.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.roman-emperors.org/nepos.htm|title=Roman Emperors – DIR Nepos|first=Ralph A.|last=Mathisen|date=8 February 1998}}</ref> The situation became more critical in 408, after the death of ], a general who tried to reunite the Empire and repel barbarian invasion in the early years of the 5th century. The professional field army collapsed. In 410, the ] saw the ].<ref>Lapham, Lewis (1997). ''The End of the World.'' New York: Thomas Dunne Books. {{ISBN|0-3122-5264-1}}. pp. 47–50.</ref> During the 5th century, the Western Empire experienced a significant reduction of its territory. The ] conquered ], the ] claimed the southern part of ], ] was taken by the ], ] was abandoned by the central government, and the Empire suffered further from the invasions of ], chief of the ].<ref> Bury, J.B.: ''History of the Later Roman Empire'', 8, §2.; Bury, J.B.: ''History of the Later Roman Empire'', 6, §4.; Bury, J.B.: ''History of the Later Roman Empire'', 6, §3.; Bury, J.B.: ''History of the Later Roman Empire'', 9.; {{Cite web |date=August 1996 |title=The Germanic Invasions of Western Europe |url=https://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/firsteuro/invas.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130812103150/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/firsteuro/invas.html |archive-date=12 August 2013 |access-date=22 March 2007 |website=University of Calgary}}; {{Harvnb|Duiker|Spielvogel|2001|page=}}</ref> General ] refused to meet the demands of the barbarian "allies" who now formed the army, and tried to expel them from Italy. Unhappy with this, their chieftain ] defeated and killed Orestes, invaded ] and dethroned ], son of Orestes. This event of 476, usually marks the end of ] and beginning of the ].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Roman Emperors – DIR Romulus Augustulus |url=http://www.roman-emperors.org/auggiero.htm |website=www.roman-emperors.org|date=23 July 2022 }}; by Ralph W. Mathisen and Geoffrey S. Nathan. De Imperatoribus Romanis. 26 August 1997. Retrieved 22 March 2007.</ref> The Roman noble and former emperor ] continued to rule as emperor from ] even after the deposition of Romulus Augustus until his death in 480. Some historians consider him to be the last emperor of the Western Empire instead of Romulus Augustus.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mathisen |first=Ralph A. |date=8 February 1998 |title=Roman Emperors – DIR Nepos |url=http://www.roman-emperors.org/nepos.htm}}</ref>

After some 1200 years of independence and nearly 700 years as a great power, the rule of Rome in the West ended.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Durant|first1=Will|last2=Durant|first2=Ariel|title=The Story of Civilization – Volume III: Caesar and Christ|date=1944|publisher=Simon and Schuster, Inc.|location=United States|isbn=978-1567310238|page=670|title-link=The Story of Civilization}}</ref> Various reasons for Rome's fall have been proposed ever since, including loss of Republicanism, moral decay, military tyranny, class war, slavery, economic stagnation, environmental change, disease, the decline of the Roman race, as well as the inevitable ebb and flow that all civilizations experience. At the time many ] argued that Christianity and the decline of traditional Roman religion were responsible; some rationalist thinkers of the modern era attribute the fall to a change from a martial to a more pacifist religion that lessened the number of available soldiers; while Christians such as ] argued that the sinful nature of Roman society itself was to blame.<ref>Morris Bishop, The Middle Ages, 1996. p. 8</ref>


After 1200 years of independence and nearly 700 years as a great power, the rule of Rome in the West ended.{{Sfn|Durant|Durant|1944|page=670}} Various reasons for Rome's fall have been proposed ever since, including loss of Republicanism, moral decay, military tyranny, class war, slavery, economic stagnation, environmental change, disease, the decline of the Roman race, as well as the inevitable ebb and flow that all civilisations experience.
The Eastern Empire had a different fate. It survived for almost 1000 years after the fall of its ] and became the most stable Christian ] during the Middle Ages. During the 6th century, ] reconquered the Italian peninsula ], North Africa ], and southern Hispania ]. But within a few years of Justinian's death, Byzantine possessions in Italy were greatly reduced by the ] who settled in the peninsula.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Duiker|first1=William|last2=Spielvogel|first2=Jackson|title=World History|date=2001|publisher=Wadsworth|isbn=978-0-534-57168-9|page=|edition=Third|url=https://archive.org/details/worldhistoryto1500duik/page/347}}</ref> In the east, partially due to the weakening effect of the ], the Byzantines were threatened by the rise of Islam. Its followers rapidly brought about the ], the ] and the ] during the ], and soon presented a direct ].<ref name="Hooker'sByzantinepage">{{cite web |url=http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/MA/BYZ.HTM |title=The Byzantine Empire |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19990224072609/http://www.wsu.edu/%7Edee/MA/BYZ.HTM |archive-date=24 February 1999 |first=Richard |last=Hooker |work=Washington State University |date=6 June 1999}}</ref><ref>
The Eastern Empire survived for almost 1000 years after the fall of its ] and became the most stable Christian ] during the Middle Ages. During the 6th century, ] reconquered the Italian peninsula ], North Africa ], and southern Hispania ]. But within a few years of Justinian's death, Eastern Roman (Byzantine) possessions in Italy were greatly reduced by the ] who settled in the peninsula.{{Sfn|Duiker|Spielvogel|2001|page=}} In the east, partially due to the weakening effect of the ] as well as a series of mutually destructive wars against the Persian Sassanian Empire, the Byzantine Romans were threatened by the rise of Islam. Its followers rapidly brought about the ], the ] and the ] during the ], and soon presented a direct ].<ref name="Hooker'sByzantinepage">{{Cite web |last=Hooker |first=Richard |date=6 June 1999 |title=The Byzantine Empire |url=http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/MA/BYZ.HTM |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19990224072609/http://www.wsu.edu/%7Edee/MA/BYZ.HTM |archive-date=24 February 1999 |website=Washington State University}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bray, R.S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=djPWGnvBm08C&pg=PA26 |title=Armies of Pestilence |publisher=James Clarke & Co |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-2271-7240-7 |page=26}}</ref> In the following century, the Arabs ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kreutz, Barbara M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qamIQbPLMqgC |title=Before the Normans: Southern Italy in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-8122-1587-8}}</ref> In the west, Slavic populations penetrated deep into the Balkans.
{{Cite book
| author = Bray, R.S.
| year = 2004
| title = Armies of Pestilence
| publisher = James Clarke & Co
| location = Cambridge
| page = 26
| isbn = 978-0-227-17240-7
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=djPWGnvBm08C&pg=PA26}}</ref> In the following century, the Arabs also ].<ref>
{{Cite book
| author = Kreutz, Barbara M.
| year = 1996
| title = Before the Normans: Southern Italy in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries
| publisher = University of Pennsylvania Press
| location = Philadelphia
| isbn = 978-0-8122-1587-8
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=qamIQbPLMqgC
}}</ref> On the west, Slavic populations were also able to penetrate deep into the Balkans.


The Byzantines, however, managed to stop further Islamic expansion into their lands during the 8th century and, beginning in the 9th century, reclaimed parts of the conquered lands.<ref name="Hooker'sByzantinepage" /><ref>{{cite book|last1=Duiker|first1=William|last2=Spielvogel|first2=Jackson|title=World History|date=2001|publisher=Wadsworth|isbn=978-0-534-57168-9|page=|edition=Third|url=https://archive.org/details/worldhistoryto1500duik/page/349}}</ref> In 1000&nbsp;AD, the Eastern Empire was at its height: ] reconquered ] and Armenia, and culture and trade flourished.<ref> by Catherine Holmes. De Imperatoribus Romanis. 1 April 2003. Retrieved 22 March 2007.</ref> However, soon after, this expansion was abruptly stopped in 1071 with the Byzantine defeat in the ]. The aftermath of this battle sent the empire into a protracted period of decline. Two decades of internal strife and ] invasions ultimately led Emperor ] to send a call for help to the Western European kingdoms in 1095.<ref name="Hooker'sByzantinepage"/> The West responded with the ], eventually resulting in the ] by participants of the ]. The conquest of Constantinople in 1204 fragmented what remained of the Empire into successor states; the ultimate victor was the ].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gibbon|first1=Edward|editor1-last=Bury|editor1-first=J.B.|title=The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire|date=1906|publisher=Fred de Fau and Co.|chapter-url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/25717/25717-h/25717-h.htm#Flink612HCH0001|language=en|chapter-format=Online version|chapter=Chapter LXI}}</ref> After the recapture of Constantinople by Imperial forces, the Empire was little more than a Greek state confined to the ] coast. The Byzantine Empire collapsed when ] ] on 29 May,&nbsp;1453.<ref> by Korkut Ozgen. Theottomans.org. Retrieved 3 April 2007.</ref> The Byzantine Romans, however, managed to stop further Islamic expansion into their lands during the 8th century and, beginning in the 9th century, reclaimed parts of the conquered lands.<ref name="Hooker'sByzantinepage"/>{{Sfn|Duiker|Spielvogel|2001|page=}} In 1000&nbsp;AD, the Eastern Empire was at its height: ] reconquered ] and Armenia, and culture and trade flourished.<ref> by Catherine Holmes. De Imperatoribus Romanis. 1 April 2003. Retrieved 22 March 2007.</ref> However, soon after, this expansion was abruptly stopped in 1071 with the Byzantine defeat in the ]. The aftermath of this battle sent the empire into a protracted period of decline. Two decades of internal strife and ] invasions ultimately led Emperor ] to send a call for help to the Western European kingdoms in 1095.<ref name="Hooker'sByzantinepage"/> The West responded with the ], eventually resulting in the ] by participants of the ]. The conquest of Constantinople in 1204 fragmented what remained of the Empire into successor states; the ultimate victor was the ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gibbon |first=Edward |title=The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire |date=1906 |publisher=Fred de Fau and Co. |editor-last=Bury |editor-first=J.B. |language=en |chapter=Chapter LXI |chapter-url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/25717/25717-h/25717-h.htm#Flink612HCH0001 |chapter-format=Online version}}</ref> After the recapture of Constantinople by Imperial forces, the Empire was little more than a Greek state confined to the ] coast. The Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire collapsed when ] ] on 29 May&nbsp;1453.<ref> by Korkut Ozgen. Theottomans.org. Retrieved 3 April 2007.</ref>


== Society == == Society ==
], the political, economic, cultural, and religious center of the city during the ] and later ]]] ], the political, economic, cultural, and religious center of the city during the ] and later ]]]
The imperial city of Rome was the largest urban center in the empire, with a population variously estimated from 450,000 to close to one million.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Duiker|first1=William|last2=Spielvogel|first2=Jackson|title=World History|date=2001|publisher=Wadsworth|isbn=978-0-534-57168-9|page=|edition=Third|url=https://archive.org/details/worldhistoryto1500duik/page/149}}</ref><ref> by Glenn R. Storey. HighBeam Research. 1 December 1997. Retrieved 22 April 2007.</ref><ref> by Whitney J. Oates. Originally published in ''Classical Philology''. The imperial city of Rome was the largest urban center in the empire, with a population variously estimated from 450,000 to close to one million.<ref>{{Harvnb|Duiker|Spielvogel|2001|page=}}; by Glenn R. Storey. HighBeam Research. 1 December 1997. Retrieved 22 April 2007.; by Whitney J. Oates. Originally published in ''Classical Philology''.
Vol. 29, No. 2 (April 1934), pp.&nbsp;101–116. Retrieved 22 April 2007.</ref> The public spaces in Rome resounded with such a din of hooves and clatter of iron ] wheels that ] had once proposed a ban on chariot traffic during the day. Historical estimates show that around 20 percent of the population under jurisdiction of ancient Rome (25–40%, depending on the standards used, in Roman Italy)<ref>N.Morley, ''Metropolis and Hinterland'' (Cambridge, 1996) 174–83</ref> lived in innumerable urban centers, with population of 10,000 and more and several ]s, a very high rate of urbanization by pre-industrial standards. Most of those centers had a ], temples, and other buildings similar to Rome's. Average life expectancy was about 28.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gawande|first1=Atul|title=Being Mortal|date=2014|publisher=Profile Books|location=London|isbn=9781846685828|page=32}}</ref>{{Clarify timeframe|date=January 2018}} Vol. 29, No. 2 (April 1934), pp.&nbsp;101–116. Retrieved 22 April 2007.</ref> Around 20 per cent of the population under jurisdiction of ancient Rome (25–40%, depending on the standards used, in Roman Italy)<ref>N.Morley, ''Metropolis and Hinterland'' (Cambridge, 1996) 174–183</ref> lived in innumerable urban centers, with population of 10,000 and more and several ]s, a very high rate of urbanisation by pre-industrial standards. Most of those centers had a ], temples, and other buildings similar to Rome's. The average life expectancy in the Middle Empire was about 26–28 years.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gawande |first=Atul |title=Being Mortal |date=2014 |publisher=Profile Books |isbn=978-1-8466-8582-8 |page=32}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Rossi |first=Lino|title=Rotocalchi di pietra. Segni e disegni dei tempi sui monumenti trionfali dell'Impero romano|date=1981|publisher=Jaca Book |isbn=978-8-8164-0071-9 |page=59|language=it}}</ref>


=== Law === === Law ===
{{Main|Roman law}} {{Main|Roman law}}
The roots of the legal principles and practices of the ] may be traced to the ] promulgated in 449&nbsp;BC and to the codification of law issued by order of Emperor ] around 530&nbsp;AD (see ]). Roman law as preserved in Justinian's codes continued into the ], and formed the basis of similar codifications in continental Western Europe. Roman law continued, in a broader sense, to be applied throughout most of Europe until the end of the 17th century. The roots of the legal principles and practices of the ] may be traced to the ] promulgated in 449&nbsp;BC and to the codification of law issued by order of Emperor ] around 530&nbsp;AD (see ]). Roman law as preserved in Justinian's codes continued into the ], and formed the basis of similar codifications in continental Western Europe. Roman law continued, in a broader sense, to be applied throughout most of Europe until the end of the 17th century.


The major divisions of the law of ancient Rome, as contained within the Justinian and Theodosian law codes, consisted of ''Jus civile'', '']'', and ''Jus naturale''. The ''Jus civile'' ("Citizen Law") was the body of common laws that applied to Roman citizens.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Adkins|first1=Lesley|last2=Adkins|first2=Roy|title=Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome|page=46|date=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-512332-6}}</ref> The ] (''sg. Praetor Urbanus'') were the people who had jurisdiction over cases involving citizens. The ''Jus gentium'' ("Law of nations") was the body of common laws that applied to foreigners, and their dealings with Roman citizens.<ref name="Duiker346"/> The ] (''sg. Praetor Peregrinus'') were the people who had jurisdiction over cases involving citizens and foreigners. ''Jus naturale'' encompassed natural law, the body of laws that were considered common to all beings. The major divisions of the law of ancient Rome, as contained within the Justinian and Theodosian law codes, consisted of ''Jus civile'', '']'', and ''Jus naturale''. The ''Jus civile'' ("Citizen Law") was the body of common laws that applied to Roman citizens.{{Sfn|Adkins|Adkins|1998|p=46}} The ] (''sg. Praetor Urbanus'') were the people who had jurisdiction over cases involving citizens. The ''Jus gentium'' ("Law of nations") was the body of common laws that applied to foreigners, and their dealings with Roman citizens.{{Sfn|Duiker|Spielvogel|2001|page=}} The ] (''sg. Praetor Peregrinus'') were the people who had jurisdiction over cases involving citizens and foreigners. ''Jus naturale'' encompassed natural law, the body of laws that were considered common to all beings.


=== Class structure === === Class structure ===
{{Main|Social class in ancient Rome|Status in Roman legal system}} {{Main|Social class in ancient Rome|Status in Roman legal system}}
]'', c.&nbsp;100 BC, an Etrusco-Roman bronze statue depicting Aule Metele (Latin: Aulus Metellus), an Etruscan man wearing a Roman ] while engaged in ]; the statue features an inscription in the ]]] ]'', c.&nbsp;100 BC, from the ], Italy, an Etrusco-Roman bronze statue depicting Aule Metele (Latin: Aulus Metellus), an Etruscan man wearing a Roman ] while engaged in ]; the statue features an inscription in the ]]]
Roman society is largely viewed as ], with ] (''servi'') at the bottom, ] (''liberti'') above them, and free-born citizens (''cives'') at the top. Free citizens were also divided by class. The broadest, and earliest, division was between the ], who could trace their ancestry to one of the 100 ]s at the founding of the city, and the ], who could not. This became less important in the later Republic, as some plebeian families became wealthy and entered politics, and some patrician families fell economically. Anyone, patrician or plebeian, who could count a consul as his ancestor was a ] (''nobilis''); a man who was the first of his family to hold the consulship, such as ] or ], was known as a '']'' ("new man") and ennobled his descendants. Patrician ancestry, however, still conferred considerable prestige, and many religious offices remained restricted to patricians. Roman society is largely viewed as ], with ] (''servi'') at the bottom, ] (''liberti'') above them, and free-born citizens (''cives'') at the top. Free citizens were subdivided by class. The broadest, and earliest, division was between the ], who could trace their ancestry to one of the 100 ]s at the founding of the city, and the ], who could not. This became less important in the later Republic, as some plebeian families became wealthy and entered politics, and some patrician families fell economically. Anyone, patrician or plebeian, who could count a consul as his ancestor was a ] (''nobilis''); a man who was the first of his family to hold the consulship, such as ] or ], was known as a '']'' ("new man") and ennobled his descendants. Patrician ancestry, however, still conferred considerable prestige, and many religious offices remained restricted to patricians.


A ] originally based on military service became more important. Membership of these classes was determined periodically by the ], according to property. The wealthiest were the Senatorial class, who dominated politics and command of the army. Next came the ] ('']'', sometimes translated "knights"), originally those who could afford a warhorse, and who formed a powerful mercantile class. Several further classes, originally based on the military equipment their members could afford, followed, with the ''proletarii'', citizens who had no property other than their children, at the bottom. Before the reforms of Marius they were ineligible for military service and are often described as being just above freed slaves in wealth and prestige. A ] originally based on military service became more important. Membership of these classes was determined periodically by the ], according to property. The wealthiest were the Senatorial class, who dominated politics and command of the army. Next came the ] ('']'', sometimes translated "knights"), originally those who could afford a warhorse, and who formed a powerful mercantile class. Several further classes, originally based on the military equipment their members could afford, followed, with the ''proletarii'', citizens who had no property other than their children, at the bottom. Before the reforms of Marius they were ineligible for military service and are often described as being just above freed slaves in wealth and prestige.
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=== Education === === Education ===
{{Main|Education in ancient Rome}} {{Main|Education in ancient Rome}}
] fresco of a young man with a ] ], from ], 1st century AD]]


In the early Republic, there were no public schools, so boys were taught to read and write by their parents, or by educated ], called '']'', usually of Greek origin.<ref name="Lecture 13"> by Steven Kreis. 11 October 2006. Retrieved 2 April 2007.</ref><ref name="adkins2">{{cite book|last1=Adkins|first1=Lesley|last2=Adkins|first2=Roy|title=Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome|date=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-512332-6|page=211}}</ref><ref name= werner31>{{cite book|last1=Werner|first1=Paul|title=Life in Rome in Ancient Times|date=1978|publisher=Editions Minerva S.A.|location=Geneva|page=31}}</ref> The primary aim of education during this period was to train young men in agriculture, warfare, ], and public affairs.<ref name="Lecture 13" /> Young boys learned much about civic life by accompanying their fathers to religious and political functions, including the Senate for the sons of nobles.<ref name="adkins2"/> The sons of nobles were apprenticed to a prominent ] at the age of 16, and campaigned with the army from the age of 17 (this system was still in use among some noble families into the imperial era).<ref name="adkins2"/> Educational practices were modified after the conquest of the Hellenistic kingdoms in the 3rd century BC and the resulting Greek influence, although Roman educational practices were still much different from Greek ones.<ref name="adkins2"/><ref>{{cite book|last1=Duiker|first1=William|last2=Spielvogel|first2=Jackson|title=World History|date=2001|publisher=Wadsworth|isbn=978-0-534-57168-9|page=|edition=Third|url=https://archive.org/details/worldhistoryto1500duik/page/143}}</ref> If their parents could afford it, boys and some girls at the age of 7 were sent to a private school outside the home called a '']'', where a teacher (called a ''litterator'' or a ], and often of Greek origin) taught them basic reading, writing, arithmetic, and sometimes Greek, until the age of 11.<ref name="adkins2"/><ref name=werner31/><ref name="TexEd">. Latin ExCET Preparation. Texas Classical Association, by Ginny Lindzey, September 1998. Retrieved 27 March 2007.</ref> In the early Republic, there were no public schools, so boys were taught to read and write by their parents, or by educated ], called '']'', usually of Greek origin.<ref name="Lecture 13"> by Steven Kreis. 11 October 2006. Retrieved 2 April 2007.</ref>{{Sfn|Adkins|Adkins|1998|p=211}}{{Sfn|Werner|1978|p=31}} The primary aim of education during this period was to train young men in agriculture, warfare, ], and public affairs.<ref name="Lecture 13"/> Young boys learned much about civic life by accompanying their fathers to religious and political functions, including the Senate for the sons of nobles.{{Sfn|Adkins|Adkins|1998|p=211}} The sons of nobles were apprenticed to a prominent ] at the age of 16, and campaigned with the army from the age of 17.{{Sfn|Adkins|Adkins|1998|p=211}} Educational practices were modified after the conquest of the Hellenistic kingdoms in the 3rd century BC and the resulting Greek influence, although Roman educational practices were still much different from Greek ones.{{Sfn|Adkins|Adkins|1998|p=211}}{{Sfn|Duiker|Spielvogel|2001|pages=}} If their parents could afford it, boys and some girls at the age of 7 were sent to a private school outside the home called a '']'', where a teacher (called a ''litterator'' or a ], and often of Greek origin) taught them basic reading, writing, arithmetic, and sometimes Greek, until the age of 11.{{Sfn|Adkins|Adkins|1998|p=211}}{{Sfn|Werner|1978|p=31}}<ref name="TexEd">. Latin ExCET Preparation. Texas Classical Association, by Ginny Lindzey, September 1998. Retrieved 27 March 2007.</ref>


Beginning at age 12, students went to secondary schools, where the teacher (now called a ''grammaticus'') taught them about ] and ].<ref name="adkins2"/><ref name="TexEd"/> At the age of 16, some students went on to ] school (where the teacher, usually Greek, was called a '']'').<ref name="adkins2"/><ref name="TexEd"/> Education at this level prepared students for legal careers, and required that the students memorize the laws of Rome.<ref name="adkins2"/> Pupils went to school every day, except religious festivals and market days. There were also summer holidays. Beginning at age 12, students went to secondary schools, where the teacher (now called a ''grammaticus'') taught them about ] and ].{{Sfn|Adkins|Adkins|1998|p=211}}<ref name="TexEd"/> At the age of 16, some students went on to ] school (where the teacher, usually Greek, was called a '']'').{{Sfn|Adkins|Adkins|1998|p=211}}<ref name="TexEd"/> Education at this level prepared students for legal careers, and required that the students memorise the laws of Rome.{{Sfn|Adkins|Adkins|1998|p=211}}


=== Government === === Government ===
{{Main|Roman Constitution|History of the Roman Constitution}} {{Main|Roman Constitution|History of the Roman Constitution}}
{{further|History of citizenship#Roman conceptions of citizenship}} {{Further|History of citizenship#Roman conceptions of citizenship}}
Initially, Rome was ruled by ], who were elected from each of Rome's major tribes in turn.{{Sfn|Matyszak|2003|pages=16–42}} The exact nature of the king's power is uncertain. He may have held near-absolute power, or may have merely been the chief executive of the ]. In military matters, the king's authority ('']'') was likely absolute. He was also the head of the ]. In addition to the authority of the King, there were three administrative assemblies: the ], which acted as an advisory body for the King; the ], which could endorse and ratify laws suggested by the King; and the ], which was an assembly of the priestly college that could assemble the people to bear witness to certain acts, hear proclamations, and declare the ] and holiday schedule for the next month.
{{more citations needed section|date=September 2014}}


]: ] attacks ], from a 19th-century fresco by ], in ], home to Italy's Senate]]
Initially, Rome was ruled by ], who were elected from each of Rome's major tribes in turn.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Matyszak|first1=Philip|title=Chronicle of the Roman Republic|date=2003|publisher=Thames & Hudson|location=London|isbn=978-0-500-05121-4|pages=16–42}}</ref> The exact nature of the king's power is uncertain. He may have held near-absolute power, or may also have merely been the chief executive of the ]. At least in military matters, the king's authority ('']'') was likely absolute. He was also the head of the ]. In addition to the authority of the King, there were three administrative assemblies: the ], which acted as an advisory body for the King; the ], which could endorse and ratify laws suggested by the King; and the ], which was an assembly of the priestly college that could assemble the people to bear witness to certain acts, hear proclamations, and declare the ] and holiday schedule for the next month.

]: ] attacks ], from a 19th-century fresco]]
The ]s of the ] resulted in an unusual mixture of democracy and ]. The word republic comes from the Latin '']'', which literally translates to "public business". ] traditionally could only be passed by a vote of the Popular assembly (]). Likewise, candidates for public positions had to run for election by the people. However, the ] represented an oligarchic institution, which acted as an advisory body. The ]s of the ] resulted in an unusual mixture of democracy and ]. The word republic comes from the Latin '']'', which literally translates to "public business". ] traditionally could only be passed by a vote of the Popular assembly (]). Likewise, candidates for public positions had to run for election by the people. However, the ] represented an oligarchic institution, which acted as an advisory body.


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=== Military === === Military ===
{{Main|Military history of ancient Rome|Military of ancient Rome|Structural history of the Roman military|Roman army|Roman navy}} {{Main|Military history of ancient Rome|Military of ancient Rome|Structural history of the Roman military|Roman army|Roman navy}}
{{Ancient Rome military sidebar}}
{{RomanMilitary}}
], c.&nbsp;122 BC; the altar shows two Roman infantrymen equipped with long '']'' and a cavalryman with his horse. All are shown wearing ] armour.]]
]–type armor, worn in conjunction with the chainmail popular after the 1st century AD]]
] (]) at ] – ] / ]]] ] (]) at ] – ] / Germany]]
The early ] ({{Circa|500&nbsp;BC}}) was, like those of other contemporary ]s influenced by Greek civilisation, a citizen '']'' that practised ] tactics. It was small and organised in five classes (in parallel to the '']'', the body of citizens organised politically), with three providing hoplites and two providing light infantry. The early Roman army was tactically limited and its stance during this period was essentially defensive.{{Sfn|Keegan|1993|pages=}}<ref name="potter">{{Cite book |last=Potter |first=David |title=The Roman Army and Navy |date=2004 |pages=}} in {{Harvnb|Flower|2004}}</ref><ref>For a discussion of hoplite tactics and their sociocultural setting, see {{Cite book |first=Victor Davis |last=Hanson |title=The Western Way of War: Infantry Battle in Classical Greece |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |location=New York |date=1989 |isbn=0-3945-7188-6}}</ref>


By the 3rd century BC, the Romans abandoned the hoplite formation in favour of a more flexible system in which smaller groups of 120 (or sometimes 60) men called '']'' could manoeuvre more independently on the battlefield. Thirty maniples arranged in three lines with supporting troops constituted a ], totalling between 4,000 and 5,000 men.{{Sfn|Keegan|1993|pages=}}<ref name= potter/> The early Republican legion consisted of five sections: the three lines of manipular heavy infantry ('']'', '']'' and ''])'', a force of light infantry ('']''), and the cavalry ('']''). With the new organisation came a new orientation toward the offensive and a much more aggressive posture toward adjoining city-states.{{Sfn|Keegan|1993|pages=}}<ref name= potter/> At nominal full strength, an early Republican legion included 3,600 to 4,800 heavy infantry, several hundred light infantry, and several hundred cavalrymen.{{Sfn|Keegan|1993|pages=}}{{Sfn|Goldsworthy|1996|p=33}}<ref>{{Cite book |editor-first=Jo-Ann |editor-last=Shelton |title=As the Romans Did: A Sourcebook in Roman Social History |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |date=1998 |isbn=0-1950-8974-X |pages=245–249}}</ref>
The early ] (c.&nbsp;500&nbsp;BC) was, like those of other contemporary ]s influenced by Greek civilization, a citizen '']'' that practiced ] tactics. It was small (the population of free men of military age was then about 9,000) and organized in five classes (in parallel to the '']'', the body of citizens organized politically), with three providing hoplites and two providing light infantry. The early Roman army was tactically limited and its stance during this period was essentially defensive.<ref name=keegan263>{{cite book|last1=Keegan|first1=John|title=A History of Warfare|date=1993|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|location=New York|isbn=978-0-394-58801-8|pages=|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofwarfare00keeg/page/263}}</ref><ref name=potter>{{cite book|last1=Potter|first1=David|editor1-last=Flower|editor1-first=Harriet I.|title=The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic|date=2004|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-00390-2|pages=|chapter=The Roman Army and Navy|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_s0h2/page/67}}</ref><ref>For a discussion of hoplite tactics and their sociocultural setting, see Victor Davis Hanson, ''The Western Way of War: Infantry Battle in Classical Greece'', Alfred A. Knopf (New York 1989) {{ISBN|0-394-57188-6}}.</ref>


Until the late Republican period, the typical legionary was a property-owning citizen farmer from a rural area (an ''adsiduus'') who served for particular (often annual) campaigns,{{Efn|Between 343 BC and 241 BC, the Roman army fought in every year but five.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Oakley |first=Stephen P. |title= The Early Republic |date=2004 |page=}} in {{Harvnb|Flower|2004}}</ref>}} and who supplied his own equipment. After 200&nbsp;BC, economic conditions in rural areas deteriorated as manpower needs increased, so that the property qualifications for compulsory service were gradually reduced. Beginning in the 3rd century BC, legionaries were paid a ] (''stipendium''). By the time of Augustus, the ideal of the citizen-soldier had been abandoned and the legions had become fully professional. At the end of the ], Augustus reorganised Roman military forces, discharging soldiers and disbanding legions. He retained 28 legions, distributed through the provinces of the Empire.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mackay|2004|pp=249–250}} Mackay points out that the number of legions grew to 30 by 125 AD and 33 during the ] period (200–235 AD).</ref>
By the 3rd century BC, the Romans abandoned the hoplite formation in favor of a more flexible system in which smaller groups of 120 (or sometimes 60) men called '']'' could maneuver more independently on the battlefield. Thirty maniples arranged in three lines with supporting troops constituted a ], totalling between 4,000 and 5,000 men.<ref name=keegan263 /><ref name= potter/>


During the ], the tactical organisation of the Army continued to evolve. The {{Lang|la|auxilia}} remained independent cohorts, and legionary troops often operated as groups of cohorts rather than as full legions. A new and versatile type of unit, the ''cohortes equitatae'', combined cavalry and legionaries in a single formation. They could be stationed at garrisons or outposts and could fight on their own as balanced small forces or combine with similar units as a larger, legion-sized force. This increase in organizational flexibility helped ensure the long-term success of Roman military forces.{{Sfn|Goldsworthy|1996|pp=36–37}} The Emperor ] (253–268&nbsp;AD) began a reorganisation that created the last military structure of the late Empire. Withdrawing some legionaries from the fixed bases on the border, Gallienus created mobile forces (the '']'' or field armies) and stationed them behind and at some distance from the borders as a strategic reserve. The border troops ('']'') stationed at fixed bases continued to be the first line of defence. The basic units of the field army were regimental; ''legiones'' or {{Lang|la|auxilia}} for infantry and '']es'' for cavalry. Nominal strengths may have been 1,200 men for infantry regiments and 600 for cavalry, but actual troop levels could have been much lower—800 infantry and 400 cavalry.{{Sfn|Elton|1996|pages=89–96}} Many infantry and cavalry regiments operated in pairs under the command of a '']''. Field armies included regiments recruited from allied tribes and known as '']''. By 400&nbsp;AD, ''foederati'' regiments had become permanently established units of the Roman army, paid and equipped by the Empire, led by a Roman tribune and used just as Roman units were used. The Empire also used groups of barbarians to fight along with the legions as allies without integration into the field armies, under overall command of a Roman general, but led by their own officers.{{Sfn|Elton|1996|pages=89–96}}
The early Republican legion consisted of five sections, each of which was equipped differently and had different places in formation: the three lines of manipular heavy infantry ('']'', '']'' and ''])'', a force of light infantry ('']''), and the cavalry ('']''). With the new organization came a new orientation toward the offensive and a much more aggressive posture toward adjoining city-states.<ref name=keegan263 /><ref name= potter/>


Military leadership evolved over the course of the history of Rome. Under the monarchy, the hoplite armies were led by the kings. During the early and middle Roman Republic, military forces were under the command of one of the two elected ] for the year. During the later Republic, members of the Roman Senatorial elite, as part of the normal sequence of elected public offices known as the '']'', would have served first as '']'' (often posted as deputies to field commanders), then as '']''.<ref name="bcorrey">{{Cite book |last=Brennan |first=Correy T. |title=Power and Process Under the Republican 'Constitution' |date=2004 |pages=}} in {{Harvnb|Flower|2004}}
At nominal full strength, an early Republican legion included 3,600 to 4,800 heavy infantry, several hundred light infantry, and several hundred cavalrymen.<ref name=keegan263 /><ref>{{cite book|last1=Goldsworthy|first1=Adrian|title=The Roman Army at War 100 BC–AD 00|date=1996|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-815057-2|page=33}}</ref><ref>Jo-Ann Shelton, ed., ''As the Romans Did: A Sourcebook in Roman Social History'', ] (New York 1998){{ISBN|0-19-508974-X}}, pp. 245–249.</ref> Legions were often significantly understrength from recruitment failures or following periods of active service due to accidents, battle casualties, disease and desertion. During the Civil War, Pompey's legions in the east were at full strength because they were recently recruited, while Caesar's legions were often well below nominal strength after long active service in Gaul. This pattern also held true for auxiliary forces.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Goldsworthy|first1=Adrian|title=The Complete Roman Army|date=2003|publisher=Thames and Hudson, Ltd.|location=London|isbn=978-0-500-05124-5|pages=22–24, 37–38}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Goldsworthy|first1=Adrian|title=Caesar: Life of a Colossus|url=https://archive.org/details/caesarlifecoloss00gold_505|url-access=limited|date=2008|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0300126891|pages=, 410–411, 425–427}} Another important factor discussed by Goldsworthy was absence of legionaries on detached duty.</ref>
</ref>{{Sfn|Goldsworthy|1996|pp=121–125}} Following the end of a term as praetor or consul, a Senator might be appointed by the Senate as a ] or ] (depending on the highest office held before) to govern a foreign province. Under Augustus, whose most important political priority was to place the military under a permanent and unitary command, the Emperor was the legal commander of each legion but exercised that command through a '']'' (legate) he appointed from the Senatorial elite. In a province with a single legion, the legate commanded the legion ('']'') and served as provincial governor, while in a province with more than one legion, each legion was commanded by a legate and the legates were commanded by the provincial governor (also a legate but of higher rank).{{Sfn|Mackay|2004|pp=245–252}}


During the later stages of the Imperial period (beginning perhaps with ]), the Augustan model was abandoned. Provincial governors were stripped of military authority, and command of the armies in a group of provinces was given to generals (]) appointed by the Emperor. These were no longer members of the Roman elite but men who came up through the ranks and had seen much practical soldiering. With increasing frequency, these men attempted (sometimes successfully) to usurp the positions of the Emperors. Decreased resources, increasing political chaos and civil war eventually left the Western Empire vulnerable to attack and takeover by neighbouring barbarian peoples.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mackay|2004|pp=295–296}} Also chapters 23–24.</ref>
Until the late Republican period, the typical legionary was a property-owning citizen farmer from a rural area (an ''adsiduus'') who served for particular (often annual) campaigns,<ref>Between 343 BC and 241 BC, the Roman army fought in every year but five. {{cite book|last1=Oakley|first1=Stephen P.|editor1-last=Flower|editor1-first=Harriet I.|title=The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic|date=2004|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-00390-2|page=|chapter=The Early Republic|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_s0h2/page/27}}</ref> and who supplied his own equipment and, in the case of ''equites'', his own mount. Harris suggests that down to 200&nbsp;BC, the average rural farmer might participate in six or seven campaigns. Freedmen, slaves, and urban citizens served only in rare emergencies.<ref>P.A. Brunt, "Army and Land in the Roman Republic," in ''The Fall of the Roman Republic and Related Essays'', Oxford University Press (Oxford 1988) {{ISBN|0-19-814849-6}}, p. 253; William V. Harris, ''War and Imperialism in Republican Rome 327–70&nbsp;BC'', Oxford University Press (Oxford 1979) {{ISBN|0-19-814866-6}}, p. 44.</ref>


====Roman navy====
After 200&nbsp;BC, economic conditions in rural areas deteriorated as manpower needs increased, so that the property qualifications for compulsory service were gradually reduced. Beginning with ] in 107&nbsp;BC, citizens without property and some urban-dwelling citizens (''proletarii'') were enlisted and provided with equipment, although most legionaries continued to come from rural areas. Terms of service became continuous and long—up to twenty years if emergencies required although six- or seven-year terms were more typical.<ref name="keegan273">{{cite book|last1=Keegan|first1=John|title=A History of Warfare|date=1993|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|location=New York|isbn=978-0-394-58801-8|pages=|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofwarfare00keeg/page/273}}</ref>
] depicted in a relief from the ] in ] (]),


<ref>{{Cite book |first=D.B. |last=Saddington |editor-first=Paul |editor-last=Erdkamp |date=2011 |orig-date=2007 |title=A Companion to the Roman Army |chapter=Classes: the Evolution of the Roman Imperial Fleets |pages=201–217 (Plate 12.2 on p. 204) |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=978-1-4051-2153-8}}</ref>
Beginning in the 3rd century BC, legionaries were paid a ] (''stipendium''). The amounts are disputed; Caesar doubled his troop payments to 225 ] a year. Troops could anticipate booty and ]s from their commanders to reward successful campaigns and, beginning at the time of Marius, could be granted allotments of land on retirement.<ref name=keegan263 /><ref>Brunt, pp. 259–265; Potter, pp. 80–83.</ref> The cavalry and light infantry attached to a legion (the '']'') were often recruited from the areas where the legion served. Caesar formed a legion, the Fifth Alaudae, from non-citizens in Transalpine Gaul to serve in his campaigns in Gaul.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Goldsworthy|first1=Adrian|title=Caesar: Life of a Colossus|url=https://archive.org/details/caesarlifecoloss00gold_505|url-access=limited|date=2008|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0300126891|page=}}</ref> By the time of Augustus, the ideal of the citizen-soldier had been abandoned and the legions had become fully professional. Ordinary legionaries received 900 ] a year and could expect 12,000 ''sesterces'' on retirement.<ref>Karl Christ, ''The Romans'', University of California Press (Berkeley, 1984){{ISBN|0-520-04566-1}}, pp. 74–76.</ref>


which was built {{Circa|120 BC}};<ref>Coarelli, Filippo (1987), ''I Santuari del Lazio in età repubblicana''. NIS, Rome, pp. 35–84.</ref> exhibited in the Pius-Clementine Museum (]) in the ].]]
At the end of the ], Augustus reorganized Roman military forces, discharging soldiers and disbanding legions. He retained 28 legions, distributed through the provinces of the Empire.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mackay|first1=Christopher S.|title=Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History|date=2004|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-80918-4|pages=249–250}} Mackay points out that the number of legions grew to 30 by 125 AD and 33 during the ] period (200–235 AD).</ref> During the ], the tactical organization of the Army continued to evolve. The ''auxilia'' remained independent cohorts, and legionary troops often operated as groups of cohorts rather than as full legions. A new and versatile type of unit, the ''cohortes equitatae'', combined cavalry and legionaries in a single formation. They could be stationed at garrisons or outposts and could fight on their own as balanced small forces or combine with similar units as a larger, legion-sized force. This increase in organizational flexibility helped ensure the long-term success of Roman military forces.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Goldsworthy|first1=Adrian|title=The Roman Army at War 100 BC – AD 200|date=1996|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-815057-2|pages=36–37}}</ref>


Less is known about the ] than the Roman army. Prior to the middle of the 3rd century BC, officials known as ''duumviri navales'' commanded a fleet of twenty ships used mainly to control piracy. This fleet was given up in 278&nbsp;AD and replaced by allied forces. The ] required that Rome build large fleets, and it did so largely with the assistance of and financing from allies. This reliance on allies continued to the end of the Roman Republic. The ] was the main warship on both sides of the Punic Wars and remained the mainstay of Roman naval forces until replaced by the time of Caesar Augustus by lighter and more manoeuvrable vessels.<ref name="Potter pp. 76-78">This paragraph is based upon {{Harvnb|Potter|2004|pp=76–78}}</ref>
The Emperor ] (253–268&nbsp;AD) began a reorganization that created the last military structure of the late Empire. Withdrawing some legionaries from the fixed bases on the border, Gallienus created mobile forces (the '']'' or field armies) and stationed them behind and at some distance from the borders as a strategic reserve. The border troops ('']'') stationed at fixed bases continued to be the first line of defense. The basic units of the field army were regimental; ''legiones'' or ''auxilia'' for infantry and '']es'' for cavalry. Nominal strengths may have been 1,200 men for infantry regiments and 600 for cavalry, but actual troop levels could have been much lower – 800 infantry and 400 cavalry.<ref name="Hugh Elton 1996 pp. 89-96">{{cite book|last1=Elton|first1=Hugh|title=Warfare in Roman Europe AD 350–425|date=1996|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-815241-5|pages=89–96}}</ref>

Many infantry and cavalry regiments operated in pairs under the command of a '']''. Field armies included regiments recruited from allied tribes and known as '']''. By 400&nbsp;AD, ''foederati'' regiments had become permanently established units of the Roman army, paid and equipped by the Empire, led by a Roman tribune and used just as Roman units were used. The Empire also used groups of barbarians to fight along with the legions as allies without integration into the field armies, under overall command of a Roman general, but led by their own officers.<ref name="Hugh Elton 1996 pp. 89-96"/>

Military leadership evolved over the course of the history of Rome. Under the monarchy, the hoplite armies were led by the kings. During the early and middle Roman Republic, military forces were under the command of one of the two elected ] for the year. During the later Republic, members of the Roman Senatorial elite, as part of the normal sequence of elected public offices known as the '']'', would have served first as '']'' (often posted as deputies to field commanders), then as '']''.<ref name="bcorrey">{{cite book|last1=Brennan|first1=Correy T.|editor1-last=Flower|editor1-first=Harriet I.|title=The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic|date=2004|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-00390-2|pages=|chapter=Power and Process Under the Republican 'Constitution'|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_s0h2/page/66}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Goldsworthy|first1=Adrian|title=The Roman Army at War 100 BC – AD 200|date=1996|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-815057-2|pages=121–125}}</ref> Julius Caesar's most talented, effective and reliable subordinate in Gaul, ], was recommended to him by ].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Goldsworthy|first1=Adrian|title=The Roman Army at War 100 BC – AD 200|date=1996|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-815057-2|page=124}}</ref>

], c.&nbsp;122 BC; the altar shows two Roman infantrymen equipped with long '']'' and a cavalryman with his horse. All are shown wearing ] armour.]]
Following the end of a term as praetor or consul, a Senator might be appointed by the Senate as a ] or ] (depending on the highest office held before) to govern a foreign province. More junior officers (down to but not including the level of centurion) were selected by their commanders from their own '']'' or those recommended by political allies among the Senatorial elite.<ref name="bcorrey" />

Under Augustus, whose most important political priority was to place the military under a permanent and unitary command, the Emperor was the legal commander of each legion but exercised that command through a '']'' (legate) he appointed from the Senatorial elite. In a province with a single legion, the legate commanded the legion ('']'') and also served as provincial governor, while in a province with more than one legion, each legion was commanded by a legate and the legates were commanded by the provincial governor (also a legate but of higher rank).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mackay|first1=Christopher S.|title=Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History|date=2004|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-80918-4|pages=245–252}}</ref>

During the later stages of the Imperial period (beginning perhaps with ]), the Augustan model was abandoned. Provincial governors were stripped of military authority, and command of the armies in a group of provinces was given to generals (]) appointed by the Emperor. These were no longer members of the Roman elite but men who came up through the ranks and had seen much practical soldiering. With increasing frequency, these men attempted (sometimes successfully) to usurp the positions of the Emperors who had appointed them. Decreased resources, increasing political chaos and civil war eventually left the Western Empire vulnerable to attack and takeover by neighboring barbarian peoples.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mackay|first1=Christopher S.|title=Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History|date=2004|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-80918-4|pages=295–296}}. Also chapters 23–24.</ref>

====Roman navy====
Less is known about the ] than the Roman army. Prior to the middle of the 3rd century BC, officials known as ''duumviri navales'' commanded a fleet of twenty ships used mainly to control piracy. This fleet was given up in 278&nbsp;AD and replaced by allied forces. The ] required that Rome build large fleets, and it did so largely with the assistance of and financing from allies. This reliance on allies continued to the end of the Roman Republic. The ] was the main warship on both sides of the Punic Wars and remained the mainstay of Roman naval forces until replaced by the time of Caesar Augustus by lighter and more maneuverable vessels.<ref name="Potter pp. 76-78">This paragraph is based upon Potter, pp. 76–78.</ref>


As compared with a ], the quinquereme permitted the use of a mix of experienced and inexperienced crewmen (an advantage for a primarily land-based power), and its lesser maneuverability permitted the Romans to adopt and perfect ] using a troop of about 40 marines in lieu of the ]. Ships were commanded by a '']'', a rank equal to a centurion, who was usually not a citizen. Potter suggests that because the fleet was dominated by non-Romans, the navy was considered non-Roman and allowed to atrophy in times of peace.<ref name="Potter pp. 76-78"/> As compared with a ], the quinquereme permitted the use of a mix of experienced and inexperienced crewmen (an advantage for a primarily land-based power), and its lesser manoeuvrability permitted the Romans to adopt and perfect ] using a troop of about 40 marines in lieu of the ]. Ships were commanded by a '']'', a rank equal to a centurion, who was usually not a citizen. Potter suggests that because the fleet was dominated by non-Romans, the navy was considered non-Roman and allowed to atrophy in times of peace.<ref name="Potter pp. 76-78"/>


Information suggests that by the time of the late Empire (350&nbsp;AD), the Roman navy comprised several fleets including warships and merchant vessels for transportation and supply. Warships were oared sailing galleys with three to five banks of oarsmen. Fleet bases included such ports as Ravenna, Arles, Aquilea, Misenum and the mouth of the Somme River in the West and Alexandria and Rhodes in the East. Flotillas of small river craft (''classes'') were part of the ''limitanei'' (border troops) during this period, based at fortified river harbors along the Rhine and the Danube. That prominent generals commanded both armies and fleets suggests that naval forces were treated as auxiliaries to the army and not as an independent service. The details of command structure and fleet strengths during this period are not well known, although fleets were commanded by prefects.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Elton|first1=Hugh|title=Warfare in Roman Europe AD 350–425|date=1996|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-815241-5|pages=99–101}}</ref> Information suggests that by the time of the late Empire (350&nbsp;AD), the Roman navy comprised several fleets including warships and merchant vessels for transportation and supply. Warships were oared sailing galleys with three to five banks of oarsmen. Fleet bases included such ports as Ravenna, Arles, Aquilea, Misenum and the mouth of the Somme River in the West and Alexandria and Rhodes in the East. Flotillas of small river craft (''classes'') were part of the ''limitanei'' (border troops) during this period, based at fortified river harbours along the Rhine and the Danube. That prominent generals commanded both armies and fleets suggests that naval forces were treated as auxiliaries to the army and not as an independent service. The details of command structure and fleet strengths during this period are not well known, although fleets were commanded by prefects.{{Sfn|Elton|1996|pages=99–101}}


=== Economy === === Economy ===
{{Main|Roman agriculture|Roman commerce|Roman finance|Roman currency|Roman metallurgy}} {{Main|Roman agriculture|Roman commerce|Roman finance|Roman currency|Roman metallurgy}}
]'' of Veranius Hypsaeus in Pompeii]] ]'' of Veranius Hypsaeus in Pompeii]]
Ancient Rome commanded a vast area of land, with tremendous natural and human resources. As such, Rome's economy remained focused on ] and trade. Agricultural ] changed the Italian landscape, and by the 1st century BC, vast grape and ] estates had supplanted the ] farmers, who were unable to match the imported grain price. The ] of ], Sicily and ] in North Africa provided a continuous supply of grains. In turn, ] and ] were Italy's main exports. Two-tier ] was practiced, but farm productivity was low, around 1 ton per hectare. Ancient Rome commanded a vast area of land, with tremendous natural and human resources. As such, Rome's economy remained focused on ] and trade. Agricultural ] changed the Italian landscape, and by the 1st century BC, vast grape and ] estates had supplanted the ] farmers, who were unable to match the imported grain price. The ] of ], Sicily and ] in North Africa provided a continuous supply of grains. In turn, ] and ] were Italy's main exports. Two-tier ] was practised, but farm productivity was low, around 1 ton per hectare.


Industrial and manufacturing activities were small. The largest such activities were the mining and ]ing of stones, which provided basic construction materials for the buildings of that period. In manufacturing, production was on a relatively small scale, and generally consisted of workshops and small factories that employed at most dozens of workers. However, some brick factories employed hundreds of workers. Industrial and manufacturing activities were small. The largest such activities were the mining and ]ing of stones, which provided basic construction materials for the buildings of that period. In manufacturing, production was on a relatively small scale, and generally consisted of workshops and small factories that employed at most dozens of workers. However, some brick factories employed hundreds of workers.


The economy of the early Republic was largely based on ] and paid labor. However, foreign wars and conquests made ] increasingly cheap and plentiful, and by the late Republic, the economy was largely dependent on ] for both skilled and unskilled work. Slaves are estimated to have constituted around 20% of the Roman Empire's population at this time and 40% in the city of Rome. Only in the Roman Empire, when the conquests stopped and the prices of slaves increased, did hired labor become more economical than slave ownership. The economy of the early Republic was largely based on ] and paid labour. However, foreign wars and conquests made ] increasingly cheap and plentiful, and by the late Republic, the economy was largely dependent on ] for both skilled and unskilled work. Slaves are estimated to have constituted around 20% of the Roman Empire's population at this time and 40% in the city of Rome. Only in the Roman Empire, when the conquests stopped and the prices of slaves increased, did hired labour become more economical than slave ownership.


], built by ]]] ], built by ]]]
Although ] was used in ancient Rome, and often used in tax collection, Rome had a very developed ]age system, with ], ], and ] coins in circulation throughout the Empire and beyond—some have even been discovered in India. Before the 3rd century BC, copper was traded by weight, measured in unmarked lumps, across ]. The original ] ('']'') had a face value of one ] of copper, but weighed less. Thus, Roman money's utility as a unit of exchange consistently exceeded its ] as metal. After ] began debasing the silver ], its ] value was an estimated one-third greater than its intrinsic value. Although ] was used in ancient Rome, and often used in tax collection, Rome had a very developed ]age system, with ], ], and ] coins in circulation throughout the Empire and beyond—some have even been discovered in India. Before the 3rd century BC, copper was traded by weight, measured in unmarked lumps, across ]. The original ] ('']'') had a face value of one ] of copper, but weighed less. Thus, Roman money's utility as a unit of exchange consistently exceeded its intrinsic value as metal. After ] began debasing the silver ], its ] value was an estimated one-third greater than its intrinsic value.


Horses were expensive and other ]s were slower. Mass trade on the ] connected military posts, where Roman markets were centered.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4aX-W6AVNv8C&pg=PA231 |title=The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare|page=231|editor1-last=Sabin|editor1-first=Philip|editor2-last=van Wees|editor2-first=Hans|editor3-last=Whitby|editor3-first=Michael|publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=2007|isbn=978-0521782746}}</ref> These roads were designed for wheels.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fm5l000EmoAC|title=Roads to Rome|page=11|last=Heseltine|first=John|publisher=J. Paul Getty Museum|date=2005|isbn=978-0711225527}}</ref> As a result, there was transport of ] between Roman regions, but increased with the rise of ] in the 2nd century BC. During that period, a trading vessel took less than a month to complete a trip from ] to ] via ], spanning the entire length of the ].<ref name=Atlas/> Transport by sea was around 60 times cheaper than by land, so the volume for such trips was much larger. Horses were expensive and other ]s were slower. Mass trade on the ] connected military posts, where Roman markets were centered.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4aX-W6AVNv8C&pg=PA231 |title=The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare |date=2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-5217-8274-6 |editor-last=Sabin |editor-first=Philip |page=231 |editor-last2=van Wees |editor-first2=Hans |editor-last3=Whitby |editor-first3=Michael}}</ref> These roads were designed for wheels.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Heseltine |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fm5l000EmoAC |title=Roads to Rome |date=2005 |publisher=J. Paul Getty Museum |isbn=978-0-7112-2552-7 |page=11}}</ref> As a result, there was transport of ] between Roman regions, but increased with the rise of ] in the 2nd century BC. During that period, a trading vessel took less than a month to complete a trip from ] to ] via ], spanning the entire length of the ].{{Sfn| Scarre|1995}} Transport by sea was around 60 times cheaper than by land, so the volume for such trips was much larger.


Some economists consider the Roman Empire a ], similar in its degree of capitalistic practices to 17th century Netherlands and 18th century England.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://eh.net/abstracts/archive/0370.php |last=Temin |first=Peter |title=A Market Economy in the Early Roman Empire |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100615223139/http://eh.net/abstracts/archive/0370.php |archive-date=15 June 2010 |work=Abstract Archives |year=2001 |publisher=Economy History Services}}</ref> Some economists consider the Roman Empire a ], similar in its degree of capitalistic practices to 17th century Netherlands and 18th century England.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Temin |first=Peter |year=2001 |title=A Market Economy in the Early Roman Empire |url=http://eh.net/abstracts/archive/0370.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100615223139/http://eh.net/abstracts/archive/0370.php |archive-date=15 June 2010 |website=Abstract Archives |publisher=Economy History Services}}</ref>


=== Family === === Family ===
{{Main|Family in ancient Rome}} {{Main|Family in ancient Rome}}
] portrait of a family from ]. ] on the medallion may indicate either the name of the artist or the '']'' who is absent in the portrait.<ref>See {{cite web|title=Masterpieces. Desiderius' Cross|url=http://www.bresciamusei.com/nsantagiulia.asp?nm=14&t=Masterpieces%2E+Desiderius%27+Cross|website=Fondazione Brescia Musei|access-date=2 October 2016}}. For a description of scholarly research on the Brescia Medallion, see Daniel Thomas Howells (2015). "" London: the British Museum (Arts and Humanities Research Council), p. 7. Accessed 2 October 2016. ] (most likely by an ] due to ]), dated 3rd century AD; Beckwith, John, Early Christian and Byzantine Art, Penguin History of Art (now Yale), 2nd edn. 1979, {{ISBN|0140560335}}, p. 25; Boardman, John ed., The Oxford History of Classical Art, 1993, OUP, {{ISBN|0198143869}}, pp. 338–340; Grig, Lucy, "Portraits, Pontiffs and the Christianization of Fourth-Century Rome", ''Papers of the British School at Rome'', Vol. 72, (2004), pp.&nbsp;203–230, {{JSTOR|40311081}}, p. 207; Jás Elsner (2007). "The Changing Nature of Roman Art and the Art Historical Problem of Style," in Eva R. Hoffman (ed), ''Late Antique and Medieval Art of the Medieval World'', 11–18. Oxford, Malden & Carlton: Blackwell Publishing. {{ISBN|978-1-4051-2071-5}}, p. 17, Figure 1.3 on p. 18.</ref>]] ] portrait of a family from ]. ] on the medallion may indicate either the name of the artist or the '']'' who is absent in the portrait.<ref>See {{Cite web |title=Masterpieces. Desiderius' Cross |url=http://www.bresciamusei.com/nsantagiulia.asp?nm=14&t=Masterpieces%2E+Desiderius%27+Cross |access-date=2 October 2016 |website=Fondazione Brescia Musei |archive-date=19 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019100706/https://www.bresciamusei.com/nsantagiulia.asp?nm=14&t=Masterpieces.+Desiderius%27+Cross |url-status=dead }}. For a description of scholarly research on the Brescia Medallion, see Daniel Thomas Howells (2015). "" London: the British Museum (Arts and Humanities Research Council), p. 7. Accessed 2 October 2016. ] (most likely by an ] due to ]), dated 3rd century AD; Beckwith, John, Early Christian and Byzantine Art, Penguin History of Art (now Yale), 2nd edn. 1979, {{ISBN|0-1405-6033-5}}, p. 25; Boardman, John ed., The Oxford History of Classical Art, 1993, OUP, {{ISBN|0-1981-4386-9}}, pp. 338–340; Grig, Lucy, "Portraits, Pontiffs and the Christianization of Fourth-Century Rome", ''Papers of the British School at Rome'', Vol. 72, (2004), pp.&nbsp;203–230, {{JSTOR|40311081}}, p. 207; Jás Elsner (2007). "The Changing Nature of Roman Art and the Art Historical Problem of Style", in Eva R. Hoffman (ed), ''Late Antique and Medieval Art of the Medieval World'', 11–18. Oxford, Malden & Carlton: Blackwell Publishing. {{ISBN|978-1-4051-2071-5}}, p. 17, Figure 1.3 on p. 18.</ref>]]
]'' ], late 1st century BC, ]]]


The basic units of Roman society were households and families.<ref name="Duiker346">{{cite book|last1=Duiker|first1=William|last2=Spielvogel|first2=Jackson|title=World History|date=2001|publisher=Wadsworth|isbn=978-0-534-57168-9|page=|edition=Third|url=https://archive.org/details/worldhistoryto1500duik/page/146}}</ref> Groups of households connected through the male line formed a family ('']''), based on blood ties, a common ancestry or ]. During the ], some powerful families, or '']'', came to dominate political life. Families were headed by their oldest male citizen, the '']'' (father of the family), who held lawful authority (''patria potestas'', "father's power") over wives, sons, daughters, and slaves of the household, and the family's wealth.<ref name="Duiker346"/> The basic units of Roman society were households and families.{{Sfn|Duiker|Spielvogel|2001|page=}} Groups of households connected through the male line formed a family ('']''), based on blood ties, a common ancestry or ]. During the ], some powerful families, or '']'', came to dominate political life. Families were headed by their oldest male citizen, the '']'' (father of the family), who held lawful authority (''patria potestas'', "father's power") over wives, sons, daughters, and slaves of the household, and the family's wealth.{{Sfn|Duiker|Spielvogel|2001|page=}}


The extreme expressions of this power – the selling or killing of family members for moral or civil offenses, including simple disobedience – were very rarely exercised, and were forbidden in the Imperial era. A ''pater familias'' had moral and legal duties towards all family members. Even the most despotic ''pater familias'' was expected to consult senior members of his household and ''gens'' over matters that affected the family's well-being and reputation. Traditionally, such matters were regarded as outside the purview of the state and its magistrates; under the emperors, they were increasingly subject to state interference and legislation.<ref>Parkin, Tim, & Pomeroy, Arthur, ''Roman Social History, a Sourcebook,'' Routledge, 2007, pp. 72. {{ISBN|978-0-415-42675-6}}</ref> The extreme expressions of this power—the selling or killing of family members for moral or civil offences, including simple disobedience—were very rarely exercised, and were forbidden in the Imperial era. A ''pater familias'' had moral and legal duties towards all family members. Even the most despotic ''pater familias'' was expected to consult senior members of his household and ''gens'' over matters that affected the family's well-being and reputation. Traditionally, such matters were regarded as outside the purview of the state and its magistrates; under the emperors, they were increasingly subject to state interference and legislation.<ref>Parkin, Tim, & Pomeroy, Arthur, ''Roman Social History, a Sourcebook,'' Routledge, 2007, p. 72. {{ISBN|978-0-4154-2675-6}}</ref>


Once accepted into their birth family by their fathers, children were potential heirs. They could not be lawfully given away, or sold into slavery. If parents were unable to care for their child, or if its paternity was in doubt, they could resort to ] (Boswell translates this as being "offered" up to care by the gods or strangers). If a deformed or sickly newborn was patently "unfit to live", killing it was a duty of the ''pater familias''. A citizen father who exposed a healthy freeborn child was not punished, but automatically lost his ''potestas'' over that child. Abandoned children were sometimes adopted; some would have been sold into slavery.<ref>Boswell, John Eastburn, "Expositio and Oblatio: The Abandonment of Children and the Ancient and Medieval Family," ''American Historical Review'', '''89''', 1984, p. 12</ref> Slavery was near-ubiquitous and almost universally accepted. In the early Republic, citizens in debt were allowed to sell their labour, and perhaps their sons, to their debtor in a limited form of slavery called '']'', but this violated the fundamental conditions of citizenship and was abolished in the middle Republic. Freedom was considered a natural and proper state for citizens; slaves could ], with consent and support of their owners, and still serve their owners' family and financial interests, as freedmen or freed women. This was the basis of the ], one of the most important features of Rome's economy and society.<ref name="Cassonpageset1">{{cite book|last1=Casson|first1=Lionel|title=Everyday Life in Ancient Rome|url=https://archive.org/details/everydaylifeinan00cass|url-access=registration|date=1998|publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press|location=Baltimore|isbn=978-0-8018-5992-2|pages=}}</ref> Once accepted into their birth family by their fathers, children were potential heirs. They could not be lawfully given away, or sold into slavery. If parents were unable to care for their child, or if its paternity was in doubt, they could resort to ] (Boswell translates this as being "offered" up to care by the gods or strangers). If a deformed or sickly newborn was patently "unfit to live", killing it was a duty of the ''pater familias''. A citizen father who exposed a healthy freeborn child was not punished, but automatically lost his ''potestas'' over that child. Abandoned children were sometimes adopted; some would have been sold into slavery.<ref>Boswell, John Eastburn, "Expositio and Oblatio: The Abandonment of Children and the Ancient and Medieval Family", ''American Historical Review'', '''89''', 1984, p. 12</ref> Slavery was near-ubiquitous and almost universally accepted. In the early Republic, citizens in debt were allowed to sell their labour, and perhaps their sons, to their debtor in a limited form of slavery called '']'', but this was abolished in the middle Republic. Freedom was considered a natural and proper state for citizens; slaves could ], with consent and support of their owners, and still serve their owners' family and financial interests, as freedmen or freed women. This was the basis of the ], one of the most important features of Rome's economy and society.{{Sfn|Casson|1998|pages=, 24–32}}


In law, a ''pater familias'' held ''potestas'' over his adult sons with their own households. This could give rise to legal anomalies, such as adult sons also having the status of minors. No man could be considered a ''pater familias'', nor could he truly hold property under law, while his own father lived.<ref name="Cassonpageset1"/><ref> by Richard Saller. The University of Chicago Library Digital Collections: Fathom Archive. 2001. Visited 14 April 2007.</ref> During Rome's early history, married daughters came under the control (''manus'') of their husbands' ''pater familias''. By the late Republic, most married women retained lawful connection to their birth family, though any children from the marriage belonged to her husband's family<ref>{{cite book|last1=Adkins|first1=Lesley|last2=Adkins|first2=Roy|title=Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome|pages=339–340|date=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-512332-6}}</ref> The mother or an elderly relative often raised both boys and girls.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=85Gdul_43DEC&pg=PP7|title=The Family in Ancient Rome: New Perspectives|last=Rawson|first=Beryl|date=1987|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-0801494604|page=7|language=en}}</ref> Roman moralists held that marriage and child-raising fulfilled a basic duty to family, ''gens'', and the state. Marriage could help conserve or extend a family's wealth, bloodline and political connections. Multiple re-marriages were not uncommon. Fathers usually began seeking husbands for their daughters when these reached an age between twelve and fourteen, but most commoner-class women stayed single until their twenties, and in general seem to have been far more independent than wives of the elite. Divorce required the consent of one party, along with the return of any dowry. Both parents had power over their children during their minority and adulthood, but husbands had much less control over their wives.<ref>Frier, Bruce W., and McGinn, Thomas A.J. ''A Casebook on Roman Family Law'', Oxford University Press: American Philological Association, 2004, p. 20</ref> In law, a ''pater familias'' held ''potestas'' over his adult sons with their own households. This could give rise to legal anomalies, such as adult sons also having the status of minors. No man could be considered a ''pater familias'', nor could he truly hold property under law, while his own father lived.{{Sfn|Casson|1998|pages=}}<ref> by Richard Saller. The University of Chicago Library Digital Collections: Fathom Archive. 2001. Visited 14 April 2007.</ref> During Rome's early history, married daughters came under the control (''manus'') of their husbands' ''pater familias''. By the late Republic, most married women retained lawful connection to their birth family, though any children from the marriage belonged to her husband's family.{{Sfn|Adkins|Adkins|1998|pp=39–40}} The mother or an elderly relative often raised both boys and girls.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rawson |first=Beryl |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=85Gdul_43DEC&pg=PP7 |title=The Family in Ancient Rome: New Perspectives |date=1987 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-9460-4 |page=7 |language=en}}</ref> Roman moralists held that marriage and child-raising fulfilled a basic duty to family, ''gens'', and the state. Multiple remarriages were not uncommon. Fathers usually began seeking husbands for their daughters when these reached an age between twelve and fourteen, but most commoner-class women stayed single until their twenties, and in general seem to have been far more independent than wives of the elite. Divorce required the consent of one party, along with the return of any dowry. Both parents had power over their children during their minority and adulthood, but husbands had much less control over their wives.<ref>Frier, Bruce W., and McGinn, Thomas A.J. ''A Casebook on Roman Family Law'', Oxford University Press: American Philological Association, 2004, p. 20</ref>


Roman citizen women held a restricted form of citizenship; they could not vote but were protected by law. They ran families, could own and run businesses, own and cultivate land, write their own wills, and plead in court on their own behalf, or on behalf of others, all under dispensation of the courts and the nominal supervision of a senior male relative. Throughout the late Republican and Imperial eras, a declining birthrate among the elite, and a corresponding increase among commoners was cause of concern for many ''gentes''; ] tried to address this through state intervention, offering financial and other rewards to any woman who gave birth to three or more children, and penalising the childless. The latter was much resented, and the former had seemingly negligible results. Aristocratic women seem to have been increasingly disinclined to childbearing; it carried a high risk of mortality to mothers, and a deal of inconvenience thereafter for those who preferred an independent lifestyle.<ref>Rawson, Beryl, "The Roman Family," in ''The Family in Ancient Rome: New Perspectives'', Cornell University Press, 1986, pp. 30, 40–41.</ref><ref>Galinsky, Karl, ''Augustan Culture: An Interpretive Introduction'', Princeton University Press, 1998, pp. 130-132, {{ISBN|9780691058900}}</ref> Roman citizen women held a restricted form of citizenship; they could not vote but were protected by law. They ran families, could own and run businesses, own and cultivate land, write their own wills, and plead in court on their own behalf, or on behalf of others, all under dispensation of the courts and the nominal supervision of a senior male relative. Throughout the late Republican and Imperial eras, a declining birthrate among the elite, and a corresponding increase among commoners was cause of concern for many ''gentes''; ] tried to address this through state intervention, offering rewards to any woman who gave birth to three or more children, and penalising the childless. The latter was much resented, and the former had seemingly negligible results. Aristocratic women seem to have been increasingly disinclined to childbearing; it carried a high risk of mortality to mothers, and a deal of inconvenience thereafter.<ref>Rawson, Beryl, "The Roman Family", in ''The Family in Ancient Rome: New Perspectives'', Cornell University Press, 1986, pp. 30, 40–41.; Galinsky, Karl, ''Augustan Culture: An Interpretive Introduction'', Princeton University Press, 1998, pp. 130–132, {{ISBN|978-0-6910-5890-0}}</ref>


=== Time and dates === === Time and dates ===
{{see also|Roman timekeeping|Roman calendar|Roman consul#Consular dating}} {{See also|Roman timekeeping|Roman calendar|Roman consul#Consular dating}}
Roman hours were counted ordinally from dawn to dawn. Thus, if sunrise was at 6 am, then 6 to 7 am was called the "first hour", 12 noon to 1 pm the "sixth hour" and so on. Midday was called '']'' and it is from this word that the terms ''am'' (''ante meridiem'') and ''pm'' (''post meridiem'') stem. The English word "noon" comes from ''nona'' ("ninth (hour)"), which referred to 3 pm in Ancient Rome.{{efn|Later in Christian liturgy, "noon" came to describe the ], a time of prayer originally at 3 pm but later at midday, so "noon" became synonymous with midday.}} The Romans had clocks (''horologia''), which included giant public ]s (''solaria'') and water clocks ('']''). Roman hours were counted ordinally from dawn to dawn. Thus, if sunrise was at 6 am, then 6 to 7 am was called the "first hour". Midday was called '']'' and it is from this word that the terms ''am'' (''ante meridiem'') and ''pm'' (''post meridiem'') stem. The English word "noon" comes from ''nona'' ("ninth (hour)"), which referred to 3 pm in ancient Rome.{{Efn|Later in Christian liturgy, "noon" came to describe the ], a time of prayer originally at 3 pm but later at midday, so "noon" became synonymous with midday.}} The Romans had clocks (''horologia''), which included giant public ]s (''solaria'') and water clocks ('']'').


The ancient Roman week originally had eight days, which were identified by letters A to H, with the eighth day being the ] or market day, a kind of weekend when farmers sold their produce on the streets. The ], first introduced from the East during the early Empire, was officially adopted during the reign of ]. Romans ] after celestial bodies from at least the 1st century AD, a custom that was inherited by other peoples and is still found in many modern languages, including English. The ancient Roman week originally had eight days, which were identified by letters A to H, with the eighth day being the ] or market day, a kind of weekend when farmers sold their produce on the streets. The ], first introduced from the East during the early Empire, was officially adopted during the reign of ]. Romans ] after celestial bodies from at least the 1st century AD. Roman months had three important days: the ] (first day of each month, always in plural), the ides (13th or 15th of the month), and the nones (ninth day before the ides, inclusive, i.e. 5th or 7th of the month). Other days were counted backwards from the next one of these days.

Roman months had three important days: the ] (first day of each month, always in plural), the ides (13th or 15th of the month), and the nones (ninth day before the ides, inclusive, ie 5th or 7th of the month). Other days were counted backwards from the next one of these days. For example, what we call February 6, the Romans called ''ante diem VIII idus Februarias'' (inclusively the eighth day before the ides of February, which was February 13).


The Roman year originally had ten months from Martius (March) to December, with the winter period not included in the calendar. The first four months were named after gods (Martius, Aprilis, Maius, Junius) and the others were numbered (Quintilis, Sextilis, September, October, November, and December). ], the second king of Rome (716–673 BC), is said to have introduced the months of January and February, both also named after gods, beginning the 12-month calendar still in use today. In 44 BC, the month Quintilis was renamed to Julius (July) after ] and in 8 BC, Sextilis was renamed to Augustus (August) after ]. The Roman year originally had ten months from Martius (March) to December, with the winter period not included in the calendar. The first four months were named after gods (Martius, Aprilis, Maius, Junius) and the others were numbered (Quintilis, Sextilis, September, October, November, and December). ], the second king of Rome (716–673 BC), is said to have introduced the months of January and February, both also named after gods, beginning the 12-month calendar still in use today. In 44 BC, the month Quintilis was renamed to Julius (July) after ] and in 8 BC, Sextilis was renamed to Augustus (August) after ].


The Romans had several ways of tracking years. One widespread way was the ], which identified years by the two ] that ruled each year (their term was limited to one year); it was introduced in the Republic and continued to be used in the Empire, even though the consular post was reduced to a ceremonial one during that latter period. Another way, introduced in the late 3rd century AD, was counting years from the ], a 15 year period based on the announcement of the delivery of food and other goods to the government. Another way, less popular but more similar to the way we currently count years, was '']'', which simply counted years from the mythical foundation of Rome in 753 BC. Thus, the year 653 BC would be 100 AUC, 1000 AD would be 1752 AUC (as there was no year 0 AD or BC) and so on. The Romans had several ways of tracking years. One widespread way was the ], which identified years by the two ] who ruled each year. Another way, introduced in the late 3rd century AD, was counting years from the ], a 15-year period based on the announcement of the delivery of food and other goods to the government. Another way, less popular but more similar to present day, was '']'', which counted years from the mythical foundation of Rome in 753 BC.


==Culture== ==Culture==
{{Main|Culture of ancient Rome}} {{Main|Culture of ancient Rome}}
]]] ]]]

Life in ancient Rome revolved around the city of Rome, located on ]. The city had a vast number of monumental structures like the ], the ] and the ]. It had ], ], marketplaces, functional sewers, ] complete with libraries and shops, and fountains with fresh drinking water supplied by hundreds of miles of ]. Throughout the territory under the control of ancient Rome, residential architecture ranged from modest houses to ]. Life in ancient Rome revolved around the city of Rome, located on ]. The city had a vast number of monumental structures like the ], the ] and the ]. It had ], ], marketplaces, functional sewers, ] complete with libraries and shops, and fountains with fresh drinking water supplied by hundreds of miles of ]. Throughout the territory under the control of ancient Rome, residential architecture ranged from modest houses to ].


In the capital city of Rome, there were ] ] on the elegant ], from which the word ''palace'' derives. The low ] and middle ] classes lived in the city center, packed into apartments, or ], which were almost like modern ]s. These areas, often built by upper class property owners to rent, were often centred upon ] or ]. These people, provided with a ], and entertained by ], were enrolled as ] among the upper class ], whose assistance they sought and whose interests they upheld. In the capital city of Rome, there were ] ] on the elegant ], from which the word ''palace'' derives. The low ] and middle ] classes lived in the city center, packed into apartments, or ], which were almost like modern ]s. These areas, often built by upper class property owners to rent, were often centred upon ] or ]. These people, provided with a ], and entertained by ], were enrolled as ] among the upper class ], whose assistance they sought and whose interests they upheld.


===Language=== ===Language===
{{Main|Latin}} {{Main|Latin}}
The native ] of the Romans was ], an ] the ] relies little on word order, conveying meaning through a system of ]es attached to ]s.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150429221355/http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/eieol/latol-0-X.html |date=29 April 2015 }} by Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum. Linguistics Research Center. The University of Texas at Austin. 15 February 2007. Retrieved 1 April 2007.</ref> Its ] was based on the ], which was in turn based on the ].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Calvert |first=J.B. |date=8 August 1999 |title=The Latin Alphabet |url=http://www.du.edu/~etuttle/classics/latalph.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070403040205/http://www.du.edu/~etuttle/classics/latalph.htm |archive-date=3 April 2007 |website=University of Denver}}</ref> Although surviving ] consists almost entirely of ], an artificial and highly stylised and polished ] from the 1st century BC, the ] of the Roman Empire was ], which significantly differed from Classical Latin in ] and ], and eventually in pronunciation.<ref>. p. 2. Retrieved 2 April 2007.</ref> Speakers of Latin could understand both until the 7th century when spoken Latin began to diverge so much that 'Classical' or 'Good Latin' had to be learned as a second language.<ref>József Herman, ''Vulgar Latin'', English translation 2000, pp. 109–114 {{ISBN|978-0-2710-2001-3}}</ref>
] maiden reading a text, ] (60–79 AD), ], Italy]]
The native ] of the Romans was ], an ] the ] relies little on word order, conveying meaning through a system of ]es attached to ]s.<ref> by Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum. Linguistics Research Center. The University of Texas at Austin. 15 February 2007. Retrieved 1 April 2007.</ref> Its ] was based on the ], which was in turn based on the ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.du.edu/~etuttle/classics/latalph.htm |title=The Latin Alphabet |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070403040205/http://www.du.edu/~etuttle/classics/latalph.htm |archive-date=3 April 2007 |first=J.B. |last=Calvert |work=University of Denver |date=8 August 1999}}</ref> Although surviving ] consists almost entirely of ], an artificial and highly stylized and polished ] from the 1st century BC, the ] of the Roman Empire was ], which significantly differed from Classical Latin in ] and ], and eventually in pronunciation.<ref>. p. 2. Retrieved 2 April 2007.</ref> Speakers of Latin could understand both until the 7th century when spoken Latin began to diverge so much that 'Classical' or 'Good Latin' had to be learned as a second language.<ref>József Herman, ''Vulgar Latin'', English translation 2000, pp. 109–114 {{ISBN|978-0271020013}}</ref>


While Latin remained the main written language of the Roman Empire, ] came to be the language spoken by the well-educated elite, as most of the literature studied by Romans was written in Greek. In the eastern half of the Roman Empire, which later became the ], Latin was never able to replace Greek, and after the death of Justinian, Greek became the official language of the Eastern government.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Adkins|first1=Lesley|last2=Adkins|first2=Roy|title=Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome|page=203|date=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-512332-6}}</ref> The expansion of the Roman Empire spread Latin throughout Europe, and Vulgar Latin evolved into ]s in different locations, gradually shifting into many distinct ]. While Latin remained the main written language of the Roman Empire, ] came to be the language spoken by the well-educated elite, as most of the literature studied by Romans was written in Greek. Most of the emperors were bilingual but had a preference for Latin in the public sphere for political reasons, a practice that first started during the ].{{Sfnm|Rochette|2023|1p=263,268|Rochette|2018|2p=114-115,118}} In the eastern part of the Roman Empire (and later the ]), Latin was never able to replace Greek, a legacy of the ].{{Sfn|Rochette|2018|pp=108}} Justinian would be the last emperor to use Latin in government and marks when Greek officially took over.{{Sfnm|1a1=Adkins|1a2=Adkins|1y=1998|1p=203|2a1=Kaldellis|2y=2023|2p=289|3a1=Rochette|3y=2011|3p=562|4a1=Rochette|4y=2023|4p=283}} The expansion of the Roman Empire spread Latin throughout Europe, and Vulgar Latin evolved into many distinct ].


===Religion=== ===Religion===
{{Main|Religion in ancient Rome|Roman mythology|Roman temple}} {{Main|Religion in ancient Rome|Roman mythology|Roman temple}}
{{further|Constantine the Great and Christianity|State church of the Roman Empire}} {{Further|Constantine the Great and Christianity|State church of the Roman Empire}}
]: in the center is ] holding the ] and on the right ] sits on her throne. Behind her ] stands and gestures. On the left is ] (] figure) standing behind the wheel, manning it, with Ixion already tied to it. ] sits at Mercury's feet; a Roman fresco from the eastern wall of the ] in the ], ], ] (60–79 AD).]] ]: in the center is ] holding the ] and on the right ] sits on her throne. Behind her ] stands and gestures. On the left is ] (blond figure) standing behind the wheel, manning it, with Ixion already tied to it. ] sits at Mercury's feet; a Roman fresco from the eastern wall of the ] in the ], ], ] (60–79 AD).]]
Archaic ], at least concerning the gods, was made up not of written ]s, but rather of complex interrelations between gods and humans.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Matyszak|first1=Philip|title=Chronicle of the Roman Republic|date=2003|publisher=Thames & Hudson|location=London|isbn=978-0-500-05121-4|page=24}}</ref> Unlike in ], the gods were not personified, but were vaguely defined sacred spirits called '']''. Romans also believed that every person, place or thing had its own '']'', or divine soul. During the ], ] was organized under a strict system of priestly offices, which were held by men of senatorial rank. The College of Pontifices was uppermost body in this hierarchy, and its chief priest, the '']'', was the head of the state religion. ]s took care of the cults of various gods, while ]s were trusted with taking the ]s. The ] took on the religious responsibilities of the deposed kings. In the Roman Empire, deceased emperors who had ruled well were deified by their successors and the Senate.<ref>{{cite book|author=Edward Gibbon|title=The history of the decline and fall of the Roman Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HvIbFyM1s54C&pg=PA91|year=1787|publisher=printed for J.J. Tourneisen|page=91}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Encyclopedia Americana: A Library of Universal Knowledge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a75PAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA644|year=1919|publisher=Encyclopedia Americana Corporation|page=644}}</ref> and the formalized ] became increasingly prominent. Archaic ], at least concerning the gods, was made up not of written narratives, but rather of complex interrelations between gods and humans.{{Sfn|Matyszak|2003|page=24}} Unlike in ], the gods were not personified, but were vaguely defined sacred spirits called '']''. Romans also believed that every person, place or thing had its own '']'', or divine soul. During the ], ] was organised under a strict system of priestly offices, which were held by men of senatorial rank. The College of Pontifices was uppermost body in this hierarchy, and its chief priest, the '']'', was the head of the state religion. ]s took care of the cults of various gods, while ]s were trusted with taking the ]s. The ] took on the religious responsibilities of the deposed kings. In the Roman Empire, deceased emperors who had ruled well were deified by their successors and the Senate.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Edward Gibbon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HvIbFyM1s54C&pg=PA91 |title=The history of the decline and fall of the Roman Empire |publisher=printed for J.J. Tourneisen |year=1787 |page=91}}; {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a75PAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA644 |title=The Encyclopedia Americana: A Library of Universal Knowledge |publisher=Encyclopedia Americana Corporation |year=1919 |page=644}}</ref> and the formalised ] became increasingly prominent.


As contact with the ] increased, the old ] became increasingly associated with ].<ref name="willis">{{cite book|last1=Willis|first1=Roy|title=World Mythology: The Illustrated Guide|date=2000|publisher=Ken Fin Books|location=Victoria|isbn=978-1-86458-089-1|pages=166–168}}</ref> Thus, ] was perceived to be the same deity as ], ] became associated with ], and ] with ]. The Roman gods also assumed the attributes and mythologies of these Greek gods. Under the Empire, the Romans absorbed the mythologies of their conquered subjects, often leading to situations in which the temples and priests of traditional Italian deities existed side by side with those of foreign gods.<ref>willis</ref> As contact with the ] increased, the old ] became increasingly associated with ].{{Sfn|Willis|2000|pages=166–168}} Under the Empire, the Romans absorbed the mythologies of their conquered subjects, often leading to situations in which the temples and priests of traditional Italian deities existed side by side with those of foreign gods.{{Sfn|Willis|2000}}


Beginning with Emperor ] in the 1st century AD, Roman official policy towards Christianity was negative, and at some points, simply being a Christian could be punishable by death. Under Emperor ], the ] reached its peak. However, it became an officially supported religion in the Roman state under Diocletian's successor, ], with the signing of the ] in 313, and quickly became dominant. All religions except Christianity were prohibited in 391&nbsp;AD by an edict of Emperor ].<ref> by David Woods. De Imperatoribus Romanis. 2 February 1999. Retrieved 4 April 2007.</ref> Beginning with Emperor ] in the 1st century AD, Roman official policy towards Christianity was negative, and at some point, being a Christian could be punishable by death. Under Emperor ], the ] reached its peak. However, it became an officially supported religion in the Roman state under Diocletian's successor, ], with the signing of the ] in 313, and quickly became dominant. All religions except Christianity were prohibited in 391&nbsp;AD by an edict of Emperor ].<ref> by David Woods. De Imperatoribus Romanis. 2 February 1999. Retrieved 4 April 2007.</ref>


===Ethics and morality=== ===Ethics and morality===
Like many ancient cultures, concepts of ethics and morality, while sharing some commonalities with modern society, differed greatly in several important ways. Because ancient civilizations like Rome were under constant threat of attack from marauding tribes, their culture was necessarily militaristic with martial skills being a prized attribute.<ref name="HuffPo: Bread">{{cite news | title=Bread and Circuses in Rome and America | author=Astore, William | url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/william-astore/bread-and-circuses-in-rom_b_3414248.html | access-date=11 August 2017}}</ref> Whereas modern societies consider ] a virtue, Roman society considered compassion a vice, a moral defect. Indeed, one of the primary purposes of the gladiatorial games was to inoculate Roman citizens from this weakness.<ref>{{cite book | title=Annual Editions: Western Civilization | volume=1 | edition=12 | publisher=McGraw-Hill/Dushkin | year=2002 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=87_ImL1ryQ8C | page=68 | quote=... where compassion was regarded as a moral defect ...}}</ref><ref name="HuffPo: Bread"/><ref>{{cite book | title=Look Back to Get Ahead: Life Lessons from History's Heroes | author=Jackson, Michael Anthony | publisher=Arcade Publishing | year=2004| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZkU9IuW1IuAC | page=174 | quote=Gladatorial games were popular because the Romans actually believed that compassion was a vice and a weakness| isbn=9781559707275 }}</ref> Romans instead prized virtues such as courage and conviction (''virtus''), a sense of duty to one's people, moderation and avoiding excess (''moderatio''), forgiveness and understanding (''clementia''), fairness (''severitas''), and loyalty ('']'').<ref>{{cite book | title=Daily Life in Ancient Rome: A Sourcebook | editor=Harvey, Brian K. | publisher=Hackett Publishing Company | year=2016 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=agyhCwAAQBAJ | pages=21–28| isbn=9781585107964 }}</ref> Like many ancient cultures, concepts of ethics and morality, while sharing some commonalities with modern society, differed greatly in several important ways. Because ancient civilisations like Rome were under constant threat of attack from marauding tribes, their culture was necessarily militaristic with martial skills being a prized attribute.<ref name="HuffPo: Bread">{{Cite news |last=Astore, William |title=Bread and Circuses in Rome and America |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/william-astore/bread-and-circuses-in-rom_b_3414248.html |access-date=11 August 2017}}</ref> Whereas modern societies consider ] a virtue, Roman society considered compassion a vice, a moral defect. Indeed, one of the primary purposes of the gladiatorial games was to inoculate Roman citizens from this weakness.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=87_ImL1ryQ8C |title=Annual Editions: Western Civilization |publisher=McGraw-Hill/Dushkin |year=2002 |edition=12th |volume=1 |page=68 |quote=... where compassion was regarded as a moral defect ...}}</ref><ref name="HuffPo: Bread"/><ref>{{Cite book |last=Jackson, Michael Anthony |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZkU9IuW1IuAC |title=Look Back to Get Ahead: Life Lessons from History's Heroes |publisher=Arcade Publishing |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-5597-0727-5 |page=174 |quote=Gladatorial games were popular because the Romans actually believed that compassion was a vice and a weakness}}</ref> Romans instead prized virtues such as courage and conviction (''virtus''), a sense of duty to one's people, moderation and avoiding excess (''moderatio''), forgiveness and understanding (''clementia''), fairness (''severitas''), and loyalty ('']'').<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=agyhCwAAQBAJ |title=Daily Life in Ancient Rome: A Sourcebook |publisher=Hackett Publishing Company |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-5851-0796-4 |editor-last=Harvey, Brian K. |pages=21–28}}</ref>


Contrary to popular descriptions, Roman society had well-established and restrictive norms related to sexuality, though as with many societies, the lion's share of the responsibilities fell on women. Women were generally expected to be monogamous having only a single husband during their life (''univira''), though this was much less regarded by the elite, especially under the empire. Women were expected to be modest in public avoiding any provocative appearance and to demonstrate absolute fidelity to their husbands (''pudicitia''). Indeed, wearing a veil was a common expectation to preserve modesty. Sex outside of marriage was generally frowned upon for men and women and indeed was made illegal during the imperial period.<ref>{{cite book | title=Sexual Morality in Ancient Rome | author=Langlands, Rebecca | year=2006 | publisher=Cambridge University Press| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GBLnttutuOMC | pages=3–20| isbn=9780521859431 }}</ref> Nevertheless, prostitution was seen entirely differently and indeed was an accepted and regulated practice.<ref name=Dillon>{{cite book | author=Mathew Dillon and Lynda Garland| title=Ancient Rome: From the Early Republic to the Assassination of Julius Caesar | publisher = Taylor & Francis, 2005 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=qMNL0jqhygoC | isbn=9780415224598 |page= 382| year=2005 }}</ref> Roman society had well-established and restrictive norms related to sexuality, though as with many societies, the lion's share of the responsibilities fell on women. Women were generally expected to be monogamous having only a single husband during their life (''univira''), though this was much less regarded by the elite, especially under the empire. Women were expected to be modest in public avoiding any provocative appearance and to demonstrate absolute fidelity to their husbands (''pudicitia''). Indeed, wearing a veil was a common expectation to preserve modesty. Sex outside of marriage was generally frowned upon for men and women and indeed was made illegal during the imperial period.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Langlands, Rebecca |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GBLnttutuOMC |title=Sexual Morality in Ancient Rome |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-5218-5943-1 |pages=3–20}}</ref> Nevertheless, prostitution was an accepted and regulated practice.<ref name="Dillon">{{Cite book |author1=Mathew Dillon |author2=Lynda Garland |author2-link=Lynda Garland |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qMNL0jqhygoC |title=Ancient Rome: From the Early Republic to the Assassination of Julius Caesar |publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=2005 |isbn=978-0-4152-2459-8 |page=382}}</ref>

Public demonstrations of death, violence, and brutality were used as a source of entertainment in Roman communities; however it was also a way to maintain social order, demonstrate power, and signify communal unity.


===Art, music and literature=== ===Art, music and literature===
{{Main|Roman art|Latin literature|Music of ancient Rome|Roman sculpture|Theatre of ancient Rome}} {{Main|Roman art|Latin literature|Music of ancient Rome|Roman sculpture|Theatre of ancient Rome|Art collection in ancient Rome}}
{{See also|Ancient Rome (painting)}}
] in ], Italy, ]work dated to the mid-1st century BC]] ] in ], Italy, ]work dated to the mid-1st century BC]]
]'', from the ], 40–30 BC]] ]'', from the ], Italy, circa 40–30 BC]]
Roman painting styles show ] influences, and surviving examples are primarily ]es used to adorn the walls and ceilings of ], though Roman literature includes mentions of paintings on wood, ], and other materials.<ref name="adkins3">{{cite book|last1=Adkins|first1=Lesley|last2=Adkins|first2=Roy|title=Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome|pages=350–352|date=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-512332-6}}</ref><ref name=MetstuffonRpaint> from Timeline of Art History. Department of Greek and Roman Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2004–10. Retrieved 22 April 2007.</ref> Several examples of Roman painting have been found at ], and from these art historians divide the history of Roman painting into ]. Roman painting styles show ] influences, and surviving examples are primarily ]es used to adorn the walls and ceilings of ], though Roman literature includes mentions of paintings on wood, ], and other materials.{{Sfn|Adkins|Adkins|1998|pp=350–352}}<ref name="MetstuffonRpaint"> from Timeline of Art History. Department of Greek and Roman Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2004–10. Retrieved 22 April 2007.</ref> Several examples of Roman painting have been found at ], and from these art historians divide the history of Roman painting into ].

The first style of Roman painting was practised from the early 2nd century BC to the early- or mid-1st century BC. It was mainly composed of imitations of ] and ], though sometimes including depictions of mythological characters.
The second style began during the early 1st century BC and attempted to depict realistically three-dimensional architectural features and landscapes. The third style occurred during the reign of ] (27&nbsp;BC&nbsp;– 14&nbsp;AD), and rejected the ] of the second style in favour of simple ornamentation. A small architectural scene, landscape, or abstract design was placed in the center with a ] background. The fourth style, which began in the 1st century AD, depicted scenes from mythology, while retaining architectural details and abstract patterns.

Portrait sculpture used youthful and classical proportions, evolving later into a mixture of realism and ]. During the ] and ] periods, ornate hair and bearding, with deep cutting and drilling, became popular. Advancements were also made in ], usually depicting Roman victories.


] was largely based on ], and played an important part in many aspects of Roman life.<ref name="iClassics">{{Cite book |first1=Donald Jay |last1=Grout |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ise5AAAAIAAJ |title=A history of western music |first2=Claude V. |last2=Palisca |date=1988 |publisher=Norton |isbn=978-0-3939-5627-6 |access-date=31 May 2012}}</ref> In the ], musical instruments such as the '']'' (a long trumpet) or the '']'' were used to give various commands, while the '']'' (possibly a trumpet or horn) and the '']'' (probably an elongated J-shaped instrument), were used in ceremonial capacities.{{Sfn|Adkins|Adkins|1998|p=89}} Music was used in the ]s between fights and in the '']'', and in these settings is known to have featured the ''cornu'' and the '']'' (a type of water organ).{{Sfn|Adkins|Adkins|1998|pp=349–350}} Most religious rituals featured musical performances.{{Sfn|Adkins|Adkins|1998|p=300}} Some music historians believe that music was used at almost all public ceremonies.<ref name=iClassics/>
The first style of Roman painting was practiced from the early 2nd century BC to the early- or mid-1st century BC. It was mainly composed of imitations of ] and ], though sometimes including depictions of mythological characters.
The second style began during the early 1st century BC and attempted to depict realistically three-dimensional architectural features and landscapes. The third style occurred during the reign of ] (27&nbsp;BC&nbsp;– 14&nbsp;AD), and rejected the ] of the second style in favor of simple ornamentation. A small architectural scene, landscape, or abstract design was placed in the center with a ] background. The fourth style, which began in the 1st century AD, depicted scenes from mythology, while retaining architectural details and abstract patterns.


The ], ]s, paintings, and sculptures found in ] and ] suggest that the Romans had a sex-saturated culture.{{Sfn|Grant|2005|pages=130–134}}
Portrait sculpture during the period{{Which|date=September 2014}} utilized youthful and classical proportions, evolving later into a mixture of realism and ]. During the ] and ] periods, ornate hair and bearding, with deep cutting and drilling, became popular. Advancements were also made in ], usually depicting Roman victories.


==== Literature and Libraries ====
] was, from its start, influenced heavily by Greek authors. Some of the earliest extant works are of historical ] telling the early military history of Rome. As the Republic expanded, authors began to produce poetry, comedy, history, and ]. ] was, from its start, influenced heavily by Greek authors. Some of the earliest extant works are of historical ] telling the early military history of Rome. As the Republic expanded, authors began to produce poetry, comedy, history, and ].


Ancient Rome's literary contributions are still recognized today and the works by ancient Roman authors were available in bookshops as well as in public and private libraries. Many scholars and statesmen of ancient Rome cultivated private libraries that were used both as demonstrations of knowledge and displays of wealth and power.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Dix |first=T. Keith |date=1994 |title="Public Libraries" in Ancient Rome: Ideology and Reality |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25542662 |journal=Libraries & Culture |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=282–296 |jstor=25542662 |issn=0894-8631}}</ref> Private libraries were so commonly encountered that Vitruvius wrote about where libraries should be situated within a villa.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vitruvius Pollio, The Ten Books on Architecture, BOOK VI, CHAPTER IV: THE PROPER EXPOSURES OF THE DIFFERENT ROOMS, section 1 |url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text.jsp?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0073:book=6:chapter=4:section=1 |access-date=2023-11-29 |website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref> In addition to numerous private libraries, the Roman Empire saw the establishment of early public libraries.
] was largely based on ], and played an important part in many aspects of Roman life.<ref name=iClassics>{{cite book|author1=Donald Jay Grout|author2=Claude V. Palisca|title=A history of western music|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ise5AAAAIAAJ|access-date=31 May 2012|date=June 1988|publisher=Norton|isbn=9780393956276}}</ref> In the ], musical instruments such as the '']'' (a long trumpet) or the '']'' were used to give various commands, while the '']'' (possibly a trumpet or horn) and the '']'' (probably an elongated J-shaped instrument), were used in ceremonial capacities.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Adkins|first1=Lesley|last2=Adkins|first2=Roy|title=Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome|page=89|date=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-512332-6}}</ref> Music was used in the ]s between fights and in the '']'', and in these settings is known to have featured the ''cornu'' and the '']'' (a type of water organ).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Adkins|first1=Lesley|last2=Adkins|first2=Roy|title=Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome|pages=349–350|date=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-512332-6}}</ref>


Although Julius Caesar had intended to establish public libraries to further establish Rome as a great cultural center like Athens and Alexandria, he died before this was accomplished. Caesar's former lieutenant, ], took up the project and opened the first public library in Rome in the ].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pliny the Elder, The Natural History, BOOK XXXV. AN ACCOUNT OF PAINTINGS AND COLOURS., CHAP. 2. (2.)—THE HONOUR ATTACHED TO PORTRAITS. |url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Plin.+Nat.+35.2&redirect=true |access-date=2023-11-29 |website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref> Emperors Augustus, Tiberius, ], Domitian, and Trajan also founded or expanded public libraries in Rome during their reigns.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Library - Ancient Rome, Collections, Archives {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/library/Rome |access-date=2023-11-29 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Houston |first=George W. |date=2008 |title=Tiberius and the Libraries: Public Book Collections and Library Buildings in the Early Roman Empire |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/15/article/247571 |journal=Libraries & the Cultural Record |volume=43 |issue=3 |pages=247–269 |doi=10.1353/lac.0.0032 |s2cid=161471143 |issn=2166-3033}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Staikos |first=Konstantinos Sp |title=The History of the Library in Western Civilization, Volume II: From Cicero to Hadrian: The Roman World from the Beginnings of Latin Literature to the Monumental and Private Libraries of the Empire |date=2021-10-25 |url=https://brill.com/display/title/26053 |work=The History of the Library in Western Civilization, Volume II |access-date=2023-11-29 |publisher=Brill |language=en |doi=10.1163/9789004473508 |isbn=978-9-0044-7350-8}}</ref> These included the ] in Trajan's Forum and libraries in the ], the ] in the Roman Forum, the ], which was dedicated to Minerva when it was &nbsp;rebuilt under Emperor Domitian's orders.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=The Roman forum: its history and its monuments / Ch. Huelsen ; translated by Jesse Benedict Carter. |url=https://hdl.handle.net/2027/njp.32101076187390?urlappend=%3Bseq=19 |access-date=2023-11-29 |website=HathiTrust | hdl=2027/njp.32101076187390?urlappend=%3Bseq=19 |language=en}}</ref> Some of these, including the library at the Temple of Divus Augustus also served as archives.<ref name=":2" /> By the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the city of Rome had more than two dozen public libraries.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Boyd |first=C. E. |title=Public Libraries and Literary Culture in Ancient Rome |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1915 |isbn=978-1-1648-3397-0}}</ref> Rome was not the only city to benefit from such institutions. As the Roman Empire spread, public libraries were established in other major cities and cultural centers including Ephesos, Athens, and ].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cartwright |first=Mark |title=Libraries in the Ancient World |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1428/libraries-in-the-ancient-world/ |access-date=2023-11-29 |website=World History Encyclopedia |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pfeiffer |first=Homer F. |date=1931 |title=The Roman Library at Timgad |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4238558 |journal=Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome |volume=9 |pages=157–165 |doi=10.2307/4238558 |jstor=4238558 |issn=0065-6801}}</ref>
Most religious rituals featured musical performances, with ''tibiae'' (double pipes) at sacrifices, ]s and ]s at ] ], and ] and ] across the spectrum.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Adkins|first1=Lesley|last2=Adkins|first2=Roy|title=Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome|page=300|date=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-512332-6}}</ref> Some music historians believe that music was used at almost all public ceremonies.<ref name=iClassics/> Music historians are not certain if Roman musicians made a significant contribution to the ] or practice of music.<ref name=iClassics/>


Most public libraries of this time were not built expressly for that purpose, instead sharing space in temples, baths, and other community buildings. In addition to serving as repositories for books, public libraries hosted orations by authors.<ref name=":1" /> These recitations served as social gatherings and allowed those who may not be literate to be entertained by poetry, epics, philosophical treatises, and other works.
The ], ]s, paintings, and sculptures found in ] and ] suggest that the Romans had a sex-saturated culture.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Grant|first1=Michael|title=Cities of Vesuvius: Pompeii and Herculaneum|date=2005|publisher=Phoenix Press|location=London|isbn=978-1-898800-45-3|pages=130–134}}</ref>


===Cuisine=== ===Cuisine===
{{Main|Ancient Roman cuisine|Ancient Rome and wine|Food and dining in the Roman Empire}} {{Main|Ancient Roman cuisine|Ancient Rome and wine|Food and dining in the Roman Empire}}
], on the June panel from a mosaic depicting the months (3rd century)<ref>J. Carson Webster, ''The Labors of the Months in Antique and Mediaeval Art to the End of the Twelfth Century,'' Studies in the Humanities 4 (Northwestern University Press, 1938), p. 128. In the collections of the ].</ref>]] ], on the June panel from a 3rd-century mosaic depicting the months, in the ] in ], ]<ref>J. Carson Webster, ''The Labors of the Months in Antique and Mediaeval Art to the End of the Twelfth Century,'' Studies in the Humanities 4 (Northwestern University Press, 1938), p. 128. In the collections of the ].</ref>]]
Ancient Roman cuisine changed over the long duration of this ancient civilization. Dietary habits were affected by the influence of Greek culture, the political changes from ] to ] to ], and the Empire's enormous expansion, which exposed Romans to many new, provincial culinary habits and cooking techniques. In the beginning the differences between social classes were relatively small, but disparities evolved with the Empire's growth. Men and women drank wine with their meals, a tradition that has been carried through to the present day.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uaRl9ZUtBYkC&q=cuisine%20of%20ancient%20rome&pg=PR8|title=Cuisine and Culture: A History of Food and People|last=Civitello|first=Linda|date=29 March 2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=9780470403716|language=en}}</ref> Ancient Roman cuisine changed over the long duration of this ancient civilisation. Dietary habits were affected by the influence of Greek culture, the political changes from ] to ] to ], and the Empire's enormous expansion, which exposed Romans to many new, provincial culinary habits and cooking techniques. In the beginning the differences between social classes were relatively small, but disparities evolved with the Empire's growth. Men and women drank wine with their meals.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Civitello |first=Linda |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uaRl9ZUtBYkC&q=cuisine%20of%20ancient%20rome&pg=PR8 |title=Cuisine and Culture: A History of Food and People |date=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-4704-0371-6 |language=en}}</ref>


The ancient Roman diet included many items that are staples of ]. ] discussed more than 30 varieties of ], 40 kinds of pear, ] (native and imported from Africa and the eastern provinces), and a wide variety of vegetables, including carrots (of different colours, but not orange<ref>Phyllis Pray Bober, ''Art, Culture, and Cuisine: Ancient and Medieval Gastronomy'', University of Chicago Press (2001), p. 188.</ref>) as well as ], garlic, some ]s, ] and other ]s (such as ] and ]), lettuce, ], onion, ], ], ]es, ]s, ]s, ]s, ], ], ]s, olives, and ].<ref name="PatrickFaas">Patrick Faas, ''Around the Roman Table: Food and Feasting in Ancient Rome'', University of Chicago Press (2005), p. 209.</ref>
====Ingredients====
The ancient Roman diet included many items that are staples of ]. ] discussed more than 30 varieties of ], 40 kinds of ], ] (native and imported from Africa and the eastern provinces), and a wide variety of ]s, including ]s (of different colors, but not orange<ref>Phyllis Pray Bober, ''Art, Culture, and Cuisine: Ancient and Medieval Gastronomy'', University of Chicago Press (2001), p. 188.</ref>) as well as ], ], some ]s, ] and other ]s (such as ] and ]), ], ], ], ], ], ]es, ]s, ]s, ]s, ], ], ]s, olives, and ].<ref name="PatrickFaas">Patrick Faas, ''Around the Roman Table: Food and Feasting in Ancient Rome'', University of Chicago Press (2005), p. 209.</ref>


However, some foods now considered characteristic of modern Italian cuisine were not used.<ref name="PhyllisPray">Phyllis Pray Bober, ''Art, Culture, and Cuisine: Ancient and Medieval Gastronomy'', University of Chicago Press (2001), p. 187.</ref> In particular, ] and ] (aubergine) were introduced later from the ], and ]es, ]es, ] peppers, and ] (the modern source of ])<ref name="PatrickFaas" /> only appeared in Europe following the discovery of the ] and the ].<ref name="PhyllisPray" /> The Romans knew of ], but it was very rarely available to them. There were also few ] fruits.<ref name="PhyllisPray" /> Lemons were known in Italy from the second century AD but were not widely cultivated.<ref>Julia F. Morton, ''Lemon in Fruits of Warm Climates'', 1987 pp. 160–168|url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/lemon.html#Description|publisher=Purdue University</ref> However, some foods now considered characteristic of modern Italian cuisine were not used.<ref name="PhyllisPray">Phyllis Pray Bober, ''Art, Culture, and Cuisine: Ancient and Medieval Gastronomy'', University of Chicago Press (2001), p. 187.</ref> In particular, ] and ] (aubergine) were introduced later from the ], and tomatoes, potatoes, ] peppers, and maize (the modern source of ])<ref name="PatrickFaas"/> only appeared in Europe following the discovery of the ] and the ].<ref name="PhyllisPray"/> The Romans knew of rice, but it was very rarely available to them. There were also few ] fruits.<ref name="PhyllisPray"/>


Butcher's meat such as ] was an uncommon luxury. The most popular meat was ], especially ]s.<ref name="MaguelonneToussaintSamat">Maguelonne Toussaint-Samat, ''A History of Food'', John Wiley & Sons (2009), p. 93.</ref> Fish was more common than meat, with a sophisticated ] and large-scale industries devoted to ]. The Romans also engaged in ] and oak grub farming. Some fish were greatly esteemed and fetched high prices, such as ] raised in the fishery at ], and "elaborate means were invented to assure its freshness".<ref name="John">John E. Stambaugh, ''The Ancient Roman City'', JHU Press (1988), p. 148.</ref> Butcher's meat such as beef was an uncommon luxury. The most popular meat was pork, especially ]s.<ref name="MaguelonneToussaintSamat">Maguelonne Toussaint-Samat, ''A History of Food'', John Wiley & Sons (2009), p. 93.</ref> Fish was more common than meat, with a sophisticated ] and large-scale industries devoted to ]. The Romans also engaged in ] and oak grub farming. Some fish were greatly esteemed and fetched high prices, such as ] raised in the fishery at ], and "elaborate means were invented to assure its freshness".<ref name="John">John E. Stambaugh, ''The Ancient Roman City'', JHU Press (1988), p. 148.</ref>


Traditionally, a breakfast called ''ientaculum''<ref name="ArtmanJohnAncient">Artman, John:"Ancient Rome- Independent Learning Unit", page 26, Good Apple, 1991.</ref> was served at dawn. At mid-day to early afternoon, Romans ate '']'',<ref name="ArtmanJohnAncient"/> the main meal of the day, and at nightfall a light supper called ''vesperna''.<ref name="Artman, John page 26">Artman, John::"Ancient Rome- Independent Learning Unit", p. 26, Good Apple,1991.</ref> With the increased importation of foreign foods, the ''cena'' grew larger in size and included a wider range of foods. Thus, it gradually shifted to the evening, while the ''vesperna''<ref name="Artman, John page 26"/> was abandoned completely over the course of the years. The mid-day meal ''prandium'' became a light meal to hold one over until ''cena''.<ref name="ArtmanJohnAncient"/>
====Meals====

Traditionally, a ] called ''ientaculum''<ref name="ArtmanJohnAncient">Artman, John:"Ancient Rome- Independent Learning Unit", page 26, Good Apple, 1991.</ref> was served at dawn. At mid-day to early afternoon, Romans ate '']'',<ref name="ArtmanJohnAncient" /> the main meal of the day, and at nightfall a light supper called ''vesperna''.<ref name="Artman, John page 26">Artman, John::"Ancient Rome- Independent Learning Unit", page 26, Good Apple,1991.</ref> With the increased importation of foreign foods, the ''cena'' grew larger in size and included a wider range of foods. Thus, it gradually shifted to the evening, while the ''vesperna''<ref name="Artman, John page 26"/> was abandoned completely over the course of the years. The mid-day meal ''prandium'' became a light meal to hold one over until ''cena''.<ref name="ArtmanJohnAncient" /> Among the lower classes of the Roman society, these changes were less pronounced as the traditional routines corresponded closely to the daily rhythms of manual labour.
===Fashion===
{{See also|Clothing in ancient Rome}}
] ] from the basilica of ] in Rome, c. 410 AD, depicting Saint ]]]

The ], a common garment during the era of Julius Caesar, was gradually abandoned by all social classes of the Empire. At the early 4th century, the toga had become just a garment worn by senators in Senate and ceremonial events. At the 4th century, the toga was replaced by the '']'' (a garment similar to a poncho) as the everyday garment of the Romans, from the lower classes to the upper classes. Another garment that was popular among the Romans in the later years of the ] was the '']'', which was mostly worn by philosophers and scholars in general. Due to external influences, mainly from the Germanic peoples, the Romans adopted ]s very similar to those used by the Germanic peoples with whom they interacted in the final years of the Western Empire, also adopted trousers and hats like the ]. At the Late Empire the '']'' (a type of military clothing) was used only by the Emperor of Rome (since the reign of ], the first emperor) while the ] (also used by the Christian clergy) began to spread throughout the empire.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.treccani.it/vocabolario/dalmatica/|title=Dalmatica|access-date=12 August 2023|language=it}}</ref>


===Games and recreation=== ===Games and recreation===
{{See also| History of physical training and fitness}} {{See also| History of physical training and fitness}}
], Germany, c. 2nd–3rd century AD.]] ] combat was strictly a spectator sport. This ] shows combatants and referee, from the ] at ], Germany, {{Circa|2nd}}–3rd century AD.]]
] girls" ], showing women playing sports, from the ], ] of ] (]), 4th century AD]] ] girls" ], showing women playing sports, from the ], Italy, Roman province of ], 4th century AD]]
The youth of Rome had several forms of athletic play and exercise, such as ], ], ], and ].<ref name=Cassononsports>{{cite book|last1=Casson|first1=Lionel|title=Everyday Life in Ancient Rome|url=https://archive.org/details/everydaylifeinan00cass|url-access=registration|date=1998|publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press|location=Baltimore|isbn=978-0-8018-5992-2|pages=}}</ref> In the countryside, pastimes for the wealthy also included fishing and hunting.<ref name=SPQRonline>{{cite web |url=http://library.thinkquest.org/26602/entertainment.htm#leisure |title=Daily Life: Entertainment |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070430025620/http://library.thinkquest.org/26602/entertainment.htm |archive-date=30 April 2007 |work=SPQR Online |year=1998}}</ref> The Romans also had several forms of ball playing, including one resembling ].<ref name=Cassononsports/> ]s, ]s, and ] were popular pastimes.<ref name=Cassononsports/> Women did not take part in these activities. For the wealthy, dinner parties presented an opportunity for entertainment, sometimes featuring music, dancing, and poetry readings.<ref name=adkins3/> ] sometimes enjoyed similar parties through clubs or associations, but for most Romans, recreational dining usually meant patronizing ]s.<ref name=adkins3/> Children entertained themselves with toys and such games as ].<ref name=SPQRonline/><ref name=adkins3/> The youth of Rome had several forms of athletic play and exercise. Play for boys was supposed to prepare them for active military service, such as ], ], ], and ].{{Sfn|Casson|1998|pages=}} In the countryside, pastimes for the wealthy also included fishing and hunting.<ref name="SPQRonline">{{Cite web |year=1998 |title=Daily Life: Entertainment |url=http://library.thinkquest.org/26602/entertainment.htm#leisure |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070430025620/http://library.thinkquest.org/26602/entertainment.htm |archive-date=30 April 2007 |website=SPQR Online}}</ref> The Romans also had several forms of ball playing, including one resembling ].{{Sfn|Casson|1998|pages=}} ]s, ]s, and ] were popular pastimes.{{Sfn|Casson|1998|pages=}} For the wealthy, dinner parties presented an opportunity for entertainment, sometimes featuring music, dancing, and poetry readings.{{Sfn|Adkins|Adkins|1998|pp=350–352}} The majority, less well-off, sometimes enjoyed similar parties through clubs or associations, but for most Romans, recreational dining usually meant patronising ]s.{{Sfn|Adkins|Adkins|1998|pp=350–352}}Children entertained themselves with toys and such games as ].<ref name=SPQRonline/>{{Sfn|Adkins|Adkins|1998|pp=350–352}}


Public games were sponsored by leading Romans who wished to advertise their generosity and court popular approval; in the Imperial era, this usually meant the emperor. Several venues were developed specifically for public games. The ] was built in the Imperial era to host, among other events, ]ial combats. These combats had begun as funeral games around the 4th century BC, and became popular spectator events in the late Republic and Empire. Gladiators had an exotic and inventive variety of arms and armour. They sometimes fought to the death, but more often to an adjudicated victory, dependent on a referee's decision. The outcome was usually in keeping with the mood of the watching crowd. Shows of exotic animals were popular in their own right; but sometimes animals were pitted against human beings, either armed professionals or unarmed criminals who had been condemned to a spectacular and theatrical public death in the arena. Some of these encounters were based on episodes from Roman or Greek mythology. Public games and spectacles were sponsored by leading Romans who wished to advertise their generosity and court popular approval; in Rome or its provinces, this usually meant the emperor or his governors. Venues in Rome and the provinces were developed specifically for public games. Rome's ] was built in 70 AD under the Roman emperor Vespasian and opened in 80 AD to host other events and ]ial combats. Gladiators had an exotic and inventive variety of arms and armour. They sometimes fought to the death, but more often to an adjudicated victory, usually in keeping with the mood of the watching crowd. Shows of exotic animals were popular in their own right; but sometimes animals were pitted against human beings, either armed professionals or unarmed criminals who had been condemned to public death.


] was extremely popular among all classes. In Rome, these races were usually held at the ], which had been purpose-built for chariot and horse-racing and, as Rome's largest public place, was also used for festivals and animal shows.<ref>. Encyclopedia Romana. University of Chicago. Retrieved 19 April 2007.</ref> It could seat around 150,000 people;<ref>John Humphrey, ''Roman circuses: arenas for chariot racing'', University of California Press, 1986, p. 216.</ref> The charioteers raced in teams, identified by their colours. The track was divided lengthwise by a barrier that contained obelisks, temples, statues and lap-counters. The best seats were at the track-side, close to the action; they were reserved for Senators. Behind them sat the ] (knights), and behind the knights were the ] (commoners) and non-citizens. The donor of the games sat on a high platform in the stands alongside images of the gods, visible to all. Large sums were bet on the outcomes of races. Some Romans offered prayers and sacrifices on behalf of their favourites, or laid ] on the opposing teams, and some aficionados were members of extremely, even violently partisan circus factions. ] was extremely popular among all classes. In Rome, these races were usually held at the ], which had been purpose-built for chariot and horse-racing and, as Rome's largest public place, was also used for festivals and animal shows.<ref>. Encyclopedia Romana. University of Chicago. Retrieved 19 April 2007.</ref> It could seat around 150,000 people;<ref>John Humphrey, ''Roman circuses: arenas for chariot racing'', University of California Press, 1986, p. 216.</ref> The charioteers raced in teams, identified by their colours; some aficionados were members of extremely, even violently partisan circus factions.


==Technology== ==Technology==
{{Main|Roman technology}} {{Main|Ancient Roman technology}}
] in France is a ] built in c.&nbsp;19&nbsp;BC. It is a ].]] ] in France is a ] built in c.&nbsp;19&nbsp;BC. It is a ].]]
Ancient Rome boasted impressive technological feats, using many advancements that were lost in the ] and not rivaled again until the 19th and 20th centuries. An example of this is ], which was not invented again until the 1930s. Many practical Roman innovations were adopted from earlier Greek designs. Advancements were often divided and based on craft. ] guarded technologies as ]s.<ref>Ancient Roman laws protected against a person corrupting slaves to obtain secrets about the master's arts. {{cite book|last1=Zeidman|first1=Bob|title=The Software IP Detective's Handbook: : Measurement, Comparison, and Infringement Detection|url=https://archive.org/details/softwareipdetect00zeid_321|url-access=limited|date=2011|publisher=Prentice Hall|isbn=978-0137035335|page=|edition=1st}}</ref> Ancient Rome boasted impressive technological feats, using many advancements that were lost in the ] and not rivalled again until the 19th and 20th centuries. An example of this is ], which was not invented again until the 1930s. Many practical Roman innovations were adopted from earlier Greek designs. Advancements were often divided and based on craft. ] guarded technologies as ]s.<ref>Ancient Roman laws protected against a person corrupting slaves to obtain secrets about the master's arts. {{Cite book |last=Zeidman |first=Bob |url=https://archive.org/details/softwareipdetect00zeid_321 |title=The Software IP Detective's Handbook: : Measurement, Comparison, and Infringement Detection |date=2011 |publisher=Prentice Hall |isbn=978-0-1370-3533-5 |edition= |page= |url-access=limited}}</ref>


] and ] constituted a large part of Rome's technological superiority and legacy, and contributed to the construction of hundreds of ], ], ], ], ] and ]. Many monuments, such as the ], ], and ], remain as testaments to Roman engineering and culture. ] and ] constituted a large part of Rome's technological superiority and legacy, and contributed to the construction of hundreds of ], ], ], ], ] and ]. Many monuments, such as the ], ], and ], remain as testaments to Roman engineering and culture.


The Romans were renowned for their ], which is grouped with Greek traditions into "]". Although there were many differences from ], Rome borrowed heavily from Greece in adhering to strict, formulaic building designs and proportions. Aside from two new ] of columns, ] and ], and from the ], which was derived from the ] ], Rome had relatively few architectural innovations until the end of the Republic. The Romans were renowned for their ], which is grouped with Greek traditions into "]". Although there were many differences from ], Rome borrowed heavily from Greece in adhering to strict, formulaic building designs and proportions. Aside from two new ] of columns, ] and ], and from the ], which was derived from the ] ], Rome had relatively few architectural innovations until the end of the Republic.


In the 1st century BC, Romans started to use ] widely. Concrete was ] in the late 3rd century BC. It was a powerful cement derived from ], and soon supplanted ] as the chief Roman building material and allowed many daring architectural forms.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Nelson|first=Winter, Thomas|date=1 January 1979|title=Roman Concrete: The Ascent, Summit, and Decline of an Art|journal=Faculty Publications, Classics and Religious Studies Department|url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/classicsfacpub/1/}}</ref> Also in the 1st century BC, ] wrote '']'', possibly the first complete treatise on architecture in history. In the late 1st century BC, Rome also began to use ] soon after its invention in Syria about 50&nbsp;BC. ]s took the Empire by storm after samples were retrieved during ]'s campaigns in Greece. In the 1st century BC, Romans started to use ] widely. Concrete was ] in the late 3rd century BC. It was a powerful cement derived from ], and soon supplanted ] as the chief Roman building material and allowed many daring architectural forms.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Winter |first=Thomas Nelson |date=1979 |title=Roman Concrete: The Ascent, Summit, and Decline of an Art |url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/classicsfacpub/1 |journal=Transactions of the Nebraska Academy of Sciences |volume=7 |pages=137–143}}</ref> Also in the 1st century BC, ] wrote {{Lang|la|]}}, possibly the first complete treatise on architecture in history. In the late 1st century BC, Rome also began to use ] soon after its invention in Syria about 50&nbsp;BC. ]s took the Empire by storm after samples were retrieved during ]'s campaigns in Greece.


The Romans also largely built using timber, causing a rapid decline of the woodlands surrounding Rome and in much of the Apennine Mountains due to the demand for wood for construction, shipbuilding and fire. The first evidence of long-distance wood trading come from the discovery of wood planks, felled between A.D. 40 and 60, coming from the Jura mountains in northeastern France and ending up more than 1,055 miles away, in the foundations of a lavish portico that was part of a vast wealthy patrician villa, in Central Rome. It is suggested that timber, around 4 meters long, came up to Rome via the Tiber River via ships traveling across the Mediterranean Sea from the confluence of the ] and ] rivers in what is now the city of ] in present-day France.<ref>Choi, Charles Q. (4 December 2019). ''InsideScience.org''. Retrieved 22 May 2020.</ref> The Romans also largely built using timber, causing a rapid decline of the woodlands surrounding Rome and in much of the Apennine Mountains due to the demand for wood for construction, shipbuilding and fire. The first evidence of long-distance wood trading come from the discovery of wood planks, felled between AD 40 and 60, coming from the Jura mountains in northeastern France and ending up more than {{Convert|1,055|miles|-1}} away, in the foundations of a lavish portico that was part of a vast wealthy patrician villa, in Central Rome. It is suggested that timber, around {{Convert|4|metres}} long, came up to Rome via the Tiber River on ships travelling across the Mediterranean Sea from the confluence of the ] and ] rivers in what is now the city of ] in present-day France.<ref>Choi, Charles Q. (4 December 2019). ''InsideScience.org''. Retrieved 22 May 2020.</ref>


] (''Via Appia''), a road connecting the city of Rome to the southern parts of ], remains usable even today]] ] (''Via Appia''), a road connecting the city of Rome to the southern parts of Italy, remains usable even today]]
With solid foundations and good drainage,<ref>{{cite web|title=Roman road system|url=https://www.britannica.com/technology/Roman-road-system|website=Encyclopaedia Britannica|publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.|access-date=19 August 2017}}</ref> ] were known for their durability and many segments of the Roman road system were still in use a thousand years after the fall of Rome. The construction of a vast and efficient travel network throughout the Empire dramatically increased Rome's power and influence. They allowed ]s to be deployed rapidly, with predictable marching times between key points of the empire, no matter the season.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Keegan|first1=John|title=A History of Warfare|date=1993|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|location=New York|isbn=978-0-394-58801-8|page=|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofwarfare00keeg/page/303}}</ref> These highways also had enormous economic significance, solidifying Rome's role as a trading crossroads—the origin of the saying "all roads lead to Rome". The Roman government maintained a system of way stations, known as the '']'', that provided refreshments to couriers at regular intervals along the roads and established a system of horse relays allowing a dispatch to travel up to {{convert|80|km|0|abbr=on}} a day. With solid foundations and good drainage,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Roman road system |url=https://www.britannica.com/technology/Roman-road-system |access-date=19 August 2017 |website=Britannica.com |publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.}}</ref> ] were known for their durability and many segments of the Roman road system were still in use a thousand years after the fall of Rome. The construction of a vast and efficient travel network throughout the Empire dramatically increased Rome's power and influence. They allowed ]s to be deployed rapidly, with predictable marching times between key points of the empire, no matter the season.{{Sfn|Keegan|1993|page=}} These highways also had enormous economic significance, solidifying Rome's role as a trading crossroads—the origin of the saying "all roads lead to Rome". The Roman government maintained a system of way stations, known as the '']'', and established a system of horse relays allowing a dispatch to travel up to {{Convert|80|km|0|abbr=on}} a day.


The Romans constructed numerous ] to supply water to cities and industrial sites and to aid in ]. By the third century, the city of Rome was supplied by ] with a combined length of {{convert|450|km|0|abbr=on}}. Most aqueducts were constructed below the surface, with only small portions above ground supported by arches.<ref name="HDCLA Aqueduct">{{cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Peck |editor-first=Harry Thurston |editor-link=Harry Thurston Peck |title=Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities |date=1963 |entry=Aquae Ductus |pages=104–106 |location=New York |publisher=Cooper Square Publishers |title-link=Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities }}</ref><ref name=EB11Aqueduct>{{cite EB1911 |author-last1=Murray |author-first1=Alexander Stuart |author-link1=Alexander Stuart Murray |author-last2=Mitchell |author-first2=John Malcolm |wstitle=Aqueduct |volume=2 |pages=240–244}}</ref> Sometimes, where valleys deeper than {{convert|500|m|0|abbr=on}} had to be crossed, ]s were used to convey water across a valley.{{ref|waterhistory}} The Romans constructed numerous ] to supply water to cities and industrial sites and to aid in ]. By the third century, the city of Rome was supplied by ] with a combined length of {{Convert|450|km|0|abbr=on}}. The Romans also made major advancements in ]. Romans were particularly famous for their public ], called '']'', which were used for both hygienic and social purposes. Many Roman houses had ]s and ], and a complex ] system, the '']'', was used to drain the local ]es and carry waste into the Tiber. Some historians have speculated that lead pipes in the sewer and plumbing systems led to widespread ], which contributed to ]; however, lead content would have been minimised.<ref>{{Cite book|publisher = Duckworth|isbn = 9780715621943|title= Roman Aqueducts and Water Supply|first= A.T.|last= Hodge |date=1992}}</ref><ref name="Grout2011">{{Cite web |last=Grout |first= James |title=Lead Poisoning and Rome |url=http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/wine/leadpoisoning.html |url-status=live |archive-url= https://archive.today/20120526104339/http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/wine/leadpoisoning.html |archive-date=26 May 2012 |access-date=22 July 2011 |publisher=University of Chicago}}</ref>

The Romans also made major advancements in ]. Romans were particularly famous for their public ], called '']'', which were used for both hygienic and social purposes. Many Roman houses came to have ]s and ], and a complex ] system, the '']'', was used to drain the local ]es and carry waste into the Tiber river.

Some historians have speculated that lead pipes in the sewer and plumbing systems led to widespread ], which contributed to the decline in ] and general decay of Roman society leading up to the ]. However, lead content would have been minimized because the flow of water from aqueducts could not be shut off; it ran continuously through public and private outlets into the drains, and only a few taps were in use.<ref>''Roman Aqueducts and Water Supply'' by A.T. Hodge (1992)</ref> Other authors have raised similar objections to this theory, also pointing out that Roman water pipes were thickly coated with deposits that would have prevented lead from leaching into the water.<ref name=Grout2011>{{cite web|url=http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/wine/leadpoisoning.html |title=Lead Poisoning and Rome |first=James |last=Grout |publisher=University of Chicago |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/60N6AQZTk?url=http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/wine/leadpoisoning.html |archive-date=22 July 2011 |access-date=22 July 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>


==Legacy== ==Legacy==
{{Main|Legacy of the Roman Empire|Classics}} {{Main|Legacy of the Roman Empire|Classics}}
Ancient Rome is the progenitor of ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jacob Dorsey Forrest |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pnJDAAAAIAAJ |title=The development of western civilization: a study in ethical, economic and political evolution |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |year=1906}}; {{Cite book |last=William Cunningham |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C3kqAAAAYAAJ |title=An Essay on Western Civilization in Its Economic Aspects: Mediaeval and modern times |publisher=University Press |year=1900 |access-date=31 May 2012}}; ], ''Value of the classics''. 1917. p. 185</ref> The ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], government and many factors and aspects of western civilisation are all inherited from Roman advancements. The rediscovery of Roman culture revitalised Western civilisation, playing a role in the ] and the ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kuno Fischer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pnRYAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA85 |title=History of modern philosophy |publisher=C. Scribner's Sons |year=1887 |page=85}}; {{Cite book |last=Michael Burger |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MQUs2QnC2F4C&pg=PA203 |title=The Shaping of Western Civilization: From Antiquity To the Enlightenment |date=2008 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-5511-1432-3 |page=203}}</ref>
{{external media | width = 210px | align = right
| headerimage= ]
| video1 = <ref name="smarth">{{cite web | title =Ancient Rome | publisher =Smarthistory at Khan Academy| url =http://smarthistory.khanacademy.org/ancient-rome-an-introduction.html | access-date =16 April 2013 }}</ref> (13:47), ] at ] }}
Ancient Rome is the progenitor of ].<ref>{{cite book|author=Jacob Dorsey Forrest|title=The development of western civilization: a study in ethical, economic and political evolution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pnJDAAAAIAAJ|year=1906|publisher=The University of Chicago Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=William Cunningham|title=An Essay on Western Civilization in Its Economic Aspects: Mediaeval and modern times|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C3kqAAAAYAAJ|access-date=31 May 2012|year=1900|publisher=University Press}}</ref><ref>], ''Value of the classics''. 1917. p. 185</ref> The ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], government and many factors and aspects of western civilization are all inherited from Roman advancements. The rediscovery of Roman culture revitalized Western civilization, playing a role in the ] and the ].<ref>{{cite book|author=Kuno Fischer|title=History of modern philosophy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pnRYAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA85|year=1887|publisher=C. Scribner's Sons|page=85}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Michael Burger|title=The Shaping of Western Civilization: From Antiquity To the Enlightenment|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MQUs2QnC2F4C&pg=PA203|date=2008|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-1-55111-432-3|page=203}}</ref>

==Genetics==
{{See also|Latins (Italic tribe)#Genetic studies}}
A genetic study published in '']'' in November 2019 examined the genetic history of Rome from the ] up to modern times.{{sfn|Antonio et al.|2019|p=1}} The Mesolithic inhabitants of Rome were determined to be ]s (WHGs), who were almost entirely replaced by ]s (EEFs) around 6,000 BC coming from ] and the ].{{sfn|Antonio et al.|2019|pp=1-2}} However, the authors observe that the EEFs studied carry a small amount of another component that is found at high levels in ] farmers and Caucasus hunter-gatherers (CHG),<ref name="NCBIAntonio2019">{{cite journal |title=Ancient Rome: A genetic crossroads of Europe and the Mediterranean |journal= Science|year=2019 |doi=10.1126/science.aay6826 |pmid=31699931 |pmc=7093155 |last1=Antonio |first1=Margaret L. |last2=Gao |first2=Ziyue |last3=Moots |first3=Hannah M. |last4=Lucci |first4=Michaela |last5=Candilio |first5=Francesca |last6=Sawyer |first6=Susanna |last7=Oberreiter |first7=Victoria |last8=Calderon |first8=Diego |last9=Devitofranceschi |first9=Katharina |last10=Aikens |first10=Rachael C. |last11=Aneli |first11=Serena |last12=Bartoli |first12=Fulvio |last13=Bedini |first13=Alessandro |last14=Cheronet |first14=Olivia |last15=Cotter |first15=Daniel J. |last16=Fernandes |first16=Daniel M. |last17=Gasperetti |first17=Gabriella |last18=Grifoni |first18=Renata |last19=Guidi |first19=Alessandro |last20=La Pastina |first20=Francesco |last21=Loreti |first21=Ersilia |last22=Manacorda |first22=Daniele |last23=Matullo |first23=Giuseppe |last24=Morretta |first24=Simona |last25=Nava |first25=Alessia |last26=Fiocchi Nicolai |first26=Vincenzo |last27=Nomi |first27=Federico |last28=Pavolini |first28=Carlo |last29=Pentiricci |first29=Massimo |last30=Pergola |first30=Philippe |volume=366 |issue=6466 |pages=708–714 |bibcode=2019Sci...366..708A |display-authors=5 }}</ref> suggesting different or additional population contributions from ]ern farmers during the ], according to the authors.

Between 2,900 BC and 900 BC, the EEF/WHG descended population of Rome was overwhelmed by peoples with ] largely tracing their origin to the ].{{sfn|Antonio et al.|2019|pp=1-2}} The ] ] founding population of Rome which subsequently emerged overwhelmingly carried the paternal ],{{sfn|Antonio et al.|2019|loc=Table 2 Sample Information}} and were of about 35% steppe ancestry.{{sfn|Antonio et al.|2019|pp=1-2}} However, two out of six individuals from Latin burials were found to be a mixture of local Iron Age ancestry and a ] population. In addition, one out of four individuals from ] burials, a female, was found to be a mixture of local Iron Age ancestry and a ] population. Overall, the genetic differentiation between the ], ] and the preceding proto-villanovan population of Italy was found to be insignificant.<ref name="NCBIAntonio2019" />

Examined individuals from Rome during the time of the ] (27 BCE{{snd}}300 CE) bore almost no genetic resemblance to Rome's founding populations, and were instead shifted towards the ] and ].<ref>{{harvnb|Antonio et al.|2019|p=4}}. "ompared to Iron Age individuals, the Imperial population shares more alleles with early Bronze Age Jordanians... Notably, only 2 out of 48 Imperial-era individuals fall in the European cluster (C7) to which 8 out of 11 Iron Age individuals belong... ew Imperial individuals (n = 2) have strong genetic affinities to western Mediterranean populations."</ref> The Imperial population of Rome was found to have been extremely diverse, with barely any of the examined individuals being of primarily European ancestry.<ref name="Wade_673">{{harvnb|Wade|2019|p=673}}. "People from the city's earliest eras and from after the Western empire's decline in the fourth century C.E. genetically resembled other Western Europeans. But during the imperial period most sampled residents had Eastern Mediterranean or Middle Eastern ancestry... The study suggests the vast majority of immigrants to Rome came from the East. Of 48 individuals sampled from this period, only two showed strong genetic ties to Europe... Invading barbarians brought in more European ancestry. Rome gradually lost its strong genetic link to the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East. By medieval times, city residents again genetically resembled European populations."</ref> It was suggested that the large population size and the presence of megacities in the east, such as ], ], and ], may have driven a net flow of people from east to west during antiquity; in addition, eastern ancestry could have reached Rome also through ], ]n, and ] diasporas that were established through colonies across the ] prior to Roman Imperial expansion.{{sfn|Antonio et al.|2019|pp=3-6}} During ], Rome's population was drastically reduced as a result of political instability, epidemics and economic changes. Repeated invasions of ]s brought European ancestry back into Rome, resulting in the loss of genetic link to the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East.<ref name="Wade_673"/> By the ], the people of Rome again genetically resembled European populations.<ref name="Wade_673"/>

== Misconceptions ==
There is a number of individual misconceptions about the Roman period.
]'' at the ] in ]]]
* ] and ]s were ]; they only appear white or grey today because the original pigments have deteriorated. Some well-preserved statues still bear traces of their original coloration.<ref>{{cite book|first=Vinzenz|last=Brinkmann|author2=Jan Stubbe Ostergaard|date=2008|title=]: Polychromy in Sculpture from Antiquity to the Present|publisher=J. Paul Getty Museum, Marco Collareta, Alex Potts}}</ref><ref>
{{Cite magazine|title=The Myth of Whiteness in Classical Sculpture|url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2018/10/29/the-myth-of-whiteness-in-classical-sculpture|last=Talbot|first=Margaret|magazine=The New Yorker|language=en|access-date=2020-05-12}}</ref>
* There is no evidence that the ], in which the arm is fully extended forwards or diagonally with fingers touching, was actually used in ancient Rome for greeting or any other purpose.<ref>
{{cite book |last=Winkler |first=Martin M. |title=The Roman Salute: Cinema, History, Ideology |publisher=Ohio State University Press |location=Columbus |year=2009 |isbn=978-0814208649}}</ref> The idea that the salute was popular in ancient times originated in the 1784 painting '']'' by the French artist ], which inspired later salutes, most notably the ].
* Vomiting was not a regular part of ].<ref>
{{cite book|last=Fass|first=Patrick|title=Around the Roman Table|date=1994|publisher=]|isbn=978-0226233475|pages=66–67|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YXGlAr17oekC}}</ref> In ancient Rome, the architectural feature called a '']'' was the entranceway through which crowds entered and exited a stadium, not a special room used for purging food during meals.<ref>
{{cite book|last=McKeown|first=J.C.|title=A Cabinet of Roman Curiosities: Strange Tales and Surprising Facts from the World's Greatest Empire|date=2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0195393750|pages=153–54|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YGYwlMZ3ursC&pg=PA153}}</ref>
* ] did not plow over the city of ] and ] after defeating it in the ].<ref>
a. {{cite journal|last1=Ridley|first1=R.T.|title=To Be Taken with a Pinch of Salt: The Destruction of Carthage|journal=Classical Philology|volume=81|issue=2|year=1986|jstor=269786|pages=140–46|doi=10.1086/366973|s2cid=161696751}}: "a tradition in Roman history well known to most students"
<br />b. {{cite journal |last1=Stevens|first1=Susan T.| title=A Legend of the Destruction of Carthage|journal=Classical Philology |volume=83 |issue=1 |pages=39–41| year=1988|jstor=269635 |doi=10.1086/367078|s2cid=161764925}}
<br />c. {{cite journal |last1=Visona |first1=Paolo |year=1988 |title=Passing the Salt: On the Destruction of Carthage Again |journal=Classical Philology |volume=83 |issue=1 |pages=41–42|jstor=269636 |doi=10.1086/367079|s2cid=162289604 }}: "this story... had already gained widespread currency"
<br />d. {{cite journal |last1=Warmington |first1=B.H. |title=The Destruction of Carthage: A Retractatio|journal=Classical Philology |volume=83 |issue=4 |pages=308–10|year=1988| jstor=269510 |doi=10.1086/367123|s2cid=162850949 }}: "the frequently repeated story"</ref>
* ] was not born via ].<ref>
"Bad Medicine: Misconceptions and Misuses Revealed," by Christopher Wanjek, p. 5 (John Wiley & Sons, 2003)</ref> Such a procedure would have been fatal to the mother at the time,<ref>
"...could not survive the trauma of a Caesarean" ''Oxford Classical Dictionary, Third Edition'', "Childbirth"</ref> and historical evidence indicates Caesar's mother being alive during his own lifetime. Although the names are similar, the caesarean section was not named after Caesar, as is commonly believed; it is more likely related to "cease" and derived from the Latin verb '']'', meaning "to cut."
* The death of the Greek philosopher ] at the hands of a mob of Christian monks in 415 was mainly a result of her involvement in a bitter political feud between her close friend and student ], the Roman prefect of Alexandria, and the bishop ], not her religious views.<ref>
a. {{cite book|last=Wessel|first=Susan|date=2004|title=Cyril of Alexandria and the Nestorian Controversy: The Making of a Saint and of a Heretic|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YcgSDAAAQBAJ&q=Cyril+of+Alexandria+and+the+Nestorian+controversy|location=Oxford, England|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=36–38|isbn=978-0199268467}}
<br />b. {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MKolDQAAQBAJ&q=City+and+School+in+Late+Antique+Athens+and+Alexandria|title=City and School in Late Antique Athens and Alexandria|last=Watts|first=Edward J.|date=2008|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0520258167|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles, California|pages=195–200}}</ref> Her death also had nothing to do with the destruction of the ],<ref name="Theodore2016">{{cite book|last=Theodore|first=Jonathan|date=2016|title=The Modern Cultural Myth of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3QPWDAAAQBAJ&q=Hypatia+of+Alexandria+astrolabe+discoveries&pg=PA183|location=Manchester, England|publisher=Palgrave, Macmillan|isbn=978-1137569974}}</ref> which had likely already ceased to exist centuries before Hypatia was born.<ref name="Theodore2016"/>


==Historiography== ==Historiography==
=== Primary and secondary sources ===
{{Main|Roman historiography}} {{Main|Roman historiography}}
The two longest ancient accounts of the Roman history, the histories of Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, were composed 500 years later than the date for the founding of the republic and 200 years from the defeat of Hannibal.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Finley |first1=M.I. |title=Ancient History: Evidence and Models |date=2008 |publisher=ACLS History |isbn=978-1-5974-0534-8 |page=9 |quote=Unfortunately, the two longest ancient accounts of Roman Republican history, the area in which the problems are currently the most acute and the most widely discussed, the histories of Livy and of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, were composed 500 years (in very round numbers) later than the traditional date for the founding of the Republic, 200 years from the defeat of Hannibal.}}</ref> Although there has been a diversity of works on ancient Roman history, many of them are lost. As a result of this loss, there are gaps in Roman history, which are filled by unreliable works, such as the '']'' and other books from obscure authors. Historians used their works for the lauding of Roman culture and customs, and to flatter their patrons.<ref> Plutarch, ''Parallel Lives'', ''Life of Marius'', XI, 5–7.</ref> ] wrote his own accounts of his military campaigns in ] and during the ] in part to impress his contemporaries.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Handford |first=S.A. |title=Caesar: The Conquest of Gaul |publisher=Penguin |year=1951 |location=Harmondsworth |pages=24}}</ref>
Although there has been a diversity of works on ancient Roman history, many of them are lost. As a result of this loss, there are gaps in Roman history, which are filled by unreliable works, such as the '']'' and other books from obscure authors. However, there remains a number of reliable accounts of Roman history.

===In Roman times===
The first historians used their works for the lauding of Roman culture and customs. By the end of Republic, some historians distorted their histories to flatter their patrons—especially at the time of ]'s and ]'s clash.<ref> Plutarch, ''Parallel Lives'', ''Life of Marius'', XI, 5–7.</ref> ] wrote his own histories to make a complete account of his military campaigns in ] and during the ].


In the Empire, the biographies of famous men and early emperors flourished, examples being '']'' of Suetonius, and Plutarch's '']''. Other major works of Imperial times were that of Livy and Tacitus. In the Empire, the biographies of famous men and early emperors flourished, examples being '']'' of Suetonius, and Plutarch's '']''. Other major works of Imperial times were that of Livy and Tacitus.
Line 613: Line 539:
* ] – ''Res Gestae'' * ] – ''Res Gestae''


Interest in studying, and idealising, ancient Rome became prevalent during the ]. ] '']'' "began the modern study of Roman history in the English-speaking world".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Beard |first=Mary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x795CgAAQBAJ |title=SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome |date=2015-10-20 |publisher=Profile |isbn=978-1-8476-5441-0 |pages=15–16 |language=en}}</ref> ] was a founder of the examination of ancient Roman history and wrote ''The Roman History'', tracing the period until the ]. During the ], ''The History of Romans'' by ] highlighted the ] period popular at the time. '']'', '']'' and '']'', all by ],<ref name="kirjasto">{{Cite web |last=Liukkonen |first=Petri |title=Theodor Mommsen |url=http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/mommsen.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140824083420/http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/mommsen.htm |archive-date=24 August 2014 |website=Books and Writers (kirjasto.sci.fi) |publisher=] Public Library}}</ref> became milestones.
===In modern times===
* ] – '']''
{{History of Italy}}
* ] – ''History of the Later Roman Empire''
Interest in studying, and even idealizing, ancient Rome became prevalent during the ], and continues until the present day. ] wrote a work ''Reflections on the Causes of the Grandeur and Declension of the Romans''. The first major work was '']'' by ], which encompassed the Roman civilization from the end of the 2nd century to the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453.<ref name="Gibbon2">{{cite book|title=The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 12 vols.}}</ref> Like Montesquieu, Gibbon paid tribute to the virtue of Roman citizens. ] was a founder of the examination of ancient Roman history and wrote ''The Roman History'', tracing the period until the ]. Niebuhr tried to determine the way the Roman tradition evolved. According to him, Romans, like other people, had an historical ] preserved mainly in the noble families.
* ] – ''The Roman World''<ref>{{Cite book|title = The World of Rome|first = Michael|last = Grant|publisher = Penguin|date= 1987|isbn = 9780452008496}}</ref>

* ] – ''Claudius''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Levick |first=Barbara |title=Claudius |date=1993 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-3000-5831-4}}</ref>
During the ] period a work titled ''The History of Romans'' by ] appeared. It highlighted the ] period popular at the time. '']'', '']'' and '']'', all by ],<ref name="kirjasto">{{cite web|url=http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/mommsen.htm |title=Theodor Mommsen |website=Books and Writers (kirjasto.sci.fi) |first=Petri |last=Liukkonen |publisher=] Public Library |location=Finland |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140824083420/http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/mommsen.htm |archive-date=24 August 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> became very important milestones. Later the work ''Greatness and Decline of Rome'' by ] was published. The Russian work ''Очерки по истории римского землевладения, преимущественно в эпоху Империи'' (''The Outlines on Roman Landownership History, Mainly During the Empire'') by Ivan Grevs contained information on the economy of ], one of the largest landowners at the end of the Republic.
* ]
* ] (1737–1794) – '']''
* ]
* ] (1861–1927) – ''History of the Later Roman Empire''
* ] (1914–2004) – ''The Roman World''<ref>see </ref> * ] – ''The History of the Roman World''<ref>see </ref>
* ] (born 1932) – ''Claudius''<ref>{{cite book|title=Claudius|first=Barbara|last=Levick|date=1993|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn = 978-0300058314}}</ref> * ] – ''The Roman Revolution''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Syme |first=Ronald |title=The Roman Revolution |date=2002 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-1928-0320-7}}</ref>
* ] – ''Caesar: The Life of a Colossus'' and ''How Rome fell''
* ] (1776–1831)
* ] - ]
* ] (1870–1952)
* ] (1903–1983) – ''The History of the Roman World''<ref>see </ref>
* ] (1903–1989) – ''The Roman Revolution''<ref>{{cite book|title=The Roman Revolution|first=Ronald|last=Syme|date=2002|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn = 978-0192803207}}</ref>
* ] (born 1969) – ''Caesar: The Life of a Colossus'' and ''How Rome fell''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adriangoldsworthy.com/ancienthistory.htm |title=Dr Adrian Goldsworthy, the historian and author |publisher=Adriangoldsworthy.com |access-date=12 March 2013}}</ref>


==See also== ==See also==
{{Portal|Civilizations|Ancient Rome}} {{Portal|Civilizations|Ancient Rome}}
* ]
* ], the Chinese name for the Roman Empire
* ] * ]
** ] ** ]
*** ] ** ]
* ]
*** ]
*** ] * ]
*** ] * ]
* ]
*** ]
*** ] * ]
*** ] * ]
* ]
*** ]
*** ]
*]
{{clear}}


==References== == Notes ==
{{Notelist}}
'''Footnotes'''
{{notelist}}


== References ==
'''Citations'''
{{Reflist}} {{Reflist}}


===Sources=== === Works cited ===
{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* {{Cite book
* {{Cite book |last1=Adkins |first1=Lesley |author-link=Roy and Lesley Adkins |author-link2=Roy and Lesley Adkins|title=Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome |last2=Adkins |first2=Roy A. |date=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-1951-2332-6}}
|first = Lesley
* {{Cite book |last=Boatwright |first=Mary T. |ol=25033142M |title=The Romans: From Village to Empire |date=2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-1997-3057-5 |edition=2nd |display-authors=etal}}
|last = Adkins
* {{Cite book |last=Cary |first=Max |title=A History of Rome Down to the Reign of Constantine |date=1967 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |edition=2nd}}
|author2 = Roy Adkins
* {{Cite book |last=Casson |first=Lionel |url=https://archive.org/details/everydaylifeinan00cass |title=Everyday Life in Ancient Rome |date=1998 |publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press |isbn=978-0-8018-5992-2 |url-access=registration}}
|year = 1998
* {{Cite book |last=Cornell |first=Tim J. |title=The beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c.&nbsp;1000–264 BC) |date=1995 |publisher=Routledge |author-link=Tim Cornell |oclc=31515793}}
|title = Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome
* {{Cite book |last1=Duiker |first1=William |author-link=William J. Duiker |url=https://archive.org/details/worldhistoryto1500duik |title=World History |last2=Spielvogel |first2=Jackson |author-link2=Jackson J. Spielvogel |date=2001 |publisher=Wadsworth |isbn=978-0-5345-7168-9 |edition=3rd |ol=6786176M}}
|publisher = Oxford University Press
* {{Cite book |last1=Durant |first1=Will |title=The Story of Civilization |volume=III: Caesar and Christ |title-link=The Story of Civilization |last2=Durant |first2=Ariel |date=1944 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-1-5673-1023-8}}
|location = Oxford
* {{Cite book |last=Elton |first=Hugh |title=Warfare in Roman Europe AD 350–425 |date=1996 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-1981-5241-5}}
|isbn = 978-0-19-512332-6
* {{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_s0h2 |title=The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic |date=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-5210-0390-2 |editor-last=Flower |editor-first=Harriet I.}}
}}
* {{Cite book |last=Goldsworthy |first=Adrian Keith |title=The Roman Army at War: 100 BC – AD 200 |date=1996 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-1981-5057-2 |author-link=Adrian Goldsworthy}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Antonio |first1=Margaret L. |last2=Gao |first2=Ziyue |display-authors=1 |date=November 8, 2019 |title=Ancient Rome: A genetic crossroads of Europe and the Mediterranean |journal=] |publisher=] |volume=366 |issue=6466 |pages=708–714 |doi=10.1126/science.aay6826 |pmc=7093155 |pmid= 31699931|bibcode=2019Sci...366..708A |ref={{harvid|Antonio et al.|2019}}}}
* {{Cite book |last=Goldsworthy |first=Adrian Keith |title=The Fall of Carthage: The Punic Wars 265–146 BC |date=2006 |publisher=Phoenix |isbn=978-0-3043-6642-2 |author-link=Adrian Goldsworthy}}
* {{cite book
* {{Cite book |last=Grant |first=Michael |title=Cities of Vesuvius: Pompeii and Herculaneum |date=2005 |publisher=Phoenix Press |isbn=978-1-8988-0045-3}}
|last=Cary
* {{Cite book |last=Haywood |first=Richard |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientworld0000unse |title=The Ancient World |date=1971 |publisher=David McKay Company, Inc. |url-access=registration}}
|first=M.
* {{Cite book |last=Kaldellis |first=Anthony |author-link=Anthony Kaldellis |title=The New Roman Empire: A History of Byzantium |date=2023 |location=New York |publisher=] |doi=10.1093/oso/9780197549322.001.0001|isbn=978-0-1975-4932-2 }}
|title=A History of Rome Down to the Reign of Constantine
* {{Cite book |last=Keegan |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofwarfare00keeg |title=A History of Warfare |date=1993 |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |isbn=978-0-3945-8801-8}}
|date=1967
* ]. ''The Rise of Rome, Books 1–5,'' translated from ] by T.J. Luce, 1998. Oxford World's Classics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-1928-2296-9}}.
|edition=2nd
* {{Cite book |last=Mackay |first=Christopher S. |title=Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History |date=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-5218-0918-4}}
|location=New York
* {{Cite book |last=Matyszak |first=Philip |title=Chronicle of the Roman Republic |date=2003 |publisher=Thames & Hudson, Ltd. |isbn=978-0-5000-5121-4}}
|publisher=St. Martin's Press
* {{Cite book |last=Miles |first=Richard |title=Carthage Must be Destroyed |date=2011 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0-1410-1809-6 |author-link=Richard Miles (historian)}}
}}
* {{Cite book |last=O'Connell |first=Robert |url=https://archive.org/details/ofarmsmenhisto00ocon |title=Of Arms and Men: A History of War, Weapons, and Aggression |date=1989 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-1950-5359-3 |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book
* {{cite book |last=Rochette |first=Bruno |date=2011 |chapter=Language Policies in the Roman Republic and Empire |chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781444343397.ch30 |title=A Companion to the Latin Language |pages=549–563 |doi=10.1002/9781444343397.ch30|hdl=2268/35932 |isbn=978-1-4051-8605-6 |hdl-access=free }}
|first = Lionel
* {{Cite journal |last=Rochette |first=Bruno |date=2018 |title=Was there a Roman linguistic imperialism during the Republic and the early Principate? |url=https://www.rivisteweb.it/doi/10.1418/90426 |journal=Lingue e Linguaggio |issue=1/2018 |pages=107–128 |doi=10.1418/90426 |issn=1720-9331}}
|last = Casson
* {{Cite journal |last=Rochette |first=Bruno |title=The Attitude of the Roman Emperors towards Language Practices |journal=Social Factors in the Latinization of the Roman West |year=2023 |pages=258–285 |location=Oxford |doi=10.1093/oso/9780198887294.003.0012 |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/55330/chapter/428805545 |editor-last=Mullen |editor-first=Alex |access-date=2023-12-22 |edition=1 |publisher= Oxford Academic |language=en |isbn=978-0-1988-8729-4|doi-access=free }}
|year = 1998
* {{Cite book |last=Scarre |first=Chris |title=The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Rome |date= 1995 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-1405-1329-5}}
|title = Everyday Life in Ancient Rome
* {{Cite book |last1=Scheidel |first1=Walter |title=The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World |last2=Saller |first2=Richard P. |last3=Morris |first3=Ian |date=2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |author-link=Walter Scheidel |isbn=978-0-5217-8053-7 |ol=16929915W}}
|url = https://archive.org/details/everydaylifeinan00cass
* {{Cite book |last=Ward-Perkins |first=John Bryan |url=https://archive.org/details/romanimperialarc00jbwa |title=Roman Imperial Architecture |date=1994 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-3000-5292-3 |url-access=registration}}
|url-access = registration
* {{Cite book |last=Werner |first=Paul |title=Life in Rome in Ancient Times |date=1978 |publisher=Editions Minerva S.A. |others=translated by David Macrae}}
|publisher = The Johns Hopkins University Press
* {{Cite book |last=Willis |first=Roy |title=World Mythology: The Illustrated Guide |date=2000 |publisher=Ken Fin Books |isbn=978-1-8645-8089-1}}
|location = Baltimore
{{Refend}}
|isbn = 978-0-8018-5992-2
}}
* {{cite book
|first = Cassius
|last = Dio
|title = Dio's Rome, Volume V., Books 61–76 (AD 54–211)
|url = http://www.gutenberg.org/files/10890/10890-h/10890-h.htm
|access-date =17 December 2006 |date = January 2004
}}
* {{Cite book
|first = William
|last = Duiker
|author2 = Jackson Spielvogel
|year = 2001
|title = World History
|edition = Third
|publisher = Wadsworth
|isbn = 978-0-534-57168-9
|url = https://archive.org/details/worldhistoryto1500duik
}}
* {{Cite book
|first = Will
|last = Durant
|year = 1944
|title = The Story of Civilization, Volume III: Caesar and Christ
|publisher = Simon and Schuster, Inc.
}}
* {{Cite book
|first = Hugh
|last = Elton
|year = 1996
|title = Warfare in Roman Europe AD 350–425
|publisher = Oxford University Press
|location = Oxford
|isbn = 978-0-19-815241-5
}}
* {{Cite book
|first = Harriet I.
|last = Flower (editor)
|year = 2004
|title = The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic
|publisher = Cambridge University Press
|location = Cambridge
|isbn = 978-0-521-00390-2
|url = https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_s0h2
}}
* ], '']''
* Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith (2008). ''Caesar: Life of a Colossus''. Yale University Press
* {{Cite book
|first = Adrian Keith
|last = Goldsworthy
|year = 1996
|title = The Roman Army at War 100 BC – AD 200
|publisher = Oxford University Press
|location = Oxford
|isbn = 978-0-19-815057-2
}}
* {{Cite book
|first = Adrian Keith
|last = Goldsworthy
|year = 2003
|title = The Complete Roman Army
|publisher = Thames and Hudson, Ltd.
|location = London
|isbn = 978-0-500-05124-5
}}
* {{cite book|last=Goldsworthy|first=Adrian|author-link=Adrian Goldsworthy|title=The Fall of Carthage: The Punic Wars 265–146 BC|publisher=Phoenix|location=London|year=2006|isbn=978-0-304-36642-2}}
* {{Cite book
|first = Michael
|last = Grant
|year = 2005
|title = Cities of Vesuvius: Pompeii and Herculaneum
|publisher = Phoenix Press
|location = London
|isbn = 978-1-898800-45-3
}}
* {{Cite book
|first = Richard
|last = Haywood
|year = 1971
|title = The Ancient World
|url = https://archive.org/details/ancientworld0000unse
|url-access = registration
|publisher = David McKay Company, Inc.
}}
* {{Cite book
|first = John
|last = Keegan
|year = 1993
|title = A History of Warfare
|publisher = Alfred A. Knopf
|location = New York
|isbn = 978-0-394-58801-8
|url = https://archive.org/details/historyofwarfare00keeg
}}
* ]. ''The Rise of Rome, Books 1–5,'' translated from ] by T.J. Luce, 1998. Oxford World's Classics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-282296-9}}.
* {{Cite book
|first = Christopher S.
|last = Mackay
|year = 2004
|title = Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History
|publisher = Cambridge University Press
|location = Cambridge
|isbn = 978-0-521-80918-4
}}
* {{Cite book
|first = Philip
|last = Matyszak
|year = 2003
|title = Chronicle of the Roman Republic
|publisher = Thames & Hudson, Ltd.
|location = London
|isbn = 978-0-500-05121-4
}}
* {{cite book|last=Miles|first=Richard|author-link= Richard Miles (historian) |title=Carthage Must be Destroyed|location=London|publisher=Penguin |year=2011|isbn=978-0-14-101809-6}}
* {{Cite book
|first = Robert
|last = O'Connell
|year = 1989
|title = Of Arms and Men: A History of War, Weapons, and Aggression
|url = https://archive.org/details/ofarmsmenhisto00ocon
|url-access = registration
|publisher = Oxford University Press
|location = Oxford
|isbn = 978-0-19-505359-3
}}
* {{Cite book
|first = Chris
|last = Scarre
|date=September 1995
|title = The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Rome
|publisher = Penguin Books
|isbn = 978-0-14-051329-5
}}
* {{Cite book
|first = H.H.
|last = Scullard
|author-link = Howard Hayes Scullard
|year = 1982
|title = From the Gracchi to Nero
|others = (5th edition)
|publisher = Routledge
|isbn = 978-0-415-02527-0
|url = https://archive.org/details/fromgracchitoner00scul
}}
* {{Cite book
|first = John Bryan
|last = Ward-Perkins
|year = 1994
|title = Roman Imperial Architecture
|publisher = Yale University Press
|isbn = 978-0-300-05292-3
|url-access = registration
|url = https://archive.org/details/romanimperialarc00jbwa
}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Wade |first1=Lizzie |date=November 8, 2019 |title=Immigrants from the Middle East shaped Rome |journal=] |publisher=] |volume=366 |issue=6466 |page=673 |doi=10.1126/science.366.6466.673 |doi-access=free |pmid= 31699914|bibcode=2019Sci...366..673W }}
* {{Cite book
|first = Paul
|last = Werner
|year = 1978
|title = Life in Rome in Ancient Times
|others = translated by David Macrae
|publisher = Editions Minerva S.A.
|location = Geneva
}}
* {{Cite book
|first = Roy
|last = Willis
|year = 2000
|title = World Mythology: The Illustrated Guide
|publisher = Ken Fin Books
|location = Collingwood, Victoria
|isbn = 978-1-86458-089-1
}}


==Further reading== ==Further reading==
{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* Coarelli, Filippo. ''Rome and environs: An archaeological guide''. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 2007.
* {{Cite journal |last1=Antonio |first1=Margaret L. |last2=Gao |first2=Ziyue |display-authors=1 |date=8 November 2019 |title=Ancient Rome: A genetic crossroads of Europe and the Mediterranean |journal=] |publisher=] |volume=366 |issue=6466 |pages=708–714 |bibcode=2019Sci...366..708A |doi=10.1126/science.aay6826 |pmc=7093155 |pmid=31699931 |ref={{Harvid|Antonio et al.|2019}}}}
* Cornell, Tim J. ''The beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c.&nbsp;1000–264 BC)''. London: Routledge, 1995.
* {{Cite book |last=Cassius Dio |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/10890/10890-h/10890-h.htm |title=Dio's Rome, Volume V., Books 61–76 (AD 54–211) |date=January 2004 |author-link=Cassius Dio |access-date=17 December 2006}}
* Coulston, J. C, and Hazel Dodge, editors. ''Ancient Rome: The archaeology of the eternal city''. Oxford: Oxford University School of Archaeology, 2000.
* Forsythe, Gary. ''A critical history of early Rome''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005. * {{Cite book |last=Coarelli |first=Filippo |title=Rome and environs: An archaeological guide |date=2007 |publisher=University of California Press |author-link=Filippo Coarelli}}
* {{Cite book |title=Ancient Rome: The archaeology of the eternal city |date=2000 |publisher=Oxford University School of Archaeology |editor-last=Coulston |editor-first=J. C. |author-link2=Hazel Dodge |editor-last2=Dodge |editor-first2=Hazel}}
* Fox, Matthew. ''Roman historical myths: The regal period in Augustan literature''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.
* Gabba, Emilio. ''Dionysius and the history of Archaic Rome''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991. * {{Cite book |last=Forsythe |first=Gary |title=A critical history of early Rome |date=2005 |publisher=University of California Press}}
* {{Cite book |last=Fox |first=Matthew |title=Roman historical myths: The regal period in Augustan literature |date=1996 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}
* Holloway, R. Ross. ''The archaeology of early Rome and Latium''. London: Routledge, 1994.
* {{Cite book |last=Gabba |first=Emilio |title=Dionysius and the history of Archaic Rome |date=1991 |publisher=University of California Press}}
* Keaveney, Arthur. ''Rome and the unification of Italy''. 2nd edition. Bristol: Bristol Phoenix, 2005.
* {{Cite book |last=Gibbon |first=Edward |author-link=Edward Gibbon |title=] |date=1776–1789}}
* Kraus, Christina Shuttleworth, and A.J. Woodman. ''Latin historians''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.
* {{Cite book |last=Goldsworthy |first=Adrian Keith |title=The Complete Roman Army |date=2003 |publisher=Thames and Hudson. |isbn=978-0-5000-5124-5 |author-link=Adrian Goldsworthy}}
* Mitchell, Richard E. ''Patricians and plebeians: The origin of the Roman state''. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990.
* {{Cite book |last=Goldsworthy |first=Adrian Keith |title=Caesar: Life of a Colossus |date=2008 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-3001-2689-1 |author-link=Adrian Goldsworthy}}
* Potter, T.W. ''Roman Italy''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987.
* {{Cite book |last=Holloway |first=R. Ross |title=The archaeology of early Rome and Latium |date=1994 |publisher=Routledge |author-link=R. Ross Holloway}}
* Raaflaub, Kurt A., editors. ''Social struggles in Archaic Rome: New perspectives on the conflict of the orders''. 2nd edition. Oxford: Blackwell, 2004.
* {{Cite book |last=Keaveney |first=Arthur |title=Rome and the unification of Italy |date=2005 |publisher=Bristol Phoenix |edition=2nd |author-link=Arthur Keaveney}}
* Rosenstein, Nathan S., and Robert Morstein-Marx, editors. ''A companion to the Roman Republic''. Oxford: Blackwell, 2006.
* {{Cite book |last1=Kraus |first1=Christina Shuttleworth |title=Latin historians |last2=Woodman |first2=A.J. |date=1997 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}
* Scheidel, Walter, Richard P Saller, and Ian Morris. ''The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
* {{Cite book |last=Mitchell |first=Richard E. |title=Patricians and plebeians: The origin of the Roman state |date=1990 |publisher=Cornell University Press |author-link=Richard Mitchell}}
* Smith, Christopher J. ''Early Rome and Latium: Economy and society c.&nbsp;1000–500 BC''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.
* {{Cite book |last=Potter |first=T.W. |title=Roman Italy |date=1987 |publisher=University of California Press}}
* Stewart, Roberta. ''Public office in early Rome: Ritual procedure and political practice''. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1998.
* {{Cite book |title=Social struggles in Archaic Rome: New perspectives on the conflict of the orders |date=2004 |publisher=Blackwell |editor-last=Raaflaub |editor-first=Kurt A. |edition=2nd |author-link=Kurt Raaflaub}}
* Woolf, Greg. ''Rome: An Empire's Story''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.
* {{Cite book |title=A companion to the Roman Republic |date=2006 |publisher=Blackwell |editor-last=Rosenstein |editor-first=Nathan S. |editor-last2=Morstein-Marx |editor-first2=Robert}}
* Wyke, Maria. ''Projecting the Past: Ancient Rome, Cinema, and History''. New York: Routledge, 1997.
* {{Cite book |last=Scullard |first=H.H. |url=https://archive.org/details/fromgracchitoner00scul |title=From the Gracchi to Nero |date=1982 |publisher=Routledge |edition=5th |isbn=978-0-4150-2527-0 |author-link=Howard Hayes Scullard}}
* {{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Christopher J. |title=Early Rome and Latium: Economy and society c.&nbsp;1000–500 BC |date=1996 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}
* {{Cite book |last=Stewart |first=Roberta |title=Public office in early Rome: Ritual procedure and political practice |date=1998 |publisher=University of Michigan Press}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Wade |first=Lizzie |date=8 November 2019 |title=Immigrants from the Middle East shaped Rome |journal=] |publisher=] |volume=366 |issue=6466 |page=673 |bibcode=2019Sci...366..673W |doi=10.1126/science.366.6466.673 |pmid=31699914 |s2cid=207965960 |doi-access=}}
* {{Cite book |last=Woolf |first=Greg |title=Rome: An Empire's Story |date=2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press |author-link=Greg Woolf}}
* {{Cite book |last=Wyke |first=Maria |title=Projecting the Past: Ancient Rome, Cinema, and History |date=1997 |publisher=Routledge |author-link=Maria Wyke}}
{{Refend}}


==External links== ==External links==
{{Commons category}} {{Commons category}}
{{Library resources box |by=no |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=Ancient Rome|viaf= |lcheading= |wikititle= }} {{Library resources box |by=no |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=Ancient Rome|viaf= |lcheading= |wikititle=}}
* resources for students from the Courtenay Middle School Library. * resources for students from the Courtenay Middle School Library.
* OpenCourseWare from the ] providing free resources including lectures, discussion questions, assignments, and exams. * OpenCourseWare from the ] providing free resources including lectures, discussion questions, assignments, and exams.
* *
*
*
*
*
*


{{Ancient Rome topics}} {{Ancient Rome topics}}
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{{Roman Constitution}} {{Roman Constitution}}
{{Roman Emperors}} {{Roman Emperors}}
{{Ancient Greek and Roman wars}} {{Ancient Roman Wars|state=collapsed}}
{{Colonies of Ancient Rome}} {{Colonies of Ancient Rome}}
{{Italy topics}} {{Italy topics}}
{{Former monarchies Italian peninsula}} {{Former monarchies Italian peninsula}}
{{Western culture}} {{Western world}}
{{Authority control}} {{Authority control}}


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Latest revision as of 18:17, 18 December 2024

Roman civilisation from the 8th century BC to the 5th century AD This article is about the history of Roman civilisation in antiquity. For the history of the city of Rome, see History of Rome. For other uses, see Ancient Rome (disambiguation).

Roma
753 BC–476/480 AD
Motto: Senatus Populusque Romanus
Territories of the Roman civilisation:   Roman Republic   Roman Empire   Western Roman Empire   Eastern Roman Empire
Status
CapitalRome (and others during the late Empire, notably Constantinople and Ravenna)
Common languagesLatin
Government
Historical eraAncient history
• Founding of Rome 753 BC
• Overthrow of Tarquin the Proud 509 BC
• Octavian proclaimed Augustus 27 BC
• Collapse of the Western Roman Empire 476/480 AD
  1. While the deposition of Emperor Romulus Augustulus in 476 is the most commonly cited end date for the Western Roman Empire, the last Western Roman emperor Julius Nepos, was assassinated in 480, when the title and notion of a separate Western Empire were abolished. Another suggested end date is the reorganization of the Italian peninsula and abolition of separate Western Roman administrative institutions under Emperor Justinian during the latter half of the 6th century.

In modern historiography, ancient Rome is the Roman civilisation from the founding of the Italian city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD. It encompasses the Roman Kingdom (753–509 BC), the Roman Republic (509–27 BC), and the Roman Empire (27 BC–476 AD) until the fall of the western empire.

Ancient Rome began as an Italic settlement, traditionally dated to 753 BC, beside the River Tiber in the Italian Peninsula. The settlement grew into the city and polity of Rome, and came to control its neighbours through a combination of treaties and military strength. It eventually controlled the Italian Peninsula, assimilating the Greek culture of southern Italy (Magna Grecia) and the Etruscan culture, and then became the dominant power in the Mediterranean region and parts of Europe. At its height it controlled the North African coast, Egypt, Southern Europe, and most of Western Europe, the Balkans, Crimea, and much of the Middle East, including Anatolia, Levant, and parts of Mesopotamia and Arabia. That empire was among the largest empires in the ancient world, covering around 5 million square kilometres (1.9 million square miles) in AD 117, with an estimated 50 to 90 million inhabitants, roughly 20% of the world's population at the time. The Roman state evolved from an elective monarchy to a classical republic and then to an increasingly autocratic military dictatorship during the Empire.

Ancient Rome is often grouped into classical antiquity together with ancient Greece, and their similar cultures and societies are known as the Greco-Roman world. Ancient Roman civilisation has contributed to modern language, religion, society, technology, law, politics, government, warfare, art, literature, architecture, and engineering. Rome professionalised and expanded its military and created a system of government called res publica, the inspiration for modern republics such as the United States and France. It achieved impressive technological and architectural feats, such as the empire-wide construction of aqueducts and roads, as well as more grandiose monuments and facilities.

History

Early Italy and the founding of Rome

Further information: Founding of Rome Capitoline WolfThe Capitoline Wolf, now illustrating the legend that a she-wolf suckled Romulus and Remus after their mother's imprisonment in Alba LongaRome 753 BCModern reconstruction of the marshy conditions of early Rome, along with a conjectural placement of the early settlement and its fortifications

Archaeological evidence of settlement around Rome starts to emerge c. 1000 BC. Large-scale organisation appears only c. 800 BC, with the first graves in the Esquiline Hill's necropolis, along with a clay and timber wall on the bottom of the Palatine Hill dating to the middle of the 8th century BC. Starting from c. 650 BC, the Romans started to drain the valley between the Capitoline and Palatine Hills, where today sits the Roman Forum. By the sixth century BC, the Romans were constructing the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on the Capitoline and expanding to the Forum Boarium located between the Capitoline and Aventine Hills.

The Romans themselves had a founding myth, attributing their city to Romulus and Remus, offspring of Mars and a princess of the mythical city of Alba Longa. The sons, sentenced to death, were rescued by a wolf and returned to restore the Alban king and found a city. After a dispute, Romulus killed Remus and became the city's sole founder. The area of his initial settlement on the Palatine Hill was later known as Roma Quadrata ("Square Rome"). The story dates at least to the third century BC, and the later Roman antiquarian Marcus Terentius Varro placed the city's foundation to 753 BC. Another legend, recorded by Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus, says that Prince Aeneas led a group of Trojans on a sea voyage to found a new Troy after the Trojan War. They landed on the banks of the Tiber River and a woman travelling with them, Roma, torched their ships to prevent them leaving again. They named the settlement after her. The Roman poet Virgil recounted this legend in his classical epic poem the Aeneid, where the Trojan prince Aeneas is destined to found a new Troy.

Byzantine EmpireRoman EmpireRoman RepublicRoman KingdomWestern Roman Empire

Kingdom

Main article: Roman Kingdom
Etruscan painting of dancer and musicians from the Tomb of the Leopards in Tarquinia

Literary and archaeological evidence is clear on there having been kings in Rome, attested in fragmentary 6th century BC texts. Long after the abolition of the Roman monarchy, a vestigial rex sacrorum was retained to exercise the monarch's former priestly functions. The Romans believed that their monarchy was elective, with seven legendary kings who were largely unrelated by blood.

Evidence of Roman expansion is clear in the sixth century BC; by its end, Rome controlled a territory of some 780 square kilometres (300 square miles) with a population perhaps as high as 35,000. A palace, the Regia, was constructed c. 625 BC; the Romans attributed the creation of their first popular organisations and the Senate to the regal period as well. Rome also started to extend its control over its Latin neighbours. While later Roman stories like the Aeneid asserted that all Latins descended from the character Aeneas, a common culture is attested to archaeologically. Attested to reciprocal rights of marriage and citizenship between Latin cities—the Jus Latii—along with shared religious festivals, further indicate a shared culture. By the end of the 6th century, most of this area had become dominated by the Romans.

Republic

Main article: Roman Republic Capitoline BrutusThe Capitoline Brutus, a bust traditionally identified as L. Junius Brutus, one of the founders of the RepublicItaly in 400 BCItaly in 400 BC, just prior to the Celtic invasion under Brennus

By the end of the sixth century, Rome and many of its Italian neighbours entered a period of turbulence. Archaeological evidence implies some degree of large-scale warfare. According to tradition and later writers such as Livy, the Roman Republic was established c. 509 BC, when the last of the seven kings of Rome, Tarquin the Proud, was deposed and a system based on annually elected magistrates and various representative assemblies was established. A constitution set a series of checks and balances, and a separation of powers. The most important magistrates were the two consuls, who together exercised executive authority such as imperium, or military command. The consuls had to work with the Senate, which was initially an advisory council of the ranking nobility, or patricians, but grew in size and power.

Other magistrates of the Republic include tribunes, quaestors, aediles, praetors and censors. The magistracies were originally restricted to patricians, but were later opened to common people, or plebeians. Republican voting assemblies included the comitia centuriata (centuriate assembly), which voted on matters of war and peace and elected men to the most important offices, and the comitia tributa (tribal assembly), which elected less important offices.

In the 4th century BC, Rome had come under attack by the Gauls, who now extended their power in the Italian peninsula beyond the Po Valley and through Etruria. On 16 July 390 BC, a Gallic army under the leadership of tribal chieftain Brennus, defeated the Romans at the Battle of the Allia and marched to Rome. The Gauls looted and burned the city, then laid siege to the Capitoline Hill, where some Romans had barricaded themselves, for seven months. The Gauls then agreed to give the Romans peace in exchange for 1000 pounds of gold. According to later legend, the Roman supervising the weighing noticed that the Gauls were using false scales. The Romans then took up arms and defeated the Gauls. Their victorious general Camillus remarked "With iron, not with gold, Rome buys her freedom."

The Romans gradually subdued the other peoples on the Italian peninsula, including the Etruscans. The last threat to Roman hegemony in Italy came when Tarentum, a major Greek colony, enlisted the aid of Pyrrhus of Epirus in 281 BC, but this effort failed as well. The Romans secured their conquests by founding Roman colonies in strategic areas, thereby establishing stable control over the region.

Punic Wars

Main article: Punic Wars See also: Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula
Territorial changes over the course of the Punic Wars:   Roman possessions and close allies   Carthaginian Empire and close allies
The Roman siege of the Celtiberian stronghold of Numantia in Spain in 133 BC

In the 3rd century BC Rome faced a new and formidable opponent: Carthage, the other major power in the Western Mediterranean. The First Punic War began in 264 BC, when the city of Messana asked for Carthage's help in their conflicts with Hiero II of Syracuse. After the Carthaginian intercession, Messana asked Rome to expel the Carthaginians. Rome entered this war because Syracuse and Messana were too close to the newly conquered Greek cities of Southern Italy and Carthage was now able to make an offensive through Roman territory; along with this, Rome could extend its domain over Sicily.

Carthage was a maritime power, and the Roman lack of ships and naval experience made the path to the victory a long and difficult one for the Roman Republic. Despite this, after more than 20 years of war, Rome defeated Carthage and a peace treaty was signed. Among the reasons for the Second Punic War was the subsequent war reparations Carthage acquiesced to at the end of the First Punic War. The war began with the audacious invasion of Hispania by Hannibal, who marched through Hispania to the Italian Alps, causing panic among Rome's Italian allies. The best way found to defeat Hannibal's purpose of causing the Italians to abandon Rome was to delay the Carthaginians with a guerrilla war of attrition, a strategy propounded by Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus. Hannibal's invasion lasted over 16 years, ravaging Italy, but ultimately Carthage was defeated in the decisive Battle of Zama in October 202 BC.

More than a half century after these events, Carthage was left humiliated and the Republic's focus was now directed towards the Hellenistic kingdoms of Greece and revolts in Hispania. However, Carthage, having paid the war indemnity, felt that its commitments and submission to Rome had ceased, a vision not shared by the Roman Senate. The Third Punic War began when Rome declared war against Carthage in 149 BC. Carthage resisted well at the first strike but could not withstand the attack of Scipio Aemilianus, who entirely destroyed the city, enslaved all the citizens and gained control of that region, which became the province of Africa. All these wars resulted in Rome's first overseas conquests (Sicily, Hispania and Africa) and the rise of Rome as a significant imperial power.

Late Republic

After defeating the Macedonian and Seleucid Empires in the 2nd century BC, the Romans became the dominant people of the Mediterranean Sea. The conquest of the Hellenistic kingdoms brought the Roman and Greek cultures in closer contact and the Roman elite, once rural, became cosmopolitan. At this time Rome was a consolidated empire—in the military view—and had no major enemies.

Gaius MariusGaius Marius, a general who dramatically reformed the Roman military and was repeatedly elected consul to handle invasions of the Cimbri and TeutonesL. Cornelius SullaL. Cornelius Sulla, leader of the rival optimate party, who ultimately marched on Rome twice, established himself as dictator, massacring opponents and attempting to restore the prerogatives of the Patricians and Senate

Foreign dominance led to internal strife. Senators became rich at the provinces' expense; soldiers, who were mostly small-scale farmers, were away from home longer and could not maintain their land; and the increased reliance on foreign slaves and the growth of latifundia reduced the availability of paid work. Income from war booty, mercantilism in the new provinces, and tax farming created new economic opportunities for the wealthy, forming a new class of merchants, called the equestrians. The lex Claudia forbade members of the Senate from engaging in commerce, so while the equestrians could theoretically join the Senate, they were severely restricted in political power. The Senate squabbled perpetually, repeatedly blocked important land reforms and refused to give the equestrian class a larger say in the government.

Violent gangs of the urban unemployed, controlled by rival Senators, intimidated the electorate through violence. The situation came to a head in the late 2nd century BC under the Gracchi brothers, a pair of tribunes who attempted to pass land reform legislation that would redistribute the major patrician landholdings among the plebeians. Both brothers were killed and the Senate passed reforms reversing the Gracchi brother's actions. This led to the growing divide of the plebeian groups (populares) and equestrian classes (optimates).

Gaius Marius soon become a leader of the Republic, holding the first of his seven consulships (an unprecedented number) in 107 BC by arguing that his former patron Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus was not able to defeat and capture the Numidian king Jugurtha. Marius then started his military reform: in his recruitment to fight Jugurtha, he levied the very poor (an innovation), and many landless men entered the army. Marius was elected for five consecutive consulships from 104 to 100 BC, as Rome needed a military leader to defeat the Cimbri and the Teutones, who were threatening Rome. After Marius's retirement, Rome had a brief peace, during which the Italian socii ("allies" in Latin) requested Roman citizenship and voting rights. The reformist Marcus Livius Drusus supported their legal process but was assassinated, and the socii revolted against the Romans in the Social War. At one point both consuls were killed; Marius was appointed to command the army together with Lucius Julius Caesar and Lucius Cornelius Sulla.

By the end of the Social War, Marius and Sulla were the premier military men in Rome and their partisans were in conflict, both sides jostling for power. In 88 BC, Sulla was elected for his first consulship and his first assignment was to defeat Mithridates VI of Pontus, whose intentions were to conquer the Eastern part of the Roman territories. However, Marius's partisans managed his installation to the military command, defying Sulla and the Senate. To consolidate his own power, Sulla conducted a surprising and illegal action: he marched to Rome with his legions, killing all those who showed support to Marius's cause. In the following year, 87 BC, Marius, who had fled at Sulla's march, returned to Rome while Sulla was campaigning in Greece. He seized power along with the consul Lucius Cornelius Cinna and killed the other consul, Gnaeus Octavius, achieving his seventh consulship. Marius and Cinna revenged their partisans by conducting a massacre.

Marius died in 86 BC, due to age and poor health, just a few months after seizing power. Cinna exercised absolute power until his death in 84 BC. After returning from his Eastern campaigns, Sulla had a free path to reestablish his own power. In 83 BC he made his second march on Rome and began a time of terror: thousands of nobles, knights and senators were executed. Sulla held two dictatorships and one more consulship, which began the crisis and decline of Roman Republic.

Caesar and the First Triumvirate

Landing of the Romans in Kent, 55 BC: Caesar with 100 ships and two legions made an opposed landing, probably near Deal. After pressing a little way inland against fierce opposition and losing ships in a storm, he retired back across the English Channel to Gaul from what was a reconnaissance in force, only to return the following year for a more serious invasion.

In the mid-1st century BC, Roman politics were restless. Political divisions in Rome split into one of two groups, populares (who hoped for the support of the people) and optimates (the "best", who wanted to maintain exclusive aristocratic control). Sulla overthrew all populist leaders and his constitutional reforms removed powers (such as those of the tribune of the plebs) that had supported populist approaches. Meanwhile, social and economic stresses continued to build; Rome had become a metropolis with a super-rich aristocracy, debt-ridden aspirants, and a large proletariat often of impoverished farmers. The latter groups supported the Catilinarian conspiracy—a resounding failure since the consul Marcus Tullius Cicero quickly arrested and executed the main leaders.

Gaius Julius Caesar reconciled the two most powerful men in Rome: Marcus Licinius Crassus, who had financed much of his earlier career, and Crassus' rival, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (anglicised as Pompey), to whom he married his daughter. He formed them into a new informal alliance including himself, the First Triumvirate ("three men"). Caesar's daughter died in childbirth in 54 BC, and in 53 BC, Crassus invaded Parthia and was killed in the Battle of Carrhae; the Triumvirate disintegrated. Caesar conquered Gaul, obtained immense wealth, respect in Rome and the loyalty of battle-hardened legions. He became a threat to Pompey and was loathed by many optimates. Confident that Caesar could be stopped by legal means, Pompey's party tried to strip Caesar of his legions, a prelude to Caesar's trial, impoverishment, and exile.

To avoid this fate, Caesar crossed the Rubicon River and invaded Rome in 49 BC. The Battle of Pharsalus was a brilliant victory for Caesar and in this and other campaigns, he destroyed all of the optimates leaders: Metellus Scipio, Cato the Younger, and Pompey's son, Gnaeus Pompeius. Pompey was murdered in Egypt in 48 BC. Caesar was now pre-eminent over Rome: in five years he held four consulships, two ordinary dictatorships, and two special dictatorships, one for perpetuity. He was murdered in 44 BC, on the Ides of March by the Liberatores.

Octavian and the Second Triumvirate

Caesar's assassination caused political and social turmoil in Rome; the city was ruled by his friend and colleague, Marcus Antonius. Soon afterward, Octavius, whom Caesar adopted through his will, arrived in Rome. Octavian (historians regard Octavius as Octavian due to the Roman naming conventions) tried to align himself with the Caesarian faction. In 43 BC, along with Antony and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, Caesar's best friend, he legally established the Second Triumvirate. Upon its formation, 130–300 senators were executed, and their property was confiscated, due to their supposed support for the Liberatores.

In 42 BC, the Senate deified Caesar as Divus Iulius; Octavian thus became Divi filius, the son of the deified. In the same year, Octavian and Antony defeated both Caesar's assassins and the leaders of the Liberatores, Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus, in the Battle of Philippi. The Second Triumvirate was marked by the proscriptions of many senators and equites: after a revolt led by Antony's brother Lucius Antonius, more than 300 senators and equites involved were executed, although Lucius was spared.

The Triumvirate divided the Empire among the triumvirs: Lepidus was given charge of Africa, Antony, the eastern provinces, and Octavian remained in Italia and controlled Hispania and Gaul. The Second Triumvirate expired in 38 BC but was renewed for five more years. However, the relationship between Octavian and Antony had deteriorated, and Lepidus was forced to retire in 36 BC after betraying Octavian in Sicily. By the end of the Triumvirate, Antony was living in Ptolemaic Egypt, ruled by his lover, Cleopatra VII. Antony's affair with Cleopatra was seen as an act of treason, since she was queen of another country. Additionally, Antony adopted a lifestyle considered too extravagant and Hellenistic for a Roman statesman. Following Antony's Donations of Alexandria, which gave to Cleopatra the title of "Queen of Kings", and to Antony's and Cleopatra's children the regal titles to the newly conquered Eastern territories, war between Octavian and Antony broke out. Octavian annihilated Egyptian forces in the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide. Now Egypt was conquered by the Roman Empire.

Empire – the Principate

Main article: Roman Empire
The Augustus of Prima Porta, 1st century AD, depicting Augustus, the first Roman emperor

In 27 BC and at the age of 36, Octavian was the sole Roman leader. In that year, he took the name Augustus. That event is usually taken by historians as the beginning of Roman Empire. Officially, the government was republican, but Augustus assumed absolute powers. His reform of the government brought about a two-century period colloquially referred to by Romans as the Pax Romana.

Julio-Claudian dynasty

The Julio-Claudian dynasty was established by Augustus. The emperors of this dynasty were Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius and Nero. The Julio-Claudians started the destruction of republican values, but on the other hand, they boosted Rome's status as the central power in the Mediterranean region. While Caligula and Nero are usually remembered in popular culture as dysfunctional emperors, Augustus and Claudius are remembered as successful in politics and the military. This dynasty instituted imperial tradition in Rome and frustrated any attempt to reestablish a Republic.

Augustus (r. 27 BC – AD 14) gathered almost all the republican powers under his official title, princeps, and diminished the political influence of the senatorial class by boosting the equestrian class. The senators lost their right to rule certain provinces, like Egypt, since the governor of that province was directly nominated by the emperor. The creation of the Praetorian Guard and his reforms in the military, creating a standing army with a fixed size of 28 legions, ensured his total control over the army. Compared with the Second Triumvirate's epoch, Augustus' reign as princeps was very peaceful, which led the people and the nobles of Rome to support Augustus, increasing his strength in political affairs. His generals were responsible for the field command, gaining such commanders as Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, Nero Claudius Drusus and Germanicus much respect from the populace and the legions. Augustus intended to extend the Roman Empire to the whole known world, and in his reign, Rome conquered Cantabria, Aquitania, Raetia, Dalmatia, Illyricum and Pannonia. Under Augustus' reign, Roman literature grew steadily in what is known as the Golden Age of Latin Literature. Poets like Virgil, Horace, Ovid and Rufus developed a rich literature, and were close friends of Augustus. Along with Maecenas, he sponsored patriotic poems, such as Virgil's epic Aeneid and historiographical works like those of Livy. Augustus continued the changes to the calendar promoted by Caesar, and the month of August is named after him. Augustus brought a peaceful and thriving era to Rome, known as Pax Augusta or Pax Romana. Augustus died in 14 AD, but the empire's glory continued after his era.

Extent of the Roman Empire under Augustus. The yellow legend represents the extent of the Republic in 31 BC, the shades of green represent gradually conquered territories under the reign of Augustus, and pink areas on the map represent client states; areas under Roman control shown here were subject to change even during Augustus' reign, especially in Germania.

The Julio-Claudians continued to rule Rome after Augustus' death and remained in power until the death of Nero in 68 AD. Influenced by his wife, Livia Drusilla, Augustus appointed her son from another marriage, Tiberius, as his heir. The Senate agreed with the succession, and granted to Tiberius the same titles and honours once granted to Augustus: the title of princeps and Pater patriae, and the Civic Crown. However, Tiberius was not an enthusiast for political affairs: after agreement with the Senate, he retired to Capri in 26 AD, and left control of the city of Rome in the hands of the praetorian prefect Sejanus (until 31 AD) and Macro (from 31 to 37 AD).

Tiberius died (or was killed) in 37 AD. The male line of the Julio-Claudians was limited to Tiberius' nephew Claudius, his grandson Tiberius Gemellus and his grand-nephew Caligula. As Gemellus was still a child, Caligula was chosen to rule the empire. He was a popular leader in the first half of his reign, but became a crude and insane tyrant in his years controlling government. The Praetorian Guard murdered Caligula four years after the death of Tiberius, and, with belated support from the senators, proclaimed his uncle Claudius as the new emperor. Claudius was not as authoritarian as Tiberius and Caligula. Claudius conquered Lycia and Thrace; his most important deed was the beginning of the conquest of Britannia. Claudius was poisoned by his wife, Agrippina the Younger in 54 AD. His heir was Nero, son of Agrippina and her former husband, since Claudius' son Britannicus had not reached manhood upon his father's death.

Nero sent his general, Suetonius Paulinus, to invade modern-day Wales, where he encountered stiff resistance. The Celts there were independent, tough, resistant to tax collectors, and fought Paulinus as he battled his way across from east to west. It took him a long time to reach the north west coast, and in 60 AD he finally crossed the Menai Strait to the sacred island of Mona (Anglesey), the last stronghold of the druids. His soldiers attacked the island and massacred the druids: men, women and children, destroyed the shrine and the sacred groves and threw many of the sacred standing stones into the sea. While Paulinus and his troops were massacring druids in Mona, the tribes of modern-day East Anglia staged a revolt led by queen Boadicea of the Iceni. The rebels sacked and burned Camulodunum, Londinium and Verulamium (modern-day Colchester, London and St Albans respectively) before they were crushed by Paulinus. Boadicea, like Cleopatra before her, committed suicide to avoid the disgrace of being paraded in triumph in Rome. Nero is widely known as the first persecutor of Christians and for the Great Fire of Rome, rumoured to have been started by the emperor himself. A conspiracy against Nero in 65 AD under Calpurnius Piso failed, but in 68 AD the armies under Julius Vindex in Gaul and Servius Sulpicius Galba in modern-day Spain revolted. Deserted by the Praetorian Guards and condemned to death by the senate, Nero killed himself.

As Roman provinces were being established throughout the Mediterranean, Italy maintained a special status which made it domina provinciarum ("ruler of the provinces"), and – especially in relation to the first centuries of imperial stabilityrectrix mundi ("governor of the world") and omnium terrarum parens ("parent of all lands").

Flavian dynasty

Bust of Vespasian, founder of the Flavian dynasty

The Flavians were the second dynasty to rule Rome. By 68 AD, the year of Nero's death, there was no chance of a return to the Roman Republic, and so a new emperor had to arise. After the turmoil in the Year of the Four Emperors, Titus Flavius Vespasianus (anglicised as Vespasian) took control of the empire and established a new dynasty. Under the Flavians, Rome continued its expansion, and the state remained secure. Under Trajan, the Roman Empire reached the peak of its territorial expansion. Rome's dominion now spanned 5.0 million square kilometres (1.9 million square miles).

The most significant military campaign undertaken during the Flavian period was the siege and destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD by Titus. The destruction of the city was the culmination of the Roman campaign in Judea following the Jewish uprising of 66 AD. The Second Temple was completely demolished, after which Titus' soldiers proclaimed him imperator in honour of the victory. Jerusalem was sacked and much of the population killed or dispersed. Josephus claims that 1,100,000 people were killed during the siege, of whom a majority were Jewish. 97,000 were captured and enslaved, including Simon bar Giora and John of Giscala. Many fled to areas around the Mediterranean.

Vespasian was a general under Claudius and Nero and fought as a commander in the First Jewish-Roman War. Following the turmoil of the Year of the Four Emperors, in 69 AD, four emperors were enthroned in turn: Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and, lastly, Vespasian, who crushed Vitellius' forces and became emperor. He reconstructed many buildings which were uncompleted, like a statue of Apollo and the temple of Divus Claudius ("the deified Claudius"), both initiated by Nero. Buildings destroyed by the Great Fire of Rome were rebuilt, and he revitalised the Capitol. Vespasian started the construction of the Flavian Amphitheater, commonly known as the Colosseum. The historians Josephus and Pliny the Elder wrote their works during Vespasian's reign. Vespasian was Josephus' sponsor and Pliny dedicated his Naturalis Historia to Titus, son of Vespasian. Vespasian sent legions to defend the eastern frontier in Cappadocia, extended the occupation in Britannia (modern-day England, Wales and southern Scotland) and reformed the tax system. He died in 79 AD.

Titus became emperor in 79. He finished the Flavian Amphitheater, using war spoils from the First Jewish-Roman War, and hosted victory games that lasted for a hundred days. These games included gladiatorial combats, horse races and a sensational mock naval battle on the flooded grounds of the Colosseum. Titus died of fever in 81 AD, and was succeeded by his brother Domitian. As emperor, Domitian showed the characteristics of a tyrant. He ruled for fifteen years, during which time he acquired a reputation for self-promotion as a living god. He constructed at least two temples in honour of Jupiter, the supreme deity in Roman religion. He was murdered following a plot within his own household.

Nerva–Antonine dynasty

The Roman Empire reached its greatest extent under Trajan in AD 117

Following Domitian's murder, the Senate rapidly appointed Nerva as Emperor. Nerva had noble ancestry, and he had served as an advisor to Nero and the Flavians. His rule restored many of the traditional liberties of Rome's upper classes, which Domitian had over-ridden. The Nerva–Antonine dynasty from 96 AD to 192 AD included the "five good emperors" Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius. Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius were part of Italic families settled in Roman colonies outside of Italy: the families of Trajan and Hadrian had settled in Italica (Hispania Baetica), that of Antoninus Pius in Colonia Agusta Nemausensis (Gallia Narbonensis), and that of Marcus Aurelius in Colonia Claritas Iulia Ucubi (Hispania Baetica). The Nerva-Antonine dynasty came to an end with Commodus, son of Marcus Aurelius.

Nerva abdicated and died in 98 AD, and was succeeded by the general Trajan. Trajan is credited with the restoration of traditional privileges and rights of commoner and senatorial classes, which later Roman historians claim to have been eroded during Domitian's autocracy. Trajan fought three Dacian wars, winning territories roughly equivalent to modern-day Romania and Moldova. He undertook an ambitious public building program in Rome, including Trajan's Forum, Trajan's Market and Trajan's Column, with the architect Apollodorus of Damascus. He remodelled the Pantheon and extended the Circus Maximus. When Parthia appointed a king for Armenia without consulting Rome, Trajan declared war on Parthia and deposed the king of Armenia. In 115 he took the Northern Mesopotamian cities of Nisibis and Batnae, organised a province of Mesopotamia (116), and issued coins that claimed Armenia and Mesopotamia were under the authority of the Roman people. In that same year, he captured Seleucia and the Parthian capital Ctesiphon (near modern Baghdad). After defeating a Parthian revolt and a Jewish revolt, he withdrew due to health issues, and in 117, he died of edema.

Map showing the location of Hadrian's Wall and the Antonine Wall in Scotland and Northern England

Trajan's successor Hadrian withdrew all the troops stationed in Parthia, Armenia and Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq), abandoning Trajan's conquests. Hadrian's army crushed a revolt in Mauretania and the Bar Kokhba revolt in Judea. This was the last large-scale Jewish revolt against the Romans, and was suppressed with massive repercussions in Judea. Hundreds of thousands of Jews were killed. Hadrian renamed the province of Judea "Provincia Syria Palaestina", after one of Judea's most hated enemies. He constructed fortifications and walls, like the celebrated Hadrian's Wall which separated Roman Britannia and the tribes of modern-day Scotland. Hadrian promoted culture, especially the Greek. He forbade torture and humanised the laws. His many building projects included aqueducts, baths, libraries and theatres; additionally, he travelled nearly every province in the Empire to review military and infrastructural conditions. Following Hadrian's death in 138 AD, his successor Antoninus Pius built temples, theatres, and mausoleums, promoted the arts and sciences, and bestowed honours and financial rewards upon the teachers of rhetoric and philosophy. On becoming emperor, Antoninus made few initial changes, leaving intact as far as possible the arrangements instituted by his predecessor. Antoninus expanded Roman Britannia by invading what is now southern Scotland and building the Antonine Wall. He also continued Hadrian's policy of humanising the laws. He died in 161 AD.

The Pantheon, Rome, built during the reign of Hadrian, which still contains the largest unreinforced concrete dome in the world

Marcus Aurelius, known as the Philosopher, was the last of the Five Good Emperors. He was a stoic philosopher and wrote the Meditations. He defeated barbarian tribes in the Marcomannic Wars as well as the Parthian Empire. His co-emperor, Lucius Verus, died in 169 AD, probably from the Antonine Plague, a pandemic that killed nearly five million people through the Empire in 165–180 AD.

From Nerva to Marcus Aurelius, the empire achieved an unprecedented status. The powerful influence of laws and manners had gradually cemented the union of the provinces. All the citizens enjoyed and abused the advantages of wealth. The image of a free constitution was preserved with decent reverence. The Roman senate appeared to possess the sovereign authority, and devolved on the emperors all the executive powers of government. Gibbon declared the rule of these "Five Good Emperors" the golden era of the Empire. During this time, Rome reached its greatest territorial extent.

Commodus, son of Marcus Aurelius, became emperor after his father's death. He is not counted as one of the Five Good Emperors, due to his direct kinship with the latter emperor; in addition, he was militarily passive. Cassius Dio identifies his reign as the beginning of Roman decadence: "(Rome has transformed) from a kingdom of gold to one of iron and rust."

Severan dynasty

Commodus was killed by a conspiracy involving Quintus Aemilius Laetus and his wife Marcia in late 192 AD. The following year is known as the Year of the Five Emperors, during which Helvius Pertinax, Didius Julianus, Pescennius Niger, Clodius Albinus and Septimius Severus held the imperial dignity. Pertinax, a member of the senate who had been one of Marcus Aurelius's right-hand men, was the choice of Laetus, and he ruled vigorously and judiciously. Laetus soon became jealous and instigated Pertinax's murder by the Praetorian Guard, who then auctioned the empire to the highest bidder, Didius Julianus, for 25,000 sesterces per man. The people of Rome were appalled and appealed to the frontier legions to save them. The legions of three frontier provinces—Britannia, Pannonia Superior, and Syria—resented being excluded from the "donative" and replied by declaring their individual generals to be emperor. Lucius Septimius Severus Geta, the Pannonian commander, bribed the opposing forces, pardoned the Praetorian Guards and installed himself as emperor. He and his successors governed with the legions' support. The changes on coinage and military expenditures were the root of the financial crisis that marked the Crisis of the Third Century.

The Severan Tondo, c. 199, Severus, Julia Domna, Caracalla and Geta, whose face is erased

Severus was enthroned after invading Rome and having Didius Julianus killed. Severus attempted to revive totalitarianism and, addressing the Roman people and Senate, praised the severity and cruelty of Marius and Sulla, which worried the senators. When Parthia invaded Roman territory, Severus successfully waged war against that country. Notwithstanding this military success, Severus failed in invading Hatra, a rich Arabian city. Severus killed his legate, who was gaining respect from the legions; and his soldiers fell victim to famine. After this disastrous campaign, he withdrew. Severus also intended to vanquish the whole of Britannia. To achieve this, he waged war against the Caledonians. After many casualties in the army due to the terrain and the barbarians' ambushes, Severus himself went to the field. However, he became ill and died in 211 AD, at the age of 65.

Bust of Caracalla from the Capitoline Museums, Rome

Upon the death of Severus, his sons Caracalla and Geta were made emperors. Caracalla had his brother, a youth, assassinated in his mother's arms, and may have murdered 20,000 of Geta's followers. Like his father, Caracalla was warlike. He continued Severus' policy and gained respect from the legions. Knowing that the citizens of Alexandria disliked him and were denigrating his character, Caracalla served a banquet for its notable citizens, after which his soldiers killed all the guests. From the security of the temple of Sarapis, he then directed an indiscriminate slaughter of Alexandria's people. In 212, he issued the Edict of Caracalla, giving full Roman citizenship to all free men living in the Empire, with the exception of the dediticii, people who had become subject to Rome through surrender in war, and freed slaves.

Mary Beard points to the edict as a fundamental turning point, after which Rome was "effectively a new state masquerading under an old name".

Macrinus conspired to have Caracalla assassinated by one of his soldiers during a pilgrimage to the Temple of the Moon in Carrhae, in 217 AD. Macrinus assumed power, but soon removed himself from Rome to the east and Antioch. His brief reign ended in 218, when the youngster Bassianus, high priest of the temple of the Sun at Emesa, and supposedly illegitimate son of Caracalla, was declared Emperor by the disaffected soldiers of Macrinus. He adopted the name of Antoninus but history has named him after his Sun god Elagabalus, represented on Earth in the form of a large black stone. An incompetent and lascivious ruler, Elagabalus offended all but his favourites. Cassius Dio, Herodian and the Historia Augusta give many accounts of his notorious extravagance. Elagabalus adopted his cousin Severus Alexander, as Caesar, but subsequently grew jealous and attempted to assassinate him. However, the Praetorian guard preferred Alexander, murdered Elagabalus, dragged his mutilated corpse through the streets of Rome, and threw it into the Tiber. Severus Alexander then succeeded him. Alexander waged war against many foes, including the revitalised Persia and also the Germanic peoples, who invaded Gaul. His losses generated dissatisfaction among his soldiers, and some of them murdered him during his Germanic campaign in 235 AD.

Crisis of the Third Century

Main article: Crisis of the Third Century
The Roman Empire suffered internal schisms, forming the Palmyrene Empire and the Gallic Empire

A disastrous scenario emerged after the death of Alexander Severus: the Roman state was plagued by civil wars, external invasions, political chaos, pandemics and economic depression. The old Roman values had fallen, and Mithraism and Christianity had begun to spread through the populace. Emperors were no longer men linked with nobility; they usually were born in lower-classes of distant parts of the Empire. These men rose to prominence through military ranks, and became emperors through civil wars.

There were 26 emperors in a 49-year period, a signal of political instability. Maximinus Thrax was the first ruler of that time, governing for just three years. Others ruled just for a few months, like Gordian I, Gordian II, Balbinus and Hostilian. The population and the frontiers were abandoned, since the emperors were mostly concerned with defeating rivals and establishing their power. The economy also suffered: massive military expenditures from the Severi caused a devaluation of Roman coins. Hyperinflation came at this time as well. The Plague of Cyprian broke out in 250 and killed a huge portion of the population. In 260 AD, the provinces of Syria Palaestina, Asia Minor and Egypt separated from the rest of the Roman state to form the Palmyrene Empire, ruled by Queen Zenobia and centered on Palmyra. In that same year the Gallic Empire was created by Postumus, retaining Britannia and Gaul. These countries separated from Rome after the capture of emperor Valerian by the Sassanids of Persia, the first Roman ruler to be captured by his enemies; it was a humiliating fact for the Romans. The crisis began to recede during the reigns of Claudius Gothicus (268–270), who defeated the Gothic invaders, and Aurelian (271–275), who reconquered both the Gallic and Palmyrene Empires. The crisis was overcome during the reign of Diocletian.

Empire – The Tetrarchy

Main article: Tetrarchy

Diocletian

A Roman follis depicting the profile of Diocletian

In 284 AD, Diocletian was hailed as Imperator by the eastern army. Diocletian healed the empire from the crisis, by political and economic shifts. A new form of government was established: the Tetrarchy. The Empire was divided among four emperors, two in the West and two in the East. The first tetrarchs were Diocletian (in the East), Maximian (in the West), and two junior emperors, Galerius (in the East) and Flavius Constantius (in the West). To adjust the economy, Diocletian made several tax reforms.

Diocletian expelled the Persians who plundered Syria and conquered some barbarian tribes with Maximian. He adopted many behaviours of Eastern monarchs. Anyone in the presence of the emperor had now to prostrate himself—a common act in the East, but never practised in Rome before. Diocletian did not use a disguised form of Republic, as the other emperors since Augustus had done. Between 290 and 330, half a dozen new capitals had been established by the members of the Tetrarchy, officially or not: Antioch, Nicomedia, Thessalonike, Sirmium, Milan, and Trier. Diocletian was also responsible for a significant Christian persecution. In 303 he and Galerius started the persecution and ordered the destruction of all the Christian churches and scripts and forbade Christian worship. Diocletian abdicated in 305 AD together with Maximian, thus, he was the first Roman emperor to resign. His reign ended the traditional form of imperial rule, the Principate (from princeps) and started the Tetrarchy.

The Aula Palatina of Trier, Germany (then part of the Roman province of Gallia Belgica), a Christian basilica built during the reign of Constantine I (r. 306–337 AD)

Constantine and Christianity

Constantine assumed the empire as a tetrarch in 306. He conducted many wars against the other tetrarchs. Firstly he defeated Maxentius in 312. In 313, he issued the Edict of Milan, which granted liberty for Christians to profess their religion. Constantine was converted to Christianity, enforcing the Christian faith. He began the Christianization of the Empire and of Europe—a process concluded by the Catholic Church in the Middle Ages. He was defeated by the Franks and the Alamanni during 306–308. In 324 he defeated another tetrarch, Licinius, and controlled all the empire, as it was before Diocletian. To celebrate his victories and Christianity's relevance, he rebuilt Byzantium and renamed it Nova Roma ("New Rome"); but the city soon gained the informal name of Constantinople ("City of Constantine").

The reign of Julian, who under the influence of his adviser Mardonius attempted to restore Classical Roman and Hellenistic religion, only briefly interrupted the succession of Christian emperors. Constantinople served as a new capital for the Empire. In fact, Rome had lost its central importance since the Crisis of the Third Century—Mediolanum was the western capital from 286 to 330, until the reign of Honorius, when Ravenna was made capital, in the 5th century. Constantine's administrative and monetary reforms, that reunited the Empire under one emperor, and rebuilt the city of Byzantium, as Constantinopolis Nova Roma, changed the high period of the ancient world.

Fall of the Western Roman Empire

Main article: Fall of the Western Roman Empire

In the late 4th and 5th centuries the Western Empire entered a critical stage which terminated with the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Under the last emperors of the Constantinian dynasty and the Valentinianic dynasty, Rome lost decisive battles against the Sasanian Empire and Germanic barbarians: in 363, emperor Julian the Apostate was killed in the Battle of Samarra, against the Persians and the Battle of Adrianople cost the life of emperor Valens (364–378); the victorious Goths were never expelled from the Empire nor assimilated. The next emperor, Theodosius I (379–395), gave even more force to the Christian faith, and after his death, the Empire was divided into the Eastern Roman Empire, ruled by Arcadius and the Western Roman Empire, commanded by Honorius, both of which were Theodosius' sons.

Ending invasions on Roman Empire between AD 100–500. Visigoths entering Athens. The Sack of Rome by the Barbarians in 410 by Joseph-Noël Sylvestre.

The situation became more critical in 408, after the death of Stilicho, a general who tried to reunite the Empire and repel barbarian invasion in the early years of the 5th century. The professional field army collapsed. In 410, the Theodosian dynasty saw the Visigoths sack Rome. During the 5th century, the Western Empire experienced a significant reduction of its territory. The Vandals conquered North Africa, the Visigoths claimed the southern part of Gaul, Gallaecia was taken by the Suebi, Britannia was abandoned by the central government, and the Empire suffered further from the invasions of Attila, chief of the Huns. General Orestes refused to meet the demands of the barbarian "allies" who now formed the army, and tried to expel them from Italy. Unhappy with this, their chieftain Odoacer defeated and killed Orestes, invaded Ravenna and dethroned Romulus Augustus, son of Orestes. This event of 476, usually marks the end of Classical antiquity and beginning of the Middle Ages. The Roman noble and former emperor Julius Nepos continued to rule as emperor from Dalmatia even after the deposition of Romulus Augustus until his death in 480. Some historians consider him to be the last emperor of the Western Empire instead of Romulus Augustus.

After 1200 years of independence and nearly 700 years as a great power, the rule of Rome in the West ended. Various reasons for Rome's fall have been proposed ever since, including loss of Republicanism, moral decay, military tyranny, class war, slavery, economic stagnation, environmental change, disease, the decline of the Roman race, as well as the inevitable ebb and flow that all civilisations experience. The Eastern Empire survived for almost 1000 years after the fall of its Western counterpart and became the most stable Christian realm during the Middle Ages. During the 6th century, Justinian reconquered the Italian peninsula from the Ostrogoths, North Africa from the Vandals, and southern Hispania from the Visigoths. But within a few years of Justinian's death, Eastern Roman (Byzantine) possessions in Italy were greatly reduced by the Lombards who settled in the peninsula. In the east, partially due to the weakening effect of the Plague of Justinian as well as a series of mutually destructive wars against the Persian Sassanian Empire, the Byzantine Romans were threatened by the rise of Islam. Its followers rapidly brought about the conquest of the Levant, the conquest of Armenia and the conquest of Egypt during the Arab–Byzantine wars, and soon presented a direct threat to Constantinople. In the following century, the Arabs captured southern Italy and Sicily. In the west, Slavic populations penetrated deep into the Balkans.

The Byzantine Romans, however, managed to stop further Islamic expansion into their lands during the 8th century and, beginning in the 9th century, reclaimed parts of the conquered lands. In 1000 AD, the Eastern Empire was at its height: Basil II reconquered Bulgaria and Armenia, and culture and trade flourished. However, soon after, this expansion was abruptly stopped in 1071 with the Byzantine defeat in the Battle of Manzikert. The aftermath of this battle sent the empire into a protracted period of decline. Two decades of internal strife and Turkic invasions ultimately led Emperor Alexios I Komnenos to send a call for help to the Western European kingdoms in 1095. The West responded with the Crusades, eventually resulting in the Sack of Constantinople by participants of the Fourth Crusade. The conquest of Constantinople in 1204 fragmented what remained of the Empire into successor states; the ultimate victor was the Empire of Nicaea. After the recapture of Constantinople by Imperial forces, the Empire was little more than a Greek state confined to the Aegean coast. The Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire collapsed when Mehmed the Conqueror conquered Constantinople on 29 May 1453.

Society

The Roman Forum, the political, economic, cultural, and religious center of the city during the Republic and later Empire

The imperial city of Rome was the largest urban center in the empire, with a population variously estimated from 450,000 to close to one million. Around 20 per cent of the population under jurisdiction of ancient Rome (25–40%, depending on the standards used, in Roman Italy) lived in innumerable urban centers, with population of 10,000 and more and several military settlements, a very high rate of urbanisation by pre-industrial standards. Most of those centers had a forum, temples, and other buildings similar to Rome's. The average life expectancy in the Middle Empire was about 26–28 years.

Law

Main article: Roman law

The roots of the legal principles and practices of the ancient Romans may be traced to the Law of the Twelve Tables promulgated in 449 BC and to the codification of law issued by order of Emperor Justinian I around 530 AD (see Corpus Juris Civilis). Roman law as preserved in Justinian's codes continued into the Byzantine Roman Empire, and formed the basis of similar codifications in continental Western Europe. Roman law continued, in a broader sense, to be applied throughout most of Europe until the end of the 17th century.

The major divisions of the law of ancient Rome, as contained within the Justinian and Theodosian law codes, consisted of Jus civile, Jus gentium, and Jus naturale. The Jus civile ("Citizen Law") was the body of common laws that applied to Roman citizens. The praetores urbani (sg. Praetor Urbanus) were the people who had jurisdiction over cases involving citizens. The Jus gentium ("Law of nations") was the body of common laws that applied to foreigners, and their dealings with Roman citizens. The praetores peregrini (sg. Praetor Peregrinus) were the people who had jurisdiction over cases involving citizens and foreigners. Jus naturale encompassed natural law, the body of laws that were considered common to all beings.

Class structure

Main articles: Social class in ancient Rome and Status in Roman legal system
The Orator, c. 100 BC, from the National Archaeological Museum of Florence, Italy, an Etrusco-Roman bronze statue depicting Aule Metele (Latin: Aulus Metellus), an Etruscan man wearing a Roman toga while engaged in rhetoric; the statue features an inscription in the Etruscan language

Roman society is largely viewed as hierarchical, with slaves (servi) at the bottom, freedmen (liberti) above them, and free-born citizens (cives) at the top. Free citizens were subdivided by class. The broadest, and earliest, division was between the patricians, who could trace their ancestry to one of the 100 patriarchs at the founding of the city, and the plebeians, who could not. This became less important in the later Republic, as some plebeian families became wealthy and entered politics, and some patrician families fell economically. Anyone, patrician or plebeian, who could count a consul as his ancestor was a noble (nobilis); a man who was the first of his family to hold the consulship, such as Marius or Cicero, was known as a novus homo ("new man") and ennobled his descendants. Patrician ancestry, however, still conferred considerable prestige, and many religious offices remained restricted to patricians.

A class division originally based on military service became more important. Membership of these classes was determined periodically by the censors, according to property. The wealthiest were the Senatorial class, who dominated politics and command of the army. Next came the equestrians (equites, sometimes translated "knights"), originally those who could afford a warhorse, and who formed a powerful mercantile class. Several further classes, originally based on the military equipment their members could afford, followed, with the proletarii, citizens who had no property other than their children, at the bottom. Before the reforms of Marius they were ineligible for military service and are often described as being just above freed slaves in wealth and prestige.

Voting power in the Republic depended on class. Citizens were enrolled in voting "tribes", but the tribes of the richer classes had fewer members than the poorer ones, all the proletarii being enrolled in a single tribe. Voting was done in class order, from top down, and stopped as soon as most of the tribes had been reached, so the poorer classes were often unable to cast their votes.

Women in ancient Rome shared some basic rights with their male counterparts, but were not fully regarded as citizens and were thus not allowed to vote or take part in politics. At the same time the limited rights of women were gradually expanded (due to emancipation) and women reached freedom from pater familias, gained property rights and even had more juridical rights than their husbands, but still no voting rights, and were absent from politics.

Allied foreign cities were often given the Latin Rights, an intermediary level between full citizens and foreigners (peregrini), which gave their citizens rights under Roman law and allowed their leading magistrates to become full Roman citizens. While there were varying degrees of Latin rights, the main division was between those cum suffragio ("with vote"; enrolled in a Roman tribe and able to take part in the comitia tributa) and sine suffragio ("without vote"; could not take part in Roman politics). Most of Rome's Italian allies were given full citizenship after the Social War of 91–88 BC, and full Roman citizenship was extended to all free-born men in the Empire by Caracalla in 212, with the exception of the dediticii, people who had become subject to Rome through surrender in war, and freed slaves.

Education

Main article: Education in ancient Rome
Roman portraiture fresco of a young man with a papyrus scroll, from Herculaneum, 1st century AD

In the early Republic, there were no public schools, so boys were taught to read and write by their parents, or by educated slaves, called paedagogi, usually of Greek origin. The primary aim of education during this period was to train young men in agriculture, warfare, Roman traditions, and public affairs. Young boys learned much about civic life by accompanying their fathers to religious and political functions, including the Senate for the sons of nobles. The sons of nobles were apprenticed to a prominent political figure at the age of 16, and campaigned with the army from the age of 17. Educational practices were modified after the conquest of the Hellenistic kingdoms in the 3rd century BC and the resulting Greek influence, although Roman educational practices were still much different from Greek ones. If their parents could afford it, boys and some girls at the age of 7 were sent to a private school outside the home called a ludus, where a teacher (called a litterator or a magister ludi, and often of Greek origin) taught them basic reading, writing, arithmetic, and sometimes Greek, until the age of 11.

Beginning at age 12, students went to secondary schools, where the teacher (now called a grammaticus) taught them about Greek and Roman literature. At the age of 16, some students went on to rhetoric school (where the teacher, usually Greek, was called a rhetor). Education at this level prepared students for legal careers, and required that the students memorise the laws of Rome.

Government

Main articles: Roman Constitution and History of the Roman Constitution Further information: History of citizenship § Roman conceptions of citizenship

Initially, Rome was ruled by kings, who were elected from each of Rome's major tribes in turn. The exact nature of the king's power is uncertain. He may have held near-absolute power, or may have merely been the chief executive of the Senate and the people. In military matters, the king's authority (Imperium) was likely absolute. He was also the head of the state religion. In addition to the authority of the King, there were three administrative assemblies: the Senate, which acted as an advisory body for the King; the Comitia Curiata, which could endorse and ratify laws suggested by the King; and the Comitia Calata, which was an assembly of the priestly college that could assemble the people to bear witness to certain acts, hear proclamations, and declare the feast and holiday schedule for the next month.

Representation of a sitting of the Roman Senate: Cicero attacks Catilina, from a 19th-century fresco by Cesare Maccari, in Palazzo Madama, home to Italy's Senate

The class struggles of the Roman Republic resulted in an unusual mixture of democracy and oligarchy. The word republic comes from the Latin res publica, which literally translates to "public business". Roman laws traditionally could only be passed by a vote of the Popular assembly (Comitia Tributa). Likewise, candidates for public positions had to run for election by the people. However, the Roman Senate represented an oligarchic institution, which acted as an advisory body.

In the Republic, the Senate held actual authority (auctoritas), but no real legislative power; it was technically only an advisory council. However, as the Senators were individually very influential, it was difficult to accomplish anything against the collective will of the Senate. New senators were chosen from among the most accomplished patricians by censors (Censura), who could also remove a senator from his office if he was found "morally corrupt"; a charge that could include bribery or, as under Cato the Elder, embracing one's wife in public. Later, under the reforms of the dictator Sulla, quaestors were made automatic members of the Senate, though most of his reforms did not survive.

The Republic had no fixed bureaucracy, and collected taxes through the practice of tax farming. Government positions such as quaestor, aedile, or praefect were funded by the office-holder. To prevent any citizen from gaining too much power, new magistrates were elected annually and had to share power with a colleague. For example, under normal conditions, the highest authority was held by two consuls. In an emergency, a temporary dictator could be appointed. Throughout the Republic, the administrative system was revised several times to comply with new demands. In the end, it proved inefficient for controlling the ever-expanding dominion of Rome, contributing to the establishment of the Roman Empire.

In the early Empire, the pretense of a republican form of government was maintained. The Roman Emperor was portrayed as only a princeps, or "first citizen", and the Senate gained legislative power and all legal authority previously held by the popular assemblies. However, the rule of the Emperors became increasingly autocratic, and the Senate was reduced to an advisory body appointed by the Emperor. The Empire did not inherit a set bureaucracy from the Republic, since the Republic did not have any permanent governmental structures apart from the Senate. The Emperor appointed assistants and advisers, but the state lacked many institutions, such as a centrally planned budget. Some historians have cited this as a significant reason for the decline of the Roman Empire.

Military

Main articles: Military history of ancient Rome, Military of ancient Rome, Structural history of the Roman military, Roman army, and Roman navy
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Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus, c. 122 BC; the altar shows two Roman infantrymen equipped with long scuta and a cavalryman with his horse. All are shown wearing chain mail armour.
Roman tower (reconstruction) at LimesTaunus / Germany

The early Roman army (c. 500 BC) was, like those of other contemporary city-states influenced by Greek civilisation, a citizen militia that practised hoplite tactics. It was small and organised in five classes (in parallel to the comitia centuriata, the body of citizens organised politically), with three providing hoplites and two providing light infantry. The early Roman army was tactically limited and its stance during this period was essentially defensive.

By the 3rd century BC, the Romans abandoned the hoplite formation in favour of a more flexible system in which smaller groups of 120 (or sometimes 60) men called maniples could manoeuvre more independently on the battlefield. Thirty maniples arranged in three lines with supporting troops constituted a legion, totalling between 4,000 and 5,000 men. The early Republican legion consisted of five sections: the three lines of manipular heavy infantry (hastati, principes and triarii), a force of light infantry (velites), and the cavalry (equites). With the new organisation came a new orientation toward the offensive and a much more aggressive posture toward adjoining city-states. At nominal full strength, an early Republican legion included 3,600 to 4,800 heavy infantry, several hundred light infantry, and several hundred cavalrymen.

Until the late Republican period, the typical legionary was a property-owning citizen farmer from a rural area (an adsiduus) who served for particular (often annual) campaigns, and who supplied his own equipment. After 200 BC, economic conditions in rural areas deteriorated as manpower needs increased, so that the property qualifications for compulsory service were gradually reduced. Beginning in the 3rd century BC, legionaries were paid a stipend (stipendium). By the time of Augustus, the ideal of the citizen-soldier had been abandoned and the legions had become fully professional. At the end of the Civil War, Augustus reorganised Roman military forces, discharging soldiers and disbanding legions. He retained 28 legions, distributed through the provinces of the Empire.

During the Principate, the tactical organisation of the Army continued to evolve. The auxilia remained independent cohorts, and legionary troops often operated as groups of cohorts rather than as full legions. A new and versatile type of unit, the cohortes equitatae, combined cavalry and legionaries in a single formation. They could be stationed at garrisons or outposts and could fight on their own as balanced small forces or combine with similar units as a larger, legion-sized force. This increase in organizational flexibility helped ensure the long-term success of Roman military forces. The Emperor Gallienus (253–268 AD) began a reorganisation that created the last military structure of the late Empire. Withdrawing some legionaries from the fixed bases on the border, Gallienus created mobile forces (the comitatenses or field armies) and stationed them behind and at some distance from the borders as a strategic reserve. The border troops (limitanei) stationed at fixed bases continued to be the first line of defence. The basic units of the field army were regimental; legiones or auxilia for infantry and vexillationes for cavalry. Nominal strengths may have been 1,200 men for infantry regiments and 600 for cavalry, but actual troop levels could have been much lower—800 infantry and 400 cavalry. Many infantry and cavalry regiments operated in pairs under the command of a comes. Field armies included regiments recruited from allied tribes and known as foederati. By 400 AD, foederati regiments had become permanently established units of the Roman army, paid and equipped by the Empire, led by a Roman tribune and used just as Roman units were used. The Empire also used groups of barbarians to fight along with the legions as allies without integration into the field armies, under overall command of a Roman general, but led by their own officers.

Military leadership evolved over the course of the history of Rome. Under the monarchy, the hoplite armies were led by the kings. During the early and middle Roman Republic, military forces were under the command of one of the two elected consuls for the year. During the later Republic, members of the Roman Senatorial elite, as part of the normal sequence of elected public offices known as the cursus honorum, would have served first as quaestor (often posted as deputies to field commanders), then as praetor. Following the end of a term as praetor or consul, a Senator might be appointed by the Senate as a propraetor or proconsul (depending on the highest office held before) to govern a foreign province. Under Augustus, whose most important political priority was to place the military under a permanent and unitary command, the Emperor was the legal commander of each legion but exercised that command through a legatus (legate) he appointed from the Senatorial elite. In a province with a single legion, the legate commanded the legion (legatus legionis) and served as provincial governor, while in a province with more than one legion, each legion was commanded by a legate and the legates were commanded by the provincial governor (also a legate but of higher rank).

During the later stages of the Imperial period (beginning perhaps with Diocletian), the Augustan model was abandoned. Provincial governors were stripped of military authority, and command of the armies in a group of provinces was given to generals (duces) appointed by the Emperor. These were no longer members of the Roman elite but men who came up through the ranks and had seen much practical soldiering. With increasing frequency, these men attempted (sometimes successfully) to usurp the positions of the Emperors. Decreased resources, increasing political chaos and civil war eventually left the Western Empire vulnerable to attack and takeover by neighbouring barbarian peoples.

Roman navy

A Roman naval bireme depicted in a relief from the Temple of Fortuna Primigenia in Praeneste (Palastrina), which was built c. 120 BC; exhibited in the Pius-Clementine Museum (Museo Pio-Clementino) in the Vatican Museums.

Less is known about the Roman navy than the Roman army. Prior to the middle of the 3rd century BC, officials known as duumviri navales commanded a fleet of twenty ships used mainly to control piracy. This fleet was given up in 278 AD and replaced by allied forces. The First Punic War required that Rome build large fleets, and it did so largely with the assistance of and financing from allies. This reliance on allies continued to the end of the Roman Republic. The quinquereme was the main warship on both sides of the Punic Wars and remained the mainstay of Roman naval forces until replaced by the time of Caesar Augustus by lighter and more manoeuvrable vessels.

As compared with a trireme, the quinquereme permitted the use of a mix of experienced and inexperienced crewmen (an advantage for a primarily land-based power), and its lesser manoeuvrability permitted the Romans to adopt and perfect boarding tactics using a troop of about 40 marines in lieu of the ram. Ships were commanded by a navarch, a rank equal to a centurion, who was usually not a citizen. Potter suggests that because the fleet was dominated by non-Romans, the navy was considered non-Roman and allowed to atrophy in times of peace.

Information suggests that by the time of the late Empire (350 AD), the Roman navy comprised several fleets including warships and merchant vessels for transportation and supply. Warships were oared sailing galleys with three to five banks of oarsmen. Fleet bases included such ports as Ravenna, Arles, Aquilea, Misenum and the mouth of the Somme River in the West and Alexandria and Rhodes in the East. Flotillas of small river craft (classes) were part of the limitanei (border troops) during this period, based at fortified river harbours along the Rhine and the Danube. That prominent generals commanded both armies and fleets suggests that naval forces were treated as auxiliaries to the army and not as an independent service. The details of command structure and fleet strengths during this period are not well known, although fleets were commanded by prefects.

Economy

Main articles: Roman agriculture, Roman commerce, Roman finance, Roman currency, and Roman metallurgy
Workers at a cloth-processing shop, in a painting from the fullonica of Veranius Hypsaeus in Pompeii

Ancient Rome commanded a vast area of land, with tremendous natural and human resources. As such, Rome's economy remained focused on farming and trade. Agricultural free trade changed the Italian landscape, and by the 1st century BC, vast grape and olive estates had supplanted the yeoman farmers, who were unable to match the imported grain price. The annexation of Egypt, Sicily and Tunisia in North Africa provided a continuous supply of grains. In turn, olive oil and wine were Italy's main exports. Two-tier crop rotation was practised, but farm productivity was low, around 1 ton per hectare.

Industrial and manufacturing activities were small. The largest such activities were the mining and quarrying of stones, which provided basic construction materials for the buildings of that period. In manufacturing, production was on a relatively small scale, and generally consisted of workshops and small factories that employed at most dozens of workers. However, some brick factories employed hundreds of workers.

The economy of the early Republic was largely based on smallholding and paid labour. However, foreign wars and conquests made slaves increasingly cheap and plentiful, and by the late Republic, the economy was largely dependent on slave labour for both skilled and unskilled work. Slaves are estimated to have constituted around 20% of the Roman Empire's population at this time and 40% in the city of Rome. Only in the Roman Empire, when the conquests stopped and the prices of slaves increased, did hired labour become more economical than slave ownership.

View of Trajan's Market, built by Apollodorus of Damascus

Although barter was used in ancient Rome, and often used in tax collection, Rome had a very developed coinage system, with brass, bronze, and precious metal coins in circulation throughout the Empire and beyond—some have even been discovered in India. Before the 3rd century BC, copper was traded by weight, measured in unmarked lumps, across central Italy. The original copper coins (as) had a face value of one Roman pound of copper, but weighed less. Thus, Roman money's utility as a unit of exchange consistently exceeded its intrinsic value as metal. After Nero began debasing the silver denarius, its legal value was an estimated one-third greater than its intrinsic value.

Horses were expensive and other pack animals were slower. Mass trade on the Roman roads connected military posts, where Roman markets were centered. These roads were designed for wheels. As a result, there was transport of commodities between Roman regions, but increased with the rise of Roman maritime trade in the 2nd century BC. During that period, a trading vessel took less than a month to complete a trip from Gades to Alexandria via Ostia, spanning the entire length of the Mediterranean. Transport by sea was around 60 times cheaper than by land, so the volume for such trips was much larger.

Some economists consider the Roman Empire a market economy, similar in its degree of capitalistic practices to 17th century Netherlands and 18th century England.

Family

Main article: Family in ancient Rome
A gold glass portrait of a family from Roman Egypt. The Greek inscription on the medallion may indicate either the name of the artist or the pater familias who is absent in the portrait.
A funerary relief with members of the gens Vibia, late 1st century BC, Vatican Museums

The basic units of Roman society were households and families. Groups of households connected through the male line formed a family (gens), based on blood ties, a common ancestry or adoption. During the Roman Republic, some powerful families, or Gentes Maiores, came to dominate political life. Families were headed by their oldest male citizen, the pater familias (father of the family), who held lawful authority (patria potestas, "father's power") over wives, sons, daughters, and slaves of the household, and the family's wealth.

The extreme expressions of this power—the selling or killing of family members for moral or civil offences, including simple disobedience—were very rarely exercised, and were forbidden in the Imperial era. A pater familias had moral and legal duties towards all family members. Even the most despotic pater familias was expected to consult senior members of his household and gens over matters that affected the family's well-being and reputation. Traditionally, such matters were regarded as outside the purview of the state and its magistrates; under the emperors, they were increasingly subject to state interference and legislation.

Once accepted into their birth family by their fathers, children were potential heirs. They could not be lawfully given away, or sold into slavery. If parents were unable to care for their child, or if its paternity was in doubt, they could resort to infant exposure (Boswell translates this as being "offered" up to care by the gods or strangers). If a deformed or sickly newborn was patently "unfit to live", killing it was a duty of the pater familias. A citizen father who exposed a healthy freeborn child was not punished, but automatically lost his potestas over that child. Abandoned children were sometimes adopted; some would have been sold into slavery. Slavery was near-ubiquitous and almost universally accepted. In the early Republic, citizens in debt were allowed to sell their labour, and perhaps their sons, to their debtor in a limited form of slavery called nexum, but this was abolished in the middle Republic. Freedom was considered a natural and proper state for citizens; slaves could be lawfully freed, with consent and support of their owners, and still serve their owners' family and financial interests, as freedmen or freed women. This was the basis of the client-patron relationship, one of the most important features of Rome's economy and society.

In law, a pater familias held potestas over his adult sons with their own households. This could give rise to legal anomalies, such as adult sons also having the status of minors. No man could be considered a pater familias, nor could he truly hold property under law, while his own father lived. During Rome's early history, married daughters came under the control (manus) of their husbands' pater familias. By the late Republic, most married women retained lawful connection to their birth family, though any children from the marriage belonged to her husband's family. The mother or an elderly relative often raised both boys and girls. Roman moralists held that marriage and child-raising fulfilled a basic duty to family, gens, and the state. Multiple remarriages were not uncommon. Fathers usually began seeking husbands for their daughters when these reached an age between twelve and fourteen, but most commoner-class women stayed single until their twenties, and in general seem to have been far more independent than wives of the elite. Divorce required the consent of one party, along with the return of any dowry. Both parents had power over their children during their minority and adulthood, but husbands had much less control over their wives.

Roman citizen women held a restricted form of citizenship; they could not vote but were protected by law. They ran families, could own and run businesses, own and cultivate land, write their own wills, and plead in court on their own behalf, or on behalf of others, all under dispensation of the courts and the nominal supervision of a senior male relative. Throughout the late Republican and Imperial eras, a declining birthrate among the elite, and a corresponding increase among commoners was cause of concern for many gentes; Augustus tried to address this through state intervention, offering rewards to any woman who gave birth to three or more children, and penalising the childless. The latter was much resented, and the former had seemingly negligible results. Aristocratic women seem to have been increasingly disinclined to childbearing; it carried a high risk of mortality to mothers, and a deal of inconvenience thereafter.

Time and dates

See also: Roman timekeeping, Roman calendar, and Roman consul § Consular dating

Roman hours were counted ordinally from dawn to dawn. Thus, if sunrise was at 6 am, then 6 to 7 am was called the "first hour". Midday was called meridies and it is from this word that the terms am (ante meridiem) and pm (post meridiem) stem. The English word "noon" comes from nona ("ninth (hour)"), which referred to 3 pm in ancient Rome. The Romans had clocks (horologia), which included giant public sundials (solaria) and water clocks (clepsydrae).

The ancient Roman week originally had eight days, which were identified by letters A to H, with the eighth day being the nundinum or market day, a kind of weekend when farmers sold their produce on the streets. The seven-day week, first introduced from the East during the early Empire, was officially adopted during the reign of Constantine. Romans named week days after celestial bodies from at least the 1st century AD. Roman months had three important days: the calends (first day of each month, always in plural), the ides (13th or 15th of the month), and the nones (ninth day before the ides, inclusive, i.e. 5th or 7th of the month). Other days were counted backwards from the next one of these days.

The Roman year originally had ten months from Martius (March) to December, with the winter period not included in the calendar. The first four months were named after gods (Martius, Aprilis, Maius, Junius) and the others were numbered (Quintilis, Sextilis, September, October, November, and December). Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome (716–673 BC), is said to have introduced the months of January and February, both also named after gods, beginning the 12-month calendar still in use today. In 44 BC, the month Quintilis was renamed to Julius (July) after Julius Caesar and in 8 BC, Sextilis was renamed to Augustus (August) after Augustus Caesar.

The Romans had several ways of tracking years. One widespread way was the consular dating, which identified years by the two consuls who ruled each year. Another way, introduced in the late 3rd century AD, was counting years from the indictio, a 15-year period based on the announcement of the delivery of food and other goods to the government. Another way, less popular but more similar to present day, was ab urbe condita, which counted years from the mythical foundation of Rome in 753 BC.

Culture

Main article: Culture of ancient Rome
The seven hills of Rome

Life in ancient Rome revolved around the city of Rome, located on seven hills. The city had a vast number of monumental structures like the Colosseum, the Trajan's Forum and the Pantheon. It had theatres, gymnasiums, marketplaces, functional sewers, bath complexes complete with libraries and shops, and fountains with fresh drinking water supplied by hundreds of miles of aqueducts. Throughout the territory under the control of ancient Rome, residential architecture ranged from modest houses to country villas.

In the capital city of Rome, there were imperial residences on the elegant Palatine Hill, from which the word palace derives. The low plebeian and middle equestrian classes lived in the city center, packed into apartments, or insulae, which were almost like modern ghettos. These areas, often built by upper class property owners to rent, were often centred upon collegia or taberna. These people, provided with a free supply of grain, and entertained by gladiatorial games, were enrolled as clients of patrons among the upper class patricians, whose assistance they sought and whose interests they upheld.

Language

Main article: Latin

The native language of the Romans was Latin, an Italic language the grammar of which relies little on word order, conveying meaning through a system of affixes attached to word stems. Its alphabet was based on the Etruscan alphabet, which was in turn based on the Greek alphabet. Although surviving Latin literature consists almost entirely of Classical Latin, an artificial and highly stylised and polished literary language from the 1st century BC, the spoken language of the Roman Empire was Vulgar Latin, which significantly differed from Classical Latin in grammar and vocabulary, and eventually in pronunciation. Speakers of Latin could understand both until the 7th century when spoken Latin began to diverge so much that 'Classical' or 'Good Latin' had to be learned as a second language.

While Latin remained the main written language of the Roman Empire, Greek came to be the language spoken by the well-educated elite, as most of the literature studied by Romans was written in Greek. Most of the emperors were bilingual but had a preference for Latin in the public sphere for political reasons, a practice that first started during the punic wars. In the eastern part of the Roman Empire (and later the Eastern Roman Empire), Latin was never able to replace Greek, a legacy of the Hellenistic period. Justinian would be the last emperor to use Latin in government and marks when Greek officially took over. The expansion of the Roman Empire spread Latin throughout Europe, and Vulgar Latin evolved into many distinct Romance languages.

Religion

Main articles: Religion in ancient Rome, Roman mythology, and Roman temple Further information: Constantine the Great and Christianity and State church of the Roman Empire
Punishment of Ixion: in the center is Mercury holding the caduceus and on the right Juno sits on her throne. Behind her Iris stands and gestures. On the left is Vulcan (blond figure) standing behind the wheel, manning it, with Ixion already tied to it. Nephele sits at Mercury's feet; a Roman fresco from the eastern wall of the triclinium in the House of the Vettii, Pompeii, Fourth Style (60–79 AD).

Archaic Roman religion, at least concerning the gods, was made up not of written narratives, but rather of complex interrelations between gods and humans. Unlike in Greek mythology, the gods were not personified, but were vaguely defined sacred spirits called numina. Romans also believed that every person, place or thing had its own genius, or divine soul. During the Roman Republic, Roman religion was organised under a strict system of priestly offices, which were held by men of senatorial rank. The College of Pontifices was uppermost body in this hierarchy, and its chief priest, the Pontifex Maximus, was the head of the state religion. Flamens took care of the cults of various gods, while augurs were trusted with taking the auspices. The sacred king took on the religious responsibilities of the deposed kings. In the Roman Empire, deceased emperors who had ruled well were deified by their successors and the Senate. and the formalised imperial cult became increasingly prominent.

As contact with the Greeks increased, the old Roman gods became increasingly associated with Greek gods. Under the Empire, the Romans absorbed the mythologies of their conquered subjects, often leading to situations in which the temples and priests of traditional Italian deities existed side by side with those of foreign gods.

Beginning with Emperor Nero in the 1st century AD, Roman official policy towards Christianity was negative, and at some point, being a Christian could be punishable by death. Under Emperor Diocletian, the persecution of Christians reached its peak. However, it became an officially supported religion in the Roman state under Diocletian's successor, Constantine I, with the signing of the Edict of Milan in 313, and quickly became dominant. All religions except Christianity were prohibited in 391 AD by an edict of Emperor Theodosius I.

Ethics and morality

Like many ancient cultures, concepts of ethics and morality, while sharing some commonalities with modern society, differed greatly in several important ways. Because ancient civilisations like Rome were under constant threat of attack from marauding tribes, their culture was necessarily militaristic with martial skills being a prized attribute. Whereas modern societies consider compassion a virtue, Roman society considered compassion a vice, a moral defect. Indeed, one of the primary purposes of the gladiatorial games was to inoculate Roman citizens from this weakness. Romans instead prized virtues such as courage and conviction (virtus), a sense of duty to one's people, moderation and avoiding excess (moderatio), forgiveness and understanding (clementia), fairness (severitas), and loyalty (pietas).

Roman society had well-established and restrictive norms related to sexuality, though as with many societies, the lion's share of the responsibilities fell on women. Women were generally expected to be monogamous having only a single husband during their life (univira), though this was much less regarded by the elite, especially under the empire. Women were expected to be modest in public avoiding any provocative appearance and to demonstrate absolute fidelity to their husbands (pudicitia). Indeed, wearing a veil was a common expectation to preserve modesty. Sex outside of marriage was generally frowned upon for men and women and indeed was made illegal during the imperial period. Nevertheless, prostitution was an accepted and regulated practice.

Public demonstrations of death, violence, and brutality were used as a source of entertainment in Roman communities; however it was also a way to maintain social order, demonstrate power, and signify communal unity.

Art, music and literature

Main articles: Roman art, Latin literature, Music of ancient Rome, Roman sculpture, Theatre of ancient Rome, and Art collection in ancient Rome See also: Ancient Rome (painting)
Frescoes from the Villa of the Mysteries in Pompeii, Italy, Roman artwork dated to the mid-1st century BC
Woman playing a kithara, from the Villa Boscoreale, Italy, circa 40–30 BC

Roman painting styles show Greek influences, and surviving examples are primarily frescoes used to adorn the walls and ceilings of country villas, though Roman literature includes mentions of paintings on wood, ivory, and other materials. Several examples of Roman painting have been found at Pompeii, and from these art historians divide the history of Roman painting into four periods.

The first style of Roman painting was practised from the early 2nd century BC to the early- or mid-1st century BC. It was mainly composed of imitations of marble and masonry, though sometimes including depictions of mythological characters. The second style began during the early 1st century BC and attempted to depict realistically three-dimensional architectural features and landscapes. The third style occurred during the reign of Augustus (27 BC – 14 AD), and rejected the realism of the second style in favour of simple ornamentation. A small architectural scene, landscape, or abstract design was placed in the center with a monochrome background. The fourth style, which began in the 1st century AD, depicted scenes from mythology, while retaining architectural details and abstract patterns.

Portrait sculpture used youthful and classical proportions, evolving later into a mixture of realism and idealism. During the Antonine and Severan periods, ornate hair and bearding, with deep cutting and drilling, became popular. Advancements were also made in relief sculptures, usually depicting Roman victories.

Roman music was largely based on Greek music, and played an important part in many aspects of Roman life. In the Roman military, musical instruments such as the tuba (a long trumpet) or the cornu were used to give various commands, while the buccina (possibly a trumpet or horn) and the lituus (probably an elongated J-shaped instrument), were used in ceremonial capacities. Music was used in the Roman amphitheatres between fights and in the odea, and in these settings is known to have featured the cornu and the hydraulis (a type of water organ). Most religious rituals featured musical performances. Some music historians believe that music was used at almost all public ceremonies.

The graffiti, brothels, paintings, and sculptures found in Pompeii and Herculaneum suggest that the Romans had a sex-saturated culture.

Literature and Libraries

Latin literature was, from its start, influenced heavily by Greek authors. Some of the earliest extant works are of historical epics telling the early military history of Rome. As the Republic expanded, authors began to produce poetry, comedy, history, and tragedy.

Ancient Rome's literary contributions are still recognized today and the works by ancient Roman authors were available in bookshops as well as in public and private libraries. Many scholars and statesmen of ancient Rome cultivated private libraries that were used both as demonstrations of knowledge and displays of wealth and power. Private libraries were so commonly encountered that Vitruvius wrote about where libraries should be situated within a villa. In addition to numerous private libraries, the Roman Empire saw the establishment of early public libraries.

Although Julius Caesar had intended to establish public libraries to further establish Rome as a great cultural center like Athens and Alexandria, he died before this was accomplished. Caesar's former lieutenant, Gaius Asinius Pollio, took up the project and opened the first public library in Rome in the Atrium Libertatis. Emperors Augustus, Tiberius, Vespasian, Domitian, and Trajan also founded or expanded public libraries in Rome during their reigns. These included the Ulpian Library in Trajan's Forum and libraries in the Temple of Apollo Palatinus, the Temple of Peace in the Roman Forum, the Temple of Divus Augustus, which was dedicated to Minerva when it was  rebuilt under Emperor Domitian's orders. Some of these, including the library at the Temple of Divus Augustus also served as archives. By the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the city of Rome had more than two dozen public libraries. Rome was not the only city to benefit from such institutions. As the Roman Empire spread, public libraries were established in other major cities and cultural centers including Ephesos, Athens, and Timgad.

Most public libraries of this time were not built expressly for that purpose, instead sharing space in temples, baths, and other community buildings. In addition to serving as repositories for books, public libraries hosted orations by authors. These recitations served as social gatherings and allowed those who may not be literate to be entertained by poetry, epics, philosophical treatises, and other works.

Cuisine

Main articles: Ancient Roman cuisine, Ancient Rome and wine, and Food and dining in the Roman Empire
A boy with a platter of fruits and what may be a bucket of crabs, in a kitchen with fish and squid, on the June panel from a 3rd-century mosaic depicting the months, in the Hermitage Museum in St Petersburg, Russia

Ancient Roman cuisine changed over the long duration of this ancient civilisation. Dietary habits were affected by the influence of Greek culture, the political changes from Kingdom to Republic to Empire, and the Empire's enormous expansion, which exposed Romans to many new, provincial culinary habits and cooking techniques. In the beginning the differences between social classes were relatively small, but disparities evolved with the Empire's growth. Men and women drank wine with their meals.

The ancient Roman diet included many items that are staples of modern Italian cooking. Pliny the Elder discussed more than 30 varieties of olive, 40 kinds of pear, figs (native and imported from Africa and the eastern provinces), and a wide variety of vegetables, including carrots (of different colours, but not orange) as well as celery, garlic, some flower bulbs, cabbage and other brassicas (such as kale and broccoli), lettuce, endive, onion, leek, asparagus, radishes, turnips, parsnips, beets, green peas, chard, cardoons, olives, and cucumber.

However, some foods now considered characteristic of modern Italian cuisine were not used. In particular, spinach and eggplant (aubergine) were introduced later from the Arab world, and tomatoes, potatoes, capsicum peppers, and maize (the modern source of polenta) only appeared in Europe following the discovery of the New World and the Columbian Exchange. The Romans knew of rice, but it was very rarely available to them. There were also few citrus fruits.

Butcher's meat such as beef was an uncommon luxury. The most popular meat was pork, especially sausages. Fish was more common than meat, with a sophisticated aquaculture and large-scale industries devoted to oyster farming. The Romans also engaged in snail farming and oak grub farming. Some fish were greatly esteemed and fetched high prices, such as mullet raised in the fishery at Cosa, and "elaborate means were invented to assure its freshness".

Traditionally, a breakfast called ientaculum was served at dawn. At mid-day to early afternoon, Romans ate cena, the main meal of the day, and at nightfall a light supper called vesperna. With the increased importation of foreign foods, the cena grew larger in size and included a wider range of foods. Thus, it gradually shifted to the evening, while the vesperna was abandoned completely over the course of the years. The mid-day meal prandium became a light meal to hold one over until cena.

Fashion

See also: Clothing in ancient Rome
Detail of a Paleochristian Roman mosaic from the basilica of Santa Pudenziana in Rome, c. 410 AD, depicting Saint Pudentiana

The toga, a common garment during the era of Julius Caesar, was gradually abandoned by all social classes of the Empire. At the early 4th century, the toga had become just a garment worn by senators in Senate and ceremonial events. At the 4th century, the toga was replaced by the paenula (a garment similar to a poncho) as the everyday garment of the Romans, from the lower classes to the upper classes. Another garment that was popular among the Romans in the later years of the Western Roman Empire was the pallium, which was mostly worn by philosophers and scholars in general. Due to external influences, mainly from the Germanic peoples, the Romans adopted tunics very similar to those used by the Germanic peoples with whom they interacted in the final years of the Western Empire, also adopted trousers and hats like the pileus pannonicus. At the Late Empire the paludamentum (a type of military clothing) was used only by the Emperor of Rome (since the reign of Augustus, the first emperor) while the dalmatic (also used by the Christian clergy) began to spread throughout the empire.

Games and recreation

See also: History of physical training and fitness
Gladiator combat was strictly a spectator sport. This mosaic shows combatants and referee, from the villa at Nennig, Germany, c. 2nd–3rd century AD.
The "bikini girls" mosaic, showing women playing sports, from the Villa Romana del Casale, Italy, Roman province of Sicilia, 4th century AD

The youth of Rome had several forms of athletic play and exercise. Play for boys was supposed to prepare them for active military service, such as jumping, wrestling, boxing, and racing. In the countryside, pastimes for the wealthy also included fishing and hunting. The Romans also had several forms of ball playing, including one resembling handball. Dice games, board games, and gamble games were popular pastimes. For the wealthy, dinner parties presented an opportunity for entertainment, sometimes featuring music, dancing, and poetry readings. The majority, less well-off, sometimes enjoyed similar parties through clubs or associations, but for most Romans, recreational dining usually meant patronising taverns.Children entertained themselves with toys and such games as leapfrog.

Public games and spectacles were sponsored by leading Romans who wished to advertise their generosity and court popular approval; in Rome or its provinces, this usually meant the emperor or his governors. Venues in Rome and the provinces were developed specifically for public games. Rome's Colisseum was built in 70 AD under the Roman emperor Vespasian and opened in 80 AD to host other events and gladiatorial combats. Gladiators had an exotic and inventive variety of arms and armour. They sometimes fought to the death, but more often to an adjudicated victory, usually in keeping with the mood of the watching crowd. Shows of exotic animals were popular in their own right; but sometimes animals were pitted against human beings, either armed professionals or unarmed criminals who had been condemned to public death.

Chariot racing was extremely popular among all classes. In Rome, these races were usually held at the Circus Maximus, which had been purpose-built for chariot and horse-racing and, as Rome's largest public place, was also used for festivals and animal shows. It could seat around 150,000 people; The charioteers raced in teams, identified by their colours; some aficionados were members of extremely, even violently partisan circus factions.

Technology

Main article: Ancient Roman technology
Pont du Gard in France is a Roman aqueduct built in c. 19 BC. It is a World Heritage Site.

Ancient Rome boasted impressive technological feats, using many advancements that were lost in the Middle Ages and not rivalled again until the 19th and 20th centuries. An example of this is insulated glazing, which was not invented again until the 1930s. Many practical Roman innovations were adopted from earlier Greek designs. Advancements were often divided and based on craft. Artisans guarded technologies as trade secrets.

Roman civil engineering and military engineering constituted a large part of Rome's technological superiority and legacy, and contributed to the construction of hundreds of roads, bridges, aqueducts, public baths, theatres and arenas. Many monuments, such as the Colosseum, Pont du Gard, and Pantheon, remain as testaments to Roman engineering and culture.

The Romans were renowned for their architecture, which is grouped with Greek traditions into "Classical architecture". Although there were many differences from Greek architecture, Rome borrowed heavily from Greece in adhering to strict, formulaic building designs and proportions. Aside from two new orders of columns, composite and Tuscan, and from the dome, which was derived from the Etruscan arch, Rome had relatively few architectural innovations until the end of the Republic.

In the 1st century BC, Romans started to use Roman concrete widely. Concrete was invented in the late 3rd century BC. It was a powerful cement derived from pozzolana, and soon supplanted marble as the chief Roman building material and allowed many daring architectural forms. Also in the 1st century BC, Vitruvius wrote De architectura, possibly the first complete treatise on architecture in history. In the late 1st century BC, Rome also began to use glassblowing soon after its invention in Syria about 50 BC. Mosaics took the Empire by storm after samples were retrieved during Lucius Cornelius Sulla's campaigns in Greece.

The Romans also largely built using timber, causing a rapid decline of the woodlands surrounding Rome and in much of the Apennine Mountains due to the demand for wood for construction, shipbuilding and fire. The first evidence of long-distance wood trading come from the discovery of wood planks, felled between AD 40 and 60, coming from the Jura mountains in northeastern France and ending up more than 1,055 miles (1,700 km) away, in the foundations of a lavish portico that was part of a vast wealthy patrician villa, in Central Rome. It is suggested that timber, around 4 metres (13 ft) long, came up to Rome via the Tiber River on ships travelling across the Mediterranean Sea from the confluence of the Saône and Rhône rivers in what is now the city of Lyon in present-day France.

The Appian Way (Via Appia), a road connecting the city of Rome to the southern parts of Italy, remains usable even today

With solid foundations and good drainage, Roman roads were known for their durability and many segments of the Roman road system were still in use a thousand years after the fall of Rome. The construction of a vast and efficient travel network throughout the Empire dramatically increased Rome's power and influence. They allowed Roman legions to be deployed rapidly, with predictable marching times between key points of the empire, no matter the season. These highways also had enormous economic significance, solidifying Rome's role as a trading crossroads—the origin of the saying "all roads lead to Rome". The Roman government maintained a system of way stations, known as the cursus publicus, and established a system of horse relays allowing a dispatch to travel up to 80 km (50 mi) a day.

The Romans constructed numerous aqueducts to supply water to cities and industrial sites and to aid in their agriculture. By the third century, the city of Rome was supplied by 11 aqueducts with a combined length of 450 km (280 mi). The Romans also made major advancements in sanitation. Romans were particularly famous for their public baths, called thermae, which were used for both hygienic and social purposes. Many Roman houses had flush toilets and indoor plumbing, and a complex sewer system, the Cloaca Maxima, was used to drain the local marshes and carry waste into the Tiber. Some historians have speculated that lead pipes in the sewer and plumbing systems led to widespread lead poisoning, which contributed to fall of Rome; however, lead content would have been minimised.

Legacy

Main articles: Legacy of the Roman Empire and Classics

Ancient Rome is the progenitor of Western civilisation. The customs, religion, law, technology, architecture, political system, military, literature, languages, alphabet, government and many factors and aspects of western civilisation are all inherited from Roman advancements. The rediscovery of Roman culture revitalised Western civilisation, playing a role in the Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment.

Historiography

Primary and secondary sources

Main article: Roman historiography

The two longest ancient accounts of the Roman history, the histories of Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, were composed 500 years later than the date for the founding of the republic and 200 years from the defeat of Hannibal. Although there has been a diversity of works on ancient Roman history, many of them are lost. As a result of this loss, there are gaps in Roman history, which are filled by unreliable works, such as the Historia Augusta and other books from obscure authors. Historians used their works for the lauding of Roman culture and customs, and to flatter their patrons. Caesar wrote his own accounts of his military campaigns in Gaul and during the Civil War in part to impress his contemporaries.

In the Empire, the biographies of famous men and early emperors flourished, examples being The Twelve Caesars of Suetonius, and Plutarch's Parallel Lives. Other major works of Imperial times were that of Livy and Tacitus.

Interest in studying, and idealising, ancient Rome became prevalent during the Italian Renaissance. Edward Gibbon's The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire "began the modern study of Roman history in the English-speaking world". Barthold Georg Niebuhr was a founder of the examination of ancient Roman history and wrote The Roman History, tracing the period until the First Punic war. During the Napoleonic, The History of Romans by Victor Duruy highlighted the Caesarean period popular at the time. History of Rome, Roman constitutional law and Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, all by Theodor Mommsen, became milestones.

See also

Notes

  1. The specific dates vary, depending on whether one follows Roman tradition, modern archaeology, or competing views of which particular events mark endpoints.
  2. There are several different estimates for the population of the Roman Empire.
  3. Between 343 BC and 241 BC, the Roman army fought in every year but five.
  4. Later in Christian liturgy, "noon" came to describe the nones, a time of prayer originally at 3 pm but later at midday, so "noon" became synonymous with midday.

References

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    Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D (December 2006). "East-West Orientation of Historical Empires". Journal of World-Systems Research. 12 (2): 222. doi:10.5195/JWSR.2006.369. ISSN 1076-156X.
  3. Furet, François; Ozouf, Mona, eds. (1989). A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution. Harvard University Press. p. 793. ISBN 978-0-6741-7728-4.; Luckham, Robin; White, Gordon (1996). Democratization in the South: The Jagged Wave. Manchester University Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-7190-4942-2.; Sellers, Mortimer N. (1994). American Republicanism: Roman Ideology in the United States Constitution. NYU Press. p. 90. ISBN 978-0-8147-8005-3.
  4. Boatwright 2012, p. 519.
  5. Boatwright 2012, p. 29.
  6. Boatwright 2012, p. 31.
  7. Boatwright 2012, pp. 31–32.
  8. Boatwright 2012, p. 32.
  9. Mellor, Ronald and McGee Marni, The Ancient Roman World p. 15 (Cited 15 March 2009).
  10. Boatwright 2012, p. 35. "Rex, the Latin word for king, appears in two fragmentary sixth-century texts, one an inscription from the shrine of Vulcan, and the other a potsherd found in the Regia".
  11. ^ Boatwright 2012, p. 36.
  12. Boatwright 2012, p. 37.
  13. Boatwright 2012, p. 39.
  14. Boatwright 2012, p. 40.
  15. Boatwright 2012, p. 42.
  16. Boatwright 2012, p. 43.
  17. Cornell 1995, pp. 215 et seq.
  18. Matyszak 2003, pp. 43–44.
  19. Adkins & Adkins 1998, pp. 41–42.
  20. Hooker, Richard (6 June 1999). "Rome: The Roman Republic". Washington State University. Archived from the original on 14 May 2011.
  21. Magistratus by George Long, M.A. Appearing on pp. 723–724 of A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities by William Smith, D.C.L., LL.D. Published by John Murray, London, 1875. Website, 8 December 2006. Retrieved 24 March 2007.
  22. Livius, Titus (Livy) (1998). "Book II". The Rise of Rome, Books 1–5. Translated by Luce, T.J. Oxford World's Classics. ISBN 978-0-1928-2296-3.
  23. Adkins & Adkins 1998, p. 39.
  24. These are literally Roman librae, from which the pound is derived.
  25. Plutarch, Parallel Lives, Life of Camillus, XXIX, 2.
  26. ^ Haywood 1971, pp. 350–358.
  27. Pyrrhus of Epirus (2) Archived 14 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine and Pyrrhus of Epirus (3) Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine by Jona Lendering. Livius.org. Retrieved 21 March 2007.
  28. Bennett, Matthew; Dawson, Doyne; Field, Ron; Hawthornwaite, Philip; Loades, Mike (2016). The History of Warfare: The Ultimate Visual Guide to the History of Warfare from the Ancient World to the American Civil War. p. 61.
  29. Goldsworthy 2006, pp. 25–26; Miles 2011, pp. 175–176.
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