Misplaced Pages

Turkey: Difference between revisions

Article snapshot taken from Wikipedia with creative commons attribution-sharealike license. Give it a read and then ask your questions in the chat. We can research this topic together.
Browse history interactively← Previous editContent deleted Content addedVisualWikitext
Revision as of 15:38, 27 December 2012 view sourceRs4815 (talk | contribs)376 edits restore sourced section← Previous edit Latest revision as of 16:06, 19 December 2024 view source Bogazicili (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users5,612 editsm top 
Line 1: Line 1:
{{Short description|Country in West Asia and Southeast Europe}}
{{pp-protected|expiry=2012-12-31T07:45:19Z|small=yes}}{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2012}}
{{About|the country|the bird|Turkey (bird)||Turkey (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-move|small=yes}}
{{Redirect|Türkiye}}
{{two other uses|the country|the bird|Turkey (bird)}}
{{pp-move}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{Use American English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2024}}
{{Infobox country {{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Republic of Türkiye
|native_name = {{native name|tr|Türkiye Cumhuriyeti|icon=no}}
| common_name = Turkey <!-- DO NOT change to Türkiye. The subject of Turkey's name rebrand is controversial, and there is currently no consensus on Misplaced Pages supporting the use of Türkiye in English text. -->
|conventional_long_name = Republic of Turkey
| native_name = {{native name|tr|Türkiye Cumhuriyeti}}
|common_name = Turkey
| image_flag = Flag of Turkey.svg
|national_motto = "]" <small>(])&nbsp;</small><ref name="motto of Turkey">{{cite web|url=http://atam.gov.tr/jeopolitik-tehditler-karsisinda-yurtta-sulh-cihanda-sulh|title=Motto|date=November 3, 2012|publisher=Gov.tr|accessdate=3 November 2012}}</ref><br/><small>"Peace at Home, Peace in the World"</small>
| image_coat = <!-- The Turkish Constitution doesn't specify an official coat of arms -->
|national_anthem = '']''<br/><small>Independence March</small><br/><center>]</center>
| symbol_type =
|image_flag = Flag of Turkey.svg
| national_motto = <!-- The Turkish Constitution doesn't specify an official motto -->
|image_map = Turkey (orthographic projection).svg
| national_anthem = <br />{{lang|tr|]}}<br />"Independence March"<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mfa.gov.tr/the-turkish-flag-and-the-turkish-national-anthem.en.mfa |title=The Turkish Flag and The Turkish National Anthem (Independence March) |website=Republic of Türkiye, Ministry of Foreign Affairs |access-date=4 August 2024}}</ref>{{parabr}}{{center|]}}<!-- Do not replace this with the instrumental version. Official sheet music provided by the source contains lyrics.-->
|capital = ]
| image_map = Turkey (orthographic projection).svg
|latd=39 |latm=55 |latNS=N |longd=32 |longm=50 |longEW=E
| capital = ]
|largest_city = ]<br/><small>{{coord|41|1|N|28|57|E|display=inline}}</small>
| coordinates = {{Coord|39|55|N|32|51|E|type:city|display=title,inline}}
|official_languages = ]
| largest_city = ]<br />{{coord|41|1|N|28|57|E|display=inline}}
|demonym = ]
| official_languages = ]<ref name="TC Constituton Art. 3">{{cite news|title=Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Anayasası|url=https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/develop/owa/tc_anayasasi.maddeler?p3=3|publisher=]|access-date=1 July 2020|language=Tr|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200702232731/https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/develop/owa/tc_anayasasi.maddeler?p3=3|archive-date=2 July 2020|quote="3. Madde: Devletin Bütünlüğü, Resmi Dili, Bayrağı, Milli Marşı ve Başkenti: Türkiye Devleti, ülkesi ve milletiyle bölünmez bir bütündür. Dili Türkçedir. Bayrağı, şekli kanununda belirtilen, beyaz ay yıldızlı al bayraktır. Milli marşı "İstiklal Marşı" dır. Başkenti Ankara'dır."}}</ref><ref name="Constitutional Court of Turkey - Constitution Art. 3">{{cite news|title=Mevzuat: Anayasa|url=https://www.anayasa.gov.tr/tr/mevzuat/anayasa/|publisher=]|access-date=1 July 2020|language=Tr|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200621023406/https://www.anayasa.gov.tr/tr/mevzuat/anayasa/|archive-date=21 June 2020}}</ref>
|ethnic_groups = 70–75% ]<br/>{{nbsp|6}}18% ]<br/>{{nbsp|2}}7–12% others
| languages_type = ]s
|ethnic_groups_year = {{lower|0.4em|<ref name="cia">. The World Factbook. CIA</ref>}}
| languages = {{vunblist
|government_type = ]
| Predominantly Turkish<ref>
|leader_title1 = ]
* {{harvnb|KONDA|2006|p=19}}
|leader_name1 = {{nowrap|]}}
* {{harvnb|Kornfilt|2018|p=537}}</ref>}} {{collapsible list |]|]|]|]|]|]|]|]|]|]|]}}
|leader_title2 = ]
| ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list
|leader_name2 = ]
| 70–75% ]
|leader_title3 = ]
| 19% ]
|leader_name3 = ]
| 6–11% ]
|leader_title4 = ]
}}
|leader_name4 = ]
| demonym = {{hlist|Turkish|Turk}}
|leader_title5 = ]
| government_type = Unitary ]
|leader_name5 = ]
| leader_title1 = ]
|legislature = {{nowrap|]}}
| leader_name1 = ]
|sovereignty_type = ] {{nobold|to the ]}}
| leader_title2 = ]
|established_event1 = {{nowrap|]}}
| leader_name2 = ]
|established_date1 = 24 July 1923
| leader_title3 = ]
|established_event2 = {{nowrap|Declaration of Republic}}
| leader_name3 = ]
|established_date2 = 29 October 1923
| leader_title4 = ]
|area_km2 = 783562 <!--http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/DYB2003/Table03.pdf UN statistics, page 7 (PDF format) -->
| leader_name4 = ]
|area_sq_mi = 302535 <!--Do not remove per ]-->
| legislature = {{nowrap|]}}
|area_rank = 37th
| established_event1 = ]
|area_magnitude = 1 E11
| established_date1 = {{circa}} 1299
|percent_water = 1.3
| sovereignty_type = ]
|population_census = 67,803,927<ref name=2000trcensus/>
| established_event2 = ]
|population_census_year = 2000
| established_date2 = 19 May 1919
|population_estimate = 74,724,269<ref name="population1">{{cite web |url=http://www.turkstat.gov.tr/PreHaberBultenleri.do?id=10736 |title=Population |date=January 1, 2012 |publisher=Turkstat |accessdate=7 October 2012}}</ref>
| established_event3 = ]
|population_estimate_year = 2012
| established_date3 = 23 April 1920
|population_estimate_rank = 17th
| established_event4 = ]
|population_density_km2 = 97
| established_date4 = 1 November 1922
|population_density_sq_mi = 239.8
| established_event5 = {{nowrap|]}}
|population_density_rank = 108th
| established_date5 = 24 July 1923
|GDP_PPP_year = 2011
| established_event6 = {{nowrap|]}}
|GDP_PPP = $1.288 trillion<ref>{{cite web|url=http://databank.worldbank.org/databank/download/GDP_PPP.pdf |title=The World Bank: World Development Indicators database, last revised on 18 September 2012. |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2012-11-04}}</ref>
| established_date6 = 29 October 1923
|GDP_PPP_rank = 15th
| established_event7 = ]
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $17,499<ref name="worldbank">{{cite web |url=http://databank.worldbank.org/ddp/home.do?Step=12&id=4&CNO=2 |title=World Data Bank October 2012 |year=2012 |publisher=World Bank |accessdate=13 October 2012}}</ref>
| established_date7 = 9 November 1982<ref name="Constitution2019"/>
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 52nd
| area_km2 = 783,562 <!--http://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/DE/Aussenpolitik/Laender/Laenderinfos/01-Nodes_Uebersichtsseiten/Tuerkei_node.html -->
|GDP_nominal = $774.336 billion<ref name="imf2">{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2012/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2011&ey=2017&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=186&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a=&pr.x=27&pr.y=5 |title=IMF World Economic Outlook Database, October 2012 |year=2012 |publisher=International Monetary Fund |accessdate=13 October 2012}}</ref>
| area_rank = 36th
|GDP_nominal_rank = 18th
| area_sq_mi = 302535 <!--Do not remove per ]-->
|GDP_nominal_year = 2011
| percent_water = 2.03<ref>{{cite web|title=Surface water and surface water change|access-date=11 October 2020|publisher=] (OECD)|url=https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=SURFACE_WATER|archive-date=24 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210324133453/https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=SURFACE_WATER|url-status=live}}</ref>
|GDP_nominal_per_capita = $10,362<ref name="imf2"/>
| population_estimate = {{IncreaseNeutral}} 85,372,377<!-- Update all numbers using this source, including article body--><ref name="Population of Turkey">{{cite web |url=https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=The-Results-of-Address-Based-Population-Registration-System-2023-49684&dil=2 |title=The Results of Address Based Population Registration System, 2023 |publisher=] |website=www.tuik.gov.tr |date=6 February 2024 |access-date=6 February 2024 |archive-date=6 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240206082646/https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=The-Results-of-Address-Based-Population-Registration-System-2023-49684&dil=2 |url-status=live }}</ref> <!-- do not add update figure as that stat is only published once a year due to legal reasons -->
|GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 61st
| population_estimate_year = December 2023
|HDI_year = 2011
| population_estimate_rank = 17th
|HDI = {{nowrap|{{increase}} 0.699}} <!--Based on the table in the linked article-->
| population_density_km2 = 111<ref name="Population of Turkey"/>
|HDI_rank = 92nd
| population_density_sq_mi = 262
|HDI_category = <span style="color:#090;white-space:nowrap;">high</span>
| population_density_rank = 83rd
|Gini = ]<ref name="wb-gini">{{cite web |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI/ |title=Gini Index |publisher=World Bank |accessdate=2 March 2011}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $3.457 trillion<ref name="IMFWEO.TR">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2024/October/weo-report?c=186,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2022&ey=2029&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2024 Edition. (Türkiye) |publisher=] |website=www.imf.org |date=22 October 2024 |access-date=22 October 2024}}</ref>
|Gini_rank =
| GDP_PPP_year = 2024
|Gini_year = 2008
| GDP_PPP_rank = 12th
|Gini_category =
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $40,283<ref name="IMFWEO.TR" />
|currency = ]<sup>a</sup>
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 54th
|currency_code = TRY
| GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $1.344 trillion<ref name="IMFWEO.TR" />
|time_zone = ]
| GDP_nominal_year = 2024
|utc_offset = +2
| GDP_nominal_rank = 17th
|time_zone_DST = ]
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $15,666<ref name="IMFWEO.TR" />
|utc_offset_DST = +3
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 64th
|date_format = dd/mm/yyyy (])
| Gini = 41.9 <!--number only-->
|drives_on = right
| Gini_year = 2019
|cctld = ]
| Gini_ref = <ref name="Gini">{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=TR|title=Gini index (World Bank estimate) – Turkey|year=2019|access-date=15 November 2021|publisher=World Bank|archive-date=17 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190517075906/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI%3Flocations%3DTR|url-status=live}}</ref>
|calling_code = ]
| Gini_change = steady <!--increase/decrease/steady-->
|website = www.turkiye.gov.tr
| HDI = 0.855 <!--number only-->
|footnotes = a. The ] (''Türk Lirası'', TL) replaced the ] on 1 January 2009.
| HDI_year = 2022<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year-->
| HDI_change = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| HDI_ref = <ref name="HDI">{{cite web |url=https://hdr.undp.org/data-center/human-development-index#/indicies/HDI |title=Human Development Index (HDI) |publisher=] |access-date=18 March 2024 |archive-date=10 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220610040330/https://hdr.undp.org/data-center/human-development-index#/indicies/HDI |url-status=live }}</ref>
| HDI_rank = 45th
| currency = ] (])
| currency_code = TRY
| time_zone = ]
| utc_offset = +3
| calling_code = ]
| cctld = ]
| today =
| ethnic_groups_year = 2016
| ethnic_groups_ref = <ref name="cia">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/turkey-turkiye/#people-and-society |title=Turkey (Turkiye) |work=] |publisher=] |access-date=19 May 2024}}</ref>
}} }}
'''Turkey''',{{efn|{{langx|tr|Türkiye}}, {{IPA|tr|ˈtyɾcije|lang}}}}<!--NOTE: Do not change lead sentence to Türkiye per ]. Thanks.--> officially the '''Republic of Türkiye''',{{efn|{{langx|tr|Türkiye Cumhuriyeti}}, {{IPA|tr|ˈtyɾcije dʒumˈhuːɾijeti|lang|Tur-Türkiye_Cumhuriyeti.ogg}}}} is a country mainly located in ] in ], with a smaller part called ] in ]. It borders the ] to the north; ], ], ], and ] to the east; ], ], and the ] to the south; and the ], ], and ] to the west. Turkey is home to over 85 million people; most are ethnic ], while ethnic ] are the ].<ref name="cia"/> Officially ], Turkey has ] population. ] is Turkey's capital and ], while ] is its largest city and economic and financial center. Other major cities include ], ], and ].


Turkey was first inhabited by modern humans during the ].<ref>{{harvnb| Howard|2016|p=24}}</ref> Home to important ] sites like ] and some of the ], present-day Turkey was inhabited by ].<ref>
'''Turkey''' ({{lang-tr|Türkiye}}, known officially as the '''Republic of Turkey''' {{nowrap|({{Audio|Tur-Türkiye_Cumhuriyeti.ogg|''Türkiye Cumhuriyeti''}})}}) is a ]n country, located mostly on the ] and the ]<ref name="Olson1994">{{cite book|author=James Stuart Olson|title=An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of the Russian and Soviet Empires|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=CquTz6ps5YgC&pg=PA40|accessdate=24 December 2012|year=1994|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-27497-8|page=40|quote=These Armenian highlands, often referred to as "historic Armenia" to distinguish it from the present-day ... In present-day terms, historic Armenia comprised a large part of eastern Turkey, the northeastern corner of Iran, parts of the Azerbaijan and Georgian republics, as well as the entire territory of the Armenian Republic. It was defined by a number of natural boundaries: the Kura River, separating the Armenian highlands from Caspian and Georgian lowlands in the east and northeast; the Taurus-Zagros chains, connecting to the Iranian Plateau and separating Armenia from Kurdistan and Iran in the south and southwest, and Euphrates River, marking and western boundary of historic Armenia.}}</ref><ref name="britannica">Encyclopedia Britannica: </ref><ref name="LevBerg">]: p.232</ref><ref name="GSEnc">]: article </ref> in ] and on ] in ]. Turkey is bordered by eight countries: ] to the northwest; ] to the west; ] to the northeast; ], ] and the ]i ] of ] to the east; and ] and ] to the southeast. The ] is to the south; the ] is to the west; and the ] is to the north. The ], the ] and the ] (which together form the ]) demarcate the boundary between ] and ]; they also separate Europe and Asia.<ref name="NatlGeoAtlas">{{cite book |title=National Geographic Atlas of the World |edition=7th |year=1999 |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=] |isbn=0-7922-7528-4}} "Europe" (pp. 68–69); "Asia" (pp. 90–91): "A commonly accepted division between Asia and Europe ... is formed by the Ural Mountains, Ural River, Caspian Sea, Caucasus Mountains, and the Black Sea with its outlets, the Bosporus and Dardanelles."</ref>
* {{harvnb|Howard|2016|pp=24–28}}: "Göbekli Tepe’s close proximity to several very early sites of grain cultivation helped lead Schmidt to the conclusion that it was the need to maintain the ritual center that first encouraged the beginnings of settled agriculture—the Neolithic Revolution"
* {{harvnb|McMahon|Steadman|2012a|pp=3–12}}
* {{harvnb|Matthews|2012|p=49}}</ref> The ] were assimilated by the ], such as the ].<ref>
* {{harvnb|Ahmed|2006|p=1576}}: "Turkey’s diversity is derived from its central location near the world’s earliest civilizations as well as a history replete with population movements and invasions. The Hattite culture was prominent during the Bronze Age prior to 2000 BCE, but was replaced by the Indo-European Hittites who conquered Anatolia by the second millennium. Meanwhile, Turkish Thrace came to be dominated by another Indo-European group, the Thracians for whom the region is named."
* {{harvnb|Steadman|2012|p=234}}: "By the time of the Old Assyrian Colony period in the early second millennium b.c.e . (see Michel, chapter 13 in this volume) the languages spoken on the plateau included Hattian, an indigenous Anatolian language, Hurrian (spoken in northern Syria), and Indo-European languages known as Luwian, Hittite, and Palaic"
* {{harvnb|Michel|2012|p=327}}
* {{harvnb|Melchert|2012|p=713}}
* {{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=26}}</ref> ] transitioned into cultural ] following the conquests of ]; Hellenization continued during the ] and ] eras.<ref>
* {{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=29}}: "The sudden disappearance of the Persian Empire and the conquest of virtually the entire Middle Eastern world from the Nile to the Indus by Alexander the Great caused tremendous political and cultural upheaval. ... statesmen throughout the conquered regions attempted to implement a policy of Hellenization. For indigenous elites, this amounted to the forced assimilation of native religion and culture to Greek models. It met resistance in Anatolia as elsewhere, especially from priests and others who controlled temple wealth."
* {{harvnb|Ahmed|2006|p=1576}}: "Subsequently, hellenization of the elites transformed Anatolia into a largely Greek-speaking region"
* {{harvnb|McMahon|Steadman|2012a|p=5}}
* {{harvnb|McMahon|2012|p=16}}
* {{harvnb|Sams|2012|p=617}}</ref> The ] began migrating into Anatolia in the 11th century, starting the ] process.<ref>
* {{harvnb|Davison|1990|pp=3–4}}: "So the Seljuk sultanate was a successor state ruling part of the medieval Greek empire, and within it the process of Turkification of a previously Hellenized Anatolian population continued. That population must already have been of very mixed ancestry, deriving from ancient Hittite, Phrygian, Cappadocian, and other civilizations as well as Roman and Greek."
* {{harvnb|Howard|2016|pp=33–44}}</ref> The Seljuk ] ruled Anatolia until the ] in 1243, when it disintegrated into ].<ref name="Howard 2016 38–39">{{harvnb|Howard|2016|pp=38–39}}</ref> Beginning in 1299, the ] united the principalities and ]. ] conquered ]. During the reigns of ] and ], the Ottoman Empire became a ].<ref name=Howard_p45>{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=45}}</ref><ref name=Somel_p_xcvii>{{harvnb|Somel|2010|p=xcvii}}</ref> From 1789 onwards, the empire saw ], ], and centralization while ].<ref>
* {{harvnb|Hanioğlu|2012|pp=15–25}}
* {{harvnb|Kayalı|2012|pp=26–28}}
* {{harvnb|Davison|1990|pp=115–116}}</ref>


In the 19th and early 20th centuries, ] and ] resulted in large-scale loss of life and ] from the ], ], and ].<ref>
Turkey is one of the seven independent ]. The country's official language is ], which is spoken by approximately 85% of the population as mother tongue.<ref name=milliyet-languages>{{cite web|url=http://www.milliyet.com.tr/2007/03/22/guncel/agun.html |title=TÜRKİYE'NİN YÜZDE 85'İ 'ANADİLİM TÜRKÇE' DİYOR |publisher=Milliyet.com.tr |date= |accessdate=2012-11-04}}</ref> The most numerous ethnic group is the ], who constitute between 70% and 75% of the population according to ].<ref name="cia">
* {{harvnb|Kaser|2011|p=336}}: "The emerging Christian nation states justified the prosecution of their Muslims by arguing that they were their former “suppressors”. The historical balance: between about 1820 and 1920, millions of Muslim casualties and refugees back to the remaining Ottoman Empire had to be registered; estimations speak about 5 million casualties and the same number of displaced persons"
. The World Factbook. CIA</ref> ] are the largest ethnic minority and, according to the same source, number around 18% of the population while other ethnic minorities are estimated to be at 7–12%.<ref name="cia"/> The vast majority of the population is ].
* {{harvnb|Fábos|2005|p=437}}: "Muslims had been the majority in Anatolia, the Crimea, the Balkans, and the Caucasus and a plurality in southern Russia and sections of Romania. Most of these lands were within or contiguous with the Ottoman Empire. By 1923, 'only Anatolia, eastern Thrace, and a section of the southeastern Caucasus remained to the Muslim land ... Millions of Muslims, most of them Turks, had died; millions more had fled to what is today Turkey. Between 1821 and 1922, more than five million Muslims were driven from their lands. Five and one-half million Muslims died, some of them killed in wars, others perishing as refugees from starvation and disease' (McCarthy 1995, 1). Since people in the Ottoman Empire were classified by religion, Turks, Albanians, Bosnians, and all other Muslim groups were recognized—and recognized themselves—simply as Muslims. Hence, their persecution and forced migration is of central importance to an analysis of 'Muslim migration.'"
* {{harvnb|Karpat|2001|p=343}}: "The main migrations started from Crimea in 1856 and were followed by those from the Caucasus and the Balkans in 1862 to 1878 and 1912 to 1916. These have continued to our day. The quantitative indicators cited in various sources show that during this period a total of about 7 million migrants from Crimea, the Caucasus, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean islands settled in Anatolia. These immigrants were overwhelmingly Muslim, except for a number of Jews who left their homes in the Balkans and Russia in order to live in the Ottoman lands. By the end of the century the immigrants and their descendants constituted some 30 to 40 percent of the total population of Anatolia, and in some western areas their percentage was even higher." ... "The immigrants called themselves Muslims rather than Turks, although most of those from Bulgaria, Macedonia, and eastern Serbia descended from the Turkish Anatolian stock who settled in the Balkans in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries."
* {{harvnb|Karpat|2004|pp=5–6}}: "Migration was a major force in the social and cultural reconstruction of the Ottoman state in the nineteenth century. While some seven to nine million, mostly Muslim, refugees from lost territories in the Caucasus, Crimea, Balkans and Mediterranean islands migrated to Anatolia and Eastern Thrace, during the last quarter of the nineteenth and the early part of the twentieth centuries..."
* {{harvnb|Pekesen|2012}}: "The immigration had far-reaching social and political consequences for the Ottoman Empire and Turkey." ... "Between 1821 and 1922, some 5.3 million Muslims migrated to the Empire.50 It is estimated that in 1923, the year the republic of Turkey was founded, about 25 per cent of the population came from immigrant families.51"
* {{harvnb|Biondich|2011|p=93}}: "The road from Berlin to Lausanne was littered with millions of casualties. In the period between 1878 and 1912, as many as two million Muslims emigrated voluntarily or involuntarily from the Balkans. When one adds those who were killed or expelled between 1912 and 1923, the number of Muslim casualties from the Balkan far exceeds three million. By 1923 fewer than one million remained in the Balkans"
* {{harvnb|Armour|2012|p=213}}: "To top it all, the Empire was host to a steady stream of Muslim refugees. Russia between 1854 and 1876 expelled 1.4 million Crimean Tartars, and in the mid-1860s another 600,000 Circassians from the Caucasus. Their arrival produced further economic dislocation and expense."
* {{harvnb|Bosma|Lucassen|Oostindie|2012a|p=17}}: "In total, many millions of Turks (or, more precisely, Muslim immigrants, including some from the Caucasus) were involved in this ‘repatriation’ – sometimes more than once in a lifetime – the last stage of which may have been the immigration of seven hundred thousand Turks from Bulgaria between 1940 and 1990. Most of these immigrants settled in urban north-western Anatolia. Today between a third and a quarter of the Republic’s population are descendants of these Muslim immigrants, known as Muhacir or Göçmen"</ref> Under the control of the ], the Ottoman Empire ] in 1914, during which the Ottoman government committed ] against its ], ], and ] subjects.<ref name="Tatz">{{Cite book| publisher = ABC-CLIO| isbn = 978-1-4408-3161-4| last1 = Tatz| first1 = Colin| last2 = Higgins| first2 = Winton| title = The Magnitude of Genocide| year=2016}}</ref><ref name="SchallerZimmerer">{{Cite journal|last1=Schaller|first1=Dominik J.|last2=Zimmerer|first2=Jürgen|s2cid=71515470|year=2008|title=Late Ottoman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies – introduction|journal=Journal of Genocide Research|volume=10|issue=1|pages=7–14|doi=10.1080/14623520801950820|issn=1462-3528}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Morris |first1=Benny |title=The Thirty-Year Genocide - Turkey's Destruction of Its Christian Minorities, 1894–1924 |last2=Ze'evi |first2=Dror |publisher=] |year=2021 |isbn=9780674251434}}</ref> Following Ottoman defeat, the ] resulted in the ] and the signing of the ]. The Republic ] on 29 October 1923, modelled on ] initiated by the country's first president, ]. Turkey ], but was involved in the ]. Several military interventions interfered with the transition to a multi-party system.


Turkey is an ] and ]; ] is the world's ] and ]. It is a ] presidential ]. Turkey is a founding member of the ], ], and ]. With a geopolitically significant location, Turkey is a ]<ref name="giga-hamburg.de1">{{cite web|url=http://www.giga-hamburg.de/de/system/files/publications/wp204_bank-karadag.pdf|title=The Political Economy of Regional Power: Turkey|website=giga-hamburg.de|access-date=18 February 2015|archive-date=10 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140210210237/http://www.giga-hamburg.de/de/system/files/publications/wp204_bank-karadag.pdf}}</ref> and an early member of ]. ], Turkey is part of the ], ], ], and ].
] began migrating into the area now called Turkey (derived from the ] ''Turchia'', i.e. "Land of the Turks") in the 11th century. The process was greatly accelerated by the Seljuk victory over the ] at the ] in 1071.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/turkey/5.htm |title=Turkey – Turkish Origins |publisher=Countrystudies.us |accessdate=2011-05-16}}</ref> The ] ruled Anatolia until the ] in 1243, upon which it disintegrated into several small ]. Starting from the late 13th century, the ] united Anatolia and created an empire encompassing much of ], ] and ]. After the ] collapsed following its defeat in ], parts of it were occupied by the victorious ]. A cadre of young military officers, led by ] and his colleagues, organized a successful resistance to the Allies; in 1923 they would establish the modern Republic of Turkey, with Atatürk as its first president.


Turkey has coastal plains, ], and various mountain ranges; ] is temperate with harsher conditions in the interior.<ref name="CIA_geo">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/turkey-turkiye/#geography |title=Turkey |work=] |publisher=] |access-date=29 February 2024 |archive-date=28 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220828085706/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/turkey-turkiye/#geography |url-status=live }}</ref> Home to three ]s,<ref name="Birben_2019">{{cite journal |last1=Birben |first1=Üstüner |date=2019 |title=The Effectiveness of Protected Areas in Biodiversity Conservation: The Case of Turkey |journal=CERNE |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=424–438 |doi=10.1590/01047760201925042644 |quote=Turkey has 3 out of the 36 biodiversity hotspots on Earth: the Mediterranean, Caucasus, and Irano-Anatolian hotspots|doi-access=free | issn = 0104-7760 }}</ref> Turkey is prone to ] and ].<ref name="Ahmed_2006_pp_1575_1576">{{harvnb|Ahmed|2006|pp=1575–1576}}</ref><ref name="World_Bank_climate_change">{{harvnb|World Bank Türkiye - Country Climate and Development Report|2022|p=7}}</ref> Turkey has ], growing ], and increasing levels of ].<ref>
Turkey is a ], ], ], ] with a diverse cultural heritage. Turkey has become increasingly integrated with the ] through membership in organisations such as the ], ], ], ] and the ]. Turkey began ] with the ] in 2005, having been an ] of the ] since 1963 and having joined the ] in 1995. Turkey has also fostered close cultural, political and economic relations with the ], ], the ] of ] and the ] through membership in organisations such as the ], ], ] and the ].
* {{cite journal |doi=10.1056/NEJMp1410433 |title=Transforming Turkey's Health System — Lessons for Universal Coverage |date=2015 |last1=Atun |first1=Rifat |journal=New England Journal of Medicine |volume=373 |issue=14 |pages=1285–1289 |pmid=26422719}}

* {{harvnb|OECD Taking stock of education reforms for access and quality in Türkiye|2023|p=35}}
Turkey's location at the crossroads of Europe and Asia makes it a country of significant geostrategic importance.<ref name="Atatürk">{{Cite book|title=Atatürk|first=Andrew|last=Mango|publisher=Overlook|year=2000|isbn=1-58567-011-1}}{{Page needed|date=July 2011}}</ref><ref name="Ottoman_Turkey">{{Cite book|title=History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey; Vol.1, Empire of the Gazis. the rise and decline of the Ottoman Empire, 1280–1808|first=Stanford Jay|last=Shaw|coauthors=Shaw, Ezel Kural|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1977|isbn=0-521-29163-1}}</ref><ref name="Stratfor">{{cite web|url=http://www.stratfor.com/weekly/20090317_turkey_and_russia_rise|title=Turkey and Russia on the Rise|publisher=Stratfor|date=2009-03-17|accessdate=2011-08-21}}</ref> In addition to its strategic location, Turkey's growing economy and diplomatic initiatives have led to its recognition as a ].<ref name="Stratfor"/><ref name="Heptagon">{{cite web|url=http://www.heptagonpost.com/Dessi/can_turkey_be_a_source_of_stability_in_the_middle_east|title=Can Turkey Be a Source of Stability in the Middle East?|publisher=heptagonpost.com|date=2010-12-18|accessdate=2011-05-16}}</ref><ref name="Eurasiareview">{{cite web|url=http://www.eurasiareview.com/03012012-turkey-a-welcome-return-to-the-balkans-analysis/|title=Turkey: A Welcome Return To The Balkans?|publisher=eurasiareview.com|date=2012-01-03|accessdate=2012-11-15}}</ref>
* {{harvnb|World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)|2024|p=22}}</ref> It is a leading ] exporter.<ref>{{cite book | last=Berg | first=Miriam | title=Turkish Drama Serials: The Importance and Influence of a Globally Popular Television Phenomenon | publisher=University of Exeter Press | year=2023 | isbn=978-1-80413-043-8 |pages=1–2}}</ref> With ] sites, 30 ] inscriptions,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.unesco.org/en/countries/tr |title=Türkiye |date= |website=UNESCO |access-date=2 March 2024 |archive-date=2 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240302171641/https://www.unesco.org/en/countries/tr |url-status=live }}</ref> and ],<ref name="Yayla_Aktaş_2021">{{cite journal |last1=Yayla |first1=Önder |last2=Aktaş |first2=Semra Günay |year=2021 |title=Mise en place for gastronomy geography through food: Flavor regions in Turkey |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1878450X21000834 |journal=International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science |volume=26 |doi=10.1016/j.ijgfs.2021.100384 |access-date=2 March 2024 |archive-date=2 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240302171641/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1878450X21000834 |url-status=live }}</ref> Turkey is the ] in the world.


==Etymology== ==Etymology==
''Turchia'', meaning "the land of the Turks", had begun to be used in European texts for ] by the end of the 12th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Agoston|Masters|2009|p=574}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=31}}</ref><ref name="Everett">{{harvnb|Everett-Heath|2020|loc=Türkiye (Turkey)}}</ref> As a word in ], ''Turk'' may mean "strong, strength, ripe" or "flourishing, in full strength".<ref>{{harvnb|Golden|2021|p=30}}</ref> It may also mean ripe as in for a fruit or "in the prime of life, young, and vigorous" for a person.<ref>{{harvnb|Clauson|1972|pp=542–543}}</ref> As an ], the etymology is still unknown.<ref>{{harvnb|Golden|2021|pp=6–7}}</ref> In addition to usage in languages such as Chinese in the 6th century,<ref name="Everett"/> the earliest mention of ''Turk'' ({{lang|otk|𐱅𐰇𐰺𐰜}}, {{transliteration|otk|türü̲k̲}}; or {{lang|otk|𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰚}}, {{transliteration|otk|türk/tẄrk}}) in Turkic languages comes from the ].<ref>{{harvnb|Golden|2021|pp=9, 16}}</ref>
{{Main|Name of Turkey}}

In ] sources in the 10th century, the name '']'' was used for defining two medieval states: ] (''Western Tourkia''); and ] (''Eastern Tourkia'').<ref name="constantine_vii">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3al15wpFWiMC |title=De Administrando Imperio by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus |last=Jenkins |first=Romilly James Heald |publisher=Dumbarton Oaks Center for Byzantine Studies |year=1967 |isbn=978-0-88402-021-9 |edition=New, revised |series=Corpus fontium historiae Byzantinae |page=65 |access-date=28 August 2013 |archive-date=20 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230120171955/https://books.google.com/books?id=3al15wpFWiMC |url-status=live }} According to Constantine Porphyrogenitus, writing in his {{lang|la|]}} ({{circa|950&nbsp;AD}}) "Patzinakia, the ], stretches west as far as the ] (or even the ]), and is four days distant from Tourkia ."</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Findley|2005|p=51}}</ref> The ], with its ruling elite of Turkic origin, was called the "State of the Turks" ({{transliteration|ar|Dawlat at-Turk}}, or {{transliteration|ar|Dawlat al-Atrāk}}, or {{transliteration|ar|Dawlat-at-Turkiyya}}).<ref>{{harvnb|Golden|2021|pp=2–3}}</ref> Turkestan, also meaning the "land of the Turks", was used for a historic region in ].<ref>{{harvnb|Everett-Heath|2020|loc=Turkestan, Central Asia, Kazakhstan}}</ref>

] usage of {{lang|enm|Turkye}} or {{lang|enm|Turkeye}} is found in '']'' (written in 1369–1372) to refer to Anatolia or the ].<ref>{{harvnb|Gray|2003|loc=Turkye, (Turkeye) Turkey; Book of the Duchess, The; Map 1; Map 3}}.</ref> The modern spelling ''Turkey'' dates back to at least 1719.<ref>{{Cite OED|Turkey}}</ref> The ] was named as such due to trade of ] from Turkey to England.<ref name="Everett"/> The name ''Turkey'' has been used in international treaties referring to the Ottoman Empire.<ref>
* {{Cite book |last=Hertslet |first=Edward |title=The Map of Europe by Treaty showing the various political and territorial changes which have taken place since the general peace of 1814, with numerous maps and notes |publisher=Butterworth |year=1875 |volume=2 |pages=1250–1265 |chapter=General treaty between Great Britain, Austria, France, Prussia, Russia, Sardinia and Turkey, signed at Paris on 30th March 1856}}
* {{cite web |url=https://archive.org/details/protocolsofconfe00grea/mode/2up |title=Protocols of conferences held at Paris relative to the general Treaty of Peace. Presented to both Houses of Parliament by command of Her Majesty, 1856 |publisher=Harrison |year=1856|access-date=9 May 2023}}
* {{Citation |last=Hertslet |first=Edward |author-link=Edward Hertslet |year=1891 |contribution=Treaty between Great Britain, Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Italy, Russia, and Turkey, for the Settlement of Affairs in the East, Signed at Berlin, 13th July 1878 (Translation)|title= The Map of Europe by Treaty; which have taken place since the general peace of 1814. With numerous maps and notes |volume= IV (1875–1891) |edition=First |publisher=] |publication-date=1891 |pages=2759–2798 |url=https://archive.org/stream/mapofeuropebytre04hert#page/2758/mode/2up |access-date=9 May 2023 |via=]}}
*{{cite web|url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/mod/1878berlin.asp|title=Treaty Between Great Britain, Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Italy, Russia and Turkey. (Berlin). July 13, 1878.|website=sourcebooks.fordham.edu|access-date=9 May 2023|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326061204/https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/mod/1878berlin.asp|url-status=live}}</ref> With the ], the name ''Türkiye'' entered international documents for the first time. In the treaty signed with ] in 1921, the expression {{transliteration|ota|Devlet-i Âliyye-i Türkiyye}} ("Sublime Turkish State") was used, likened to the ].<ref>{{TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi|title=Türkiye|author=Cevdet Küçük|page=567|volume=41}}</ref>


In December 2021, President ] called for expanded official usage of ''Türkiye'', saying that ''Türkiye'' "represents and expresses the culture, civilization, and values of the Turkish nation in the best way".<ref name="Genelge-2021/24">{{cite web|url=https://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2021/12/20211204-5.pdf|title=Marka Olarak 'Türkiye' İbaresinin Kullanımı (Presidential Circular No. 2021/24 on the Use of the Term "Türkiye" as a Brand)|publisher=]|date=4 December 2021|access-date=11 April 2022|archive-date=17 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517002246/https://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2021/12/20211204-5.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> In May 2022, the Turkish government requested the ] and other international organizations to use ''Türkiye'' officially in English; the UN agreed.<ref>{{cite news |first=Ragip |last=Soylu |title=Turkey to register its new name Türkiye to UN in coming weeks |url=https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/turkey-turkiye-new-name-register-un-weeks |newspaper=] |date=17 January 2022 |access-date=11 April 2022 |archive-date=6 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220606203745/https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/turkey-turkiye-new-name-register-un-weeks |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2 June 2022 |title=UN to use 'Türkiye' instead of 'Turkey' after Ankara's request |url=https://www.trtworld.com/turkey/un-to-use-türkiye-instead-of-turkey-after-ankara-s-request-57633 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602042921/https://www.trtworld.com/turkey/un-to-use-t%C3%BCrkiye-instead-of-turkey-after-ankara-s-request-57633 |archive-date=2 June 2022 |access-date=3 June 2022 |website=]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Wertheimer |first=Tiffany |date=2 June 2022 |title=Turkey changes its name in rebranding bid |website=] |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-61671913 |url-status=live |access-date=2 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602110511/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-61671913 |archive-date=2 June 2022}}</ref>
The name of Turkey (]: ''Türkiye'') can be divided into two components: the ] '']'' and the abstract suffix ''–iye'' meaning "owner", "land of" or "related to" (derived from the ] ''–iyya'', which is similar to the ] and ] suffixes ''–ia''). The first recorded use of the term "Türk" or "Türük" as an ] is contained in the ] of the ] (''Celestial Turks'') of Central Asia (c. 8th century). The ] name ] first appeared c. 1369.<ref name="TurkEtymology">{{cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Turk|title=Turk|first=Douglas|last=Harper|publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary|accessdate=2011-05-24|year=2001}}</ref> It is derived from the ] ''Turchia'', meaning "Land of the Turks", which was originally used by the Europeans to define the ]-controlled parts of Anatolia after the ] in 1071; increasingly in common use starting with the ]. The Greek ] of this name, '']'' ({{lang-el|Τουρκία}}) was originally used by the ] to ]<ref group=dn>On the right side of the '']'' in the ], there is a picture of the Hungarian King ] (1074–1077), with the Byzantine Greek inscription: "ΓΕΩΒΙΤZΑC ΠΙΣΤΟC ΚΡΑΛΗC ΤΟΥΡΚΙΑC" (''Geōvitzas pistós králēs Tourkías'', meaning "], faithful ] of the ]"). The contemporary Byzantine name for the Hungarians was "Turks".</ref><ref>{{Cite book|edition = New, revised|publisher = Dumbarton Oaks Center for Byzantine Studies| isbn = 0-88402-021-5| last = Jenkins| first = Romilly James Heald| title = ] by ]| location = Washington, D.C.| series = Corpus fontium historiae Byzantinae| year = 1967}} According to Constantine Porphyrogenitus, writing in his ] (ca. 950 AD) ''"Patzinakia, the ], stretches west as far as the ] (or even the ]), and is four days distant from Tourkias (i.e. Hungary)."''</ref><ref>"...Greek term Tourkoi first used for the Khazars in 568 AD. In addition in "De Administrando Imperio" Hungarians call Tourkoi too once known as Sabiroi..." ]. pp. 364</ref><ref>. Page 46.</ref> (since pre-] ] was occupied by proto-Turkic and Turkic tribes, such as the ], ], ], ]s, ] and ].) Similarly, the medieval ], a Turkic state on the northern shores of the ] and ] seas, was referred to as ''Tourkia'' (''Land of the Turks'') in Byzantine sources. However, the Byzantines later began using this name to define the Seljuk-controlled parts of Anatolia in the centuries that followed the Battle of Manzikert in 1071.


==History== ==History==
{{Main|History of Turkey}} {{Main|History of Turkey}}
{{see also|History of Anatolia|History of Thrace|Ancient regions of Anatolia}}


===Prehistory and ancient history===
===Antiquity===
{{Main|History of Anatolia}} {{Main|Prehistory of Anatolia|Prehistory of Southeast Europe}}
{{See also|Hattians|Hittites|Luwians|Pala (Anatolia)}}
], identified as the site of the ] (ca. 1200 BCE.)]]
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| total_width = 220
| image1 = Göbekli Tepe, Urfa.jpg
| caption1 = Some ]s at ] were erected as far back as ], predating those of ] by over seven millennia.<ref name="ArchMag">{{cite web|url=http://www.archaeology.org/0811/abstracts/turkey.html|title=The World's First Temple|work=Archaeology magazine|date=November–December 2008|page=23|access-date=25 July 2012|archive-date=29 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120329113052/http://www.archaeology.org/0811/abstracts/turkey.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
| image2 = Sphinx_Gate,_Hattusa_01.jpg
| caption2 = The Sphinx Gate of ], the capital of the ]}}


Present-day Turkey has been inhabited by ] since the ] period and contains some of the world's oldest ] sites.<ref name="Howard 2016 24">{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=24}}</ref><ref name="MET">{{cite journal|last=Casson|first=Lionel|year=1977|title=The Thracians|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/pubs/bulletins/1/pdf/3258667.pdf.bannered.pdf|journal=The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin|volume=35|issue=1|pages=2–6|doi=10.2307/3258667|jstor=3258667|access-date=3 April 2013|archive-date=3 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190503015440/https://www.metmuseum.org/pubs/bulletins/1/pdf/3258667.pdf.bannered.pdf}}</ref> ] is close to 12,000 years old.<ref name="Howard 2016 24"/> Parts of ] include the ], an ].<ref>{{harvnb|Bellwood|2022|p=224}}</ref> Other important Anatolian Neolithic sites include ] and ].<ref name="Howard 2016-3">{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=25}}</ref> Neolithic Anatolian farmers differed genetically from farmers in ] and ].<ref>{{harvnb|Bellwood|2022|p=229}}</ref> These early Anatolian farmers also ], starting around 9,000 years ago.<ref>{{harvnb|Bellwood|2022|p=229}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kılınç |first1=Gülşah Merve |last2=Omrak |first2=Ayça |last3=Özer |first3=Füsun |last4=Günther |first4=Torsten |last5=Büyükkarakaya |first5=Ali Metin |last6=Bıçakçı |first6=Erhan |last7=Baird |first7=Douglas |last8=Dönertaş |first8=Handan Melike |last9=Ghalichi |first9=Ayshin |last10=Yaka |first10=Reyhan |last11=Koptekin |first11=Dilek |last12=Açan |first12=Sinan Can |last13=Parvizi |first13=Poorya |last14=Krzewińska |first14=Maja |last15=Daskalaki |first15=Evangelia A. |date=June 2016 |title=The Demographic Development of the First Farmers in Anatolia |journal=Current Biology |language=en |volume=26 |issue=19 |pages=2659–2666 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2016.07.057 |pmc=5069350 |pmid=27498567|bibcode=2016CBio...26.2659K }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lipson |first1=Mark |last2=Szécsényi-Nagy |first2=Anna |last3=Mallick |first3=Swapan |last4=Pósa |first4=Annamária |last5=Stégmár |first5=Balázs |last6=Keerl |first6=Victoria |last7=Rohland |first7=Nadin |last8=Stewardson |first8=Kristin |last9=Ferry |first9=Matthew |last10=Michel |first10=Megan |last11=Oppenheimer |first11=Jonas |last12=Broomandkhoshbacht |first12=Nasreen |last13=Harney |first13=Eadaoin |last14=Nordenfelt |first14=Susanne |last15=Llamas |first15=Bastien |date=November 2017 |title=Parallel palaeogenomic transects reveal complex genetic history of early European farmers |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=551 |issue=7680 |pages=368–372 |doi=10.1038/nature24476 |issn=0028-0836 |pmc=5973800 |pmid=29144465|bibcode=2017Natur.551..368L }}</ref> ] earliest layers go back to around 4500 BC.<ref name="Howard 2016-3" />
The ], comprising most of modern Turkey, is one of the oldest permanently settled regions in the world. ] is the site of the oldest known man-made religious structure, a temple dating to 10,000 BC,<ref name="ArchMag">{{cite web| url=http://www.archaeology.org/0811/abstracts/turkey.html| title=The World's First Temple| work= Archaeology magazine |date=Nov/Dec 2008 | page=23}}</ref> while ] is a very large ] and ] settlement in southern Anatolia, which existed from approximately 7500 BCE to 5700 BCE. It is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date and in July 2012 was inscribed as a ].<ref> Global Heritage Fund blog article</ref>
] in ], dating from 135 AD.]]


Anatolia's historical records start with ] from approximately around 2000 BC that were found in modern-day ].<ref name="Howard 2016-4">{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=26}}</ref> These tablets belonged to an ].<ref name="Howard 2016-4"/> The languages in Anatolia at that time included Hattian, Hurrian, ], ], and ].<ref name="McMahon_Steadman_2012_p_234">{{harvnb|Steadman|2012|p=234}}</ref> ] was a language indigenous to Anatolia, with no known modern-day connections.<ref name="McMahon_Steadman_2012_p_234"/><ref>{{harvnb|Michel|2012|p=327}}</ref> ] was used in northern ].<ref name="McMahon_Steadman_2012_p_234"/> Hittite, Palaic, and Luwian languages were "the oldest written ]",<ref>{{harvnb|Sagona|Zimansky|2015|p=246}}</ref> forming the ].<ref name="McMahon_Steadman_2012_p_522">{{harvnb|Beckman|2012|p=522}}</ref>{{efn|The origin of Indo-European languages is unknown.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1146/annurev-linguistics-011619-030507 |title=Cognacy Databases and Phylogenetic Research on Indo-European |date=2021 |last1=Heggarty |first1=Paul |journal=Annual Review of Linguistics |volume=7 |pages=371–394}}</ref> ]<ref>{{harvnb|Bellwood|2022|p=242}}</ref> or non-native.<ref>{{harvnb|Melchert|2012|p=713}}</ref>}}
The settlement of ] started in the Neolithic Age and continued into the ]. Through recorded history, ancient Anatolians have spoken ], ] and ], as well as many languages of uncertain affiliation. In fact, given the antiquity of the Indo-European ] and ] languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical center from which the Indo-European languages radiated.<ref name="AnatoliaIndoEuropean">{{Cite journal|last=Balter|first=Michael|title=Search for the Indo-Europeans: Were Kurgan horsemen or Anatolian farmers responsible for creating and spreading the world's most far-flung language family?|journal=]|volume=303|issue=5662|page=1323|date=2004-02-27|doi=10.1126/science.303.5662.1323|pmid=14988549}}</ref>


] rulers were gradually replaced by ] rulers.<ref name="Howard 2016-4"/> The Hittite kingdom was a large kingdom in Central Anatolia, with its capital of ].<ref name="Howard 2016-4"/> It co-existed in Anatolia with ] and ], approximately between 1700 and 1200 BC.<ref name="Howard 2016-4"/> As the Hittite kingdom was disintegrating, further waves of Indo-European peoples migrated from southeastern Europe, which was followed by warfare.<ref>{{harvnb|Howard|2016|pp=26–27}}</ref> The ] were also present in modern-day ].<ref>{{harvnb|Ahmed|2006|p=1576}}</ref> It is not known if the ] is based on historical events.<ref>{{harvnb|Jablonka|2012|pp=724–726}}</ref> ] layers matches most with '']''{{'}}s story.<ref>{{harvnb|McMahon|2012|p=17}}</ref>
The earliest recorded inhabitants of Anatolia were the ] and ], non-Indo-European peoples who inhabited central and eastern Anatolia, respectively, as early as ca. 2300 BC. Indo-European ] came to Anatolia and gradually absorbed the Hattians and Hurrians ca. 2000–1700 BC. The first major empire in the area was founded by the ], from the eighteenth through the 13th century BC. The ]ns conquered and settled parts of southeastern Turkey as early as 1950 BC until the year 612 BC.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www3.uakron.edu/ziyaret/timeline_3period.html |title=Ziyaret Tepe – Turkey Archaeological Dig Site |publisher=uakron.edu |accessdate=2010-09-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aina.org/articles/assyrianidentity.pdf |title=Assyrian Identity In Ancient Times And Today' |format=PDF |accessdate=2010-09-04}}</ref>


===Early classical antiquity===
] was built by the Byzantines in the 6th century.]]
{{Main|Classical Anatolia}}
{{See also|Phrygia|Lydia|Lycia|Caria|Urartu|Achaemenid Empire|Hellenistic period}}
] is a {{convert|470|mi|km|order=flip|sp=us}} long hiking path in Southwestern Turkey.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/photo-story-turkey-lycian-way |title=Photo story: tombs, turquoise seas and trekking along Turkey's Lycian Way |last=Denisyuk |first=Yulia |date=29 October 2023 |website=National Geographic |publisher=National Geographic Traveller}}</ref>]]


Around 750 BC, ] had been established, with its two centers in ] and modern-day ].<ref name="Howard 2016-2">{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=27}}</ref> ] spoke an Indo-European language, which was closer to ] than Anatolian languages.<ref name="McMahon_Steadman_2012_p_522"/> Phrygians shared Anatolia with ] and ]. Luwian-speakers were probably the majority in various Anatolian Neo-Hittite states.<ref>{{harvnb|Yakubovich|2012|p=538}}</ref> Urartians spoke a non-Indo-European language and their capital was around ].<ref>{{harvnb|Zimansky|2012|p=552}}</ref><ref name="Howard 2016-2"/> Urartu and Phrygia fell in seventh century BC.<ref name="Howard 2016-2"/><ref name="Howard 2016">{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=28}}</ref> They were replaced by ], ] and ].<ref name="Howard 2016"/> These three cultures "can be considered a reassertion of the ancient, indigenous culture of the Hattian cities of Anatolia".<ref name="Howard 2016"/>
Following the collapse of the Hittite empire c. 1180 BC, the ]ns, an Indo-European people, achieved ascendancy in Anatolia until their kingdom was destroyed by the ] in the 7th century BC.<ref name="TroyHittiteEmpirePhrygians">{{cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/03/waa/ht03waa.htm|title=Anatolia and the Caucasus, 2000–1000 B.C. in ''Timeline of Art History.''|author=The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York|authorlink=Metropolitan Museum of Art|publisher=New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art|accessdate=2006-12-21|month=October|year=2000}}</ref> The most powerful of Phrygia's successor states were ], ] and ]. The Lydians and Lycians spoke languages that were fundamentally Indo-European, but both languages had acquired non-Indo-European elements prior to the Hittite and ] periods.


Before 1200 BC, there were four Greek-speaking settlements in Anatolia, including ].<ref name="Britannica">{{Cite web|title=Anatolia – Greek colonies on the Anatolian coasts, c. 1180–547 bce|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Anatolia/Greek-colonies-on-the-Anatolian-coasts-c-1180-547-bce|access-date=2 February 2024|website=]|language=en|quote=Before the Greek migrations that followed the end of the Bronze Age (c. 1200 BCE), probably the only Greek-speaking communities on the west coast of Anatolia were Mycenaean settlements at Iasus and Müskebi on the Halicarnassus peninsula and walled Mycenaean colonies at Miletus and Colophon. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230321122314/https://www.britannica.com/place/Anatolia/Greek-colonies-on-the-Anatolian-coasts-c-1180-547-bce |archive-date=21 March 2023 |url-status=live }}</ref> Around 1000 BC, ] to the west coast of Anatolia. These eastern Greek settlements played a vital role in shaping the Archaic Greek civilization;<ref name="Howard 2016-2"/><ref>{{harvnb|Harl|2012|p=760}}: "Greek cities on the shores of Asia Minor and on the Aegean islands were the nexus
Starting around 1200 BC, the coast of ] was heavily settled by ] and ] ]. Numerous important cities were founded by these colonists, such as ], ], ] (modern ]), and ] (later ] and ].) The first state that was called ] by neighboring peoples was the state of the ] ], which included parts of eastern Turkey beginning in the 6th century BC.
of trade and cultural exchange in the early Greek world, so Archaic Greek civilization was to a great extent the product of the Greek cities of Asia Minor."</ref> important ] included ], ], ], ] (now ]) and ] (now ]), the latter founded by colonists from ] in the seventh century BCE.<ref>{{harvnb|Harl|2012|pp=753-756}}</ref> These settlements were grouped as ], ], and ], after the specific Greek groups that settled them.<ref>{{harvnb|Greaves|2012|p=505}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Harl|2012|p=753}}</ref> Further Greek colonization in Anatolia was led by Miletus and ] in 750–480 BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Harl|2012|pp=753–754}}</ref> The Greek cities along the Aegean prospered with trade, and saw remarkable scientific and scholarly accomplishments.<ref name="y319">{{cite book | last=Rovelli | first=C. | title=Anaximander: And the Birth of Science | publisher=Penguin Publishing Group | year=2023 | isbn=978-0-593-54237-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=huNxEAAAQBAJ | access-date=2024-06-01 | pages=20–30}}</ref> ] and ] from Miletus founded the ], thereby laying the foundations of ] and ].<ref>{{harvnb|Baird|2016|p=8}}</ref>
] in ] was built by the ] in 114–117.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Celsus_Library/|title=Celsus Library|publisher=]|author=Mark Cartwright|access-date=2 February 2017|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328151448/https://www.worldhistory.org/Library_of_Celsus/?arg1=Celsus_Library&arg2=&arg3=&arg4=&arg5=|url-status=live}}</ref>]]


] attacked eastern Anatolia in 547 BC, and ] eventually ].<ref name="Howard 2016"/> In the east, the ] was part of the Achaemenid Empire.<ref name="Howard 2016-2"/> Following the ], the Greek city-states of the Anatolian Aegean coast regained independence, but most of the interior stayed part of the Achaemenid Empire.<ref name="Howard 2016"/> Two of the ], the ] in Ephesus, and the ], were located in Anatolia.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Temple of Artemis at Ephesus: The Un-Greek Temple and Wonder|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/article/128/|website=]|access-date=17 February 2017|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328151417/https://www.worldhistory.org/Temple_of_Artemis_at_Ephesus/|url-status=live}}</ref>
Anatolia was conquered by the Persian ] during the 6th and 5th centuries BC and later fell to ] in 334 BC.<ref name="PersiansInAsiaMinor">{{cite web|url=http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/GREECE/PERSIAN.HTM|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5uNLYWJA2|archivedate=2010-11-20|title=Ancient Greece: The Persian Wars|author=Hooker, Richard|publisher=Washington State University, Washington, United States|accessdate=2006-12-22|date=1999-06-06}}</ref> Following Alexander's death in 323 BC, Anatolia was subsequently divided into a number of small ] (including ], ], ], and ]), all of which became part of the ] by the mid-1st century BC.<ref name="AlexanderToRome">{{cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/04/waa/ht04waa.htm|title=Anatolia and the Caucasus (Asia Minor), 1000 B.C. – 1 A.D. in ''Timeline of Art History.''|author=The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York|authorlink=Metropolitan Museum of Art|publisher=New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art|accessdate=2006-12-21|month=October|year=2000}}</ref>


Following the victories of Alexander in ] and ], the Achaemenid Empire collapsed and Anatolia became part of the ].<ref name="Howard 2016"/> This led to increasing cultural homogeneity and ] of the Anatolian interior,<ref>{{harvnb|McMahon|Steadman|2012a|p=5}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|McMahon|2012|p=16}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Sams|2012|p=617}}</ref> which met resistance in some places.<ref name=Howard_2016_a>{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=29}}: "The sudden disappearance of the Persian Empire and the conquest of virtually the entire Middle Eastern world from the Nile to the Indus by Alexander the Great caused tremendous political and cultural upheaval." ... "statesmen throughout the conquered regions attempted to implement a policy of Hellenization. For indigenous elites, this amounted to the forced assimilation of native religion and culture to Greek models. It met resistance in Anatolia as elsewhere, especially from priests and others who controlled temple wealth."</ref> Following Alexander's death, the ] ruled large parts of Anatolia, while native Anatolian states emerged in the Marmara and Black Sea areas. In eastern Anatolia, ] appeared. In third century BC, ] invaded central Anatolia and continued as a major ethnic group in the area for around 200 years. They were known as the ].<ref>{{harvnb|Mitchell|1995|pp=3–4}}</ref>
In 324, ] chose ] to be the new capital of the ], renaming it ] (later ], modern ].) Following the death of ] in 395 and the permanent division of the Roman Empire between his two sons, Constantinople (Istanbul) became the capital of the ], which would rule most of the territory of Turkey until the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/cities/turkey/istanbul/istanbul.html|title=Constantinople/Istanbul|author=Daniel C. Waugh|publisher=University of Washington, Seattle, Washington|accessdate=2006-12-26|year=2004}}</ref>


===Seljuk Turks and the Ottoman Empire=== ===Rome and Byzantine Empire===
{{Main|Classical Anatolia|Byzantine Anatolia}}
{{Main|Turkic migration|Great Seljuq Empire|Sultanate of Rum|Ottoman Empire}}
{{See also|Roman Republic|Roman Empire|Christianity in Turkey|Byzantine Empire}}
]


] in 555 under ], at its greatest extent]]
The '']'' was a branch of the ''Kınık'' ] who resided on the periphery of the ], in the Yabghu ]ate of the Oğuz confederacy, to the north of the ] and ]s, in the 9th century.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Al Hind: The Making of the Indo Islamic World, Vol. 1, Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam, 7th–11th Centuries|first=Andre|last=Wink|publisher=Brill Academic Publishers|year=1990|isbn=90-04-09249-8}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=July 2011}} In the 10th century the Seljuks started migrating from their ancestral homeland into ], which became the administrative core of the ].


When ] requested assistance in its conflict with the Seleucids, ] intervened in Anatolia in the second century BC. Without an heir, Pergamum's king left the kingdom to Rome, which was annexed as ]. Roman influence grew in Anatolia afterwards.<ref>{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=29}}</ref> Following ] massacre, and ] with ], Rome emerged victorious. Around the 1st century BC, ], while turning rest of Anatolian states into Roman satellites.<ref>{{harvnb|Hoyos|2019|pp=35–37}}</ref> Several ], with peace and wars alternating.<ref>{{harvnb|Hoyos|2019|pp=62, 83, 115}}</ref>
In the latter half of the 11th century the Seljuks began penetrating into the eastern regions of ]. The victory of the Seljuk sultan ] against the Byzantine emperor ] at the ] in 1071 gave rise to the ], which developed as a separate branch of the Great Seljuk Empire that covered parts of Central Asia, Persia, Anatolia, the ] and ].<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Oxford History of Byzantium|first=Cyril|last=Mango|publisher=Oxford University Press, USA|year=2002|isbn=0-19-814098-3}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=July 2011}}


According to ], early Christian Church had significant growth in Anatolia because of ] efforts. Letters from St. Paul in Anatolia comprise the ].<ref>{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=30}}</ref> Under Roman authority, ] such as ] in 325 served as a guide for developing "orthodox expressions of basic Christian teachings".<ref>{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=30}}</ref>
In 1243, the Seljuk armies were defeated by the ], causing the Seljuk Empire's power to slowly disintegrate. In its wake, one of the ] governed by ] would, over the next 200 years, evolve into the ], expanding throughout ], the ], the ] and ].<ref name="Ottomans">{{Cite book|title=The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire|first=Patrick|last=Kinross|publisher=Morrow|year=1977|isbn=0-688-03093-9}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=July 2011}} In 1453, the Ottomans completed their conquest of the ] by ], ].


] in ] (now ]) was built by the ] emperor ] in 532–537.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://global.britannica.com/topic/Hagia-Sophia|title=Hagia Sophia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=2 February 2017|archive-date=29 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429163151/https://global.britannica.com/topic/Hagia-Sophia|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
] in ] is one of the most famous ] of the Ottoman Empire.]]
The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the ] centered in ] during ] and the ]. The eastern half of the Empire survived the conditions that caused the ] in the 5th century AD, and continued to exist until the ] to the ] in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire remained the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in the ]. The term ''Byzantine Empire'' was only coined following the empire's demise; its citizens referred to the polity as the "Roman Empire" and to themselves as ''Romans''. Due to the imperial seat's move from Rome to ], the ], and the predominance of ] instead of ], modern historians continue to make a distinction between the earlier ''Roman Empire'' and the later ''Byzantine Empire''.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}}


In the early Byzantine Empire period, the Anatolian coastal areas were Greek speaking. In addition to natives, interior Anatolia had diverse groups such as ], ], ] and ]. Interior Anatolia had been "heavily Hellenized".<ref name=Horrocks_pp_778-779>{{harvnb|Horrocks|2008|pp=778–779}}: "Thus the majority of traditional 'Greek' lands, including the coastal areas of Asia Minor, remained essentially Greek-speaking, despite the superimposition of Latin and the later Slavic incursions into the Balkans during the sixth and seventh centuries. Even on the Anatolian plateau, where Hellenic culture had come only with Alexander's conquests, both the extremely heterogeneous indigenous populations and immigrant groups (including Celts, Goths, Jews, and Persians) had become heavily Hellenized, as the steady decline in epigraphic evidence for the native languages and the great mass of public and private inscriptions in Greek demonstrate. Though the disappearance of these languages from the written record did not entail their immediate abandonment as spoken languages,..."</ref> ] eventually became extinct after ] of Anatolia.<ref>{{harvnb|van den Hout|2011|p=1}}</ref>
In 1514, Sultan ] (1512–1520) successfully expanded the Empire's southern and eastern borders by defeating Shah ] of the ] in the ]. In 1517, Selim I expanded Ottoman rule into ] and ], and created a naval presence in the ]. Subsequently, a competition started between the Ottoman and ] empires to become the dominant sea power in the ], with ] in the Red Sea, the ] and the ]. The Portuguese presence in the Indian Ocean was perceived as a threat for the Ottoman monopoly over the ancient trading routes between ] and ] (later collectively named the ], a term coined by ] in 1877.<ref>"Approaches Old and New to the Silk Roads" Vadime Eliseeff in: ''The Silk Roads: Highways of Culture and Commerce''. Paris (1998) UNESCO, Reprint: Berghahn Books (2000), pp. 1–2. ISBN 92-3-103652-1; ISBN 1-57181-221-0; ISBN 1-57181-222-9 (pbk)</ref><ref>Waugh, Daniel. (2007). "Richthofen's "Silk Roads": Toward the Archaeology of a Concept." ''The Silk Road''. Volume 5, Number 1, Summer 2007, p. 4.</ref>) This important monopoly was increasingly compromised following the discovery of the ] by Portuguese explorer ] in 1488, which had a considerable impact on the ].


===Seljuks and Anatolian beyliks===
The Ottoman Empire's power and prestige peaked in the 16th and 17th centuries, particularly during the reign of ]. The empire was often at odds with the ] in its steady advance towards ] through the ] and the southern part of the ].<ref name="Ottoman_Turkey">{{Cite book|title=History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey|first=Stanford|last=Jay Shaw|coauthors=Kural Shaw, Ezel|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1977|isbn=0-521-29163-1}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=July 2011}} At sea, the ] contended with several ]s (composed primarily of ], the ], the ], the ], the ], the ] and the ]) for control of the ]. In the east, the Ottomans were occasionally at war with ] over conflicts stemming from territorial disputes or religious differences between the 16th and 18th centuries.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Short History of the Middle East| first=George E. |last=Kirk|publisher=Brill Academic Publishers|year=2008|page=58|isbn=1-4437-2568-4}}</ref>
{{main|Seljuk Empire|Sultanate of Rum|Anatolian beyliks}}
{{further|Turkic migration|Oghuz Turks|Turkification}}


{{Location map+
From the beginning of the 19th century onwards, the Ottoman Empire ]. As it gradually shrank in size, military power and wealth, many Balkan Muslims migrated to the Empire's heartland in Anatolia,<ref>Mann, Michael (2005), ''The dark side of democracy: explaining ethnic cleansing'', Cambridge University Press, p. 118</ref><ref>Todorova, Maria (2009), ''Imagining the Balkans'', Oxford University Press, p. 175</ref> along with the ] fleeing the ] ] of the ]. The decline of the Ottoman Empire led to a ], leading to increased ethnic tensions which occasionally burst into violence, such as the ]. The Ottoman Empire entered ] on the side of the ] and was ultimately defeated. During the war, an estimated 1.5 million ] were deported and exterminated in the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.umd.umich.edu/dept/armenian/facts/genocide.html|title=FACT SHEET: ARMENIAN GENOCIDE|publisher=]|accessdate=2010-07-15}}</ref><ref>Totten, Samuel, Paul Robert Bartrop, Steven L. Jacobs (eds.) ''Dictionary of Genocide''. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2008, p. 19. ISBN 0-313-34642-9.</ref> The Turkish government ] an ] and claims that Armenians were only ] from the eastern war zone.<ref>Patrick J. Roelle, ''Islam's Mandate- A Tribute to Jihad'', AuthorHouse, 2010, ISBN 978-1-4520-8018-5, </ref> Large scale massacres were also committed against the empire's other minority groups such as the ] and ].<ref>Bloxham, D. ''The great game of genocide: imperialism, nationalism, and the destruction of the Ottoman Armenians.'' Oxford University Press, 2005, </ref><ref name=Levene>Levene, Mark (1998). ''Creating a Modern "Zone of Genocide": The Impact of Nation- and State-Formation on Eastern Anatolia, 1878–1923'', Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Volume 12, Number 3 Winter 1998, pp.&nbsp;393–433. ().</ref><ref name="Ferguson">Ferguson, Niall (2006). ''The War of the World: Twentieth-century Conflict And the Descent of the West'', Penguin Press, p. 180</ref> Following the ] on 30 October 1918, the victorious ] sought to ] through the 1920 ].<ref name="Ottomans" />
| Seljuk Empire
| width=300 <!-- DO NOT CHANGE MAP SIZE (300) AS THIS WILL DISPLACE THE LABELS -->
| float = right
| nodiv= 1 | mini= 1 | relief= yes
| places =
{{Annotation|270|05|]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=10|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|210|90|]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|150|15|]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|30|20|]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|25|105|]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|97|120|]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|95|51|]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|1|40|]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|50|60|]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|245|145|]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|186|45|]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|272|155|] ]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=12|color=#000000}}
| caption=] circa 1090, during the reign of ]. To the west, Anatolia was under the independent rule of ] as the ].
}}


According to historians and linguists, the ] originated in Central-East Asia.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Uchiyama|first1=Junzo|last2=Gillam|first2=J. Christopher|last3=Savelyev|first3=Alexander|last4=Ning|first4=Chao|display-authors=1|date=21 May 2020 |title=Populations dynamics in Northern Eurasian forests: a long-term perspective from Northeast Asia |journal=Evolutionary Human Sciences |publisher=] |volume= 2|pages=e16 |doi=10.1017/ehs.2020.11 |pmid=37588381 |pmc=10427466 |doi-access=free |quote=Most linguists and historians agree that Proto-Turkic, the common ancestor of all ancient and contemporary Turkic languages, must have been spoken somewhere in Central-East Asia}}</ref> Initially, Proto-] were potentially both hunter-gatherers and farmers; they later became ] ].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Uchiyama|first1=Junzo|last2=Gillam|first2=J. Christopher|last3=Savelyev|first3=Alexander|last4=Ning|first4=Chao|display-authors=1|date=21 May 2020 |title=Populations dynamics in Northern Eurasian forests: a long-term perspective from Northeast Asia |journal=Evolutionary Human Sciences |publisher=] |volume= 2|pages=e16 |doi=10.1017/ehs.2020.11 |pmid=37588381 |pmc=10427466 |doi-access=free |quote=To sum up, the palaeolinguistic reconstruction points to a mixed subsistence strategy and complex economy of the Proto-Turkic-speaking community. It is likely that the subsistence of the Early Proto-Turkic speakers was based on a combination of hunting–gathering and agriculture, with a later shift to nomadic pastoralism as an economy basis, partly owing to the interaction of the Late Proto-Turkic groups with the Iranian-speaking herders of the Eastern Steppe.}}</ref> Early and medieval ] exhibited a wide range of both East Asian and West-Eurasian physical appearances and genetic origins, in part through long-term contact with neighboring peoples such as ], ], ], ], and ] peoples.<ref>
===Republic of Turkey===
* {{harvnb|Lee|2023|p=4}}: "It should also be noted that even the early Turkic peoples, including the Tiele and the Türks, were made up of heterogeneous elements. Importantly, DNA studies demonstrate that the expansion process of the Turkic peoples involved the Turkicization of various non-Turkic-speaking groups. The “Turks” intermixed with and Turkicized various indigenous groups across Eurasia: Uralic hunter-gatherers in northern Eurasia; Mongolic nomads in Mongolia; Indo-European-speaking nomads and sedentary populations in Xinjiang, Transoxiana, Iran, Kazakhstan, and South Siberia; and Indo-European elements (the Byzantine subjects, among others) in Anatolia and the Balkans.11"
{{Main|History of the Republic of Turkey|Atatürk's Reforms}}
* {{harvnb|Findley|2005|p=18}}: "Moreover, Turks do not all physically look alike. They never did. The Turks of Turkey are famous for their range of physical types. Given the Turks' ancient Inner Asian origins, it is easy to imagine that they once presented a uniform Mongoloid appearance. Such traits seem to be more characteristic in the eastern Turkic world; however, uniformity of type can never have prevailed there either. Archeological evidence indicates that Indo-Europeans, or certainly Europoid physical types, inhabited the oases of the Tarim basin and even parts of Mongolia in ancient times. In the Tarim basin, persistence of these former inhabitants' genes among the modern Uyghurs is both observable and scientifically demonstrable.32 Early Chinese sources describe the Kirghiz as blue-eyed and blond or red-haired. The genesis of Turkic ethnic groups from earliest times occurred in confederations of diverse peoples. As if to prove the point, the earliest surviving texts in Turkic languages are studded with terms from other languages."
], founder and first President of the Republic of Turkey.]]
* {{Cite journal |last=Golden |first=Peter B. |date=25 July 2018 |title=The Ethnogonic Tales of the Türks |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0971945818775373 |journal=The Medieval History Journal |language=en |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=291–327 |doi=10.1177/0971945818775373 |s2cid=166026934 |issn=0971-9458 |access-date=12 March 2024 |archive-date=14 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210214053008/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0971945818775373 |url-status=live }}"Some DNA tests point to the Iranian connections of the Ashina and Ashide,133 highlighting further that the Turks as a whole 'were made up of heterogeneous and somatically dissimilar populations'.134 Geographically, the accounts cover the regions of Inner Mongolia, Gansu, Xinjiang, the Yenisei zone and the Altay, regions with Turkic, Indo-European (Iranian and Tokharian), Yeniseic, Uralic and other populations. Wusun elements, like most steppe polities of an ethno-linguistic mix, may have also played a substratal role."
* {{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Joo-Yup |last2=Kuang |first2=Shuntu |date=18 October 2017 |title=A Comparative Analysis of Chinese Historical Sources and Y-DNA Studies with Regard to the Early and Medieval Turkic Peoples |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/inas/19/2/article-p197_197.xml |access-date=20 June 2020 |journal=Inner Asia |publisher=] |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=197–239 |doi=10.1163/22105018-12340089 |issn=2210-5018 |doi-access=free |quote=Both Chinese histories and modern dna studies indicate that the early and medieval Turkic peoples were made up of heterogeneous populations}}</ref> During the 9th and 10th centuries CE, ] were a Turkic group that lived in the ] and ] steppes.<ref name=Lee_p84>{{harvnb|Lee|2023|p=84}}</ref> Partly due to pressure from the ], the Oghuz migrated into ] and ].<ref name=Lee_p84/> They mixed with Iranic-speaking groups in the area and converted to ].<ref name=Lee_p84/> Oghuz Turks were also known as ].<ref name=Lee_p84/>


] in Anatolia during the 14th century]]
The ] and ] by the Allies in the aftermath of World War I prompted the ].<ref name="Ottoman_Turkey" /> Under the leadership of ] ], a military commander who had distinguished himself during the ], the ] was waged with the aim of revoking the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres.<ref name="Atatürk"/>
] originated from the '']'' branch of the Oghuz Turks who resided in the ].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Al Hind: The Making of the Indo Islamic World, Vol. 1, Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam, 7th–11th Centuries|first=Andre|last=Wink|publisher=Brill Academic Publishers|year=1990|isbn=978-90-04-09249-5|page=21}}</ref> In 1040, the Seljuks defeated the ] at the ] and established the ] in ].<ref>{{harvnb|Lee|2023|p=91}}</ref> ], the ]'s capital and center of ], was taken by Seljuks in 1055.<ref name="Howard 2016 34">{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=34}}</ref> Given the role ] traditions played in art, culture, and political traditions in the empire, the Seljuk period is described as a mixture of "]".<ref>{{harvnb|Peacock|2015|p=9}}</ref> In the latter half of the 11th century, the Seljuk Turks began penetrating into ] and Anatolia.<ref name="Howard 2016 34"/> At the time, Anatolia was a diverse and largely Greek-speaking region after previously being ].<ref name=Ahmed_2006_p1576_h>{{harvnb|Ahmed|2006|p=1576}}: "Subsequently, hellenization of the elites transformed Anatolia into a largely Greek-speaking region"</ref><ref name=Davison_1990_p3_4>{{harvnb|Davison|1990|pp=3–4}}: "So the Seljuk sultanate was a successor state ruling part of the medieval Greek empire, and within it the process of Turkification of a previously Hellenized Anatolian population continued. That population must already have been of very mixed ancestry, deriving from ancient Hittite, Phrygian, Cappadocian, and other civilizations as well as Roman and Greek."</ref><ref name=Horrocks_pp_778-779/>


The Seljuk Turks defeated the Byzantines at the ] in 1071, and later established ].<ref>{{harvnb|Howard|2016|pp=34–36}}</ref> During this period, there were also ] such as ].<ref>{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=36}}</ref> Seljuk arrival started the ] process in Anatolia;<ref name=Davison_1990_p3_4/><ref>{{harvnb|Ahmed|2006|p=1576}}</ref> there were Turkic/Turkish migrations, intermarriages, and conversions into Islam.<ref>{{harvnb|Findley|2005|pp=71–73, 225}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Howard|2016|pp=36–38}}</ref> The shift took several centuries and happened gradually.<ref>{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=33}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Leiser|2010|p=303}}</ref> Members of ] orders, such as ], played a role in the ] of the diverse people of Anatolia.<ref>{{harvnb|Davison|1990|p=4}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Howard|2016|pp=37–39}}</ref> Seljuk expansion was one of the reasons for the ].<ref>{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=35}}</ref> In 13th century, there was a second significant wave of Turkic migration, as people fled ] expansion.<ref>{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=38}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Leiser|2010|pp=308–310}}</ref> Seljuk sultanate was defeated by the Mongols at the ] in 1243 and disappeared by the beginning of the 14th century. It was replaced by various Turkish principalities.<ref name="Howard 2016 38–39"/><ref>{{harvnb|Leiser|2010|pp=309–310}}</ref>
By 18 September 1922, the occupying armies were expelled, and the ], which declared itself the legitimate government of the country in April 1920, started to formalise the legal transition from the old Ottoman into the new Republican political system. On 1 November, the ] formally abolished the ]ate, thus ending 623 years of Ottoman rule. The ] of 24 July 1923 led to the international recognition of the sovereignty of the newly formed "Republic of Turkey" as the continuing state of the Ottoman Empire, and the republic was officially proclaimed on 29 October 1923 in ], the country's new capital.<ref name="Ottoman_Turkey" /> The Lausanne treaty stipulated a ], whereby 1.1 million Greeks left Turkey for Greece in exchange for 380,000 Muslims transferred from Greece to Turkey.<ref name="Clogg">Clogg, Richard, ''A Concise History of Greece'', page 101. Cambridge University Press, 1992, 257 pages. ISBN 0-521-37228-3. </ref>


===Ottoman Empire===
Mustafa Kemal became the republic's first ] and subsequently introduced ] with the aim of transforming old Ottoman-Turkish state into a new secular republic. <ref name="Ottoman_Turkey" /> With the ] of 1934, the ] bestowed upon Mustafa Kemal the honorific surname "Atatürk" (''Father of the Turks''.)<ref name="Atatürk" />
{{Main|Ottoman Empire}}
] at its greatest European extent, in 1683, during the ]]]
Based around ], ] was founded by ] in the early 14th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Fleet|2010|pp=313–314}}</ref> According to Ottoman chroniclers, Osman descended from the '']'' tribe of the ].<ref name="Lee 2023 94">{{harvnb|Lee|2023|p=94}}</ref> Ottomans started annexing the nearby Turkish beyliks (principalities) in Anatolia and expanded into the ].<ref>{{harvnb|Howard|2016|pp=40–41}}</ref> ] completed Ottoman conquest of the Byzantine Empire by ], on 29 May 1453.<ref>{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=43}}</ref> ] united Anatolia under Ottoman rule.<ref name="Howard_p45"/> Turkification continued as Ottomans mixed with various indigenous people in Anatolia and the Balkans.<ref name="Lee 2023 94"/>


The Ottoman Empire was a global power during the reigns of ] and ].<ref name=Howard_p45/><ref name=Somel_p_xcvii/> In the 16th and 17th centuries, ] moved into Ottoman Empire following their ] from Spain.<ref>{{harvnb|Agoston|Masters|2009|p=302}}</ref> From the second half of the 18th century onwards, the ]. The ] reforms, initiated by ] in 1839, aimed to modernize the Ottoman state in line with the progress that had been made in Western Europe. The ] was the first among Muslim states, but was ].<ref>{{harvnb|Hanioğlu|2012|p=19}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Özbudun|2012|p=194}}</ref>
], ] and ] at the ] which was held between 4–6 December 1943.]]


{{Multiple image
Turkey ] during most of ], but entered the war on the side of the ] on 23 February 1945, as a ceremonial gesture. On 26 June 1945, Turkey became a ] of the United Nations.<ref name="Turkey_UN">{{cite web|url=http://www.un.org/Overview/growth.htm|title=Growth in United Nations membership (1945–2005)|publisher=United Nations|accessdate=2006-10-30|date=2006-07-03}}</ref> Difficulties faced by Greece after the war in quelling a ], along with demands by the ] for military bases in the ], prompted the ] to declare the ] in 1947. The doctrine enunciated American intentions to guarantee the security of Turkey and Greece, and resulted in large-scale ].<ref name="Truman Doctrine">{{Cite book|title=Outposts and Allies: U.S. Army Logistics in the Cold War, 1945–1953|first=James A.|last=Huston|publisher=Susquehanna University Press|year=1988|isbn=0-941664-84-8|url=http://books.google.com/?id=ID4E3Lm8TsgC&pg=PA198&lpg=PA198&dq=turkey+cold+war}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=July 2011}} Both countries were included in the ] and ] for rebuilding European economies in 1948, and subsequently became founding members of the ] in 1961.
| total_width = 220
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| image1 = View of Topkapı Palace from the Galata Tower, Istanbul, Turkey 001 cropped.jpg
| image2 = Dolmabahçe_Palace,_Istanbul_cropped.jpg
| caption2 = ] and ] were the primary residences of the ] in ] between 1465 and 1856<ref name="nytimes">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/08/22/travel/center-of-ottoman-power.html|title=Center of Ottoman Power|work=]|last=Simons|first=Marlise|access-date=4 June 2009|date=22 August 1993|archive-date=12 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180712043016/https://www.nytimes.com/1993/08/22/travel/center-of-ottoman-power.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and 1856 to 1922,<ref name=dolmabahcepalace>{{cite web|title=Dolmabahce Palace|url=http://www.dolmabahcepalace.com/listingview.php?listingID=3|website=dolmabahcepalace.com|access-date=4 August 2014|archive-date=16 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316140350/http://www.dolmabahcepalace.com/listingview.php?listingID=3|url-status=live}}</ref> respectively.}}


As the empire gradually shrank in size, military power and wealth; especially after the ] in 1875<ref name=NiallFergusonFT>{{cite news|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/6667a18a-b888-11dc-893b-0000779fd2ac.html|title=An Ottoman warning for indebted America|author=Niall Ferguson|newspaper=Financial Times|date=2 January 2008|access-date=5 September 2016|author-link=Niall Ferguson|archive-date=25 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140125174604/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/6667a18a-b888-11dc-893b-0000779fd2ac.html|url-status=live}}</ref> which led to uprisings in the Balkan provinces that culminated in the ]. The decline of the Ottoman Empire led to a ], leading to increased ethnic tensions which occasionally burst into violence, such as the ] of ], which claimed up to 300,000 lives.<ref name=nzhistory.net.nz>{{cite web|title=Collapse of the Ottoman Empire, 1918–1920|url=http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/war/ottoman-empire/collapse|website=nzhistory.net.nz|access-date=9 August 2014|archive-date=19 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151219183629/http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/war/ottoman-empire/collapse|url-status=live}}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=some of this information is not in the source|date=November 2024}} Ottoman territories in Europe (]) were lost in the ] (1912–1913).<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/ottoman-refugees-1878-1939-9781472515360/|title=Ottoman Refugees, 1878–1939: Migration in a Post-Imperial World|author=Isa Blumi|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|year=2013|isbn=978-1-4725-1536-0|access-date=23 April 2020|archive-date=29 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229235331/https://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/ottoman-refugees-1878-1939-9781472515360/|url-status=live}}</ref> Ottomans managed to recover some territory in Europe, such as ], in the ] (1913).
After participating with the United Nations forces in the ], Turkey joined ] in 1952, becoming a bulwark against Soviet expansion into the ]. Following a decade of ] and the ] staged by the ] paramilitary organization, which overthrew President ] and installed the pro-] (union with Greece) ] as dictator, ] on 20 July 1974.<ref name="Uslu2003">{{cite book|last=Uslu|first=Nasuh|title=The Cyprus question as an issue of Turkish foreign policy and Turkish-American relations, 1959–2003|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=RYHWMKL2-CQC&pg=PA119|accessdate=16 August 2011|year=2003|publisher=Nova Publishers|isbn=978-1-59033-847-6|page=119}}</ref> Nine years later the ], which is recognized only by Turkey, was established.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1021835.stm|title=Timeline: Cyprus|work=BBC|accessdate=2006-12-25|date=2006-12-12}}</ref>


In the 19th and early 20th centuries, ] and ] resulted in estimated 5 million deaths,<ref>{{harvnb|Kaser|2011|p=336}}</ref><ref name="Gibney 2005 437">{{harvnb|Fábos|2005|p=437}}</ref> with the casualties including Turks.<ref name="Gibney 2005 437"/> Five to seven or seven to nine million ] migrated into modern-day Turkey from the ], ], ], and ] islands,<ref>
The ] ended in 1945. It was followed by a tumultuous transition to ] over the next few decades, which was interrupted by military ] in ], ], ] and ].<ref name="TRPoliticsandMilitary">{{Cite book|title=Turkish Politics and the Military|first=William Mathew|last=Hale|publisher=Routledge, UK|year=1994|isbn=0-415-02455-2}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=July 2011}} In 1984, the ] began an insurgency against the Turkish government; the conflict, which has claimed over 40,000 lives, continues today.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8352934.stm|title=Turkey's PKK peace plan delayed|work=BBC|accessdate=2010-02-06|date=2009-11-10}}</ref> Since the liberalisation of the Turkish economy during the 1980s, the country has enjoyed stronger economic growth and greater political stability.<ref name="80sLiberalization" />
* {{harvnb|Pekesen|2012}}
* {{harvnb|Kaser|2011|p=336}}
* {{harvnb|Karpat|2001|p=343}}
* {{harvnb|Karpat|2004|pp=5–6}}</ref> shifting the center of the Ottoman Empire to Anatolia.<ref>{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=70}}</ref> In addition to a small number of Jews, the refugees were overwhelmingly Muslim; they were both Turkish and non-Turkish people, such as ] and ].<ref>{{harvnb|Karpat|2001|p=343}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Armour|2012|p=213}}</ref> ] has called the Balkan Wars an "unrecognized genocide", where multiple sides were both victims and perpetrators.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Mojzes|first=Paul|date=November 2013|title=Ethnic cleansing in the Balkans, why did it happen and could it happen again|url=https://www.cicerofoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/Paul_Mojzes_Ethnic_Cleansing_In_The_Balkans.pdf|website=Cicero Foundation|access-date=23 February 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240223191938/https://www.cicerofoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/Paul_Mojzes_Ethnic_Cleansing_In_The_Balkans.pdf|archive-date=23 February 2024|url-status=live}}</ref> Circassian refugees included the survivors of the ].<ref>{{harvnb|Levene|2015|p=430–431}}</ref>


Following the ], the ] took control of the Ottoman government. The Ottoman Empire entered ] on the side of the ] and was ultimately defeated.<ref>]; Review "From Paris to Sèvres: The Partition of the Ottoman Empire at the Peace Conference of 1919–1920" by Paul C. Helmreich in '']'', Vol. 34, No. 1 (March 1975), pp. 186–187</ref> During the war, the empire's Armenian subjects were ] as part of the ]. As a result, an estimated 600,000<ref name="britannica-ag">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Armenian-Genocide/Genocide|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Armenian Genocide|access-date=4 January 2023|archive-date=1 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101025841/https://www.britannica.com/event/Armenian-Genocide/Genocide|url-status=live}}</ref> to more than 1 million,<ref name="britannica-ag"/> or up to 1.5 million<ref name="umichigan">{{cite web|url=http://www.umd.umich.edu/dept/armenian/facts/genocide.html|title=Fact Sheet: Armenian Genocide|publisher=University of Michigan|access-date=15 July 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818233348/http://www.umd.umich.edu/dept/armenian/facts/genocide.html|archive-date=18 August 2010}}</ref><ref name="jfreedman">{{cite book|last=Freedman|first=Jeri|title=The Armenian genocide|year=2009|publisher=Rosen Pub. Group|isbn=978-1-4042-1825-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cuqxYldvClQC|edition=1st|access-date=3 April 2015|archive-date=14 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151655/https://books.google.com/books?id=cuqxYldvClQC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="totten-et-al">Totten, Samuel, Paul Robert Bartrop, Steven L. Jacobs (eds.) ''Dictionary of Genocide''. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2008, p. 19. {{ISBN|978-0-313-34642-2}}.</ref> ] were killed. The Turkish government has ]<ref name="Tatz"/><ref>{{Cite web |website= Deutsche Welle |title= Erdogan: Turkey will 'never accept' genocide charges |access-date= 7 February 2018 |url= http://www.dw.com/en/erdogan-turkey-will-never-accept-genocide-charges/a-19307115 |archive-date= 7 February 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180207123001/http://www.dw.com/en/erdogan-turkey-will-never-accept-genocide-charges/a-19307115 |url-status= live }}</ref> the events as genocide and states that Armenians were only ]" from the eastern war zone.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/turkey/11373115/Amal-Clooneys-latest-case-Why-Turkey-wont-talk-about-the-Armenian-genocide.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/turkey/11373115/Amal-Clooneys-latest-case-Why-Turkey-wont-talk-about-the-Armenian-genocide.html |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=ECHR: Why Turkey won't talk about the Armenian genocide|author=Raziye Akkoç|newspaper=The Daily Telegraph|date=15 October 2015|access-date=28 May 2016}}{{cbignore}}</ref> ] were also committed against the empire's other minority groups such as the ] and ].<ref name="Bloxham2005">{{cite book|author=Donald Bloxham|title=The Great Game of Genocide: Imperialism, Nationalism, And the Destruction of the Ottoman Armenians|url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=TSRkGNoEPFwC |page=150 }}|access-date=9 February 2013|year=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-927356-0|page=150}}</ref><ref name=Levene>{{cite journal|last=Levene|first=Mark|title=Creating a Modern 'Zone of Genocide': The Impact of Nation- and State-Formation on Eastern Anatolia, 1878–1923|journal=Holocaust and Genocide Studies|date=Winter 1998|volume=12|issue=3|pages=393–433|doi=10.1093/hgs/12.3.393}}</ref><ref name="Ferguson">{{cite book|last=Ferguson|first=Niall|title=The War of the World: Twentieth-Century Conflict and the Descent of the West|year=2007|publisher=Penguin Group|isbn=978-0-14-311239-6|page=180}}</ref> Following the ] in 1918, the victorious ] sought the ] through the 1920 ].<ref name="Treaty of Sèvres">{{Cite web|url=http://net.lib.byu.edu/~rdh7/wwi/versa/sevres1.html|title=The Treaty of Sèvres, 1920|publisher=Harold B. Library, ]|access-date=18 April 2020|archive-date=12 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171112082305/http://net.lib.byu.edu/~rdh7/wwi/versa/sevres1.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
==Politics==
{{Main|Politics of Turkey|Constitution of Turkey|Elections in Turkey}}


===Republic of Türkiye===
] has been elected three times as Prime Minister: In 2002 (with 34% of the popular vote), in 2007 (with 47%) and in 2011 (with 49%).]]
{{Main|History of the Republic of Turkey}}
], the ] and the ] of the Turkish Republic]]
The ] (1918) and ] (1919) by the ] in the aftermath of World War I initiated the ]. Under the leadership of ], a military commander who had distinguished himself during the ], the ] (1919–1923) was waged with the aim of revoking the terms of the ] (1920).<ref name="Atatürk">{{Cite book|title=Atatürk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey|first=Andrew|last=Mango|publisher=Overlook|year=2000|isbn=978-1-58567-011-6|page=lxxviii}}</ref>


The ] in ], which had declared itself the legitimate government of the country on ], started to formalize the legal transition from the old Ottoman into the new Republican political system. The Ankara Government engaged in armed and diplomatic struggle. In 1921–1923, the Armenian, Greek, French, and British armies had been expelled.<ref>Robert H. Hewsen. ''Armenia: A Historical Atlas'', p. 237. {{ISBN|0-226-33228-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Harry J. |last=Psomiades |title=The Eastern Question, the Last Phase: a study in Greek-Turkish diplomacy |publisher=Pella |year=2000 |pages=27–38 |isbn=0-918618-79-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=A. L. |last=Macfie |title=The Chanak affair (September–October 1922) |journal=Balkan Studies |volume=20 |issue=2 |year=1979 |pages=309–41}}</ref><ref name="18sep1922">{{cite book|last1=Heper|last2=Criss|first1=Metin|first2=Nur Bilge|title=Historical Dictionary of Turkey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mKoanep9aBEC&q=18+september+1922+turkey&pg=PA317|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-6281-4|year=2009|access-date=13 October 2020|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328152525/https://books.google.com/books?id=mKoanep9aBEC&q=18+september+1922+turkey&pg=PA317#v=snippet&q=18%20september%201922%20turkey&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> The military advance and diplomatic success of the Ankara Government resulted in the signing of the ] on 11 October 1922. On 1 November 1922, the Turkish Parliament in Ankara formally abolished the Sultanate, thus ending 623 years of ] Ottoman rule.
Turkey is a ] ]. Since its foundation as a republic in 1923, Turkey has developed a strong tradition of ].<ref name="TR_Secularism">{{Cite book|title=Religion and Politics in Turkey|first=Ali|last=Çarkoğlu|publisher=Routledge, UK|year=2004|isbn=0-415-34831-5|url=http://books.google.com/?id=t5G_zw9exMQC&pg=PP1&lpg=PP1&dq=Religion+in+Turkey }}</ref> ] governs the legal framework of the country. It sets out the main principles of government and establishes Turkey as a unitary centralized state.


The ] of 24 July 1923, which superseded the Treaty of Sèvres,<ref name="Treaty of Sèvres"/><ref name="Atatürk"/> led to the international recognition of the sovereignty of the new Turkish state as the successor state of the Ottoman Empire. On 4 October 1923, the Allied occupation of Turkey ended with the withdrawal of the last Allied troops from ]. The Turkish Republic was officially proclaimed on 29 October 1923 in Ankara, the country's new capital.<ref>{{cite book|title=Political Islam and the Secular State in Turkey: Democracy, Reform and the Justice and Development Party|publisher=I.B. Tauris|date=2014|last=Axiarlis|first=Evangelia|page=11}}</ref> The ] stipulated a ].<ref name="Clogg">{{cite book|last=Clogg|first=Richard|title=A Concise History of Greece|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H5pyUIY4THYC|access-date=9 February 2013|year=2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-00479-4|page=101|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328152433/https://books.google.com/books?id=H5pyUIY4THYC|url-status=live}}</ref>
The ] is the ] and has a largely ceremonial role. The president is elected for a five-year term by direct elections. ] was elected as president on 28 August 2007, by a popular parliament round of votes, succeeding ].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6966216.stm|title=Turks elect ex-Islamist president|work=BBC|accessdate=2007-08-28|date=2007-11-02}}</ref>


] in ] was completed in 1953 to become the mausoleum of ]]]
] is exercised by the ] and the ] which make up the government, while the ] power is vested in the unicameral parliament, the ]. The ] is independent of the executive and the legislature, and the Constitutional Court is charged with ruling on the conformity of ] with the constitution. The ] is the tribunal of last resort for administrative cases, and the ] for all others.<ref name="TR_Constit">{{cite web|url=http://www.byegm.gov.tr/mevzuat/anayasa/anayasa-ing.htm|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070203170110/http://www.byegm.gov.tr/mevzuat/anayasa/anayasa-ing.htm|archivedate=2007-02-03|title=Turkish Constitution|author=Turkish Directorate General of Press and Information|publisher=Turkish Prime Minister's Office|accessdate=2006-12-16|date=2001-10-17}}</ref>
Mustafa Kemal became the republic's first ] and introduced ]. The reforms aimed to transform the old ] Ottoman monarchy into a Turkish ] that would be governed as a ] under a ].<ref name="BoweringCrone2012">{{cite book|author1=Gerhard Bowering|author2=Patricia Crone|author3=Wadad Kadi |author4=Devin J. Stewart |author5=Muhammad Qasim Zaman |author6=Mahan Mirza|title=The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought|url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=JHcZlo12SGoC |page=49 }}|access-date=14 August 2013|year=2012|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-3855-4|page=49|quote=Following the revolution, Mustafa Kemal became an important figure in the military ranks of the Ottoman Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) as a protégé&nbsp;... Although the sultanate had already been abolished in November 1922, the republic was founded in October 1923.&nbsp;... ambitious reform programme aimed at the creation of a modern, secular state and the construction of a new identity for its citizens.}}</ref> Women gained the right to vote nationally in 1934.<ref>{{harvnb|Heper|2012|p=146}}</ref> With the ], the ] bestowed upon Kemal the honorific surname "Atatürk" (''Father Turk'').<ref name="Atatürk" /> Atatürk's reforms caused discontent in some ] and ] tribes leading to the ] in 1925<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = Princeton University Press| isbn = 978-1-4008-8371-4| last = Hassan| first = Mona| title = Longing for the Lost Caliphate: A Transregional History| date = 10 January 2017| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=pqqtDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA168| access-date = 23 April 2020| archive-date = 17 January 2023| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230117230856/https://books.google.com/books?id=pqqtDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA168| url-status = live}}</ref> and the ] in 1937.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Reconfiguring the Turkish nation in the 1930s|journal=Nationalism and Ethnic Politics|publisher=Yale University|author=Soner Çağaptay|s2cid = 143855822|year=2002|volume = 8|issue = 2|pages=67–82|doi=10.1080/13537110208428662}}</ref>


] became the country's second president following Atatürk's death in 1938. In 1939, the ] voted in favor of joining Turkey with a referendum. Turkey ] during almost all of ],<ref>{{harvnb|Dodd|2012|p=55}}</ref> but entered the war on the side of the ] on ].<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/00263208908700778 |title=The Turkish straits in the second world war, 1939–45 |date=1989 |last1=MacFie |first1=A.L. |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=238–248 }}</ref> Later that year, Turkey became a ] of the United Nations.<ref name="Turkey_UN">{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/Overview/growth.htm |title=Growth in United Nations membership (1945–2005) |publisher=United Nations |access-date=30 October 2006 |date=3 July 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117212320/http://www.un.org/Overview/growth.htm |archive-date=17 January 2016}}</ref> In 1950 Turkey became a member of the ]. After fighting as part of the ] forces in the ], Turkey joined ] in 1952, becoming a bulwark against Soviet expansion into the ].
The prime minister is elected by the parliament through a vote of confidence in the government and is most often the head of the ] having the most seats in parliament. The current prime minister is the former mayor of İstanbul, ], whose conservative ] won an absolute majority of parliamentary seats in the ], organized in the aftermath of the economic crisis of 2001, with 34% of the suffrage.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2392717.stm|title=Turkey's old guard routed in elections|work=BBC|accessdate=2006-12-14|date=2002-11-04}}</ref>


], Turkey's first female prime minister, attends a ] meeting in January 1994]]
] in ] during a speech of ] ] on 6 April 2009.]]


Military coups or memorandums, which happened in ], ], ], and ], complicated Turkey's transition to a democratic ].<ref>{{harvnb|Sayarı|2012|p=1}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Karaosmanoğlu|2012|p=149}}</ref> Between 1960 and the end of the 20th century, the prominent leaders in Turkish politics who achieved multiple election victories were ], ] and ].{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}} PKK started a "campaign of terrorist attacks on civilian and military targets" in the 1980s.<ref>{{harvnb|Hale|2023|p=xiii}}</ref> It is designated as a ] by Turkey,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mfa.gov.tr/pkk.en.mfa |title=PKK |website=Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Foreign Affairs |access-date=29 September 2024}}</ref> the United States,<ref name="department-of-state-list">{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/foreign-terrorist-organizations|title=U.S. Department of State – Bureau of Counterterrorism: Foreign Terrorist Organizations|publisher=U.S. Department of State|access-date=18 April 2020|archive-date=16 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201216141450/https://www.state.gov/foreign-terrorist-organizations/|url-status=live}}</ref> and the European Union.<ref name="european-council-list">{{cite web|url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:32019D1341&from=en|title=Council of the European Union: Council Decision (CFSP) 2019/1341 of 8 August 2019 updating the list of persons, groups and entities subject to Articles 2, 3 and 4 of Common Position 2001/931/CFSP on the application of specific measures to combat terrorism|publisher=Official Journal of the European Union|access-date=18 April 2020|archive-date=18 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201218043108/https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:32019D1341&from=en|url-status=live}}</ref> ] became the first female prime minister of Turkey in 1993. Turkey applied for full membership of the ] in 1987, joined the ] in 1995 and started ] with the ] in 2005.<ref name="TR_EUChrono">{{cite web|url=http://www.abgs.gov.tr/en/tur-eu_relations_dosyalar/chronology.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070515022203/http://www.abgs.gov.tr/en/tur-eu_relations_dosyalar/chronology.htm|archive-date=15 May 2007|title=Chronology of Turkey-EU relations|publisher=Turkish Secretariat of European Union Affairs|access-date=30 October 2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Dodd|2012|pp=59–63}}</ref> Customs Union had an important impact on the Turkish manufacturing sector.<ref>{{harvnb|Yılmaz|2012|p=360}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2006/05/03/000016406_20060503112446/Rendered/PDF/wps3908.pdf |title=Turkey's evolving trade integration into Pan-European markets |author=Bartolomiej Kaminski |author2=Francis Ng |publisher=World Bank |access-date=27 December 2006 |date=1 May 2006 |page=3|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614030216/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2006/05/03/000016406_20060503112446/Rendered/PDF/wps3908.pdf |archive-date=14 June 2007}}</ref>
In the ], the ] received 46.6% of the votes and could defend its majority in parliament.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6910444.stm|title=Turkey re-elects governing party|work=BBC|accessdate=2007-11-02|date=2007-07-22}}</ref> Although the ministers do not have to be members of the parliament, ministers with parliament membership are common in Turkish politics.
In 2007, a series of events regarding state secularism and the role of the judiciary in the legislature occurred. These included the controversial ] of Abdullah Gül, who in the past had been involved with ] parties;<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/6966216.stm |title=Turks elect ex-Islamist president |publisher=BBC News |date=2007-08-28 |accessdate=2011-08-09}}</ref> and the government's proposal to lift the ] in universities, which was annulled by the Constitutional Court, leading to a fine and a near ban of the ruling party.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7438348.stm |title=Court annuls Turkish scarf reform |publisher=BBC News |date=2008-06-05 |accessdate=2011-08-09}}</ref>


In 2014, prime minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan won Turkey's first direct ].<ref>{{cite news |title=Recep Tayyip Erdogan wins Turkish presidential election |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-28729234 |work=BBC News |date=10 August 2014 |access-date=25 November 2022 |archive-date=25 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221125234358/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-28729234 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 15 July 2016, an ] tried to oust the government.<ref>{{cite news|title=Turkey rounds up thousands of suspected participants in coup attempt|first1=Erin|last1=Cunningham|first2=Liz|last2=Sly|first3=Zeynep|last3=Karatas|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/after-bloody-night-turkeys-president-declares-coup-attempt-foiled/2016/07/16/9b84151e-4af7-11e6-8dac-0c6e4accc5b1_story.html|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=16 July 2016|access-date=17 July 2016|archive-date=18 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160718235759/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/after-bloody-night-turkeys-president-declares-coup-attempt-foiled/2016/07/16/9b84151e-4af7-11e6-8dac-0c6e4accc5b1_story.html|url-status=live}}</ref> According to the Turkish government, there are 13,251 arrested or convicted people in jail as of 2024, related to the 2016 coup attempt.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.adalet.gov.tr/adalet-bakani-yilmaz-tunc-15-temmuzu-degerlendirdi |title=Adalet Bakanı Yılmaz Tunç, 15 Temmuz'u Değerlendirdi |date=12 July 2024 |website=Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Adalet Bakanlığı |access-date=30 September 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Karakaş |first1=İsmet |last2=Sarica |first2=Abdullah |date=12 July 2024 |title=Adalet Bakanı Tunç: Demokrasiye müdahale olmasın diye hem yargımız hem yasamamız gerekli tedbirleri almaya devam ediyor |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/15-temmuz-darbe-girisimi/adalet-bakani-tunc-demokrasiye-mudahale-olmasin-diye-hem-yargimiz-hem-yasamamiz-gerekli-tedbirleri-almaya-devam-ediyor/3273261 |work=]}}</ref> With a ], the parliamentary republic was replaced by an ]. The office of the prime minister was abolished, and its powers and duties were transferred to the president. On the referendum day, while the voting was still underway, the ] lifted a rule that required each ballot to have an official stamp.<ref name="WasPostRef2017" /> The opposition parties claimed that as many as 2.5 million ] were accepted as valid.<ref name="WasPostRef2017">{{cite news|date=16 April 2017|title=Here's why Turkish opposition parties are contesting the referendum results|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2017/04/16/heres-why-turkish-opposition-parties-are-contesting-the-referendum-results/|newspaper=Washington Post|access-date=17 April 2017|archive-date=19 April 2017|archive-url=https://archive.today/20170419222645/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2017/04/16/heres-why-turkish-opposition-parties-are-contesting-the-referendum-results/|url-status=live}}</ref>
] for both sexes has been applied throughout Turkey since 1933, and every Turkish citizen who has turned 18 years of age has the right to vote. As of 2004, there were 50 registered ].<ref name="BYEGM_TrPolSys">{{cite web|url=http://www.byegm.gov.tr/REFERENCES/Structure.htm|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070203025134/http://www.byegm.gov.tr/REFERENCES/Structure.htm|archivedate=2007-02-03 |title=Political Structure of Turkey|author=Turkish Directorate General of Press and Information|publisher=Turkish Prime Minister's Office|accessdate=2006-12-14|date=2004-08-24}}</ref> The Constitutional Court can strip the public financing of political parties that it deems anti-secular or ], or ban their existence altogether.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1466160.stm|title=Euro court backs Turkey Islamist ban|work=BBC|accessdate=2006-12-14|date=2001-07-31}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2850601.stm|title=Turkey's Kurd party ban criticised|work=BBC|accessdate=2006-12-14|date=2003-03-14}}</ref>


==Administrative divisions==
There are 550 members of parliament who are elected for a four-year term by a ] system from 85 electoral districts which represent the 81 administrative ] (İstanbul is divided into three electoral districts, whereas Ankara and ] are divided into two each because of their large populations). To avoid a ] and its excessive political fragmentation, only parties winning at least ] cast in a national parliamentary election gain the right to representation in the parliament.<ref name="BYEGM_TrPolSys" /> Because of this threshold, in the 2007 elections only three parties formally entered the parliament (compared to two in 2002).<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2399665.stm|title=Turkey leaps into the unknown|first=Roger|last=Hardy|work=BBC|accessdate=2006-12-14|date=2002-11-04}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6912052.stm |title=Turkey awaits AKP's next step |first=Sarah|last=Rainsford|work=BBC|accessdate=2007-07-23|date=2007-11-02}}</ref>
{{Main|Administrative divisions of Turkey}}
{{Further|Regions of Turkey|NUTS of Turkey}}
Turkey has a ] structure in terms of public administration, and the provinces are subordinate to the ] in ]. In province centers the government is represented by the province governors (''vali'') and in towns by the governors (''kaymakam''). Other senior public officials are also appointed by the central government, except for the mayors (''belediye başkanı'') who are elected by the constituents.<ref name="justice.gov.tr">{{cite web|title=General Structure of Turkish Public Administration|url=http://www.justice.gov.tr/judicialsystem.pdf|website=justice.gov.tr/|publisher=Ministry of Justice|access-date=14 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150321203401/http://www.justice.gov.tr/judicialsystem.pdf|archive-date=21 March 2015}}</ref> Turkish municipalities have local legislative bodies (''belediye meclisi'') for decision-making on municipal issues.


Turkey is subdivided into 81 ] (''il'' or ''vilayet'') for administrative purposes. Each province is divided into ] (''ilçe''), for a total of 973 districts.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.e-icisleri.gov.tr/Anasayfa/MulkiIdariBolumleri.aspx|title=Ministry of Internal Affairs: Administrative Units in Turkey|access-date=17 April 2020|archive-date=18 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140818093925/https://www.e-icisleri.gov.tr/Anasayfa/MulkiIdariBolumleri.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref> Turkey is also subdivided into 7 ] (''bölge'') and 21 subregions for geographic, demographic and economic measurements, surveys and classifications; this does not refer to an administrative division.
] have been the subject of much controversy and international condemnation. Between 1998 and 2008 the ] made more than 1,600 judgements against Turkey for human rights violations, particularly the right to life and freedom from torture. Other issues such as Kurdish rights, women's rights and press freedom have also attracted controversy. Turkey's human rights record continues to be a significant obstacle to future membership of the EU.<ref>, ] Human Rights committee, 26 October 2010.</ref> According to the ], the Turkish government has waged one of the world's biggest crackdowns on press freedoms. A large number of journalists have been arrested using charges of terrorism and anti-state activities such as the ] and ] cases, while thousands have been investigated on charges such as "denigrating Turkishness" in an effort to sow self-censorship. As of 2012, CPJ identified 76 journalists in jail, including 61 directly held for their published work, more than Iran, Eritrea and China.<ref>http://cpj.org/reports/2012/10/turkeys-press-freedom-crisis-summary.php</ref> A former ] spokesman, ], said that the United States had "broad concerns about trends involving intimidation of journalists in Turkey."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/greenslade+world/turkey |title=Greenslade + Turkey|work=The Guardian |accessdate=2011-05-16}}</ref>
<div class="center">{{Turkey Labelled Map}}</div>


==Government and politics==
===Foreign relations===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Turkey|Accession of Turkey to the European Union}} {{Main|Government of Turkey|Politics of Turkey|Constitution of Turkey}}
{{See also|Law enforcement in Turkey}}
] and the ].]]
{{multiple image
] with the ] in 2005, having been an ] of the ] since 1963, and having joined the ] in 1995.]]
| total_width = 220
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| image1 = TBMM,_October_2021.jpg
| caption1 = The ],<br /> the ] in ]
| image2 = Presidential_Palace_Main.jpg
| caption2 = The ], residence and workplace of the ]
| alt1 = The Parliament of Turkey
| alt2 = The Presidential Complex
}}


Turkey is a ] within a ].<ref name="CIAFactbookTurkey">{{cite web|title=CIA World Factbook: Turkey|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/turkey/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110073821/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/turkey|archive-date=10 January 2021|access-date=29 August 2011|publisher=Cia.gov}}</ref> The ] was ].<ref>{{harvnb|Özbudun|2012|p=194}}</ref> In the Turkish unitary system, citizens are subject to ]: national, provincial, and local. The ]'s duties are commonly split between ] and districts, in which the executive and legislative officials are elected by a ] of citizens by district.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}} The government comprises three branches: first is the ] branch, which is ];<ref>{{cite web |title=Duties and Powers |url=https://global.tbmm.gov.tr/index.php/EN/yd/icerik/13 |website=global.tbmm.gov.tr |publisher=The Grand National Assembly of Turkey |access-date=12 April 2022 |archive-date=5 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190405013028/https://global.tbmm.gov.tr/index.php/EN/yd/icerik/13 |url-status=live }}</ref> second is the ] branch, which is the ];<ref>{{cite web |title=Duties and Powers |url=https://www.tccb.gov.tr/en/presidency/power/ |publisher=Presidency Of The Republic Of Turkey |access-date=11 April 2022 |archive-date=15 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230515184321/https://www.tccb.gov.tr/en/presidency/power/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and third is the ] branch, which includes the ],
Turkey is a founding member of the ] (1945), the ] (1961), the ] (1969), the ] (1973), the ] (1985), the ] (1992), the ] (1997) and the ] (1999). On 17 October 2008, Turkey was ] of the ].<ref name="Hürriyet UN Security">{{cite web|url=http://hurarsiv.hurriyet.com.tr/goster/haber.aspx?id=10149253&tarih=2008-10-17 |title=Hürriyet: Türkiye'nin üyeliği kabul edildi (2008-10-17) |publisher=Hurarsiv.hurriyet.com.tr |date=2008-10-17 |accessdate=2010-11-01}}</ref> Turkey's membership of the council effectively began on 1 January 2009.<ref name="Hürriyet UN Security"/> Turkey had previously been a member of the U.N. Security Council in 1951–1952, 1954–1955 and 1961.<ref name="Hürriyet UN Security"/>
the ] and ].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.anayasa.gov.tr/en/legislation/law-on-constitutional-court/|title=Law on Constitutional Court &#124; Anayasa Mahkemesi|website=www.anayasa.gov.tr}}</ref><ref name="Constitution2019">{{cite web |title=Turkish Constitution |url=https://www.anayasa.gov.tr/en/legislation/turkish-constiution/ |publisher=Anayasa Mahkemesi |access-date=12 April 2022 |archive-date=10 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110193216/https://www.anayasa.gov.tr/en/legislation/turkish-constiution/ |url-status=live }}</ref>


The Parliament has 600 seats, distributed among the provinces ]. The Parliament and the president serve a five-year terms, with elections on the same day. The president is ] by ] and cannot run for re-election after two terms, unless the parliament calls early presidential elections during the second term.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}} The Constitutional Court is composed of 15 members, elected for single 12-year terms. They are obliged to retire when they are over the age of 65.<ref>{{cite web |title=Law on Constitutional Court |url=https://www.anayasa.gov.tr/en/legislation/law-on-constitutional-court/ |website=anayasa.gov.tr |access-date=12 April 2022 |archive-date=7 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307215646/https://www.anayasa.gov.tr/en/legislation/law-on-constitutional-court/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Turkish politics have become increasingly associated with ], being described as a ] system.<ref name="Esen Gumuscu 2020 pp. 1075–1091">{{cite journal | last1=Esen | first1=Berk | last2=Gumuscu | first2=Sebnem | title=Why did Turkish democracy collapse? A political economy account of AKP's authoritarianism | journal=Party Politics | publisher=SAGE Publications | volume=27 | issue=6 | date=11 May 2020 | issn=1354-0688 | doi=10.1177/1354068820923722 | pages=1075–1091| hdl=11693/75894 | s2cid=219458590 | hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Borsuk Levin 2021 pp. 175–187">{{cite journal | last1=Borsuk | first1=Imren | last2=Levin | first2=Paul T. | title=Social coexistence and violence during Turkey's authoritarian transition | journal=Southeast European and Black Sea Studies | publisher=Informa UK Limited | volume=21 | issue=2 | date=3 April 2021 | issn=1468-3857 | doi=10.1080/14683857.2021.1909292 | pages=175–187| s2cid=233594832 | doi-access=free}}</ref>
In line with its traditional Western orientation, relations with Europe have always been a central part of Turkish foreign policy. Turkey became a founding member of the ] in 1949, applied for associate membership of the ] (predecessor of the ]) in 1959 and became an ] in 1963. After decades of political negotiations, Turkey applied for full membership of the EEC in 1987, became an associate member of the ] in 1992, joined the ] in 1995 and has been in ] with the EU since 2005.<ref name="TR_EUChrono">{{cite web|url=http://www.abgs.gov.tr/en/tur-eu_relations_dosyalar/chronology.htm|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070515022203/http://www.abgs.gov.tr/en/tur-eu_relations_dosyalar/chronology.htm|archivedate=2007-05-15|title=Chronology of Turkey-EU relations|publisher=Turkish Secretariat of European Union Affairs|accessdate=2006-10-30}}</ref>


===Parties and elections===
Since 1974, Turkey has not recognized the ], but instead supports the ] in the form of the de facto ], which was established in 1983 and is recognized only by Turkey.<ref name="Mardell">{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6170749.stm |title=Turkey's EU membership bid stalls|first=Mark|last=Mardell|authorlink=Mark Mardell|work=BBC|accessdate=2006-12-17|date=2006-12-11}}</ref> The ] complicates Turkey's relations with both NATO and the EU, and remains a major stumbling block to Turkey's ]<ref name="Mardell"/>
{{Main|Elections in Turkey|Political parties in Turkey|Electoral cycle of Turkey}}
]]]


Elections in Turkey are held for six functions of government: ] (national), parliamentary (national), ] (local), district mayors (local), provincial or ] (local), and ] (local). ]s are also held occasionally. Every Turkish citizen who has turned 18 has the ] and stand as a candidate at elections.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}} ] for both sexes has been applied throughout Turkey since 1934.<ref>{{cite news |date=5 December 2019 |title=Turkish women celebrate 85th anniversary of suffrage |url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkish-women-celebrate-85th-anniversary-of-suffrage-149490 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412174514/https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkish-women-celebrate-85th-anniversary-of-suffrage-149490 |archive-date=12 April 2022 |access-date=12 April 2022 |work=]}}</ref> In Turkey, ] of both local and general elections are high compared to many other countries, which usually stands higher than 80%.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}} President ] is currently serving as the ] and ].<ref>{{cite web |date=28 May 2023 |title=Erdogan wins Turkey's election |url=https://edition.cnn.com/europe/live-news/turkey-election-runoff-results-intl/index.html |publisher=CNN |access-date=28 May 2023 |archive-date=28 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230528221116/https://edition.cnn.com/europe/live-news/turkey-election-runoff-results-intl/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=28 May 2023 |title=Erdogan wins five more years as Turkey's president |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/live/world-europe-65686238 |publisher=BBC |access-date=28 May 2023 |archive-date=28 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230528221325/https://www.bbc.com/news/live/world-europe-65686238 |url-status=live }}</ref> ] is the ]. The last ] and ] elections were in 2023.
The other defining aspect of Turkey's foreign relations has been its ties with the United States. Based on the common threat posed by the ], Turkey joined ] in 1952, ensuring close bilateral relations with ] throughout the ]. In the post–Cold War environment, Turkey's geostrategic importance shifted towards its proximity to the Middle East, the ] and the ]. In return, Turkey has benefited from the United States' political, economic and diplomatic support, including in key issues such as the country's bid to join the European Union.


The Constitutional Court can strip the public financing of ] that it deems ] or having ties to ], or ban their existence altogether.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1466160.stm|title=Euro court backs Turkey Islamist ban|publisher=BBC|access-date=14 December 2006|date=31 July 2001|archive-date=7 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180707045403/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1466160.stm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2850601.stm|title=Turkey's Kurd party ban criticized|publisher=BBC|access-date=14 December 2006|date=14 March 2003|archive-date=7 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180707042827/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2850601.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> The ] for political parties at national level is seven percent of the votes.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.dailysabah.com/politics/legislation/ak-party-mhp-announce-draft-for-turkeys-new-election-law|title=AK Party, MHP announce draft for Turkey's new election law|publisher=Daily Sabah|access-date=22 March 2022|date=14 March 2022|archive-date=21 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220321234730/https://www.dailysabah.com/politics/legislation/ak-party-mhp-announce-draft-for-turkeys-new-election-law|url-status=live}}</ref> Smaller parties can avoid the electoral threshold by forming an alliance with other parties. ] are not subject to an electoral threshold.
The independence of the ] of the ] in 1991, with which Turkey shares a common cultural and linguistic heritage, allowed Turkey to extend its economic and political relations deep into ],<ref>{{Cite book|title=Turkish Foreign Policy In Post Cold War Era|first=Idris|last=Bal|publisher=Universal Publishers|year=2004|isbn=1-58112-423-6|url=http://books.google.com/?id=vDzjkrTDKjYC&pg=PP1&lpg=PP1&dq=turkey+cold+war }}</ref> thus enabling the completion of a multi-billion-dollar oil and natural gas ] from ] in ] to the port of ] in Turkey. The ] forms part of Turkey's foreign policy strategy to become an energy conduit to the West. However, Turkey's border with ], a state in the ], remains closed following Armenia's occupation of Azerbaijani territory during the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2006/78799.htm |title=U.S. Department of State: Country Report on Human Rights Practices in Armenia: Respect for Human Rights. Section 1, a |publisher=State.gov |date=2007-03-06 |accessdate=2010-11-01}}</ref> Under the AK Party government, Turkey's influence has grown in the Middle East based on the strategic depth doctrine, also called ].<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.carnegieendowment.org/publications/index.cfm?fa=view&id=22209| title= Turkey’s Middle East Policies: Between Neo-Ottomanism and Kemalism| last= Taspinar | first= Omer | accessdate =5 June 2010| date =September 2008| publisher=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last= Murinson |first= Alexander | title= Turkey's Entente with Israel and Azerbaijan: State Identity and Security in the Middle East and Caucasus (Routledge Studies in Middle Eastern Politics) |publisher=] |year= 2009 |month= December |page=119 |isbn=0-415-77892-1}}</ref>


On the right side of the Turkish ], parties like the ], ], ], and ] became the most popular political parties in Turkey, winning numerous elections. Turkish ] parties are more likely to embrace the principles of political ideologies such as ], ] or ].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Yılmaz |first1=Hakan |title=Conservatism in Turkey |url=https://esiweb.org/pdf/esi_turkey_tpq_vol7_no1_HakanYilmaz.pdf |publisher=] |access-date=12 April 2022 |archive-date=7 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307223711/https://www.esiweb.org/pdf/esi_turkey_tpq_vol7_no1_HakanYilmaz.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> On the left side of the spectrum, parties like the ], ] and ] once enjoyed the largest electoral success. ] parties are more likely to embrace the principles of ], ] or ].<ref name="FleetFaroqhi2008p357">{{cite book|author1=Kate Fleet|author2=Suraiya Faroqhi|author3=Reşat Kasaba|title=The Cambridge History of Turkey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iOoGH4GckQgC&pg=PA357|access-date=13 June 2013|year=2008|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-62096-3|pages=357–358|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117224558/https://books.google.com/books?id=iOoGH4GckQgC&pg=PA357|url-status=live}}</ref>
===Military===
{{main|Turkish Armed Forces}}
{{Multiple image
|align =left
|direction=vertical
|width =200
|image1=Turkish troops.jpg
|caption1=
|image2=Ay class submarines.JPG
|caption2=
|image3=Turkish Air Force (F-16C Falcon).jpg
|caption3=Troops of the ]; ]s of the ]; and an ] of the ].
}}


===Law===
The ] consists of the ], the ] and the ]. The ] and the ] operate as parts of the Ministry of Internal Affairs in peacetime, although they are subordinated to the Army and Navy Commands respectively in wartime, during which they have both internal law enforcement and military functions.<ref name="TSK_Organisation">{{cite web|url=http://www.tsk.mil.tr/eng/genel_konular/savunmaorganizasyonu.htm|title=Turkish Armed Forces Defense Organization|author=Turkish General Staff|authorlink=Turkish Armed Forces|publisher=Turkish Armed Forces|accessdate=2006-12-15|year=2006}}{{dead link|date=August 2011}}</ref>
{{Main|Judicial system of Turkey}}
] is the final court for reviewing verdicts given by courts of criminal and civil justice.]]


With the founding of the Republic, Turkey adopted a ] legal system, replacing ]-derived ]. The ], adopted in 1926, was based on the ] of 1907 and the ] of 1911. Although it underwent a number of changes in 2002, it retains much of the basis of the original Code. The ], originally based on the ], was replaced in 2005 by a Code with principles similar to the ] and German law generally. ] is based on the French equivalent and ] generally shows the influence of the Swiss, German and French legal systems.<ref>{{cite book|first=Z. Derya|last=Tarman|editor-first=Jan M.|editor-last=Smits|chapter=Turkey|edition=2nd|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y_otpAA1EIoC&dq=Turkish+legal+system+european+civil+law&pg=PA940|title=Elgar Encyclopedia of Comparative Law|year=2012|publisher=Edward Elgar|isbn=978-1-84980-415-8|page=940|access-date=20 March 2023|archive-date=6 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406012318/https://books.google.com/books?id=y_otpAA1EIoC&dq=Turkish+legal+system+european+civil+law&pg=PA940|url-status=live}}</ref> Islamic principles do not play a part in the legal system.<ref>{{cite book|first=Z. Derya|last=Tarman|editor-first=Jan M.|editor-last=Smits|chapter=Turkey|edition=2nd|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y_otpAA1EIoC&dq=Turkish+legal+system+european+civil+law&pg=PA940|title=Elgar Encyclopedia of Comparative Law|year=2012|publisher=Edward Elgar|isbn=978-1-84980-415-8|page=941|access-date=20 March 2023|archive-date=6 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406012318/https://books.google.com/books?id=y_otpAA1EIoC&dq=Turkish+legal+system+european+civil+law&pg=PA940|url-status=live}}</ref>
The Turkish Armed Forces is the second largest standing armed force in ], after the ], with a combined strength of just over a million uniformed personnel serving in its five branches.<ref name="Economist">Economist Intelligence Unit:Turkey, p.23 (2005)</ref> Since 2003, Turkey contributes military personnel to ] and takes part in the ].<ref name="Enter the EU Battle Groups"> ]; Chaillot Paper no.97; Feb 2007, p.88</ref> Turkey is also considered to be the strongest military power of the Middle East region besides ].<ref name="Heptagon"/>


] is carried out by several agencies under the jurisdiction of the ]. These agencies are the ], the ] and the ].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://polis.osce.org/country-profiles/turkey|title=OSCE POLIS}}</ref> In the years of government by the Justice and Development Party and Erdoğan, particularly since 2013, the independence and integrity of the Turkish judiciary has increasingly been said to be in doubt by institutions, parliamentarians and journalists both within and outside of Turkey, because of political interference in the promotion of judges and prosecutors and in their pursuit of public duty.<ref name="EU2015">{{cite web|url=http://www.ab.gov.tr/files/5%20Ekim/2015_turkey_report.pdf|title=European Commission: Turkey 2015 report|work=European Commission|date=10 November 2015|access-date=6 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160818052601/http://www.ab.gov.tr/files/5%20Ekim/2015_turkey_report.pdf|archive-date=18 August 2016}}</ref><ref name="EP2016">{{cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//NONSGML+TA+P8-TA-2016-0133+0+DOC+PDF+V0//EN|title=European Parliament resolution of 14 April 2016 on the 2015 report on Turkey|work=European Parliament|date=14 April 2016|access-date=6 July 2016|archive-date=17 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817221313/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//NONSGML+TA+P8-TA-2016-0133+0+DOC+PDF+V0//EN|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="TI2016">{{cite web|url=http://www.transparency.org/news/pressrelease/turkeys_institutions_are_failing_to_comply_with_good_governance_principles|title=Turkey's institutions are failing to comply with good governance principles and combat corruption|work=Transparency International|date=7 April 2016|access-date=6 July 2016|archive-date=3 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203014904/https://www.transparency.org/news/pressrelease/turkeys_institutions_are_failing_to_comply_with_good_governance_principles|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Every fit male Turkish citizen otherwise not barred is required to ] for a period ranging from three weeks to fifteen months, dependent on education and job location.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unhcr.org/home/RSDCOI/3c1622484.pdf|archiveurl=http://classic-web.archive.org/web/20061122042609/http://www.unhcr.org/home/RSDCOI/3c1622484.pdf|archivedate=2006-11-22|title=Turkey/Military service|author=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), Directorate for Movements of Persons, Migration and Consular Affairs – Asylum and Migration Division|authorlink=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|publisher=UNHCR|format=PDF|accessdate=2006-12-27|month=July|year=2001}}</ref> Turkey does not recognise conscientious objection and does not offer a civilian alternative to military service.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ebco-beoc.eu/ |title=EBCO – European Bureau for Conscientious Objection |publisher=Ebco-beoc.eu |accessdate=2010-09-04}}</ref>


===Foreign relations===
Turkey is one of five NATO member states which are part of the ] policy of the alliance, together with Belgium, ], Italy, and the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/0,1518,618550,00.html |title=Der Spiegel: '&#39;Foreign Minister Wants US Nukes out of Germany'&#39; (2009-04-10) |work=Der Spiegel |date=2009-03-30 |accessdate=2010-11-01}}</ref> A total of 90 ]s are hosted at the ], 40 of which are allocated for use by the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nrdc.org/nuclear/euro/euro_pt1.pdf |title=NRDC: U.S. Nuclear Weapons in Europe |publisher=Natural Resources Defense Council, 2005 |format=PDF|author=Hans M. Kristensen |accessdate=2010-11-01}}</ref>
{{Main|Foreign relations of Turkey}}
] since 1952, has its second largest army and is the host of the ] headquarters.]]


Turkey's constant foreign policy goal is to pursue its national interests. These interests are mainly growing the economy, and maintaining security from ] and external threats.<ref>{{harvnb|Martin|2012|p=227}}</ref> After the establishment of the Republic, ] and ] followed the "]" principle until the ]'s start.<ref>{{harvnb|Martin|2012|p=228}}</ref> Following ], Turkey sought to ] and joined ] in 1952.<ref>{{harvnb|Dodd|2012|p=56}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Martin|2012|p=228}}</ref> Overall, Turkey aims for good relations with ], the ], Russia, the ], and Iran. With the West, Turkey also aims to keep its arrangements.<ref name="Martin 2012 234–235">{{harvnb|Martin|2012|pp=234–235}}</ref> By trading with the east and joining the EU, Turkey pursues economic growth.<ref name="Martin 2012 234–235"/> Turkey joined the ] in 1995,<ref>{{harvnb|Martin|2012|p=229}}</ref> but ] are frozen as of 2024.<ref>{{cite news |date=29 August 2024 |title=Turkey's top diplomat attends first EU meeting in 5 years in bid to boost ties |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/turkeys-top-diplomat-attends-eu-meeting-after-5-years-bid-boost-ties-2024-08-29/ |work=Reuters |access-date=}}</ref>
In 1998, Turkey announced a modernization program worth US$160 billion over a twenty year period in various projects including ]s, ]s, ]s, ]s, ]s and ]s.<ref>Economist Intelligence Unit:Turkey, p.22 (2005)</ref> Turkey is a Level 3 contributor to the ] (JSF) program.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.defenselink.mil/Releases/Release.aspx?ReleaseID=3417|title=DoD, Turkey sign Joint Strike Fighter Agreement|author=US Department of Defense|authorlink=US Department of Defense|publisher=US Department of Defense|accessdate=2006-12-27|date=2002-07-11}}</ref>


]]]
Turkey has maintained forces in international missions under the United Nations and NATO since 1950, including ] missions in ] and former ], and support to coalition forces in the ]. Turkey maintains 36,000 troops in northern Cyprus; their presence is supported and approved by the ''de facto'' local government, but the ] and the international community regard it as an illegal occupation force, and its presence has also been denounced in several United Nations Security Council resolutions.<ref>O.P. Richmond. ''Mediating in Cyprus: the Cypriot communities and the United Nations.'' Psychology Press, 1998. p. 260 </ref> Turkey has had troops deployed in ] as part of the ] and the UN-authorized, NATO-commanded ] (ISAF) since 2001.<ref name="Economist"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tsk.tr/eng/uluslararasi/isaf_int/tarihce.htm|title=Brief History of ISAF|author=Turkish General Staff|authorlink=Turkish Armed Forces|publisher=Turkish Armed Forces|accessdate=2011-07-06|year=2006}}{{dead link|date=September 2011}}</ref> In 2006, the Turkish parliament deployed a peacekeeping force of Navy patrol vessels and around 700 ground troops as part of an expanded ] (UNIFIL) in the wake of the ].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6069126.stm|title=Turkish troops arrive in Lebanon|work=BBC|accessdate=2006-12-14|date=2006-10-20}}</ref>


Turkey has been called an emerging power,<ref>{{harvnb|Acharya|2014|loc=Emerging Powers}}</ref> a ],<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1057/s41311-023-00511-2 |title=Beyond hierarchy: Regional orders in the twenty-first century |date=2023 |last1=Giedraityte |first1=Ieva |journal=International Politics }}</ref> and a ].<ref>{{harvnb|Bank|Karadag|2012|p=3}}</ref> Turkey has sought closer relations with the Central Asian Turkic states after the breakup of the Soviet Union.<ref name="Martin 2012 230">{{harvnb|Martin|2012|p=230}}</ref> Closer ], a culturally close country, was achieved.<ref name="Martin 2012 230"/> Turkey is a founding member of the ] and ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.turksoy.org/en-US/about-turksoy |title=About TURKSOY |website=] |access-date=23 September 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://turkicstates.org/en/turk-konseyi-hakkinda |title=Organization of Turkic States |website=] |access-date=23 September 2024}}</ref> It is also a member of ], ], and ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mfa.gov.tr/synopsis-of-the-turkish-foreign-policy.en.mfa |title=National Foreign Policy in the "Century Of Türkiye": A Synopsis |website=Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Foreign Affairs |access-date=24 September 2024}}</ref>
The ] is appointed by the president and is responsible to the prime minister. The Council of Ministers is responsible to parliament for matters of national security and the adequate preparation of the armed forces to defend the country. However, the authority to declare war and to deploy the Turkish Armed Forces to foreign countries or to allow foreign armed forces to be stationed in Turkey rests solely with the parliament.<ref name="TSK_Organisation" /> The actual commander of the armed forces is the Chief of the General Staff ] since August 4, 2011.<ref>{{cite web|title=General Necdet Özel|work=NATO|accessdate=2011-09-23|date=2011-08-29|url=http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/who_is_who_77455.htm?selectedLocale=en}}</ref>


Following the ], Turkey had problems with countries such as United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, and Egypt.<ref name=Reuters_19_May_2023>{{cite news |date=19 May 2023 |title=In Middle East, once improbable ententes set new tone |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/middle-east-once-improbable-ententes-set-new-tone-2023-05-18/ |work=Reuters |access-date=24 September 2024}}</ref> Relations with these countries have improved since then.<ref name=Reuters_19_May_2023/><ref>{{cite news |date=9 September 2024 |title=Turkey heads to Arab League ministerial for first time in 13 years, source says |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/turkey-heads-arab-league-ministerial-first-time-13-years-source-says-2024-09-09/ |work=Reuters |access-date=24 September 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=4 September 2024 |title=Egypt's Sisi makes first presidential visit to Turkey in 12 years |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/egypts-sisi-heads-turkey-first-presidential-visit-12-years-2024-09-04/ |work=Reuters |access-date=24 September 2024}}</ref> The exception is Syria, with which Turkey had cut its relations after the start of the ].<ref>{{cite news |date=25 August 2024 |title=Syrian president says efforts to restore ties with Turkey have yielded no results |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrian-president-says-efforts-restore-ties-with-turkey-have-yielded-no-results-2024-08-25/ |work=Reuters |access-date=24 September 2024}}</ref> There are disputes ] and ].<ref>{{harvnb|Martin|2012|p=235}}</ref>
==Administrative divisions==
{{Further|List of regions of Turkey|Provinces of Turkey|Districts of Turkey}}


In 2018, the Turkish military and the Turkish-backed forces began an ] aimed at ousting US-backed ] (which Turkey considers to be an offshoot of the outlawed ])<ref name="Atlantic-Council">{{cite web|url=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/menasource/the-ypg-pkk-connection/|title=The YPG-PKK connection|author1=Aaron Stein|author2=Michelle Foley|publisher=Atlantic Council|date=26 January 2016|access-date=31 December 2022|archive-date=31 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221231150115/https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/menasource/the-ypg-pkk-connection/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mfa.gov.tr/pkk.en.mfa|title=PKK|publisher=Republic of Türkiye, Ministry of Foreign Affairs|website=mfa.gov.tr|access-date=31 December 2022|archive-date=25 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230325204651/https://www.mfa.gov.tr/pkk.en.mfa|url-status=live}}</ref> from the enclave of ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-afrin-idUSKBN1H00OD|title=Turkey takes full control of Syria's Afrin: military source|website=reuters.com|publisher=Reuters|date=24 March 2018|access-date=7 January 2023|archive-date=7 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230107144921/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-afrin-idUSKBN1H00OD|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="TRT-World-25-05-2022">{{cite web|url=https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/the-ypg-menace-understanding-pkk-s-syria-offshoot-57427|title=The YPG menace: Understanding PKK's Syria offshoot|publisher=TRT World|website=trtworld.com|date=25 May 2022|access-date=7 January 2023|archive-date=7 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230107144923/https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/the-ypg-menace-understanding-pkk-s-syria-offshoot-57427|url-status=live}}</ref> Turkey has also conducted airstrikes in ], which was criticized by Iraq for violating its sovereignty and killing civilians.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dana Taib Menmy |date=23 June 2020 |title=Fear and anger greets Turkish air strikes in northern Iraq |url=https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/turkish-airstrikes-northern-iraq-conflicts-civilian-fatalities |website=] |language=en |quote=“Turkish incursions and air strikes on Iraqi territory have been a constant issue for the Iraqi foreign ministry since 2003, with no resolution in sight," Sajad Jiyad, a political analyst based in Baghdad, told MEE. |access-date=18 March 2024 |archive-date=18 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240318114659/https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/turkish-airstrikes-northern-iraq-conflicts-civilian-fatalities |url-status=live }}</ref> ] were damaged after the ],<ref>{{harvnb|Martin|2012|p=234}}</ref> normalized in 2016,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-36639834|title=Israel and Turkey end rift over Gaza flotilla killings|publisher=BBC|date=27 June 2016|access-date=27 June 2016|work=BBC News|archive-date=5 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220505073331/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-36639834|url-status=live}}</ref> and cut again following the ].<ref name=Reuters_28_May_2024>{{cite news |date=28 May 2024 |title=Israeli-Turkish trade on life support as relations hit bottom |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/israeli-turkish-trade-life-support-relations-hit-bottom-2024-05-27/ |work=Reuters |access-date=24 September 2024}}</ref> In 2024, Turkey stopped trading with Israel.<ref name=Reuters_28_May_2024/>
]]]


===Military===
The capital city of Turkey is ]. The territory of Turkey is subdivided into 81 provinces for administrative purposes. The provinces are organized into 7 ] for ] purposes; however, they do not represent an administrative structure. Each province is divided into districts, for a total of 923 districts.
{{Main|Turkish Armed Forces}}
{{See also|Turkish Land Forces|Turkish Naval Forces|Turkish Air Force}}
] is currently being produced by ] for the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.janes.com/defence-news/news-detail/turkish-future-fighter-comes-together-ahead-of-victory-day-roll-out|title=Turkish future fighter comes together ahead of 'victory day' roll-out|website=janes.com|author=Gareth Jennings|date=24 November 2022|access-date=4 December 2022|archive-date=17 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217140402/https://www.janes.com/defence-news/news-detail/turkish-future-fighter-comes-together-ahead-of-victory-day-roll-out|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.overtdefense.com/2022/11/25/turkeys-domestic-5th-generation-tf-x-fighter-jet-is-on-the-final-assembly-line/|title=Turkey's Domestic 5th Generation TF-X Fighter Jet Is On The Final Assembly Line|website=overtdefense.com|date=25 November 2022|access-date=4 December 2022|archive-date=4 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221204150849/https://www.overtdefense.com/2022/11/25/turkeys-domestic-5th-generation-tf-x-fighter-jet-is-on-the-final-assembly-line/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thedrive.com/the-war-zone/unique-sensor-setup-emerges-on-turkeys-stealthy-new-fighter|title=Unique Sensor Setup Emerges On Turkey's Stealthy New Fighter|website=thedrive.com|author=Joseph Trevithick|date=10 January 2023|access-date=12 January 2023|archive-date=14 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314180926/https://www.thedrive.com/the-war-zone/unique-sensor-setup-emerges-on-turkeys-stealthy-new-fighter|url-status=live}}</ref>]]


] is responsible for defense against foreign threats. While the Commander-in-Chief is the President, ], ], ], and ] usually report to the Minister of National Defence.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tsk.tr/Sayfalar?viewName=Mission |title=Mission |website=Republic of Türkiye Ministry of National Defence General Staff |access-date=29 September 2024}}</ref> The ] and the ] are under the jurisdiction of the ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.icisleri.gov.tr/icisleri-bakanligi-teskilat-semasi |title=İçişleri Bakanlığı Teşkilat Şeması |website=Türkiye Cumhuriyeti İçişleri Bakanlığı |access-date=29 September 2024}}</ref> ] for 6–12 months for men,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.msb.gov.tr/Content/Upload/Docs/7179_Askeralma_Kanunu_(%C4%B0ngilizce).pdf |title=Recruiting Law |website=Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Millî Savunma Bakanlığı |access-date=29 September 2024}}</ref> which is reduced to one month after paying a fee.<ref>{{cite news |date=26 June 2019 |title=New military service law approved |url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkish-parliament-ratifies-new-military-service-law-144475 |work=Hürriyet Daily News |location=Ankara |access-date=}}</ref> Turkey does not recognize ] and does not offer a ] to military service.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ebco-beoc.eu/|title=EBCO: European Bureau for Conscientious Objection|publisher=Ebco-beoc.eu|access-date=4 September 2010|archive-date=10 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160110173525/http://ebco-beoc.eu/|url-status=live}}</ref>
Provinces usually bear the same name as their provincial capitals, also called the central district; exceptions to this custom are the provinces of ] (capital: ]), ] (capital: ]) and ] (capital: ]). Provinces with the largest populations are ] (13 million), ] (5 million), ] (4 million), ] (3 million) and ] (2 million).


] UCAV on ]]]
The biggest city and the pre-Republican capital ] is the financial, economic and cultural heart of the country.<ref name="USLC_TRGeo" /> An estimated 75.5% of Turkey's population live in urban centers.<ref>{{cite web|author=Turkish Statistical Institute|authorlink=Turkish Statistical Institute|publisher=Turkish Statistical Institute|url=http://www.turkstat.gov.tr/PreHaberBultenleri.do?id=6178|title=2009 Census, population living in cities |accessdate=2010-01-25|year=2010}}</ref> In all, 19 provinces have populations that exceed 1 million inhabitants, and 20 provinces have populations between 1 million and 500,000 inhabitants. Only two provinces have populations less than 100,000.


Turkey has the ] in NATO, after the ], with an estimated strength of 890,700 military personnel as of February 2022.<ref name="iiss-mb-2022">{{cite book |author1=] |title=The Military Balance |date=2022 |publisher=] |isbn=978-1-032-27900-8 |issn=0459-7222}}</ref> As part of the ] policy of NATO, Turkey hosts approximately 20 United States ]s at the ].<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/00396338.2024.2403218 |title=Forum: Towards a European Nuclear Deterrent |date=2024 |last1=Fayet |first1=Héloïse |last2=Futter |first2=Andrew |last3=Kühn |first3=Ulrich |journal=Survival |volume=66 |issue=5 |pages=67–98 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/00963402.2020.1859865 |title=United States nuclear weapons, 2021 |date=2021 |last1=Kristensen |first1=Hans M. |last2=Korda |first2=Matt |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists |volume=77 |issue=1 |pages=43–63 |bibcode=2021BuAtS..77a..43K }}</ref> The Turkish Armed Forces have a relatively substantial military presence abroad,<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 March 2019 |title=Mapping the Turkish Military's Expanding Footprint |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-03-07/mapping-the-turkish-military-s-expanding-footprint-quicktake |access-date=17 March 2022 |website=Bloomberg }}</ref> with ] in ],<ref name="LarrabeeLesser94">{{cite book|last1=Larrabee|first1=F. Stephen|last2=Lesser|first2=Ian O.|title=Turkish foreign policy in an age of uncertainty|year=2003|publisher=Rand Corporation|url=https://archive.org/details/turkishforeignpo00larr|url-access=registration|quote=albania.|isbn=978-0-8330-3404-5|pages=}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/what-is-turkey-doing-in-iraq.aspx?pageID=449&nID=104733&NewsCatID=466|title=What is Turkey doing in Iraq?|newspaper=Hürriyet Daily News|date=8 October 2016|access-date=5 April 2017|archive-date=19 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019211312/http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/what-is-turkey-doing-in-iraq.aspx?pageID=449&nID=104733&NewsCatID=466|url-status=live}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-qatar-turkey-military-idUSKCN0XP2IT|title=Seeing shared threats, Turkey sets up military base in Qatar|newspaper=Reuters|date=28 April 2016|access-date=2 July 2017|archive-date=8 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190208142004/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-qatar-turkey-military-idUSKCN0XP2IT|url-status=live}}</ref> and ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.trtworld.com/turkey/turkey-to-open-it-s-largest-military-base-in-somalia-10967|title=Turkey to open its largest military base in Somalia|publisher=TRT World|date=30 September 2017|access-date=21 June 2018|archive-date=9 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220909055110/https://www.trtworld.com/turkey/turkey-to-open-it-s-largest-military-base-in-somalia-10967|url-status=live}}</ref> The country also maintains a force of ] in ] since 1974.<ref name="Richmond1998">{{cite book |last=Richmond |first=Oliver P. |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=_6wRdE2ZH4gC |page=260 }} |title=Mediating in Cyprus: The Cypriot Communities and the United Nations |publisher=Psychology Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7146-4877-4 |page=260 |access-date=9 February 2013}}</ref>
{{Turkey Labelled Map}}


Turkey has participated in international missions under the United Nations and NATO ], including ] missions in ], ] and the ]. It supported ] in the ], contributed military personnel to the ] in Afghanistan, and remains active in ], ] and ]s.<ref name="Enter the EU Battle Groups">{{cite web|title=Enter the EU Battle Groups|url=http://www.iss.europa.eu/uploads/media/cp097.pdf|work=Chaillot Paper no. 97|publisher=European Union Institute for Security Studies|page=88|date=February 2007|access-date=18 February 2012|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304001035/http://www.iss.europa.eu/uploads/media/cp097.pdf}}</ref><ref name=tskpeace>{{cite web|title=Contribution of Turkish Armed Forces to Peace Support Operations |url=http://www.tsk.tr/20_ingilizce_tsktr/5_international_relations/contribution-of-the-turkish-armed-forces-to-peace-support-operations.html |website=tsk.tr |publisher=Turkish Armed Forces |access-date=3 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150219001301/http://www.tsk.tr/20_ingilizce_tsktr/5_international_relations/contribution-of-the-turkish-armed-forces-to-peace-support-operations.html |archive-date=19 February 2015}}</ref> As of 2016, Turkey has assisted ] forces in northern ] and the ] with security and training.<ref name="hurriyetdailynews.comq">{{cite web|title=Turkey finalizes military training base in Somalia|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-finalizes-military-training-base-in-somalia.aspx?PageID=238&NID=104468&NewsCatID=510|website=hurriyetdailynews.com|date=3 October 2016|access-date=5 April 2017|archive-date=6 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170406110403/http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-finalizes-military-training-base-in-somalia.aspx?PageID=238&NID=104468&NewsCatID=510|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="reuters.comq">{{cite news|title=Turkey trains Kurdish peshmerga forces in fight against Islamic State|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-turkey-iraq-idUSKCN0J60B720141122|newspaper=Reuters|access-date=5 April 2017|date=22 November 2014|archive-date=23 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220423092232/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-turkey-iraq-idUSKCN0J60B720141122|url-status=live}}</ref>
==Geography==
{{Main|Geography of Turkey}}
]
]]]


===Human rights===
Turkey is a ]<ref name="Immerfall2009">{{cite book|last=Immerfall|first=Stefan|title=Handbook of European Societies: Social Transformations in the 21st Century|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=880rr6t5POQC&pg=PA417|accessdate=9 August 2011|date=2009-08-01|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-387-88198-0|pages=417–}}</ref> Eurasian country. Asian Turkey (made up largely of Anatolia), which includes 97% of the country, is separated from European Turkey by the ], the ], and the ] (which together form a water link between the ] and the Mediterranean). ] (eastern ] or ] in the ] peninsula) comprises 3% of the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.turkishodyssey.com/turkey/turkey.htm |title=Turkey |publisher=Turkish Odyssey |date=2000-02-02 |accessdate=2010-11-01}}</ref>
{{Main|Human rights in Turkey}}
], ]<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.hurriyet.com.tr/gundem/kadikoyde-kiyafetime-karisma-eylemi-40534870 |last=Uçar |first=Burcu Purtul |title=Kadıköy'de "Kıyafetime Karışma" eylemi |work=Hürriyet |date=30 July 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116101420/https://www.hurriyet.com.tr/gundem/kadikoyde-kiyafetime-karisma-eylemi-40534870 |archive-date=16 November 2022 |access-date=23 June 2024}}</ref>]]


Article 2 of the Turkish Constitution includes references to upholding the rule of law and human rights.<ref>{{harvnb|Özbudun|2012|p=197}}</ref> In the 2000s, legal changes were made for public use of and teaching in the Kurdish language. This included opening a ]. Various "openings" were made to address concerns of minorities such as ], ], and ].<ref name=Toprak_2012_p222>{{harvnb|Toprak|2012|p=222}}</ref> Sentences for violence against women were strengthened.<ref name=Toprak_2012_p222/>
The territory of Turkey is more than 1,600 kilometres (1,000&nbsp;mi) long and 800&nbsp;km (500&nbsp;mi) wide, with a roughly rectangular shape.<ref name="USLC_TRGeo">{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/turkey/18.htm|title=Geography of Turkey|author=US Library of Congress|authorlink=US Library of Congress|publisher=US Library of Congress|accessdate=2006-12-13}}</ref> It lies between latitudes ] and ], and longitudes ] and ]. Turkey's area, including lakes, occupies 783,562<ref>{{cite web|url=http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/DYB2004/Table03.pdf |title=UN Demographic Yearbook, accessed April 16, 2007 |format=PDF |accessdate=2010-11-01}}</ref> square kilometres (300,948 sq mi), of which 755,688 square kilometres (291,773 sq mi) are in Southwest Asia and 23,764 square kilometres (9,174 sq mi) in Europe.<ref name="USLC_TRGeo" /> Turkey is the world's ] country in terms of area. The country is encircled by seas on three sides: the ] to the west, the ] to the north and the Mediterranean to the south. Turkey also contains the ] in the northwest.<ref name="TRGeo_TRMinistryTourism" />


In 2013, ] erupted, sparked by a plan to demolish ] but soon growing into general anti-government dissent.<ref>{{cite news |title=What's driving unrest and protests in Turkey? |author1=Mullen, Jethro |author2=Cullinane, Susannah |url=http://www.cnn.com/2013/06/03/world/europe/turkey-conflict-explainer/?hpt=hp_t1 |newspaper=CNN |date=4 June 2013 |access-date=6 June 2013 |archive-date=14 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014001050/http://www.cnn.com/2013/06/03/world/europe/turkey-conflict-explainer/?hpt=hp_t1 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 20 May 2016, the Turkish parliament stripped almost a quarter of its members of immunity from prosecution, including 101 deputies from the pro-Kurdish ] and the main opposition ] party.<ref>" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221044905/http://www.dw.com/en/turkish-parliament-moves-to-strip-lawmakers-immunity-from-prosecution/a-19270449 |date=21 December 2016 }}". ]. 20 May 2016.</ref><ref name="european court">{{cite news |title=Turkey Violated Pro-Kurdish MPs' Rights, European Court Rules |url=https://balkaninsight.com/2022/02/01/turkey-violated-pro-kurdish-mps-rights-european-court-rules/ |work=] |date=1 February 2022 |access-date=11 November 2022 |archive-date=11 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111080130/https://balkaninsight.com/2022/02/01/turkey-violated-pro-kurdish-mps-rights-european-court-rules/ |url-status=live }}</ref> According to the ], there are 13 jailed journalists in Turkey.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://cpj.org/reports/2024/01/2023-prison-census-jailed-journalist-numbers-near-record-high-israel-imprisonments-spike/ |title=2023 prison census: Jailed journalist numbers near record high; Israel imprisonments spike |last=Getz |first=Arlene |website=] |access-date=30 September 2024}}</ref> In its 2023 report, the ] criticized how democratic institutions in Turkey operate.<ref>{{harvnb|EU Commission|2023|p=4}}</ref> The criticism was rejected by Turkey.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.mfa.gov.tr/no_-291_-avrupa-birligi-komisyonu-2023-yili-turkiye-raporu-hk.en.mfa |title=No: 291, 8 November 2023, Press Release Regarding the European Commission 2023 Report on Türkiye |date=8 November 2023 |website=Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Foreign Affairs}}</ref> As of 2023, Turkey was the country with the highest number of ] cases.<ref>{{harvnb|Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Justice Human Rights Department|2024|p=1}}</ref>
] (Ağrı Dağı) is the highest peak in Turkey with 5,137 m (16,854 ft)]]


] was organized in 2003 for the first time. Since 2015, parades in Istanbul have been denied permission by the government.<ref name="Bianet – Bagimsiz Iletisim Agi"/>]]
The European section of Turkey, ], forms the borders of Turkey with Greece and Bulgaria. The Asian part of the country, ], consists of a high central plateau with narrow coastal plains, between the ] and ] mountain ranges to the north and the ] to the south. Eastern Turkey has a more mountainous landscape and is home to the sources of rivers such as the ], ] and ], and contains ], Turkey's highest point at 5,137 metres (16,854&nbsp;ft),<ref name="TRGeo_TRMinistryTourism" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=4996|title=Mount Ararat (Ağrı Dağı), Turkey|author=NASA – Earth Observatory|authorlink=NASA|publisher=NASA|accessdate=2006-12-27|year=2001}}</ref> and ], the largest lake in the country.


Prior to 1858, Ottoman Empire had "a lenient legal accommodation of same-sex intimacy". When prosecuted, the punishment was monetary fines. In 1858, the 1810 French Penal Code was adopted by the Ottomans, which had no penalties for same-sex intimacy that is private.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/00918369.2020.1715142 |title=Decolonizing Decriminalization Analyses: Did the Ottomans Decriminalize Homosexuality in 1858? |date=2021 |last1=Ozsoy |first1=Elif Ceylan |journal=Journal of Homosexuality |volume=68 |issue=12 |pages=1979–2002 |pmid=32069182 |hdl=10871/120331 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Under the Republic, same sex acts have never been criminalized.<ref>{{harvnb|Özbek|2019|p=34}}</ref> However, LGBT people in Turkey face discrimination, harassment and even violence.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/was-ahmet-yildiz-the-victim-of-turkeys-first-gay-honour-killing-871822.html|access-date=8 May 2021|title=Was Ahmet Yildiz the victim of Turkey's first gay honour killing?|work=Independent|date=19 July 2008|first=Nicholas|last=Birch}}</ref> In a survey conducted in 2016, 33% of respondents said that LGBT people should have equal rights, which increased to 45% in 2020. Another survey in 2018 found that the proportion of people who would not want a homosexual neighbor decreased from 55% in 2018 to 47% in 2019.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.pinknews.co.uk/2020/03/24/turkey-lgbt-acceptance-muslim-islam-kadir-has-university-istanbul-rights/|title=Almost half of people in Turkey think that LGBT+ people should have equal rights, nine percent more than last year, according to a survey|access-date=11 May 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://bianet.org/english/lgbti/221831-survey-nearly-half-of-people-think-lgbti-s-should-have-equal-rights|title=Perceptions of Gender Equality|access-date=11 May 2010}}</ref>
Turkey is divided into ]: ], ], ], ], ], ] and the ]. The uneven north Anatolian terrain running along the Black Sea resembles a long, narrow belt. This region comprises approximately one-sixth of Turkey's total land area. As a general trend, the inland Anatolian plateau becomes increasingly rugged as it progresses eastward.<ref name="TRGeo_TRMinistryTourism">{{cite web|url=http://www.turizm.net/turkey/info/geography.html|title=Geography of Turkey|author=Turkish Ministry of Tourism|publisher=Turkish Ministry of Tourism|accessdate=2006-12-13|year=2005}}</ref>


When the annual ] was inaugurated in 2003, Turkey became the first Muslim-majority country to hold a gay pride march.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Turkey's LGBT community draws hope from Harvey Milk|url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2013/12/turkey-lgbt-discrimination-legal-protection-public-awareness.html|access-date=27 January 2022|website=Al Monitor|date=17 June 2016}}</ref> Since 2015, parades at ] and ] have been denied government permission, citing security concerns, but hundreds of people have defied the ban each year.<ref name="Bianet – Bagimsiz Iletisim Agi"/> The bans were criticized.<ref name="Bianet – Bagimsiz Iletisim Agi">{{Cite web|title=17th İstanbul LGBTI+ Pride Parade: Police Attack with Shields, Pepper Gas After Pride Parade Statement Read|url=https://www.bianet.org/english/lgbti/209921-police-attack-with-shields-pepper-gas-after-pride-parade-statement-read|website=Bianet – Bagimsiz Iletisim Agi}}</ref>
Turkey's varied landscapes are the product of complex earth movements that have shaped the region over thousands of years and still manifest themselves in fairly frequent earthquakes and occasional ] eruptions. The ] and the ] owe their existence to the ] running through Turkey that led to the creation of the Black Sea. There is an earthquake fault line across the north of the country from west to east, which caused ] in 1999.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usc.edu/dept/civil_eng/structural_lab/eq-rp/seismicity.html|title=Brief Seismic History of Turkey|publisher=University of South California, Department of Civil Engineering|accessdate=2006-12-26}}{{dead link|date=May 2011}}</ref>


===Climate=== ==Geography==
{{See also|Climate of Turkey|Environmental issues in Turkey}} {{Main|Geography of Turkey}}
{{See also|List of national parks of Turkey}}
] of Turkey]]


Turkey covers an area of {{convert|783562|km2|sqmi|abbr=off}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/DYB2004/Table03.pdf|title=UN Demographic Yearbook|access-date=1 November 2010}}</ref> With ] and ] in between, Turkey bridges ] and ].<ref>{{harvnb|Kuzucuoğlu|2019|p=7}}</ref> Turkey's Asian side covers 97% of its surface, and is often called ].<ref name=anatolia_definition>
] on the ], which is famous for its ] voyages.]]
* {{harvnb|Waskey|2005|p=922}}: "Thrace, its European area, is about the size of VERMONT at 9,412 square mi (24,378 square km). Its Asian area (Asia Minor) is called Anatolia and covers 291,971 square mi (756,202 square km)"
* {{harvnb|Cohen|2008|p=125}}: "Anatolia, , Asiatic part of Turkey; its area covers 97% of all Turkey"
* {{harvnb|Akbulut|Bayarı|Akbulut|Özyurt|Sahin|2022|p=853}}: "About 97% of the country is in Asia Minor (Anatolia) and 3% in Europe (Thrace)"
* {{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/turkey-turkiye/#geography |title=Turkey (Turkiye) &#124; Geography - note |work=] |publisher=] |access-date=31 May 2024}}: "the 97% of the country in Asia is referred to as Anatolia"
* {{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Anatolia |title=Anatolia |website=] |access-date=29 February 2024}}: "Anatolia, the peninsula of land that today constitutes the Asian portion of Turkey"
* {{harvnb|Khatchadourian|2012|p=467}}
* {{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=7}}
* {{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/turkey/18.htm |editor=Helen Chapin Metz |title=Turkey: A Country Study &#124; Geography |year=1995 |location=Washington |publisher=GPO for the Library of Congress |access-date=31 May 2024}}: "The Asian part of the country is known by a variety of names--Asia Minor, Asiatic Turkey, the Anatolian Plateau, and Anatolia (Anadolu)"</ref> Another definition of Anatolia's eastern boundary is an imprecise line from the ] to ].<ref>{{harvnb|Merriam-Webster, Inc|1997|p=46}}: "Anatolia: The part of Turkey in Asia equivalent to the peninsula of Asia Minor up to indefinite line on E from Gulf of Iskenderun to Black Sea comprising about three fifths of Turkey's provinces"</ref> ], Turkey's European side, includes around 10% of the population and covers 3% of the surface area.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/turkey/18.htm |editor=Helen Chapin Metz |title=Turkey: A Country Study &#124; Geography |year=1995 |location=Washington |publisher=GPO for the Library of Congress |access-date=31 May 2024}}</ref> The country is encircled by seas on three sides: the ] to the west, the Black Sea to the north and the ] to the south.<ref name="Waskey 2005 922">{{harvnb|Waskey|2005|p=922}}</ref> Turkey is bordered by Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan and Iran to the east.<ref name="Waskey 2005 922"/> To the south, it's bordered by Syria and Iraq.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://countrystudies.us/turkey/19.htm |editor=Helen Chapin Metz |title=Turkey: A Country Study &#124; External Boundaries |year=1995 |location=Washington |publisher=GPO for the Library of Congress |access-date=31 May 2024}}</ref> To the north, its Thracian area is bordered by Greece and Bulgaria.<ref name="Waskey 2005 922"/>


Turkey is divided into "]": ], ], ], ], ], ] and the ].<ref name="Waskey 2005 922"/> As a general trend, the inland ] becomes increasingly rugged as it progresses eastward.<ref name="TRGeo_TRMinistryTourism">{{cite web |url=http://www.turizm.net/turkey/info/geography.html|title=Geography of Turkey|publisher=Turkish Ministry of Tourism|access-date=13 December 2006|year=2005}}</ref> Mountain ranges include ] and ] mountain ranges to the north, and the ] to the south. The ] contains some of the largest lakes in Turkey such as ] and ].
The coastal areas of Turkey bordering the Aegean Sea and the Mediterranean Sea have a ] ], with hot, dry summers and mild to cool, wet winters. The coastal areas of Turkey bordering the Black Sea have a temperate ] with warm, wet summers and cool to cold, wet winters. The Turkish Black Sea coast receives the greatest amount of ] and is the only region of Turkey that receives high precipitation throughout the year. The eastern part of that coast averages 2,500 millimetres annually which is the highest precipitation in the country.


], such as ] and ].]]
]]]
Geographers have used the eastern Anatolian plateau, Iranian plateau, and ] terms to refer to the mountainous area around where ] and ] tectonic plates merge. The eastern Anatolian plateau and Armenian plateau definitions largely overlap.<ref name=Oxford_Handbook_p466>{{harvnb|Khatchadourian|2012|p=467}}</ref> The ] contains ], Turkey's highest point at {{convert|5137|m|ft|abbr=off}},<ref name=mararat>{{cite web|title=Mount Ararat|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/32131/Mount-Ararat|website=britannica.com|access-date=18 February 2015}}</ref> and ], the largest lake in the country.<ref name=lvan>{{cite web|title=Lake Van|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/622548/Lake-Van|website=britannica.com|access-date=18 February 2015}}</ref> Eastern Turkey is home to the sources of rivers such as the ], ] and ]. The ] includes the northern plains of ].


] happen frequently in Turkey.<ref name=Ahmed_2006_pp_1575_1576/> Almost the entire population lives in areas with varying seismic risk levels, with around 70% in highest or second-highest seismic areas.<ref>{{harvnb|ISMEP Guide Books 4|2014|p=8}}</ref><ref name=WorldBank_Overview_April_2024>{{cite web |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/turkey/overview | title=Türkiye Overview |website=The World Bank |access-date=3 May 2024 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240503171625/https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/turkey/overview |archive-date=3 May 2024}}</ref> ] is bordered by ] zone to the north; ] zone and Bitlis–Zagros collision zone to the east; ] and Cyprus subduction zones to the south; and ] to the west.<ref>{{harvnb|Kuzucuoğlu|Çiner|Kazancı|2019a|p=41}}</ref> After ] and ] earthquakes, North Anatolian Fault zone activity "is considered to be one of the most dangerous natural hazards in Turkey".<ref>{{harvnb|Kuzucuoğlu|Şengör|Çiner|2019|p=33}}</ref> ] were the deadliest in contemporary Turkish history.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://apnews.com/article/earthquakes-2023-turkey-syria-earthquake-government-8694408019fb13a8131cb146c347ec88 | title=Rising toll makes quake deadliest in Turkey's modern history | website=] | date=14 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231028102813/https://apnews.com/article/earthquakes-2023-turkey-syria-earthquake-government-8694408019fb13a8131cb146c347ec88 |archive-date=28 October 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> Turkey is sometimes unfavorably compared to ], a country with a similar ] that is more successful with ].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://t24.com.tr/yazarlar/esra-akgemci-america-invertida/sili-ve-turkiye-binalar-yasatir-binalar-oldurur,38646 | title=Şili ve Türkiye: Binalar yaşatır, binalar öldürür | website=T24 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230818082406/https://t24.com.tr/yazarlar/esra-akgemci-america-invertida/sili-ve-turkiye-binalar-yasatir-binalar-oldurur,38646 |archive-date=18 August 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.indyturk.com/node/703981/r%C3%B6portaj/profes%C3%B6r-mustafa-erdik-t%C3%BCrkiyede-imar-bar%C4%B1%C5%9F%C4%B1-olmasayd%C4%B1-da-%C3%A7ok-%C5%9Fey-de%C4%9Fi%C5%9Fmezdi | title=Profesör Mustafa Erdik: Türkiye'de imar barışı olmasaydı da çok şey değişmezdi | website=Independent Türkçe |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240406122353/https://www.indyturk.com/node/703981/r%C3%B6portaj/profes%C3%B6r-mustafa-erdik-t%C3%BCrkiyede-imar-bar%C4%B1%C5%9F%C4%B1-olmasayd%C4%B1-da-%C3%A7ok-%C5%9Fey-de%C4%9Fi%C5%9Fmezdi |archive-date=6 April 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.bbc.com/turkce/articles/cd125km7pzjo | title=Şili depremle mücadelede nasıl başarılı oldu? | date=29 August 2023 | website=BBC News Türkçe |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231229194006/https://www.bbc.com/turkce/articles/cd125km7pzjo |archive-date=29 December 2023}}</ref>
The coastal areas of Turkey bordering the Sea of Marmara (including Istanbul), which connects the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea, have a transitional climate between a temperate Mediterranean climate and a temperate Oceanic climate with warm to hot, moderately dry summers and cool to cold, wet winters. Snow does occur on the coastal areas of the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea almost every winter, but it usually lies no more than a few days. Snow on the other hand is rare in the coastal areas of the Aegean Sea and very rare in the coastal areas of the Mediterranean Sea.


===Biodiversity===
Conditions can be much harsher in the more arid interior. Mountains close to the coast prevent Mediterranean influences from extending inland, giving the central Anatolian ] of the interior of Turkey a ] with sharply contrasting seasons.
{{Main|Wildlife of Turkey|Fauna of Turkey|Flora and vegetation of Turkey}}
{{See also|Environmental issues in Turkey}}
] cat with ], which is common among the Angoras]]


Turkey's position at the crossroads of the land, sea and air routes between the three ] continents and the variety of the habitats across its geographical regions have produced considerable species diversity and a vibrant ecosystem.<ref>{{cite web|title=Biodiversity in Turkey|url=http://iucn.org/about/union/secretariat/offices/europe/?9778/Biodiversity-in-Turkey|access-date=9 August 2014|date=6 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160407201045/http://iucn.org/about/union/secretariat/offices/europe/?9778%2FBiodiversity-in-Turkey|archive-date=7 April 2016}}</ref> Out of the 36 ]s in the world, Turkey includes 3 of them.<ref name=Birben_2019/> These are the ], ], and ] hotspots.<ref name=Birben_2019/>
Winters on the eastern part of the plateau are especially severe. Temperatures of −30 ] to −40 °C (−22&nbsp;°F to −40 °F) can occur in eastern Anatolia, and snow may lie on the ground at least 120 days of the year. In the west, winter temperatures average below 1 °C (34 °F). Summers are hot and dry, with temperatures generally above 30 °C (86 °F) in the day. Annual ] averages about 400 millimetres (15&nbsp;in), with actual amounts determined by elevation. The driest regions are the Konya plain and the Malatya plain, where annual rainfall frequently is less than 300 millimetres (12&nbsp;in). May is generally the wettest month, whereas July and August are the driest.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://classic-web.archive.org/web/20080419130806/http://www.meteor.gov.tr/2006/english/eng-climateofturkey.aspx|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070110140758/http://www.meteor.gov.tr/2006/english/eng-climateofturkey.aspx|archivedate=2007-01-10|title=Climate of Turkey|author=Turkish State Meteorological Service|authorlink=Turkish State Meteorological Service|publisher=Turkish State Meteorological Service|accessdate=2006-12-27|year=2006}}</ref>


The ] are home to the ]. The most commonly found species of the genus ] is the '']''. The ] is mostly found in Turkey and other east Mediterranean countries. Several wild species of ] are native to Anatolia, and the flower was first ] with species taken from the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.<ref name="Blunt 7">{{cite book|last=Blunt|first=Wilfrid|title=Tulipomania|page=7}}</ref><ref>E.S. Forster (trans. et ed.), ''The Turkish Letters of ]'' (Oxford, 1927).</ref>
==Economy==
{{Main|Economy of Turkey|Economic history of Turkey}}


There are ], 189 nature parks, 31 nature preserve areas, 80 wildlife protection areas and 109 nature monuments in Turkey such as ], ], ], ] and ].<ref name=ministryofforest>{{cite web|title=Statistics|url=http://www.milliparklar.gov.tr/Anasayfa/istatistik.aspx?sflang=tr|website=milliparklar.gov.tr|publisher=Ministry of Forest and Water – General Directorare of Nature Conservation and National Parks|access-date=12 June 2014|archive-date=17 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151217050153/http://www.milliparklar.gov.tr/Anasayfa/istatistik.aspx?sflang=tr}}</ref> The ] is an ] which covers most of the Pontic Mountains in northern Turkey, while the ] extend across the eastern end of the range. The region is home to Eurasian wildlife such as the ], ], ], ], ], ], and ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Couzens|first=Dominic|title=Top 100 Birding Sites of the World|publisher=University of California Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-520-25932-4|pages=73–75}}</ref>
] (left) and ] (right) navigating through the ] ] in ]. Turkish port cities and coastal towns like Istanbul, ] and ] are among the popular destinations of cruise ship holiday tours in the ].]]


The ] is still found in very small numbers in the northeastern and southeastern regions of Turkey.<ref name=O.E.Can>Can, O.E. (2004). ''''. Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats. Standing Committee, 24th meeting, 29 November-3 December 2004, Strasbourg.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.trthaber.com/haber/bilim-teknik/diyarbakirda-oldurulen-leopar-iran-parsi-cikti-109086.html|title=Diyarbakır'da öldürülen leopar İran Parsı çıktı|date=19 November 2013 |access-date=21 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161023123101/http://www.trthaber.com/haber/bilim-teknik/diyarbakirda-oldurulen-leopar-iran-parsi-cikti-109086.html|archive-date=23 October 2016}}</ref> The ], the ] and the ] are other ] species which are found in the forests of Turkey. The ], now extinct, lived in the easternmost regions of Turkey until the latter half of the 20th century.<ref name=O.E.Can /><ref name="Üstay">Üstay, A.H. (1990). ''Hunting in Turkey''. BBA, Istanbul.</ref> Renowned domestic animals from Ankara include the ], ] and ]; and from ] the ]. The national dog breeds are the ] (]), ] and ].<ref name="gateofturkey">{{cite web|title=Specific Animals of Turkey|url=http://www.gateofturkey.com/section/tr/741/5/turizm-nature-tourism-endemic-animals|website=gateofturkey.com|access-date=12 June 2014|archive-date=5 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305111002/http://www.gateofturkey.com/section/tr/741/5/turizm-nature-tourism-endemic-animals}}</ref>
Turkey has the world's ]<ref name=WB-GDP-PPP> Last revised on 1 July 2011.</ref> and ].<ref name=WB-GDP> Last revised on 1 July 2011.</ref> The country is among the founding members of the ] and the ]. During the first six decades of the republic, between 1923 and 1983, Turkey has mostly adhered to a quasi-] approach with strict government planning of the budget and government-imposed limitations over private sector participation, foreign trade, flow of foreign currency, and ]. However, in 1983 Prime Minister ] initiated a series of reforms designed to shift the economy from a statist, insulated system to a more private-sector, ]-based model.<ref name="80sLiberalization">{{Cite book|title=Economics and Politics of Turkish Liberalization|first=Tevfik F.|last=Nas|publisher=Lehigh University Press|year=1992|isbn=0-934223-19-X}}</ref>


===Climate===
The reforms, combined with unprecedented amounts of foreign loans, spurred rapid economic growth; but this growth was punctuated by sharp ]s and financial crises in 1994, 1999 (following the ] of that year),<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/422653.stm|title=Turkish quake hits shaky economy|work=BBC|accessdate=2006-12-12|date=1999-08-17}}</ref> and 2001;<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/1800869.stm|title='Worst over' for Turkey|work=BBC|accessdate=2006-12-12|date=2002-02-04}}</ref> resulting in an average of 4% GDP growth per annum between 1981 and 2003.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTTURKEY/Resources/361616-1144320150009/Labor_C2.pdf|title=Turkey Labor Market Study|author=World Bank|authorlink=World Bank|publisher=World Bank|format=PDF|accessdate=2006-12-10|year=2005}}</ref> Lack of additional fiscal reforms, combined with large and growing ] ]s and widespread corruption, resulted in high inflation, a weak ] sector and increased ] volatility.<ref>{{Cite book|title=OECD Reviews of Regulatory Reform – Turkey: crucial support for economic recovery : 2002|publisher=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|year=2002|isbn=92-64-19808-3|url=http://books.google.com/?id=ufYU_fR7mLgC&pg=PP1&lpg=PP1&dq=Turkey}}</ref> Since the economic crisis of 2001 and the reforms initiated by the finance minister of the time, ], inflation has fallen to single-digit numbers, investor confidence and foreign investment have soared, and unemployment has fallen.
{{Main|Climate of Turkey}}
{{See also|Climate change in Turkey}}
] of Turkey for the 1980–2016 period<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/sdata.2018.214 |title=Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution |date=2018 |last1=Beck |first1=Hylke E. |last2=Zimmermann |first2=Niklaus E. |last3=McVicar |first3=Tim R. |last4=Vergopolan |first4=Noemi |last5=Berg |first5=Alexis |last6=Wood |first6=Eric F. |journal=Scientific Data |volume=5 |pmid=30375988 |pmc=6207062 |bibcode=2018NatSD...580214B }}</ref>]]
The coastal areas of Turkey bordering the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas have a ] ], with hot, dry summers and mild to cool, wet winters.<ref name=Meteo>{{cite web|title=Climate of Turkey|url=http://www.dmi.gov.tr/files/en-US/climateofturkey.pdf|publisher=General Directorate of Meteorology|access-date=24 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328192740/http://www.dmi.gov.tr/files/en-US/climateofturkey.pdf|archive-date=28 March 2014}}</ref> The coastal areas bordering the Black Sea have a temperate ] with warm, wet summers and cool to cold, wet winters.<ref name=Meteo /> The Turkish Black Sea coast receives the most precipitation and is the only region of Turkey that receives high precipitation throughout the year.<ref name=Meteo /> The eastern part of the Black Sea coast averages {{convert|2200|mm|in}} annually which is the highest precipitation in the country.<ref name=Meteo /> The coastal areas bordering the Sea of Marmara, which connects the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea, have a transitional climate between a temperate Mediterranean climate and a temperate oceanic climate with warm to hot, moderately dry summers and cool to cold, wet winters.<ref name=Meteo />


Snow falls on the coastal areas of the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea almost every winter but usually melts in no more than a few days.<ref name="Meteo" /> However, snow is rare in the coastal areas of the Aegean Sea and very rare in the coastal areas of the Mediterranean Sea.<ref name="Meteo" /> Winters on the Anatolian plateau are especially severe. Temperatures of {{convert|-30|to|-40|C|F}} do occur in northeastern Anatolia, and snow may lie on the ground for at least 120 days of the year, and during the entire year on the summits of the highest mountains. In central Anatolia the temperatures can drop below {{convert|-20|°C|°F|abbr=on}} with the mountains being even colder. Mountains close to the coast prevent Mediterranean influences from extending inland, giving the central Anatolian Plateau a ] with sharply contrasting seasons.<ref name=Meteo />
] station of the ] in front of ], Europe's largest mall.]]


Due to socioeconomic, climatic, and geographic factors, Turkey is highly ].<ref name=World_Bank_climate_change/> This applies to nine out of ten climate vulnerability dimensions, such as "average annual risk to wellbeing".<ref name=World_Bank_climate_change/> ] median is two out of ten.<ref name=World_Bank_climate_change/> Inclusive and swift growth is needed for decreasing vulnerability.<ref>{{harvnb|World Bank Türkiye - Country Climate and Development Report|2022|p=28}}: "The first prerequisite for reducing vulnerability and impacts of climate change is rapid, robust, and inclusive growth"</ref> Turkey aims to achieve ] by 2053.<ref name="World Bank Türkiye">{{harvnb|World Bank Türkiye - Country Climate and Development Report|2022|p=6}}</ref> Accomplishing climate goals would require large investments, but would also result in net economic benefits, broadly due to reduced imports of fuel and due to better health from lowering air pollution.<ref>{{harvnb|World Bank Türkiye - Country Climate and Development Report|2022|pp=9,51}}</ref>
Turkey has gradually opened up its markets through economic reforms by reducing government controls on foreign trade and investment and the ] of publicly owned industries, and the liberalisation of many sectors to private and foreign participation has continued amid political debate.<ref name="TR_Eco">{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/6103008.stm|title=Robust economy raises Turkey's hopes|first=Jorn|last=Madslien|work=BBC|accessdate=2006-12-12|date=2006-11-02}}</ref> The public debt to GDP ratio, while well below its levels during the recession of 2001, reached 46% in 2010 Q3. The GDP growth rate from 2002 to 2007 averaged 7%,<ref>Dilenschneider Group and Pangaeia Group, "", ''Foreign Affairs'', January/February 2008</ref> which made Turkey one of the fastest growing economies in the world during that period. However, growth slowed to 1% in 2008, and in 2009 the Turkish economy was affected by the ], with a recession of 5%. The economy was estimated to have returned to 8% growth in 2010.<ref name="cia"/>
<!---Galleries or clusters of images are generally discouraged in country summary articles as they may cause undue weight to one particular section of a summary article and may cause accessibility problems---->
{| class="center toccolours"
|+ '''Examples from some of Turkey's ]'''
|<gallery mode="packed" heights="120" style="line-height:120%">
<!--- Regions ordered alphabetically --->
File:Pamukkale 30.jpg|]: ] in ] has snow-white color from ] buildup.<ref>{{harvnb|Altunel|D’Andria|2019|p=219}}</ref>
File:Uzungöl, Trabzon.jpg|]: ] in ]. Lush forests are found around the ] thanks to the high amounts of precipitation on the northern side of the mountain range.<ref>{{harvnb|Kuzucuoğlu|Çiner|Kazancı|2019a|p=46}}</ref>
File:Cappadocia Aerial View Landscape.jpg|]: ] is well known for its unique rock homes and volcanic terrain.<ref>{{harvnb|Çiner|Aydar|2019|p=535}}</ref>
File:Butterfly_Valley,_Fethiye.jpg|]: ] in ]. Mediterranean coastal beaches are popular among tourists.<ref>{{harvnb|Çiner|2019|p=238}}</ref>
File:Hevsel Gardens, Diyarbakır (2).jpg|]: ] around the ] in ]. Various springs provide water for the gardens.<ref>{{harvnb|Kuzucuoğlu|Çiner|Kazancı|2019a|p=138}}</ref>
</gallery>
|}


==Economy==
] (1973) is one of two ]s in Istanbul which connect Europe and Asia.]]
{{Main|Economy of Turkey}}
{{See also|Tourism in Turkey}}
]


Turkey is an ]-income country and an ].<ref name=WorldBank_Overview_April_2024/><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2021/06/the-future-of-emerging-markets-duttagupta-and-pazarbasioglu.htm |last1=Duttagupta |first1=Rupa |last2=Pazarbasioglu |first2=Ceyla |title=Miles to Go: Emerging markets must balance overcoming the pandemic, returning to more normal policies, and rebuilding their economies | website =] |access-date =5 May 2024
In the early years of this century the chronically high inflation was brought under control and this led to the launch of a new currency, the ], on 1 January 2005, to cement the acquisition of the economic reforms and erase the vestiges of an unstable economy.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4137469.stm |title=Turkey knocks six zeros off lira|work=BBC|accessdate=2008-07-20|date=2004-12-31}}</ref> On 1 January 2009, the new Turkish lira was renamed once again as the ], with the introduction of ] and ]. As a result of continuing economic reforms, inflation dropped to 8% in 2005, and the unemployment rate to 10%.<ref name="WorldBank_TRStat">{{cite web|url=http://www.worldbank.org.tr/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/ECAEXT/TURKEYEXTN/0,,menuPK:361738~pagePK:141132~piPK:141109~theSitePK:361712,00.html |title=Data and Statistics for Turkey|author=World Bank|authorlink=World Bank|publisher=World Bank|accessdate=2006-12-10|year=2005}}</ref>
|url-status =live |archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20240505173301/https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2021/06/the-future-of-emerging-markets-duttagupta-and-pazarbasioglu.htm |archive-date =5 May 2024}}</ref> A founding member of the ] and ], it is the ] and the ] by ]-adjusted GDP in the world.<ref name=IMF_WEO_Body>{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2024/October/weo-report?c=512,914,612,171,614,311,213,911,314,193,122,912,313,419,513,316,913,124,339,638,514,218,963,616,223,516,918,748,618,624,522,622,156,626,628,228,924,233,632,636,634,238,662,960,423,935,128,611,321,243,248,469,253,642,643,939,734,644,819,172,132,646,648,915,134,652,174,328,258,656,654,336,263,268,532,944,176,534,536,429,433,178,436,136,343,158,439,916,664,826,542,967,443,917,544,941,446,666,668,672,946,137,546,674,676,548,556,678,181,867,682,684,273,868,921,948,943,686,688,518,728,836,558,138,196,278,692,694,962,142,449,564,565,283,853,288,293,566,964,182,359,453,968,922,714,862,135,716,456,722,942,718,724,576,936,961,813,726,199,733,184,524,361,362,364,732,366,144,146,463,528,923,738,578,537,742,866,369,744,186,925,869,746,926,466,112,111,298,927,846,299,582,487,474,754,698,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2022&ey=2029&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook Database |date=October 2024 |website=]}}</ref> It is classified among ]. ] account for the majority of GDP, whereas industry accounts for more than 30%.<ref name=World_Factbook_Economy/> Agriculture contributes about 7%.<ref name=World_Factbook_Economy/> According to ] estimates, Turkey's GDP per capita by PPP is $40,283 in 2024, while its nominal GDP per capita is $15,666.<ref name=IMF_WEO_Body/> ] in Turkey peaked at $22.05 billion in 2007 and dropped to $13.09 billion in 2022.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/BX.KLT.DINV.CD.WD?locations=TR|title=Foreign direct investment, net inflows (BoP, current US$) – Turkey|publisher=The World Bank|access-date=10 August 2021}}</ref> Potential growth is weakened by long-lasting structural and macro obstacles, such as slow rates of productivity growth and high inflation.<ref name=WorldBank_Overview_April_2024/>
] produced by ],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.togg.com.tr/|title=TOGG Official Website|publisher=togg.com.tr|access-date=3 April 2020}}</ref> a ] which manufactures ]s<ref name="Jay Ramey">{{cite web|url=https://www.autoweek.com/news/green-cars/a30355931/turkey-bets-on-evs-with-the-pininfarina-designed-togg/|title=Turkey Bets on EVs with the Pininfarina-Designed TOGG|author=Jay Ramey|publisher=autoweek.com|date=30 December 2019}}</ref><ref name="Togg-2022">{{cite web|url=https://www.trtworld.com/turkey/a-game-changer-t%C3%BCrkiye-inaugurates-its-first-national-car-plant-62068|title='A game changer': Türkiye inaugurates its first national car plant|publisher=]|date=30 October 2022}}</ref><ref name="insideevs">{{cite web|url=https://insideevs.com/news/620213/turkey-national-carmaker-togg-starts-production-2023-c-suv-ev/|title=Turkey's National Carmaker Togg Starts Production Of 2023 C SUV EV|website=insideevs.com|author=Dan Mihalascu|date=4 November 2022}}</ref>]]


Turkey has a diversified economy; main industries include automobiles, electronics, textiles, construction, steel, mining, and food processing.<ref name=World_Factbook_Economy>{{cite web| url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/turkey-turkiye/#economy| title=Turkey (Turkiye) - Economy| date=May 2024 |publisher=] |access-date=9 May 2024}}</ref> It is a ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fao.org/turkiye/fao-in-turkiye/turkey-at-a-glance/en/ |title=FAO in Türkiye &#124; Türkiye at a glance |website=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |access-date=17 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221220061208/https://www.fao.org/turkiye/fao-in-turkiye/turkey-at-a-glance/en/ |archive-date=20 December 2022}}</ref> Turkey ranks ], and ], ship building (by ]), and annual industrial robot installation in the world.<ref>
] has experienced rapid growth in the last twenty years, and constitutes an important part of the economy. In 2008 there were 31 million visitors to the country, who contributed $22 billion to Turkey's revenues.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.turkstat.gov.tr/PreHaberBultenleri.do?id=3993|title=Tourism Statistics in 2008|work=]|accessdate=2009-01-29|date=2009-01-29}}</ref> Other key sectors of the Turkish economy are banking, construction, home appliances, electronics, textiles, oil refining, petrochemical products, food, mining, iron and steel, machine industry and automotive. Turkey has a large and growing ], which produced 1,147,110 motor vehicles in 2008, ranking as the 6th largest producer in Europe (behind the ] and above ]) and the 15th largest producer in the world.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.ulasimonline.com/news_detail.php?id=8052&uniq_id=1246562801|title=Türkiye otomotiv sektöründe büyüyor|publisher=Ulaşım Online|date=2009-06-29|accessdate=2009-07-06}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://oica.net/category/production-statistics/ |title=2008 PRODUCTION STATISTICS |publisher=OICA |accessdate=2010-11-01}}</ref> Turkey is also one of the leading ] nations; in 2007 the country ranked 4th in the world (behind ], ] and ]) in terms of the number of ordered ships, and also 4th in the world (behind ], ] and ]) in terms of the number of ordered ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cataniainvestments.com/files/turkey/TURKISH_SHIP_BUILDING_INDUSTURY.pps |title=Turkish Shipbuilding Industry |publisher=Catania Investments |accessdate=2011-05-16}}</ref>
*{{cite web |url=https://worldsteel.org/data/annual-production-steel-data/?ind=P1_crude_steel_total_pub/CHN/IND | title=Total production of crude steel |website=The World Steel Association |date=22 March 2024 }}
*{{Cite web|title=2022 Production Statistics|url=https://www.oica.net/category/production-statistics/2022-statistics/|publisher=OICA|accessdate=18 April 2023|website=oica.net}}
*{{cite web |url=https://unctadstat.unctad.org/datacentre/dataviewer/US.ShipBuilding |title=Ships built by country of building, annual |date=8 November 2023 |publisher=] |access-date=9 May 2024}}
*{{cite web| url=https://www.marinedealnews.com/in-world-ranking-we-are-6th-based-on-the-number-of-pieces-and-13th-based-on-tonnage |title='In world ranking, we are 6th based on the number of pieces, and 13th based on tonnage' |date=15 June 2022 |access-date=9 May 2024}}
*{{cite web| url=https://ifr.org/wr-industrial-robots/ |title=World Robotics - Industrial Robots |website=The International Federation of Robotics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240521174431/https://ifr.org/wr-industrial-robots/ |archive-date=21 May 2024}}</ref> ] include ], ], ] and ]. Togg is the first all-electric vehicle company of Turkey. ], ], and ] are major manufacturers of consumer electronics.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.2139/ssrn.1274804 |title=Integration with the Global Economy: The Case of Turkish Automobile and Consumer Electronics Industries |date=2008 |last1=Taymaz |first1=Erol |last2=Yilmaz |first2=Kamil |hdl=10986/28034 |journal=SSRN|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Arçelik is one of the largest producers of household goods in the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ft.com/content/256a6a6c-e355-44d3-b8b7-a6cc90996d3a |title=Beko owner warns of 'very tough' 2024 for Europe's home appliance market |publisher=Financial Times |date=31 October 2023 |access-date=10 May 2024 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240509230916/https://www.ft.com/content/256a6a6c-e355-44d3-b8b7-a6cc90996d3a |archive-date=9 May 2024}}</ref> In 2022, Turkey ranked second in the world in terms of the number of international contractors in the top 250 list.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tmb.org.tr/files/doc/TCIM_01022023.pdf |title= Turkish International Contracting Services: (1972-2022) |website=Turkish Contractors Association |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240114161257/https://www.tmb.org.tr/files/doc/TCIM_01022023.pdf |archive-date=14 January 2024}}</ref> It is also the fifth largest in the world in terms of textile exports.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/migration/tr/Sectoral_Roadmaps_Textile_Sector_in_Turkey-re2.pdf |title=Sectoral Roadmaps: Textile Sector in Turkey |website=] |year=2020}}</ref> ] is one of the ].
]. ] is the fourth most visited city in the world.<ref name="euromonitor"/>]]


Between 2007 and 2021, the share of population below the PPP-$6.85 per day ] declined from 20% to 7.6%.<ref name=WorldBank_Overview_April_2024/> In 2023, 13.9% of the population was below the national at-risk-of-poverty rate.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=Poverty-and-Living-Conditions-Statistics-2023-53713&dil=2 | title=Poverty and Living Conditions Statistics, 2023 |publisher=] |website=www.tuik.gov.tr |date=30 January 2024 |access-date=5 May 2024}}</ref> In 2021, 34% of the population were at risk of poverty or social exclusion, using ] definition.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/ilc_peps01n/default/table?lang=en
] ] of the ].]]
|title=Persons at risk of poverty or social exclusion by age and sex
|date=2022
|publisher=]
|access-date=5 May 2024
|doi=10.2908/ILC_PEPS01N
|author1=Eurostat
}}</ref> Unemployment in Turkey was 10.4% in 2022.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Unemployment, total (% of total labor force) (national estimate) – Turkey {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.UEM.TOTL.NE.ZS?locations=TR|access-date=14 April 2021|website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref> In 2021, it was estimated that 47% of total disposable income was received by the top 20% of income earners, while the lowest 20% received only 6%.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=Income-and-Living-Conditions-Survey-2021-45581&dil=2|date=6 May 2022|title=Income and Living Conditions Survey, 2021|author-link=Turkish Statistical Institute|publisher=Turkish Statistical Institute|access-date=6 January 2023}}</ref>


Tourism accounts for about 8% of Turkey's GDP.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://wttc.org/news-article/turkeys-travel-and-tourism-sector-to-grow-at-twice-the-rate-of-the-national-economy |title=Turkey's Travel & Tourism Sector to Grow at Twice the Rate of the National Economy |website=] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240121043536/https://wttc.org/news-article/turkeys-travel-and-tourism-sector-to-grow-at-twice-the-rate-of-the-national-economy |archive-date=21 January 2024}}</ref> In 2022, Turkey ] in the number of international tourist arrivals with 50.5 million foreign tourists.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://webunwto.s3.eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/2023-05/UNWTO_Barom23_02_May_EXCERPT_final.pdf?VersionId=gGmuSXlwfM1yoemsRrBI9ZJf.Vmc9gYD |title=International Tourism – 2023 starts on a strong note with the Middle East recovering 2019 levels in the first quarter|website=UNWTO|access-date=25 August 2023}}</ref> Turkey has ] and ]. Turkey is home to 519 ], third most in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.blueflag.global/all-bf-sites|title=Blue Flag sites|website=Blue Flag}}</ref> According to ] report, Istanbul is the most visited city in the world, with more than 20.2 million foreign visitors in 2023.<ref name="euromonitor">{{cite web |title=2023's Top 100 City Destinations Ranking: Triumphs and Turmoil Uncovered |website=] |date=11 December 2023 |access-date=2 January 2024|url=https://www.euromonitor.com/article/2023s-top-100-city-destinations-ranking-triumphs-and-turmoil-uncovered}}</ref> Antalya has surpassed ] and ] to become the fourth most visited city in the world, with more than 16.5 million foreign visitors.<ref name="euromonitor"/>
Turkey's economy is becoming more dependent on industry in major cities, mostly concentrated in the western provinces of the country, and less on agriculture. However, traditional agriculture is still a major pillar of the Turkish economy. In 2010, the agricultural sector accounted for 9% of GDP, while the industrial sector accounted for 26% and the services sector 65%.<ref name="cia"/> However, agriculture still accounted for 24.7% of employment.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/enlargement/countries/turkey/profile_en.pdf |title=Turkey – Agriculture and Enlargement |format=PDF |accessdate=2011-12-09}}</ref> In 2004, it was estimated that 46% of total disposable income was received by the top of 20% income earners, while the lowest 20% received 6%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.die.gov.tr/ENGLISH/SONIST/GELIR/k_270206.xls|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20061014214703/http://www.die.gov.tr/ENGLISH/SONIST/GELIR/k_270206.xls|archivedate=2006-10-14|title=The result of Income Distribution|author=Turkish Statistical Institute|authorlink=Turkish Statistical Institute|publisher=Turkish Statistical Institute|accessdate=2006-12-11|date=2006-02-27}}</ref> According to ] data, Turkish PPS GDP per capita stood at 49% of the EU average in 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_PUBLIC/2-13122011-BP/EN/2-13122011-BP-EN.PDF|title=GDP per capita in PPS|publisher=Eurostat|accessdate=2011-12-13}}</ref>


===Infrastructure===
] is the ] airline of Turkey since 1933.]]
{{Main|Energy in Turkey|Renewable energy in Turkey|Transport in Turkey}}
{{See also|Communications in Turkey|Water supply and sanitation in Turkey}}
] in ] on the ]. In 2019, Turkey generated 29.2% of its electricity from ].<ref>{{harvnb|IEA|2021|p=187}}</ref>]]


Turkey is the ] in the world. ] capacity increased significantly, with ] tripling in the past decade.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/results/2019/04/12/30-years-of-world-bank-group-partnership-with-turkey-achieving-development-results-together |title=30 Years of World Bank Group Partnership with Turkey: Achieving Development Results Together |website=World Bank |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230508085807/https://www.worldbank.org/en/results/2019/04/12/30-years-of-world-bank-group-partnership-with-turkey-achieving-development-results-together |archive-date=8 May 2023}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|IEA|2021|p=3}}</ref> It produced 43.8% of ] from such sources in 2019.<ref>{{harvnb|IEA|2021|p=73}}</ref> Turkey is also the ] of ] in the world.<ref name="2019 Capacity">{{cite news|last=Richter|first=Alexander|url=https://www.thinkgeoenergy.com/the-top-10-geothermal-countries-2019-based-on-installed-generation-capacity-mwe/|title=The Top 10 Geothermal Countries 2019 – based on installed generation capacity (MWe)|publisher=Think GeoEnergy – Geothermal Energy News|date=27 January 2020|access-date=19 February 2021|archive-date=26 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126085813/https://www.thinkgeoenergy.com/the-top-10-geothermal-countries-2019-based-on-installed-generation-capacity-mwe/|url-status=live}}</ref> Turkey's first nuclear power station, ], will increase diversification of its energy mix.<ref name="IEA 2021">{{harvnb|IEA|2021|p=11}}</ref> When it comes to ], fossil fuels still play a large role, accounting for 73%.<ref>{{harvnb|IEA|2021|pp=18–19}}</ref> A major reason of ] is the ] in the energy system.<ref>{{harvnb|IEA|2021|p=172}}</ref> As of 2017, while the government had invested in low carbon energy transition, ].<ref>{{harvnb|Taranto|Saygın|2019|p=7}}</ref> By 2053, Turkey aims to have ].<ref name="World Bank Türkiye"/>
Turkey has taken advantage of the ], signed in 1995, to increase its industrial production destined for exports, while at the same time benefiting from EU-origin foreign investment into the country. Turkey now has also opportunity of a free trade agreement with the European Union (EU) – without full membership – that allows it to manufacture for tarif-free sale throughout the EU market.<ref>{{cite web|last=Morning |first=Money |url=http://www.europeanbusiness.gr/page.asp?pid=829 |title=The CIVETS: Windfall Wealth From the ′New′ BRIC Economies |publisher=Europeanbusiness.gr |date=2010-07-14 |accessdate=2011-05-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2006/05/03/000016406_20060503112446/Rendered/PDF/wps3908.pdf |format=PDF|title=Turkey's evolving trade integration into Pan-European markets|author=Bartolomiej Kaminski|coauthors=Francis Ng|publisher=World Bank|accessdate=2006-12-27|date=2006-05-01}}</ref>


] has an annual passenger capacity of 90 million and is the ].]]
By 2009 exports were $110 bn and in 2010 it was $117 bn (main export partners in 2009: Germany 10%, France 6%, UK 6%, Italy 6%, Iraq 5%). However larger imports, which amounted to $166 billion in 2010, threatened the balance of trade (main import partners in 2009: Russia 14%, Germany 10%, China 9%, US 6%, Italy 5%, France 5%).<ref name="cia"/>
Turkey has made security of its energy supply a top priority, given its heavy reliance on gas and oil imports.<ref name="IEA 2021"/> Turkey's main energy supply sources are ], West Asia, and Central Asia.<ref name="Martin 2012 234–235"/> ] began in 2023 in the recently discovered ]. When fully operational, it will supply about 30% of the natural gas needed domestically.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.offshore-technology.com/news/tpao-production-sakarya/ |title=Turkey's TPAO begins gas production from Sakarya field in Black Sea |date=21 April 2023 |url-status=live |archive-date=10 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240310035925/https://www.offshore-technology.com/news/tpao-production-sakarya/}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.offshore-technology.com/projects/sakarya-gas-field-development-black-sea-turkey/ |title=Sakarya Gas Field Development, Black Sea, Turkey |date=1 February 2023}}</ref> Turkey aims to become a hub for regional energy transportation.<ref name="Novikau_Muhasilović_2023">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e21535|doi-access=free |title=Turkey's quest to become a regional energy hub: Challenges and opportunities |date=2023 |last1=Novikau |first1=Aliaksandr |last2=Muhasilović |first2=Jahja |journal=Heliyon |volume=9 |issue=11 |pages=e21535 |pmid=38027852 |pmc=10660518 |bibcode=2023Heliy...921535N }}</ref> Several oil and gas pipelines span the country, including the ], ], and ] pipelines.<ref name="Novikau_Muhasilović_2023"/>


As of 2023, Turkey has 3,726 kilometers of ] and 29,373 kilometers of ].<ref>{{harvnb|KGM|2023|pp=12, 14}}</ref> Multiple bridges and tunnels connect Asian and European sides of Turkey; the ] on the ] strait is the ].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/60823822 |title=Turkey opens record breaking 1915 Canakkale Bridge |newspaper=BBC Newsround |date=22 March 2022 |url-status=live |archive-date=27 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220327010256/https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/60823822}}</ref> ] and ] tunnels under the ] connect both sides of Istanbul.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aa.com.tr/en/economy/istanbuls-13bn-eurasia-tunnel-prepares-to-open/709440|title=Istanbul's $1.3BN Eurasia Tunnel prepares to open|publisher=]|date=19 December 2016}}</ref> The ] connects the northern and southern shores of the ].
After years of low levels of ] (FDI), Turkey succeeded in attracting $22 billion in FDI in 2007 and is expected to attract a higher figure in following years.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/ekonomi/8280578.asp?gid=196&sz=40655|title=Yabancı sermayede rekor|work=]|accessdate=2008-02-21|year=2008}}</ref> A series of large privatisations, the stability fostered by the start of ], strong and stable growth, and structural changes in the banking, retail, and telecommunications sectors have all contributed to a rise in foreign investment.<ref name="TR_Eco" /> In 2012, ] upgraded Turkey's credit rating to ] after an 18 year gap.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/11/05/turkey-fitch-rating-idUSL5E8M56DZ20121105 |title=UPDATE 4-Turkey regains investment grade rating after long wait |publisher=Reuters |date= |accessdate=2012-11-17}}</ref>


] operates both conventional and high speed trains, with the government expanding both.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.trthaber.com/haber/ekonomi/turkiye-cumhuriyetin-100-yilinda-hizli-tren-aglariyla-oruluyor-806423.html |title=Türkiye, Cumhuriyet'in 100. Yılında hızlı tren ağlarıyla örülüyor |website=TRT Haber |date=25 October 2023 |url-status=live |archive-date=3 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231103231440/https://www.trthaber.com/haber/ekonomi/turkiye-cumhuriyetin-100-yilinda-hizli-tren-aglariyla-oruluyor-806423.html}}</ref> ] lines include the ], ], and ] routes.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tcddtasimacilik.gov.tr/seferler/yuksek-hizli-tren |title=Yüksek Hızlı Tren |website=TCDD Taşımacılık |access-date=14 May 2024}}</ref> ] is the largest subway network in the country with around 704 million annual ridership in 2019.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.metro.istanbul/Content/assets/uploaded/Y%C4%B1llara-G%C3%B6re-Hat-Bazl%C4%B1-Ayl%C4%B1k-Yolcu-Say%C4%B1lar%C4%B1.pdf |title=Istanbul Metro Passenger Statistics |newspaper=Istanbul Metro |language=tr |date=6 January 2020 |access-date=16 January 2020 |archive-date=27 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727060224/https://www.metro.istanbul/Content/assets/uploaded/Y%C4%B1llara-G%C3%B6re-Hat-Bazl%C4%B1-Ayl%C4%B1k-Yolcu-Say%C4%B1lar%C4%B1.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> There are ] as of 2024.<ref name=CIA_transport>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/turkey-turkiye/#transportation |title=Turkey (Turkiye) |work=] |publisher=] |access-date=14 May 2024}}</ref> ] is one of the ] in the world. Turkey aims to become a transportation hub.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-is-advancing-on-path-to-becoming-logistics-super-power-erdogan-172956 |title=Erdoğan reveals 2053 'Transport and Logistics Master Plan' |date=13 April 2022 |website=]}}</ref><ref name="Atlı_2018">{{cite journal |last1=Atlı |first1=Altay |year=2018 |title=Turkey as a Eurasian Transport Hub: Prospects for Inter-Regional Partnership |url=https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/perception/issue/39593/468106 |journal=PERCEPTIONS: Journal of International Affairs |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=117–134}}</ref> It is part of various routes that connect Asia and Europe, including ].<ref name="Atlı_2018"/> In 2024, Turkey, Iraq, UAE, and Qatar signed an agreement to link Iraqi port facilities to Turkey via road and rail connections.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/iraq-turkey-qatar-uae-sign-preliminary-deal-cooperate-development-road-project-2024-04-22/ |title=Iraq, Turkey, Qatar, UAE sign preliminary deal to cooperate on Development Road project |website=Reuters |date=22 April 2024}}</ref>
==Demographics==
{{Main|Demographics of Turkey|Turkish people|Minorities in Turkey}}


===Science and technology===
] in Istanbul's cosmopolitan ] district.]]
{{Main|Science and technology in Turkey}}
{{See also|Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey}}
], ] and ] are the ]s of the ], while state-owned ] operates the ] of ]s.]]
Turkey's spending on ] as a share of GDP has risen from 0.47% in 2000 to 1.40% in 2021.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.oecd.org/rd/gross-domestic-spending-on-r-d.htm |doi=10.1787/d8b068b4-en |author=OECD |title=Gross domestic spending on R&D (indicator) |year=2024 |access-date=16 May 2024}}</ref> ] in terms of article output in scientific and technical journals, and 35th in ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/IP.JRN.ARTC.SC?most_recent_value_desc=true | title=Scientific and technical journal articles |website=The World Bank |access-date=15 May 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nature.com/nature-index/country-outputs/generate/all/global |title=Nature Index &#124; Country/Territory tables |website=] |access-date=15 May 2024}}</ref> Turkish patent office ranks 21st worldwide in overall patent applications, and 3rd in industrial design applications. Vast majority of applicants to the Turkish patent office are Turkish residents. In all patent offices globally, ].<ref name="WIPO_Türkiye">{{Cite web |ref={{harvid|WIPO Intellectual property statistical country profile 2022: Türkiye|2023}} |author=World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) |year=2023 |title=Intellectual property statistical country profile 2022: Türkiye |url=https://www.wipo.int/edocs/statistics-country-profile/en/tr.pdf |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328212456/https://www.wipo.int/edocs/statistics-country-profile/en/tr.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2024, Turkey ranked 37th in the world and 3rd among its upper-middle income group in the ].<ref>{{harvnb|World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)|2024|p=18}}</ref>


] is one of the main agencies for funding and carrying out research.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://tubitak.gov.tr/en/institutional/about-us/who-we-are |title=Who we are |publisher=TÜBİTAK |access-date=15 May 2024}}</ref><ref name="euraxess_Türkiye">{{cite web |url=https://euraxess.ec.europa.eu/worldwide/north-america/news/country-profile-turkiye |title=EURAXESS &#124; Country profile: Türkiye |website=The European Union |date=4 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240419174635/https://euraxess.ec.europa.eu/worldwide/north-america/news/country-profile-turkiye |archive-date=19 April 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref> ] plans to develop a ], and to improve capabilities in space exploration, astronomy, and satellite communication.<ref name="euraxess_Türkiye"/> Under the ] Program, ] was built.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1109/RAST.2015.7208318 |last1=Uygur |first1=A. B. |last2=Haktanir |first2=O. O. |last3=Yılmaz |first3=F. |last4=Işik |first4=H. G. |last5=Aşansü |first5= Z. |chapter=Turkey's new Assembly, Integration and Test (AIT) center and its comparison with AIT centers in Europe |pages=71–74 |isbn=978-1-4673-7760-7 |year=2015 |title=2015 7th International Conference on Recent Advances in Space Technologies (RAST)}}</ref> Turkey's first communication satellite manufactured domestically, ], will be launched in 2024.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/production-process-of-turksat-6a-completed-minister-192933 |title=Production process of Türksat-6A completed: Minister |website=Hürriyet Daily News |date=29 April 2024 }}</ref> As part of a planned ] center, an electron accelerator called TARLA became operational in 2024.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1088/1742-6596/347/1/012008 |title=The status and road map of Turkish Accelerator Center (TAC) |date=2012 |last1=Yavaş |first1=Ö. |journal=Journal of Physics: Conference Series |volume=347 |issue=1 |page=012008 |bibcode=2012JPhCS.347a2008Y |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.trthaber.com/haber/bilim-teknoloji/yerli-super-iletken-elektron-hizlandiricisi-devreye-alindi-856187.html |title=Yerli süper iletken elektron hızlandırıcısı devreye alındı |date=8 May 2024 |website=TRT Haber |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240511083602/https://www.trthaber.com/haber/bilim-teknoloji/yerli-super-iletken-elektron-hizlandiricisi-devreye-alindi-856187.html |archive-date=11 May 2024}}</ref> ] is planned on ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://polarjournal.ch/en/2021/02/25/turkey-plans-its-own-antarctic-station/|title=Turkey plans its own Antarctic station|access-date=3 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231101134048/https://polarjournal.ch/en/2021/02/25/turkey-plans-its-own-antarctic-station/ |archive-date=1 November 2023}}</ref>
{{Historical populations
|title = Historical populations
|source =
|1930 |14440000
|1940 |17821000
|1950 |20947000
|1960 |27755000
|1970 |35605000
|1980 |44737000
|1990 |56473000
|2000 |67804000
|2011 |74862000
}}


Turkey is considered a significant power in ]s.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/14751798.2022.2068562 |title=Turkey's rise as a drone power: Trial by fire |date=2022 |last1=Rossiter |first1=Ash |last2=Cannon |first2=Brendon J. |journal=Defense & Security Analysis |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=210–229 }}</ref> ], ], ], and Asfat are among the top 100 defense companies in the world.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/turkiye/turkiyes-4-defense-firms-included-in-worlds-top-100-list/2963037 |title=Türkiye's 4 defense firms included in world's top 100 list |website=Anadolu Ajansı |date=7 August 2023}}</ref> Turkish defense companies spend a significant portion of their budgets for research and development.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/science-technology/turkish-defense-giants-devote-huge-budgets-to-rd/2417345 |website=Anadolu Ajansı |title=Turkish defense giants devote huge budgets to R&D |date=10 November 2021}}</ref> Aselsan also invests in research in ].<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/bilim-teknoloji/aselsanin-kuantum-calismalarinda-ilk-urunler-ortaya-cikti/3093412| title=ASELSAN'ın kuantum çalışmalarında ilk ürünler ortaya çıktı |date=27 December 2023 |website=]}}</ref>
The last official census was in 2000 and recorded a total country population of 67,803,927 inhabitants.<ref name=2000trcensus>{{cite web|url=http://www.citypopulation.de/Turkey-C20.html |title=2000 census |publisher=Citypopulation.de }}</ref> According to the ''Address-Based Population Recording System'' of Turkey, the country's population was 74.7 million people in 2011,<ref name=2011stat>{{cite web|url=http://www.turkstat.gov.tr/PreHaberBultenleri.do?id=10736 |title=Turkish Statistical Institute |publisher=Turkstat.gov.tr |accessdate=2012-02-15}}</ref> nearly three-quarters of whom lived in ]. According to the 2011 estimate, the population is increasing by 1.35% each year. Turkey has an average population density of 97 people per km². People within the 15–64 ] constitute 67.4% of the total population; the 0–14 age group corresponds to 25.3%; while senior citizens aged 65 years or older make up 7.3%.<ref>{{cite web|author=Turkish Statistical Institute|authorlink=Turkish Statistical Institute|publisher=Turkish Statistical Institute|url=http://www.turkstat.gov.tr/PreHaberBultenleri.do?id=6178|title=Population statistics in 2009|accessdate=2010-01-28|year=2010}}</ref> In 1927, when the first official census was recorded in the Republic of Turkey, the population was 13.6 million.<ref>"". ].</ref>


==Demographics==
] stands at 71.1 years for men and 75.3 years for women, with an overall average of 73.2 years for the populace as a whole.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nkg.die.gov.tr/en/goster.asp?aile=1|title=Population and Development Indicators – Population and Demography|author=Turkish Statistical Institute|authorlink=Turkish Statistical Institute|publisher=Turkish Statistical Institute|accessdate=2010-01-28|date=2004-10-18}}</ref> Education is compulsory and free from ages 6 to 15. The literacy rate was 94.1% in 2010.<ref>http://rapor.tuik.gov.tr/reports/rwservlet?adnksdb2&ENVID=adnksdb2Env&report=wa_turkiye_cinsiyet_yas_egitim_top.RDF&p_xkod=okuryazar_kod&p_yas=15&p_yil=2011&p_dil=1&desformat=html</ref>
{{Main|Demographics of Turkey}}
{{see also|Turkish people}}
] is Turkey's largest city,<ref name="2021stat">{{cite web |date=6 February 2023 |title=The Results of Address Based Population Registration System, 2022 |url=https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=The-Results-of-Address-Based-Population-Registration-System-2022-49685&dil=2 |access-date=22 May 2023 |publisher=Turkish Statistical Institute}}</ref> and its economic and financial center.]]


According to the ''Address-Based Population Recording System'', the country's population was 85,372,377 in 2023, excluding Syrians under temporary protection.<ref name="Population of Turkey"/> 93% lived in ].<ref name="Population of Turkey"/> People within the 15–64 and 0–14 age groups corresponded to 68.3% and 21.4% of the total population, respectively. Those aged 65 years or older made up 10.2%.<ref name="Population of Turkey"/> Between 1950 and 2020, Turkey's population more than quadrupled from 20.9 million to 83.6 million;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.turkstat.gov.tr/PreTablo.do?tb_id=39&ust_id=11 |title=Population Statistics And Projections |publisher=Turkstat.gov.tr |access-date=24 July 2023}}</ref> however, the population growth rate was 0.1% in 2023.<ref name="Population of Turkey"/> In 2023, the ] was 1.51 children per woman, ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=Birth-Statistics-2023-53708 |title=Birth Statistics, 2023 |publisher=] |website=www.tuik.gov.tr |date=15 May 2024 |access-date=19 May 2024}}</ref> In a 2018 health survey, the ideal children number was 2.8 children per woman, rising to 3 per married woman.<ref>{{harvnb|Hacettepe University Institute of Population Studies|2019|p=72}}</ref>
Article 66 of the ] defines a "Turk" as "anyone who is bound to the Turkish state through the bond of citizenship"; therefore, the legal use of the term "Turkish" as a ] of Turkey is different from the ] definition. However, the majority of the Turkish population are of ]. They are estimated at 70–75% by the ].<ref name="cia"/>


===Ethnicity and language===
{{bar box
{{see also|Turkish people|Minorities in Turkey|Languages of Turkey|Turkish language}}
| title=Ethnic groups in Turkey (])<ref name="cia"/>
] by region<ref name=KONDAkurd>{{cite web|title=Kürt Meselesi̇ni̇ Yeni̇den Düşünmek|url=http://www.konda.com.tr/tr/raporlar/2010_12_KONDA_Kurt_Meselesini_Yeniden_Dusunmek.pdf|publisher=KONDA|access-date=11 June 2013|pages=19–20|date=July 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160122110447/http://www.konda.com.tr/tr/raporlar/2010_12_KONDA_Kurt_Meselesini_Yeniden_Dusunmek.pdf|archive-date=22 January 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>]]
| titlebar=#ddd
Article 66 of the ] defines a ''Turk'' as anyone who is a citizen.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bayir|first=Derya|title=Minorities and Nationalism in Turkish Law|date=22 April 2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-09579-8|pages=144–145}}</ref> It is estimated that there are at least 47 ethnic groups represented in Turkey.<ref name=mutlu>{{cite journal |doi=10.1017/S0020743800063819 |title=Ethnic Kurds in Turkey: A Demographic Study |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=517–541 |year=1996 |last1=Mutlu |first1=Servet |s2cid=154212694}}</ref> Reliable data on the ethnic mix of the population is not available because census figures do not include statistics on ethnicity after the ].<ref name="Turkey_Ethnic_groups">{{Cite book|title=The other languages of Europe: Demographic, Sociolinguistic and Educational Perspectives|first=Guus|last=Extra|author2=Gorter, Durk |publisher=Multilingual Matters|year=2001|isbn=978-1-85359-509-7|url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=hvmy_skUPNYC |page=RA1-PA422}}}}</ref> According to ], 70–75% of the country's citizens are ethnic Turks.<ref name="cia"/> Based on a survey, ]'s estimation was 76% in 2006, with 78% of adult citizens self-identifying their ethnic background as ''Turk''.<ref name="KONDA 2006 17">{{harvnb|KONDA|2006|p=17}}</ref> In 2021, 77% of adult citizens identified as such in a survey.<ref name=Konda_100>{{cite web |url=https://interaktif.konda.com.tr/rapor/if-turkey-were-100-people/10 |title=If Turkey Had 100 People |website=] |access-date=7 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240307190745/https://interaktif.konda.com.tr/rapor/if-turkey-were-100-people/10 |archive-date=7 March 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref>
| left1='''Ethnic groups'''
| right1='''Percent'''
| float=left
| bars=
{{bar percent|]|red|72.5|70–75%}}
{{bar percent|]|green|18}}
{{bar percent|Others|blue|9.5|7–12%}}
}}
The three officially recognized major minorities ethnic groups (per the ]) are ], ] and ]. Signed on 30 January 1923, a bilateral accord of ] took effect in the 1920s, with close to 1.1 million ] moving from Turkey and some 380,000 Turks coming from Greece.<ref name="Clogg"/> Following decades of state-sponsored discrimination, the formerly 110,000-strong Greek community of Istanbul has now shrunk to approximately 3,000.<ref name="minorities">Roudometof, Victor; Robertson, Roland (2001). ''. ], Connecticut: ]. p. 186. ISBN 978-0-313-31949-5.</ref><ref name="Alexandris">Alexis Alexandris, "The Identity Issue of The Minorities In Greece An Turkey", in Hirschon, Renée (ed.), ''Crossing the Aegean: An Appraisal of the 1923 Compulsory Population Exchange Between Greece and Turkey'', Berghahn Books, 2003, </ref> Other ethnic groups include ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] (]), ].


] are the largest ethnic minority.<ref name="Kirişci 1997 119–121">{{harvnb|Kirişci|Winrow|1997|pp=119–121}}</ref> Their exact numbers remain disputed,<ref name="Kirişci 1997 119–121"/> with estimates ranging from 12 to 20% of the population.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = Cambridge University Press| isbn = 978-1-139-45236-6| last = Migdal| first = Joel S.| title = Boundaries and Belonging: States and Societies in the Struggle to Shape Identities and Local Practices|year=2004|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pbmTC-Nm8nEC&pg=PA129 |page=129}}</ref> According to a 1990 study, Kurds made up around 12% of the population.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = Cambridge University Press| isbn = 978-1-139-85169-5| last = Aktürk| first = Şener| title = Regimes of Ethnicity and Nationhood in Germany, Russia, and Turkey| date = 12 November 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YAUhAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA126}}</ref> The Kurds make up a majority in the provinces of ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ]; a near majority in ] (47%); and a large minority in ] (20%).<ref>{{cite book|last=Watts|first=Nicole F.|title=Activists in Office: Kurdish Politics and Protest in Turkey (Studies in Modernity and National Identity)|date=2010|publisher=University of Washington Press|isbn=978-0-295-99050-7|page=}}</ref> In addition, internal migration has resulted in ] communities in all of the major cities in central and western Turkey. In Istanbul, there are an estimated three million Kurds, making it the city with the largest Kurdish population in the world.<ref name="Nachmani2003">{{cite book|author=Amikam Nachmani|title=Turkey: Facing a New Millenniium: Coping With Intertwined Conflicts|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xxp61eBvGzMC&pg=PA90|access-date=5 May 2013|year=2003|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=978-0-7190-6370-1|pages=90–}}</ref> 19% of adult citizens identified as ethnic Kurds in a survey in 2021.<ref name=Konda_100/> Some people have multiple ethnic identities, such as both Turk and Kurd.<ref>{{harvnb|Kirişci|Winrow|1997|p=3}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Heper|2007|p=54}}</ref> In 2006, an estimated 2.7 million ethnic Turks and Kurds were related from interethnic marriages.<ref>{{harvnb|KONDA|2006|p=18}}</ref>
The ], a distinct ethnic group concentrated mainly in the southeastern provinces of the country, are the largest non-Turkic ethnicity, variously estimated around 18%.<ref name="cia"/> Minorities besides the Kurds are though to make up an estimated 7–12% of the population.<ref name="cia"/> Minorities other than the three officially recognized ones do not have specific minority rights, while the term "]" itself remains a sensitive issue in Turkey and the Government of Turkey is frequently being criticized for its treatment of minorities,<ref>Nurcan Kaya and Clive Baldwin (July 2004), {{PDFlink|1=|2=299&nbsp;KB}} Submission to the European Union and the Government of Turkey, Minority Rights Group International</ref> with ] stating as of 2012: "The government's 'democratic opening', announced in the summer of 2009 to address the minority rights of the Kurds in Turkey, did not progress."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hrw.org/world-report-2012/world-report-2012-turkey |title=World Report 2012: Turkey |author=]|accessdate=20 September 2012}}</ref>


According to the World Factbook, non-Kurdish ethnic minorities are 7–12% of the population.<ref name="cia"/> In 2006, KONDA estimated that non-Kurdish and non-Zaza ethnic minorities constituted 8.2% of the population; these were people that gave general descriptions such as Turkish citizen, people with ], ], and others.<ref name="KONDA 2006 17"/> In 2021, 4% of adult citizens identified as non-ethnic Turk or non-ethnic Kurd in a survey.<ref name=Konda_100/> According to the Constitutional Court, there are only four officially recognized ]: the three non-Muslim minorities recognized in the ] (], ], and ]{{efn|Even though they are not explicitly mentioned in the Treaty of Lausanne.<ref name="Bayır2013"/>}}) and the ].{{efn|The ] is now so small that this disposition is ''de facto'' not applied.<ref name="Bayır2013">{{Cite book |last=Bayır |first=Derya |title=Minorities and nationalism in Turkish law |date=2013 |publisher=] |isbn=978-1-4094-7254-4 |series=Cultural Diversity and Law|url=https://www.academia.edu/37557239| pages=88–90, 203–204}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Köksal |first=Yonca |date=2006 |title=Minority Policies in Bulgaria and Turkey: The Struggle to Define a Nation |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14683850601016390 |journal=Southeast European and Black Sea Studies|volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=501–521 |doi=10.1080/14683850601016390 |s2cid=153761516 |issn=1468-3857}}</ref><ref name=Özlem2019>{{Cite journal |first=Kader |last=Özlem |date=2019 |title=An Evaluation on Istanbul's Bulgarians as the "Invisible Minority" of Turkey |url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=802933 |journal=Turan-Sam|volume=11 |issue=43 |pages=387–393 |issn=1308-8041}}</ref>}}<ref name="Toktaş2009">{{Cite journal |last1=Toktaş |first1=Şule |last2=Araş |first2=Bulent |date=2009 |title=The EU and Minority Rights in Turkey |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25655744 |journal=Political Science Quarterly |volume=124 |issue=4 |pages=697–720 |doi=10.1002/j.1538-165X.2009.tb00664.x |jstor=25655744 |issn=0032-3195}}</ref><ref name="Yağmur2001">{{Citation |last=Yağmur |first=Kutlay |title=Turkish and other languages in Turkey |date=2001 |url=https://research.tilburguniversity.edu/en/publications/turkish-and-other-languages-in-turkey |work=The Other Languages of Europe |pages=407–427 |editor-last=Extra |editor-first=G. |access-date=6 October 2023 |place=Clevedon |publisher=Multilingual Matters |isbn=978-1-85359-510-3 |editor2-last=Gorter |editor2-first=D.|quote="Mother tongue" education is mostly limited to Turkish teaching in Turkey. No other language can be taught as a mother tongue other than Armenian, Greek, and Hebrew, as agreed in the Lausanne Treaty Like Jews and Greeks, Armenians enjoy the privilege of an officially recognized minority status. No language other than Turkish can be taught at schools or at cultural centers. Only Armenian, Greek, and Hebrew are exceptions to this constitutional rule.}}</ref><ref name=Zetler2014>{{cite journal|first=Reyhan|last= Zetler|url=https://www.sagw.ch/fileadmin/redaktion_judaistik/dokumente/Judaistik/2014/III.%20R.%20Zetler%20-%20Bulletin%20SGJF%20Nr.%2023%20%282014%29.pdf |title=Turkish Jews between 1923 and 1933 – What Did the Turkish Policy between 1923 and 1933 Mean for the Turkish Jews?|journal=Bulletin der Schweizerischen Gesellschaft für Judaistische Forschung|issue= 23 |oclc=865002828|page=26|year=2014}}</ref> In 2013, the Ankara 13th Circuit Administrative Court ruled that the minority provisions of the Lausanne Treaty should also apply to ] and the ].<ref>Ankara 13th Circuit Administrative Court, 18 June 2013 (E. 2012/1746, K. 2013/952).</ref><ref name=Akbulut2023>{{Cite journal |last=Akbulut |first=Olgun |date=19 October 2023 |title=For Centenary of the Lausanne Treaty: Re-Interpretation and Re-Implementation of Linguistic Minority Rights of Lausanne |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/ijgr/aop/article-10.1163-15718115-bja10134/article-10.1163-15718115-bja10134.xml |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=-1 |issue=aop |pages=1–24 |doi=10.1163/15718115-bja10134 |s2cid=264412993 |issn=1385-4879}}</ref><ref name=Erdem2021>{{Cite journal |last1=Erdem |first1=Fazıl Hüsnü |last2=Öngüç |first2=Bahar |date=30 June 2021 |title=Süryanıce Anadılınde Eğıtım Hakki: Sorunlar Ve Çözüm Önerılerı |url=https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/duhfd/issue/63313/959939 |journal=Dicle Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi |language=tr |volume=26 |issue=44 |pages=3–35 |issn=1300-2929}}</ref> Other unrecognized ethnic groups include ], ], ], ], ], ], and ].<ref name="Roopnarine2015">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ffpPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA328 |title=Fathers Across Cultures: The Importance, Roles, and Diverse Practices of Dads: The Importance, Roles, and Diverse Practices of Dads|author=Jaipaul L. Roopnarine|year=2015|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-4408-3232-1|page=328|quote=Kurds are the largest ethnic minority group (about 20%), and Armenians, Greeks, Sephardic Jews,...}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.alaraby.co.uk/english/politics/2015/6/8/turkeys-ethnic-make-up-a-complex-melting-pot|title=Turkey's ethnic make-up: A complex melting pot|first=Abubakr|last=al-Shamahi|website=alaraby|date=8 June 2015 |access-date=3 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107013139/https://www.alaraby.co.uk/english/politics/2015/6/8/turkeys-ethnic-make-up-a-complex-melting-pot|archive-date=7 November 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-ethnic-groups-of-turkey.html|title=The Ethnic Groups Of Turkey|website=WorldAtlas|date=18 July 2019}}</ref>
Minorities of ] origin include the ] (or '']er'', mostly of ], ] and ] descent) who have been present in the country (particularly in ]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://arsiv.ntvmsnbc.com/news/458504.asp |title=NTV-MSNBC: "Giovanni Scognamillo ile sinema üzerine" |publisher=Arsiv.ntvmsnbc.com |accessdate=2010-11-01}}</ref> and ]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://arsiv.sabah.com.tr/2005/10/04/cp/gnc118-20051002-102.html |title=Sabah daily newspaper: "Onlar İzmirli Hristiyan Türkler" |publisher=Arsiv.sabah.com.tr |accessdate=2010-11-01}}</ref>) since the ].


]]]
Reliable data on the ethnic mix of the population is not available, because Turkish census figures do not include statistics on ethnicity.<ref name="Turkey_Ethnic_groups">{{Cite book|title=The other languages of Europe: Demographic, Sociolinguistic and Educational Perspectives|first=Guus|last=Extra|coauthors=Gorter, Durk|publisher=Multilingual Matters|year=2001|isbn=1-85359-509-8|url=http://books.google.com/?id=hvmy_skUPNYC&pg=RA1-PA422&lpg=RA1-PA422&dq=%22ethnic+groups+in+turkey%22}}</ref>
The ] is ], which is the most widely spoken ] in the world.<ref name=katzner>{{cite book|last=Katzner|first=Kenneth|author-link=Kenneth Katzner|title=Languages of the World, Third Edition|publisher=Routledge|date=2002|isbn=978-0-415-25004-7}}</ref><ref name=minorityrights.org>{{cite web|title=Turkey Overview |date=19 June 2015 |url=http://minorityrights.org/4387/turkey/turkey-overview.html |publisher=minorityrights.org |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150909185440/http://www.minorityrights.org/4387/turkey/turkey-overview.html |archive-date= 9 September 2015}}</ref> It is spoken by 85%<ref name="KONDA 2006 19">{{harvnb|KONDA|2006|p=19}}</ref><ref name=milliyet-languages>{{cite web|url=http://www.milliyet.com.tr/2007/03/22/guncel/agun.html |title=Türkiye'nin yüzde 85'i 'anadilim Türkçe' diyor|publisher=Milliyet.com.tr|access-date=4 November 2012}}</ref> to 90%<ref name="Kornfilt 2018 537">{{harvnb|Kornfilt|2018|p=537}}</ref> of the population as a ]. Kurdish speakers are the largest linguistic minority.<ref name="Kornfilt 2018 537"/> A survey estimated 13% of the population speak Kurdish or Zaza as a first language.<ref name="KONDA 2006 19"/> Other minority languages include Arabic, ], and ].<ref name="Kornfilt 2018 537"/> The ] of the officially recognized minorities are ''de jure'' recognized and protected for ], ], ], ],{{efn|The Turkish government considers that, for the purpose of the Treaty of Lausanne, the language of ] is ], even though the mother tongue of Turkish Jews was not Hebrew but historically ] (Ladino) or other ].<ref name="Yağmur2001"/><ref name=Zetler2014/>}}<ref name="Bayır2013"/><ref name="Toktaş2009"/><ref name="Yağmur2001"/><ref name=Zetler2014/> and ].<ref name=Akbulut2023/><ref name=Erdem2021/> There are multiple ].


{{Largest cities in Turkey|class=info}}
An estimated 71% of the population live in urban centers.<ref>{{cite web|author=Turkish Statistical Institute|publisher=Turkish Statistical Institute|url=http://www.turkstat.gov.tr/PreHaberBultenleri.do?id=3894 |title=Population statistics in 2007,population living in cities |accessdate=2008-01-21|year=2008}}</ref> In all, 18 provinces have populations that exceed 1 million inhabitants, and 21 provinces have populations between 1 million and 500,000 inhabitants. Only two provinces have populations less than 100,000.
{{-}}
{{Largest cities in Turkey}}


===Language=== ===Immigration===
{{Main|Languages of Turkey}} {{Main|Immigration to Turkey}}
Excluding Syrians under temporary protection, there were 1,570,543 foreign citizens in Turkey in 2023.<ref name="Population of Turkey"/> Millions of Kurds fled across the mountains to Turkey and the Kurdish areas of Iran during the ] in 1991. ] in the 2010s and early 2020s resulted in the influx of millions of refugees and immigrants.<ref name=esa.un.org>{{cite web|title=Trends in International Migrant Stock: The 2013 Revision|url=http://esa.un.org/unmigration/migrantstocks2013.htm?mtotals|website=esa.un.org|publisher=United Nations|access-date=14 August 2014|archive-date=10 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151210154150/http://esa.un.org/unmigration/migrantstocks2013.htm?mtotals|url-status=dead}}</ref> Turkey hosts the largest number of refugees in the world as of April 2020.<ref name="unhcr-syrian-refugees">{{Cite web |title=Syria Regional Refugee Response: Turkey |url=https://data2.unhcr.org/en/situations/syria/location/113 |access-date=21 April 2020 |publisher=unhcr.org}}</ref> The ] manages the refugee crisis in Turkey. Before the start of the ] in 2011, the estimated number of ] varied from 1 million to more than 2 million.<ref>{{cite web |author=Luke Coffey |date=18 February 2016 |title=Turkey's demographic challenge |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2016/02/turkey-demographic-challenge-arabs-syria-refugees-isis-160218063810080.html |publisher=www.aljazeera.com}}</ref>


In November 2020, there were 3.6 million ] in Turkey;<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.unhcr.org/en/documents/details/83698 |title=UNHCR Turkey Operational Update November 2020 |date=15 December 2020 |website=UNHCR |access-date=10 March 2024 }}</ref> these included other ], such as ]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.unhcr.org/news/stories/number-syrian-kurds-fleeing-turkey-nears-140000-humanitarian-needs-mount |title=Number of Syrian Kurds fleeing to Turkey nears 140,000; humanitarian needs mount |date=23 September 2014 |website=UNHCR |access-date=10 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231027202735/https://www.unhcr.org/news/stories/number-syrian-kurds-fleeing-turkey-nears-140000-humanitarian-needs-mount |archive-date=27 October 2023}}</ref> and ]s.<ref>{{cite news |last=Pamuk |first=Humeyra |date=29 January 2016 |title=Syrian Turkmens cross to Turkey, fleeing advances of pro-Assad forces |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-turkmens-idUSKCN0V720O/ |work=Reuters |access-date=10 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230715213553/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-turkmens-idUSKCN0V720O/ |archive-date=15 July 2023}}</ref> As of August 2023, the number these refugees was estimated to be 3.3 million. The number of Syrians had decreased by about 200,000 people since the beginning of the year.<ref>{{cite web |title=Number of Syrians in Turkey July 2023 – Refugees Association |url=https://multeciler.org.tr/eng/number-of-syrians-in-turkey/ |website=multeciler.org.tr}}</ref> The government has granted citizenship to 238 thousand Syrians by November 2023.<ref>{{cite news |date=9 November 2023 |title=İçişleri Bakanı Yerlikaya, Türk vatandaşı olan Suriyelilerin sayısının 238 bine yaklaştığını açıkladı |url=https://www.bbc.com/turkce/articles/c1e29v09d3eo |work=BBC |access-date=10 March 2024}}</ref> As of May 2023, approximately 96,000 Ukrainian ] have sought refuge in Turkey.<ref>{{cite web |title=Uncertain Futures: Ukrainian Refugees in Turkey, One Year On |url=https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/uncertain-futures-ukrainian-refugees-turkey-one-year |website=pulitzercenter.org |access-date=11 May 2023}}</ref> In 2022, nearly 100,000 Russian citizens migrated to Turkey, becoming the first in the list of foreigners who moved to Turkey, meaning an increase of more than 218% from 2021.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Airport |first1=Turkish Airlines planes are parked at the new Istanbul |title=Russian migration to Turkey spikes by 218% in aftermath of Ukraine war – Al-Monitor: Independent, trusted coverage of the Middle East |url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2023/07/russian-migration-turkey-spikes-218-aftermath-ukraine-war |website=al-monitor.com|date=24 July 2023}}</ref>
The country's official language is ], which is spoken by approximately 85% of the population as mother tongue. Around 12% of the population speaks ] as mother tongue. ] and ] are the mother tongues of more than 1% of the population each, and several other languages are the mother tongues of smaller parts of the population.<ref name="milliyet-languages"/> The public broadcaster ] has a special TV channel for Kurdish that broadcasts on a 24 hour / 7day basis called ] and other TV and Radio stations that broadcast programmes in the local languages and dialects like ], ], ] and ] a few hours a week.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.byegm.gov.tr/REFERENCES/radyo-tv2002.htm|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20060830170539/http://www.byegm.gov.tr/REFERENCES/radyo-tv2002.htm|archivedate=2006-08-30|title=Historical background of radio and television broadcasting in Turkey|author=Turkish Directorate General of Press and Information|publisher=Turkish Prime Minister's Office|accessdate=2006-08-10|year=2003}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.todayszaman.com/newsDetail_getNewsById.action?load=detay&link=162643|title=Kurdish TRT|author=Nasuhi Güngör|publisher=Zaman|accessdate=2009-02-25|year=2009}}</ref> Another special TV channel aimed at the Turkic world, ] was launched on 21 March 2009 and broadcasts in the ], ], ], ], ] and ] languages; while the ] television channel started broadcasting on 4 April 2010.<ref name="trt">{{cite web|url=http://www.trt.net.tr/Haber/HaberDetay.aspx?HaberKodu=0a615416-2c74-4551-9264-c57fa7febb5e |title=TRT Arapça Bugün Açılıyor |publisher=Trt.net.tr |date=2011-01-13 |accessdate=2012-11-04}}</ref>


===Religion=== ===Religion===
{{Main|Religion in Turkey}} {{Main|Religion in Turkey}}
{{Multiple image
{{bar box
| total_width = 300
|title=Religions in Turkey<ref name="KONDA Research and Consultancy">{{cite web |url=http://www.konda.com.tr/html/dosyalar/ghdl&t_en.pdf |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20090325005232/http://www.konda.com.tr/html/dosyalar/ghdl&t_en.pdf|archivedate=2009-03-25 |format=PDF|title=Religion, Secularism and the Veil in daily life |author=KONDA Research and Consultancy |work=Milliyet |date=2011-06-25}}</ref>
| align = right
|titlebar=#ddd
| image1 = Camlica Mosque Bosporus Istanbul.jpg
|left1='''Religions'''
| image2 = Deyrulzaferan P1030925 20080501122627.JPG
|right1='''Percent'''
| footer = Left: ] in Istanbul was designed by two female architects.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/istanbuls-giant-mosque-to-be-women-friendly-architects-say-74329 |title=Istanbul's giant mosque to be 'women-friendly,' architects say |website=Hürriyet Daily News |date=14 November 2014}}</ref> Right: ] near ]. From 1293 to 1932, it was the headquarters of ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6534/ |title=Late Antique and Medieval Churches and Monasteries of Midyat and Surrounding Area (Tur 'Abdin) |website=] |date=15 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Markessini |first=J. |title=Around the World of Orthodox Christianity – Five Hundred Million Strong: The Unifying Aesthetic Beauty |publisher=Dorrance Publishing Company |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-4349-1486-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eVkphDtrW3AC |access-date=25 October 2019|page=31}}</ref>
|float=right
|bars=
{{bar percent|]|green|96.1}}
{{bar percent|]|blue|2.3}}
{{bar percent|]|black|0.9}}
{{bar percent|]|red|0.6}}
{{bar percent|Others|black|0.1}}
}} }}
] (Blue Mosque) in Istanbul.]]


Turkey is a ] with no official ]; the ] provides for ] and conscience.<ref>{{cite web|author=Prof. Dr. Axel Tschentscher, LL.M. |url=http://servat.unibe.ch/icl/tu00000_.html |title=ICL – International Constitutional Law Turkey Constitution |publisher=Servat.unibe.ch |accessdate=2010-11-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hsfk.de/downloads/prif78.pdf|format=PDF|title=Turkey: Islam and Laicism Between the Interests of State, Politics, and Society|publisher=]|accessdate=2008-10-19}}</ref> ] is the dominant religion of Turkey, it exceeds 99% if secular people of ] background are included.<ref name="cia"/><ref>From the introduction of ''Syncretistic Religious Communities in the Near East'' edited by her, B. Kellner-Heinkele, & A. Otter-Beaujean. Leiden: Brill, 1997.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Turkey.pdf |title=TURKEY|publisher=Library of Congress – Federal Research Division|format=PDF |accessdate=2010-11-01}}</ref> Research firms suggest the actual Muslim figure is around 98%<ref name=PewForum>{{cite web|url=http://pewforum.org/uploadedfiles/Topics/Demographics/Muslimpopulation.pdf |title=Mapping the Global Muslim Population |format=PDF |accessdate=2011-08-09}}</ref> or 97%.<ref name="KONDA Research and Consultancy"/> Turkey is a ] with no official ]; the constitution provides for ] and ].<ref>{{cite web|author=Axel Tschentscher|url=http://servat.unibe.ch/icl/tu00000_.html|title=International Constitutional Law: Turkey Constitution|publisher=Servat.unibe.ch|access-date=1 November 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hsfk.de/downloads/prif78.pdf |title=Turkey: Islam and Laicism Between the Interests of State, Politics, and Society |publisher=] |access-date=19 October 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081028211305/http://www.hsfk.de/downloads/prif78.pdf |archive-date=28 October 2008}}</ref> According to the ], Muslims constitute 99.8% of the population, most of them being ].<ref name="cia"/> Based on a survey, ]'s estimate for Muslims was 99.4% in 2006.<ref name="KONDA 2006">{{harvnb|KONDA|2006|p=24}}</ref> According to ], estimates of share of ] are between 10% and 40% of the population.<ref name=refworld.org1>{{cite web|title=World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – Turkey: Alevis |url=http://www.refworld.org/docid/49749c9950.html|website=refworld.org|access-date=22 April 2015}}</ref> KONDA's estimate was 5% in 2006.<ref name="KONDA 2006"/> 4% of adult citizens identified as Alevi in a survey in 2021, while 88% identified as Sunni.<ref name=Konda_100/>


The percentage of non-Muslims in modern-day Turkey was 19.1% in 1914, but fell to 2.5% in 1927.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=İçduygu|first1=Ahmet|last2=Toktaş|first2=Şule|last3=Ali Soner |first3=B. |s2cid=143541451 |title=The politics of population in a nation-building process: Emigration of non-Muslims from Turkey|journal=Ethnic and Racial Studies|url=https://www.academia.edu/761694|date=1 February 2008|volume=31|issue=2|pages=358–389|doi=10.1080/01419870701491937}}</ref> Currently, non-Muslims constitute 0.2% of the population according to the World Factbook.<ref name="cia"/> In 2006, KONDA's estimate was 0.18% for people with non-Islam religions.<ref name="KONDA 2006"/> Some of the non-Muslim communities are Armenians, ], Bulgarian Orthodox, ], Chaldeans, ], Jews, and ].<ref>{{harvnb|Grigoriadis|2012|p=290}}</ref> Sources estimate that the ] ranges between 180,000 and 320,000.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Türkiye farklı inançlara sağlanan ibadet yeri sayısında Batı'nın 5 kat önünde |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/ayasofya-camii/turkiye-farkli-inanclara-saglanan-ibadet-yeri-sayisinda-batinin-5-kat-onunde/1907134 |access-date=2024-08-23 |website=www.aa.com.tr}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2011/12/Christianity-fullreport-web.pdf|title=Global Christianity - A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Christian Population|publisher=Pew Research Center|access-date=June 2, 2022|archive-date=February 1, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201151952/https://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2011/12/Christianity-fullreport-web.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Turkey has ] among the Muslim-majority countries.<ref>{{Cite book |last=DellaPergola|first=Sergio|url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030039066|title=The American Jewish Year Book, 2018|publisher=Dordrecht: Springer|year=2018|isbn=978-3-030-03906-6|editor-last=Dashefsky|editor-first=Arnold|volume=118|pages=361–452|chapter=World Jewish Population, 2018|editor-last2=Sheskin|editor-first2=Ira M.|chapter-url=https://www.jewishdatabank.org/content/upload/bjdb/2018-World_Jewish_Population_(AJYB,_DellaPergola)_DB_Final.pdf}}</ref> Currently, there are 439 churches and synagogues in Turkey.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indyturk.com/node/88486/haber/t%C3%BCrkiye%E2%80%99de-hristiyan-ve-yahudilere-ait-439-ibadethane-ve-24-dernek-var|title=Türkiye'de Hristiyan ve Yahudilere ait 439 ibadethane ve 24 dernek var|website=Independent Türkçe}}</ref>
There are about 120,000 people of different ], including an estimated 80,000 ],<ref name="Zaman">{{cite web|url=http://www.todayszaman.com/tz-web/detaylar.do?load=detay&link=161291 |title=Foreign Ministry: 89,000 minorities live in Turkey |publisher=Todayszaman.com |date=2008-12-15 |accessdate=2011-05-16}}</ref> 35,000 ],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fact-archive.com/encyclopedia/Roman_Catholics_by_country |title=Roman Catholics by country |publisher=Fact-Archive.com |accessdate=2011-07-05}}</ref> 5,000 ]<ref name="Zaman" /> and smaller numbers of ]. Today there are 236 churches open for worship in Turkey.<ref>{{dead link|date=May 2011}}</ref> The ] has been ] since the 4th century. Christians represent less than 0.2% of Turkey's population, according to the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html |title=Central Intelligence Agency |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=2011-05-16}}</ref>


In 2006, KONDA's estimate was 0.47% for those with no religion.<ref name="KONDA 2006"/> According to KONDA, share of adult citizens who identified as unbeliever increased from 2% in 2011 to 6% in 2021.<ref name=Konda_100/> A 2020 Gezici Araştırma poll found that 28.5% of the ] ].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sozcu.com.tr/2020/gundem/gezici-arastirma-merkezi-baskani-murat-gezici-sozcuye-acikladi-turkiyenin-kaderi-z-kusaginin-elinde-5867771/|title=Gezici Araştırma Merkezi Başkanı Murat Gezici SÖZCÜ'ye açıkladı: Türkiye'nin kaderi Z kuşağının elinde|website=sozcu.com.tr|date=11 June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gercekgundem.com/siyaset/188215/gezici-arastirma-merkezi-baskani-murat-gezici-turkiyenin-kaderi-z-kusaginin-elinde|title=Gezici Araştırma Merkezi Başkanı Murat Gezici: Türkiye'nin kaderi Z kuşağının elinde|website=gercekgundem.com|date=11 June 2020}}</ref>
There are about 26,000 people who are ], the vast majority of whom are ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.americansephardifederation.org/PDF/exhibitions/Jewish_Costumes_Early_History_Jews_in_Turkey.pdf |format=PDF|title=An Overview of the History of the Jews in Turkey|publisher=American Sephardi Federation|accessdate=2008-10-19|year=2006}}{{dead link|date=September 2011}}</ref>


===Education===
The ] in Turkey has roots in ]'s, the founder of the ], being exiled to ], current-day ], by the ]. Bahá'ís cannot register with the government officially<ref name="regulation">{{cite web
{{Main|Education in Turkey}}
| coauthors = U.S. State Department
] was restructured in 1933, after being established as a theological school in 1453.<ref>{{harvnb|Cohen|2008|p=1713}}</ref>]]
| title = International Religious Freedom Report 2008 – Turkey
| publisher = The Office of Electronic Information, Bureau of Public Affair
| date = 2008-09-19
| url = http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108476.htm
| accessdate = 2008-12-15}}</ref> but there are probably 10<ref name="10k">{{cite web| title = For the first time, Turkish Baha'i appointed as dean | publisher = The Muslim Network for Baha’i Rights | date = 2008-12-13 | url =http://www.bahairights.org/2008/11/13/for-the-first-time-turkish-bahai-appointed-as-dean/ | accessdate = 2008-12-15}}</ref> to 20<ref name="20k">{{Cite encyclopedia| title = Turkey /Religions & Peoples | encyclopedia = LookLex Encyclopedia | publisher = LookLex Ltd | url = http://www.looklex.com/e.o/turkey_4.htm
| year = 2008| accessdate = 2008-12-15}}</ref> thousand Bahá'ís, and around a hundred Bahá'í ] in Turkey.<ref name="Walbridge">{{Cite journal| last = Walbridge | first = John | title = Chapter Four – The Baha'i Faith in Turkey | journal = Occasional Papers in Shaykhi, Babi and Baha'i Studies | volume = 06 | issue = 1 | date = March, 2002 | url = http://www.h-net.org/~bahai/bhpapers/vol6/waless/chap4.htm | id = }}</ref>


In the past 20 years, Turkey has improved quality of education and has made significant progress in increasing education access.<ref name="OECD Taking stock p3">{{harvnb|OECD Taking stock of education reforms for access and quality in Türkiye|2023|p=3}}</ref> From 2011 to 2021, improvements in education access include "one of the largest increases in educational attainment for 25-34 year-olds at upper secondary non-tertiary or tertiary education", and quadrupling of pre-school institutions.<ref name="OECD Taking stock p35">{{harvnb|OECD Taking stock of education reforms for access and quality in Türkiye|2023|p=35}}</ref> ] results suggest improvements in education quality.<ref name="OECD Taking stock p35"/> There is still a gap with OECD countries. Significant challenges include differences in student outcomes from different schools, differences between rural and urban areas, pre-primary education access, and arrival of students who are Syrian refugees.<ref name="OECD Taking stock p35"/>
Academics suggest the ] population may be from 15 to 20 million.<ref name=usstate>{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90204.htm |title=Turkey – International Religious Freedom Report 2007 |publisher=State.gov |accessdate=2011-08-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East/LB18Ak04.html |title=Asia Times Online :: Middle East News, Iraq, Iran current affairs |publisher=Atimes.com |date=2010-02-18 |accessdate=2011-08-09}}</ref> According to Aksiyon magazine, the number of ] ]s (excluding Alevis) is 3 million (4.2%), and they live in Istanbul, Iğdır, Kars, Ankara, İzmir, Manisa, Çorum, Muğla, Ağrı and Aydın.<ref name="caferi">{{cite web|url=http://www.aksiyon.com.tr/aksiyon/haber-15046-34-caferi-imamlar.html |title=Caferi İmamlar|language=Turkish |publisher=Aksiyon.com.tr |date=2004-10-11 |accessdate=2010-09-04}}</ref> There are also some ] practitioners.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.allaboutturkey.com/sufi.htm |title='&#39;Sufism'&#39; |publisher=All about Turkey |date=2006-11-20 |accessdate=2010-11-01}}</ref> The highest Islamic religious authority is the ] ({{lang-tr|Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı}}), it interprets the ] school of law, and is responsible for regulating the operation of the country's 80,000 registered mosques and employing local and provincial ]s.<ref name=religiousfreedomreport>{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90204.htm |title=Bureau of Democracy, Human rights and Labor – International Religious Freedom Report 2007– Turkey |publisher=State.gov |accessdate=2010-11-01}}</ref> The role of religion has been a controversial debate over the years since the formation of Islamist parties,<ref>''Civil society, religion, and the nation: modernisation in intercultural context : Russia, Japan, Turkey'' Gerrit Steunebrink, Evert van der Zweerde. pp.175–184.</ref> especially in education. Turkey was founded upon a strict secular constitution which forbids the influence of any religion, including Islam. There are sensitive issues, such as the fact that the wearing of the ] is ] in universities and public or government buildings as some view it as a symbol of Islam – though there have been efforts to lift the ban.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/333641.stm |title= Headscarf row in Turkey parliament |publisher=BBC News |date=1999-05-03 |accessdate=2010-11-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7236128.stm |title=Turkey eases ban on headscarves |publisher=BBC News |date=2008-02-09 |accessdate=2010-11-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7321964.stm |title=Turkish leaders face court case |publisher=BBC News |date=2008-03-31 |accessdate=2010-11-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/7441227.stm |title=Turkey headscarf ruling attacked |publisher=BBC News |date=2008-06-06 |accessdate=2010-11-01}} and {{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7298291.stm |title=Turkish PM attacks proposed ban |publisher=BBC News |date=2008-03-16 |accessdate=2010-11-01}}</ref>
] is the world's third-oldest ].<ref>{{Cite web |title=World Oldest Universities |url=http://www.topuniversities.com/worlduniversityrankings/results/2007/overall_rankings/worlds_oldest_universities |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080115092116/http://www.topuniversities.com/worlduniversityrankings/results/2007/overall_rankings/worlds_oldest_universities |archivedate=15 January 2008}}</ref>]]
The vast majority of the present-day Turkish people are Muslim and the most popular sect is the ] school of ], which was officially espoused by the ]; according to the KONDA Research and Consultancy survey carried out throughout Turkey on 2007:<ref name="KONDA Research and Consultancy"/> 52.8% defined themselves as ''"a religious person who strives to fulfill religious obligations"'' (religious); 34.3% defined themselves as ''"a believer who does not fulfill religious obligations"'' (believer); 9.7% defined themselves as ''"a fully devout person fulfilling all religious obligations"'' (fully devout); 2.3% defined themselves as ''"someone who does not believe in religious obligations"'' (non-believer/agnostic); and 0.9% defined themselves as ''"someone with no religious conviction"'' (atheist).<ref name="KONDA Research and Consultancy"/>

The ] is responsible for pre-tertiary education.<ref name=wesed>{{cite web|title=Education in Turkey|url=http://www.wes.org/ewenr/12sept/feature.htm|publisher=World Education Services|access-date=12 June 2013}}</ref> Compulsory education is free at public schools and lasts 12 years, divided into three parts.<ref>{{cite web |title=Turkish Higher Education System |url=https://www.studyinturkiye.gov.tr/StudyinTurkey/ShowDetail?rID=Ec/rgHEN8Zg=&&cId=PE4Nr0mMoY4= |website=Study in Türkiye |access-date=21 May 2024}}</ref><ref name="OECD Taking stock p3"/> There are 208 ].<ref name="euraxess_Türkiye"/> Students are placed to universities based on their ] results and their preferences, by the ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-education-systems/turkiye/bachelor |title=Eurydice &#124; Türkiye |website=The European Union |date=27 November 2023}}</ref> All state and private universities are under the control of the ] ({{langx|tr|Yükseköğretim Kurulu}}, YÖK). Since 2016, the president of Turkey directly appoints all rectors of all state and private universities.<ref>{{cite web|title=Turkish universities latest domino in Erdogan's path|url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2016/11/turkey-erdogan-took-full-control-of-universities.html|author=Mustafa Akyol|publisher=Al-Monitor|date=7 November 2016}}</ref>

According to the 2024 ], the top universities were ], ], ], and ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings/2024/world-ranking#!/length/25/locations/TUR/sort_by/rank/sort_order/asc/cols/stats |title=World University Rankings 2024 |website=Times Higher Education |date=25 September 2023 |access-date=22 May 2024}}</ref> According to ], the top ones were ], ], and ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.shanghairanking.com/rankings/arwu/2023 |title=2023 Academic Ranking of World Universities |website=Shanghai Ranking |access-date=22 May 2024}}</ref> Turkey is a member of the ] Programme.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://erasmus-plus.ec.europa.eu/programme-guide/part-a/eligible-countries |title=Erasmus+ EU programme for education, training, youth and sport &#124; Eligible countries |website=The European Union |access-date=22 May 2024}}</ref> Turkey has become a hub for foreign students in recent years, with 795,962 foreign students in 2016.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ntv.com.tr/egitim/turkiyedeki-yabanci-ogrenci-sayisi-795-bin-962ye-ulasti,OpnWuWDZLkyNsTNv5cZTpg|title=Türkiye'deki yabancı öğrenci sayısı 795 bin 962'ye ulaştı|access-date=5 January 2022}}</ref> In 2021 ], a government-funded program, received 165,000 applications from prospective students in 178 countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unze.ba/download/Turkey%20Scholarships.pdf |title=Türkıye Scholarships – Türkıye for Education |access-date=30 August 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.turkiyeburslari.gov.tr/index.php/en/sss-2 |title=Türkiye Scholarships-FAQ |access-date=30 August 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://turkeyscholarship.com/|title=Scholarships|website=Turkey Scholarship|access-date=7 January 2019}}</ref>

===Health===
{{Main|Health care in Turkey}}
] in Istanbul. It contains 2,068 ] units to ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://camsakurasehir.saglik.gov.tr/TR-899525/basaksehir-cam-ve-sakura-sehir-hastanesinde-2-bin-68-sismik-izolator-var.html |title=Başakşehir Çam ve Sakura Şehir Hastanesi'nde 2 bin 68 sismik izolatör var |date=14 February 2023 |website=Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Sağlık Bakanlığı}}</ref>]]

The ] has run a universal public healthcare system since 2003.<ref name="njm">{{cite journal |doi=10.1056/NEJMp1410433 |title=Transforming Turkey's Health System — Lessons for Universal Coverage |date=2015 |last1=Atun |first1=Rifat |journal=New England Journal of Medicine |volume=373 |issue=14 |pages=1285–1289 |pmid=26422719}}</ref> Known as Universal Health Insurance ({{lang|tr|Genel Sağlık Sigortası}}), it is funded by a tax surcharge on employers, currently at 5%.<ref name="njm"/> Public-sector funding covers approximately 75.2% of health expenditures.<ref name="njm"/> Despite the universal health care, total expenditure on health as a share of GDP in 2018 was the lowest among OECD countries at 6.3% of GDP, compared to the OECD average of 9.3%.<ref name="njm"/> There are many private hospitals in the country.<ref name=Oguz_2020>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/19371918.2020.1806167 |title=Turkish Health Policies: Past, Present, and Future |date=2020 |last1=Oguz |first1=Ahmet Bunyan |journal=Social Work in Public Health |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=456–472 |pmid=32811368 }}</ref> The government planned several hospital complexes, known as city hospitals, to be constructed since 2013.<ref name=Oguz_2020/> Turkey is one of the top 10 destinations for ].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.trtworld.com/turkiye/turkiye-ranks-among-top-10-health-tourism-destinations-globally-17798805 |title=Türkiye ranks among top 10 health tourism destinations globally |website=TRT World |access-date=22 May 2024}}</ref>

Average life expectancy is 78.6 years (75.9 for males and 81.3 for females), compared with the EU average of 81 years.<ref name="njm"/> Turkey has high rates of ], with 29.5% of its adult population having a ] (BMI) value of 30 or above.<ref name="WHO Mean Body Mass Index BMI">{{cite web |title=WHO Mean Body Mass Index (BMI) |url=https://www.who.int/gho/ncd/risk_factors/bmi_text/en/ |publisher=World Health Organization |access-date=5 February 2019}}</ref> ] of early death.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Akyuz|first1=Ezgi|last2=Samavati|first2=Mehrdad|last3=Kaynak|first3=Burcak|date=14 August 2020|title=Spatial distribution of health risks associated with PM2.5 in Turkey and Iran using satellite and ground observations |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1309104220302312 |journal=Atmospheric Pollution Research|volume=11|issue=12|pages=2350–2360 |doi=10.1016/j.apr.2020.08.011|bibcode=2020AtmPR..11.2350A |s2cid=225477420|issn=1309-1042}}</ref>


==Culture== ==Culture==
{{Main|Culture of Turkey}} {{Main|Culture of Turkey}}
{{see also|Arts in Turkey|Turkish folklore|Festivals in Turkey}}


In the 19th century, Turkish identity was debated in the ], with three main views: Turkism, Islamism and Westernism.<ref>{{harvnb|Kaya|2004|pp=57–59}}</ref> In addition to Europe or Islam, Turkish culture was also influenced by Anatolia's native cultures.<ref>{{harvnb|Kaya|2004|p=58}}</ref> After the establishment of the republic, ] emphasized Turkish culture, attempted to make "Islam a matter of personal conviction", and pursued modernization.<ref>{{harvnb|Kaya|2004|p=63}}</ref> Currently, Turkey has various local cultures. Things such as music, ], or ] variety may be used to identify a local area. Turkey also has a national culture, such as national sports leagues, music bands, film stars, and trends in fashion.<ref>{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=6}}</ref>
] is one of the leading contemporary Turkish novelists and the recipient of the 2006 ].]]


===Literature, theatre, and visual arts===
Turkey has a very diverse culture that is a blend of various elements of the ], ]n, ] (which was itself a continuation of both ] and Islamic cultures) and ] and traditions, which started with the ] and still continues today. This mix originally began as a result of the encounter of Turks and their culture with those of the peoples who were in their path during ] from Central Asia to the West.<ref name="TR_culture" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.turks.org.uk/index.php?pid=8|title=Turks – A Journey of a Thousand Years: 600–1600|author=Royal Academy of Arts|authorlink=Royal Academy of Arts|publisher=Royal Academy of Arts|accessdate=2006-12-12|year=2005}}</ref>
{{Main|Turkish literature|Theatre of Turkey|Turkish art}}
]-laureate Turkish novelist ] and his ] at his personal writing space]]
] is on the Asian side of ] and ] is the main ] on the European side. ] is the city's largest ] and ].]]


] goes back more than a thousand years. The Seljuk and Ottoman periods include numerous works of literature and poetry. Turkic tales and poetry from Central Asia were also kept alive. ] is an example of the ] tradition. ], from the 11th century, contains Turkish linguistic information and poetry. ], influenced by ], was one of the most important writers of Anatolian Turkish poetry. Ottoman ] poetry used "refined diction" and complex vocabulary. It included ], romanticism, and formal elements.<ref name=Halman_2012_Literature>{{harvnb|Halman|2012|pp=76–85}}</ref>
As Turkey successfully transformed from the religion-based former Ottoman Empire into a modern nation-state with a very strong separation of state and religion, an increase in the modes of artistic expression followed. During the first years of the republic, the government invested a large amount of resources into fine arts; such as museums, theatres, opera houses and architecture. Diverse historical factors play important roles in defining the modern Turkish identity. Turkish culture is a product of efforts to be a "modern" Western state, while maintaining traditional religious and historical values.<ref name="TR_culture">{{Cite book|title=Social Theory and Later Modernities: The Turkish Experience|first=İbrahim|last=Kaya|publisher=Liverpool University Press|year=2003|isbn=0-85323-898-7|url=http://books.google.com/?id=0Iy7pJBRgjYC&pg=PA58&lpg=PA58&dq=Turkish+culture}}</ref> The mix of cultural influences is dramatized, for example, in the form of the "new symbols of the clash and interlacing of cultures" enacted in the works of ], recipient of the 2006 ].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/6044192.stm|title=Pamuk wins Nobel Literature prize|work=BBC|accessdate=2006-12-12|date=2006-10-12}}</ref>


Beginning in the 19th century, Ottoman literature was influenced by the West. New genres, such as novels and journalistic style, were introduced. {{lang|tr|]}}, written by ], was the "first truly refined Turkish novel". ], the first female Turkish novelist, wrote fiction. After the proclamation of the republic in 1923, ] such as the ] and ]. Since then, Turkish literature reflected the socioeconomic conditions in Turkey with increasing variety. "Village Novel" genre appeared in the mid-1950s, which talked about difficulties faced from poverty.<ref name=Halman_2012_Literature/> An example is ] by ], which was ].<ref name=Halman_2012_Literature/><ref>{{cite news |date=27 February 2021 |title=Turkey commemorates master author Yaşar Kemal |url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-commemorates-master-author-yasar-kemal-162737 |work=Hürriyet Daily News}}</ref> ] won the ].<ref name=Halman_2012_Literature/>
] for the first time with "]" by ] in ], 2003.]]


Turkey has four "major theatrical traditions": "folk theatre, popular theatre, court theater, and Western theater." Turkish folk theatre goes back thousands of years and has survived among rural communities. Popular theatre includes plays by live actors, puppet and ] plays, and ]. An example for shadow play is {{lang|tr|]}}. Court theatre was the refined version of popular theatre. Beginning in the 19th century, Western theatre tradition started appearing in Turkey. Following the establishment of Turkish Republic, a state conservatory and the State Theatre Company were formed.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=And |first1=M. |year=1983 |title=Theatre in Turkey |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/43385121 |journal=Turkish Studies Association Bulletin |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=20–31|jstor=43385121 }}</ref>
] and ] form great examples of such a mix of cultural influences, which were a result of the interaction between the Ottoman Empire and the Islamic world along with Europe, thus contributing to a blend of Turkic, Islamic and European traditions in modern-day Turkish music and literary arts.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.turkmusikisi.com/osmanli_musikisi/the_ottoman_music.htm|title=The Ottoman music|author=Cinuçen Tanrıkorur|authorlink=Cinuçen Tanrıkorur|publisher=turkmusikisi.com|accessdate=2006-12-12}}</ref> Turkish literature was heavily influenced by ] and ] during most of the Ottoman era, though towards the end of the Ottoman Empire, particularly after the ] period, the effect of both Turkish folk and European literary traditions became increasingly felt. The Tanzimat reforms of 1839–1876 brought changes to the language of Ottoman written literature, and introduced previously unknown Western genres, primarily the novel and the short story. Many of the writers in the Tanzimat period wrote in several different genres simultaneously: for instance, the poet ] also wrote the important 1876 novel ''İntibâh'' (Awakening), while the journalist ] is noted for writing, in 1860, the first modern Turkish play, the ] comedy "''Şair Evlenmesi''" (The Poet's Marriage). Most of the roots of modern Turkish literature were formed between the years 1896 and 1923. Broadly, there were three primary literary movements during this period: the ''Edebiyyât-ı Cedîde'' (New Literature) movement; the ''Fecr-i Âtî'' (Dawn of the Future) movement; and the ''Millî Edebiyyât'' (National Literature) movement. The ''Edebiyyât-ı Cedîde'' (New Literature) movement began with the founding in 1891 of the magazine ''Servet-i Fünûn'' (''Scientific Wealth''), which was largely devoted to progress (both intellectual and scientific) along the Western model. Accordingly, the magazine's literary ventures, under the direction of the poet ], were geared towards creating a Western-style "]" in Turkey.


Turkey's visual arts scene can be categorized into two, as "decorative" and "fine" arts. Fine arts, or {{lang|tr|güzel sanatlar}}, includes sculpture and ]. Turkish artists in these areas have gained global recognition. Photography, fashion design, graphic arts, and graphic design are some of the other areas Turkish artists are known for in the world. The inaugural contemporary Turkish art sale by ] was in 2009. ] and the ] are examples of art galleries or exhibitions of contemporary Turkish art. Turkey has also seen a resurgence of traditional arts. This includes Ottoman-era traditional arts, such as ] and ]. Textile and carpet design, glass and ceramics, ], ] are some of the art forms for which modern-day Turkish artists are recognized as leaders in the Islamic world.<ref name=Denny_2012_Fine_Arts>{{harvnb|Denny|2012|pp=94–95}}</ref>
] in Istanbul.]]


===Music and dance===
The first radical step of innovation in 20th century Turkish poetry was taken by ], who introduced the ] style. Another revolution in Turkish poetry came about in 1941 with the ] led by ], ] and ]. Explicitly opposing themselves to everything that had gone in poetry before, they sought instead to create a popular art. They employed not only a variant of the free verse introduced by Nâzım Hikmet, but also a highly colloquial language, and wrote primarily about mundane daily subjects and the ordinary man on the street. The reaction was immediate and polarized: most of the academic establishment and older poets vilified them, while much of the Turkish population embraced them wholeheartedly.
{{Main|Turkish folk dance|Music of Turkey}}
] was a Turkish rock musician and one of the founders of the ] genre.]]


Although classifying genres of Turkish music can be problematic, three broad categories can be considered. These are "]", "]", and multiple popular music styles. These Popular music styles include ], pop, and ].<ref>{{harvnb|Stokes|2010|p=14}}</ref>
Architectural elements found in Turkey are also testaments to the unique mix of traditions that have influenced the region over the centuries. In addition to the traditional ] present in numerous parts of Turkey, many artifacts of the later ], with its exquisite blend of local and Islamic traditions, are to be found throughout the country, as well as in many former territories of the Ottoman Empire. ] is widely regarded as the greatest architect of the classical period in Ottoman architecture. Since the 18th century, Turkish architecture has been increasingly influenced by Western styles, and this can be particularly seen in Istanbul where buildings like ] and ]s are juxtaposed next to numerous modern skyscrapers, all of them representing different traditions.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A History of Ottoman Architecture|first=Godfrey|last=Goodwin|publisher=Thames & Hudson|year=2003|isbn=0-500-27429-0|url=}}</ref>


The resurging popularity of pop music gave rise to several international Turkish pop stars such as ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ].{{citation needed|date=June 2024}} Internationally acclaimed Turkish ] and ] musicians and composers include ]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Award Winning Legends |date=28 February 2018 |url=https://www.jazzdergisi.com/en/odullu-ustalar-ahmet-ertegun/}}</ref> (founder and president of ]), ] and Kerem Görsev.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}}
The ] was won by singer ] with the song "]" which was written by Erener and ].


==Sports== ===Architecture===
{{Main|Sports in Turkey}} {{Main|Architecture of Turkey}}
{{See also|Ottoman architecture}}
{{Multiple image
| align = right
| total_width = 220
| direction = vertical
| image1 = Selimiye... - panoramio.jpg
| image2 = Istanbul asv2020-02 img05 Crowne Plaza Old City.jpg
| image3 = Eskisehir Odunpazarı tour in 2018 8523.jpg
| caption1 = Built by ], ] in ] is an example of ].
| caption2 = ] in ], an example of the ]
| caption3 = With its traditional Turkish houses, ] district in ] is a ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5733/ |title=Odunpazari Historical Urban Site |website=] |date=13 April 2012}}</ref>
}}


Turkey is home to numerous ] settlements, such as ].<ref>{{harvnb|Sagona|Zimansky|2015|pp=44–46; 82–86}}</ref><ref name="Howard 2016-3"/> From the ], important architectural remnants include ] and the ].<ref name="Howard 2016-3"/> There are various examples of ] and ] architectures, especially in the Aegean region.<ref>{{harvnb|Matthews|2014|pp=9–13}}</ref> ] dates back to the 4th century AD. Its best example is ]. Byzantine architectural style continued to develop after the ], such as ].<ref>{{harvnb|Curl|Wilson|2021|loc=Byzantine architecture}}</ref> During ] and ] period, a distinct architecture emerged, which incorporated Byzantine and ] architectures with architectural styles found in ] and ].<ref>{{harvnb|Bloom|Blair|2009|loc=Architecture &#124; V. c. 900–c. 1250 &#124; C. Anatolia}}</ref> ] often used stones and bricks, and produced numerous ]s, ]s and ]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Curl|Wilson|2021|loc=Seljuk or Saljuk architecture}}</ref>
] of ] hosted the ].]]


] emerged in northwest Anatolia and Thrace. ] mixed "traditional Anatolian Islamic architecture with local building materials and techniques".<ref>{{harvnb|Bloom|Blair|2009|loc=Architecture &#124; VI. c. 1250–c. 1500 &#124; B. Anatolia &#124; 2. Ottomans to 1453 }}</ref> Following the conquest of Istanbul, ] emerged in the 16th and 17th centuries.<ref name="auto1">{{harvnb|Bloom|Blair|2009|loc=Architecture &#124; VII. c. 1500–c. 1900 &#124; A. Ottoman Empire}}</ref> The most important architect of the classical period is ], whose major works include the ], ], and ].<ref name="auto1"/> Beginning in the 18th century, Ottoman architecture was influenced by European elements, resulting in development of ].<ref name="auto">{{harvnb|Bloom|Blair|2009|loc=Architecture &#124; VII. c. 1500–c. 1900 &#124; A. Ottoman Empire &#124; 2. Turkey}}</ref> European influence continued in the 19th century; examples include works of ] such as ] style ].<ref>{{harvnb|Bloom|Blair|2009|loc=Architecture &#124; VII. c. 1500–c. 1900 &#124; A. Ottoman Empire &#124; 2. Turkey; Balyan }}</ref> The last period of Ottoman architecture consists of the ], including works of ] and ].<ref name="auto"/>
The most popular sport in Turkey is ] (soccer).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.allaboutturkey.com/sports.htm|title=Sports in Turkey|author=Burak Sansal|publisher=allaboutturkey.com|accessdate=2006-12-13|year=2006}}</ref> Turkey's top teams include ], ], ] and ]. In 2000, Galatasaray cemented its role as a major European club by winning the ] and ]. Two years later the Turkish national team finished third in the ] Finals in Japan and South Korea, while in 2008 the national team reached the semi-finals of the ] competition. The ] in Istanbul hosted the ], while the ] in Istanbul hosted the ].


Since 1918, Turkish architecture can be divided into three parts. From 1918 to 1950, the first one includes the First National Architectural Movement period, which transitioned into ]. Modernist and monumental buildings were preferred for public buildings, whereas "Turkish house" type ] influenced private houses. From 1950 to 1980, the second part includes urbanization, modernization, and internationalization. For residential housing, "reinforced concrete, slab-block, medium-rise apartments" became prevalent. Since 1980, the third part is defined by consumer habits and international trends, such as shopping malls and office towers. Luxury residences with "Turkish house style" have been in demand.<ref>{{harvnb|Bozdogan|2009|loc=Turkey, since 1918}}</ref> In the 21st century, ] projects have become a trend.<ref>{{harvnb|Bozdogan|Akcan|2013|p=284}}</ref> Resilience against natural disasters such as earthquakes is one of the main goals for urban renewal projects.<ref>{{harvnb|Tuğaç|2023|p=1469}}</ref>
] is the new home ground of ].]]
Around one-third of Turkey's building stock, corresponding to 6.7 million units, were assessed risky and needing urban renewal.<ref>{{harvnb|Tuğaç|2023|p=1465}}</ref>


===Cuisine===
Other mainstream sports such as basketball and volleyball are also popular. Turkey hosted the finals of ] and the finals of the ], winning second place on both occasions; while ] won the ] in 1996, finished second in the ] of 1993, and made it to the Final Four of ] and ] in 2000 and 2001.<ref>{{dead link|date=November 2010}}</ref> Turkish basketball players such as ] and ] have also been successful in the ]. Women's volleyball teams, namely ], ] and ] have won numerous European championship titles and medals.
{{Main|Turkish cuisine}}
{{see also|Ottoman cuisine}}
] with ]. Turkish coffee is a ] of ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?lg=en&pg=00011&RL=00645 |title= Turkish coffee culture and tradition|publisher=UNESCO |date=5 December 2013|access-date=18 August 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Çakır Morin |first=Arzu |date=5 December 2013 |title=Türk kahvesi Unesco korumasında |language= tr |url=http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/kultur-sanat/25284675.asp |newspaper=Hürriyet |access-date=18 August 2014}}</ref>]]


Turkey has a diverse and rich cuisine, varying geographically.<ref name="Yayla_Aktaş_2021"/> Turkish cuisine has been influenced by Anatolian, ], ], ], and ] cuisines.<!-- Do not add to this list without a reliable source --><ref name=Oxford_Companion_to_Food_loc_Turkey>{{harvnb|Algar|2014|loc=Turkey}}</ref> Turkish and Ottoman cuisine have also influenced others. ], from the 11th century, documents "the ancient lineage of much of present-day Turkish cuisine".<ref name=Oxford_Companion_to_Food_loc_Turkey/> ], ], and ] are some of the earliest recorded examples of Turkish cuisine. Even though ] as a word comes from ], Turkic people had been familiar with using skewers to cook meat. Turkish cuisine can be distinguished by its various kinds of kebabs. Similarly, ] dishes were influenced by Turkish cuisine. Further information about cuisine during the Seljuk and Ottoman periods comes from the works of ] and ]. The latter describes "food-related guilds of Istanbul".<ref name=Oxford_Companion_to_Food_loc_Turkey/>
The traditional Turkish national sport has been ] (''oiled wrestling'') since Ottoman times.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.allaboutturkey.com/yagligures.htm|title=Oiled Wrestling|author=Burak Sansal|publisher=allaboutturkey.com|accessdate=2006-12-13|year=2006}}</ref> ] has hosted the annual ] oiled wrestling tournament since 1361.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kirkpinar.com/home.php?link=history&dil=en |title=Kırkpınar Oiled Wrestling Tournament: History |publisher=Kirkpinar.com |date=2007-04-21 |accessdate=2010-11-01}}</ref> International wrestling styles governed by ] such as ] and ] are also popular, with many European, World and Olympic championship titles won by Turkish wrestlers both individually and as a national team.<ref>{{cite web|first=Christiane |last=Gegner |url=http://www.iat.uni-leipzig.de/datenbanken/dbwrest/start.php |title=FILA Wrestling Database |publisher=Iat.uni-leipzig.de |accessdate=2010-11-01}}</ref>


Food staples in Turkey include ] and ]. Some of bread varieties are ] and {{lang|tr|pide}} (a type of ] bread). ] is a drink made of yoghurt. In western parts of Turkey, ] is used. Grains include wheat, maize, barley, oats, and millet. Beans, chickpeas, nuts, aubergines, and lamb are some of the commonly used ingredients.<ref name=Oxford_Companion_to_Food_loc_Turkey/> ], originally from Turkey, is marinated lamb slices cooked vertically.<ref>{{harvnb|Jaine|2014|loc=doner kebab}}</ref> Seafood includes ] and others. ] varieties and {{lang|tr|]}} are made by stuffing vegetables or pasta.<ref name=Oxford_Companion_to_Food_loc_Turkey/> ] is made by rolling edible leaf over the filling.<ref>{{harvnb|Perry|2014a|loc=dolma}}</ref> ] dishes are vegetable stews.<ref name=Oxford_Companion_to_Food_loc_Turkey/> Turkey is one of the countries with the ] tradition.<ref>{{harvnb|Davidson|Jaine|2014|loc=mezze}}</ref> Honey, ], dried fruit, or fruit are used for sweetening.<ref name=Oxford_Companion_to_Food_loc_Turkey/> ] is an originally Turkish ] that is used to make ].<ref>{{harvnb|Perry|2014b|loc=filo}}: "Although known to Europeans and N. Americans by a Greek name, the dough is clearly of Turkish origin."</ref> ] is a "delicate but gummy jelly".<ref>{{harvnb|Davidson|Jaine|2014|loc=Turkish delight}}</ref>
] ] ].]]


===Sports===
] has been a successful Turkish sport. Turkish weightlifters, both male and female, have broken numerous world records and won several European,<ref>{{dead link|date=November 2010}}</ref> World and Olympic<ref>{{Dead link|date=August 2011}}</ref> championship titles. ] and ] have achieved legendary status as one of the few weightlifters to have won three gold medals in three Olympics.
{{Main|Sport in Turkey}}
{{see also|Football in Turkey}}
] at ]]]
<!--- Caution should be taken to ensure that the sections are not simply a listing of names. Good example Canada#Sports.--->
The most popular sport is ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.allaboutturkey.com/sports.htm|title=Sports in Turkey|author=Burak Sansal|publisher=allaboutturkey.com|access-date=13 December 2006|year=2006}}</ref> ] won the ] and ] in 2000.<ref name=uefa.com>{{cite web|title=Galatasaray AŞ|url=http://www.uefa.com/teamsandplayers/teams/club=50067/profile/|website=uefa.com|access-date=10 August 2014}}</ref> The ] won the bronze medal at the ], the ] and ].<ref name=tff.org1>{{cite web|title=Historical Achievements.|url=http://www.tff.org/default.aspx?pageID=297|website=tff.org|access-date=10 August 2014}}</ref>


Other mainstream sports such as basketball and volleyball are also popular.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.espn.co.uk/basketball/sport/story/206057.html|title=Basketball Capitals: Cities in Focus – Istanbul|website=espn.co.uk|author=Ian Whittell|publisher=] Sports Media Ltd.|access-date=22 December 2022}}</ref> The ] and ] have been successful. ] is the most successful Turkish basketball club in international competitions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.efesbasket.org/the_clup/icerik.aspx?SectionId=103 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080503203721/http://en.efesbasket.org/the_clup/icerik.aspx?SectionId=103 |archive-date=3 May 2008 |title=Historic achievements of the Efes Pilsen Basketball Team |publisher=Anadolu Efes Spor Kulübü |access-date=9 February 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.efesbasket.org/Efes-Pilsen-History/Our-Successes.aspx |title=Anadolu Efes S.K.: Our successes |access-date=9 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324184003/http://en.efesbasket.org/Efes-Pilsen-History/Our-Successes.aspx |archive-date=24 March 2012}}</ref> ] reached the final of the ] in three consecutive seasons (], ] and ]), becoming the European champions in 2017.
]s are also popular in Turkey. The ] was included in the ] ] calendar in 2003,<ref>{{dead link|date=November 2010}}</ref> while ] race weekends held at the ] racing circuit occurred annually between the ] and ] seasons. The ] was, however, not included in the ]'s calendar.<ref>{{cite web|title=Turkey dropped for 2012 F1 season|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/SPORT/motorsport/09/01/motorsport.f1.2012.calendar/index.html|publisher=CNN|accessdate=23 October 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Turkish Grand Prix dropped from 2012 calendar|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/formula_one/14738779.stm|publisher=BBC Sport|accessdate=23 October 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Turkey dropped from 2012 F1 calendar|url=http://af.reuters.com/article/sportsNews/idAFJOE77U0NA20110831|publisher=REUTERS|accessdate=23 October 2011}}</ref> Other important annual motorsports events which are held at the Istanbul Park racing circuit include the ], the ] ], the ] and the ]. From time to time ] and ] also host the Turkish leg of the ] championship; while the Turkish leg of the ], an ] competition, takes place above the ] in Istanbul. Surfing, snowboarding, skateboarding, paragliding and other extreme sports are becoming more popular every year.


] is one of the best women's volleyball team in the world, having won the ] four times and the ] six times.]]
==See also==
The final of the ] basketball championship was played between two Turkish teams, ] and ], and won by Galatasaray.<ref name="fibaeurope.com2">{{cite web|title=Galatasaray Lift EuroLeague Women Title|url=http://www.fibaeurope.com/euroleaguewomen/cid_-tmRPCfrIrYRSO2M5V49E1.compID_jr6ZiXqeGhMBtfq1yxqV83.roundID_9680.season_2014.gameID_9752-16-A-1.html|website=fibaeurope.com|access-date=10 August 2014}}</ref> Fenerbahçe won the ] after two consecutive Euroleague wins in the ] and ] seasons.
{{Misplaced Pages books|Turkey}}
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
{{portal bar|Geography|<!-- Eurasia -->|Asia|<!-- Western Asia -->|Europe|<!-- Southern Europe -->|Middle East|NATO|Turkey}}


The ] has won several medals.<ref name="tvf.org.tr">{{cite web|title=National Team's Activities|url=http://www.tvf.org.tr/icerik/36/|website=tvf.org.tr|access-date=10 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140829153101/http://www.tvf.org.tr/icerik/36/|archive-date=29 August 2014}}</ref> Women's volleyball clubs, namely ], ] and ], have won numerous European championship titles and medals.<ref name="CEV-2023">{{cite web|url=https://championsleague.cev.eu/en/match-centres/cev-champions-league-volley-2023/cev-champions-league-volley-2023-women/clvw-93-vakifbank-istanbul-v-eczacibasi-dynavit-istanbul/|title=2023 CEV Women's Champions League Super Final: VakifBank Istanbul – Ezcacibasi Dynavit Istanbul|website=championsleague.cev.eu|date=20 May 2023}}</ref>
== Footnotes ==
{{reflist|group=dn}}


The traditional national sport of Turkey has been ] (''] ]'') since Ottoman times.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.allaboutturkey.com/yagligures.htm|title=Oiled Wrestling|author=Burak Sansal|publisher=allaboutturkey.com|access-date=13 December 2006|year=2006}}</ref> Edirne Province has hosted the annual ] oil wrestling tournament since 1361, making it the oldest continuously held sporting competition in the world.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dailysabah.com/sports/2018/07/13/historical-kirkpinar-oil-wrestling-festival-kicks-off-in-northwestern-turkey|title=Historical Kırkpınar oil wrestling festival kicks off in northwestern Turkey|website=Daily Sabah|date=13 July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kirkpinar.com/home.php?link=history&dil=en|title=Kırkpınar Oiled Wrestling Tournament: History|publisher=Kirkpinar.com|date=21 April 2007|access-date=1 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080801224941/http://www.kirkpinar.com/home.php?link=history&dil=en|archive-date=1 August 2008}}</ref> In the 19th and early 20th centuries, oil wrestling champions such as ], ] and ] acquired international fame in Europe and North America by winning world heavyweight wrestling championship titles. International wrestling styles governed by ] such as ] and ] are also popular, with many European, World and Olympic championship titles won by Turkish wrestlers both individually and as a national team.<ref>{{cite web|first=Christiane |last=Gegner |url=https://www.iat.uni-leipzig.de/datenbanken/dbfoeldeak/start.php |title=FILA Wrestling Database |publisher=Iat.uni-leipzig.de |access-date=1 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090313024550/http://www.iat.uni-leipzig.de/datenbanken/dbwrest/start.php/ |archive-date=13 March 2009}}</ref>
== Citations ==
<!-- Please do not use a scroll template or form/table for the reflink, please read warning on the scroll template page ]. Thank you -->
{{reflist|30em}}


== References == ===Media and cinema===
{{Main|Media in Turkey}}
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
{{See also|Cinema of Turkey}}
<!-- Please use the following templates when adding references:
Hundreds of television channels, thousands of local and national radio stations, several dozen newspapers, a productive and profitable ] and a rapid growth of ] Internet use constitute a vibrant media industry in Turkey.<ref name=tesevmedya>{{cite web|title=The Political Economy of the Media in Turkey: A Sectoral Analysis |url=http://www.tesev.org.tr/Upload/Publication/67e244dd-5c21-4d34-8361-4c7f3d003140/11461ENGmedya2WEB21_09_11.pdf |website=tesev.org.tr |access-date=18 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120716153048/http://www.tesev.org.tr/Upload/Publication/67e244dd-5c21-4d34-8361-4c7f3d003140/11461ENGmedya2WEB21_09_11.pdf |archive-date=16 July 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=45587&dil=2|title=Survey on Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Usage in Households and by Individuals, 2022|publisher=Turkish Statistical Institute|website=data.tuik.gov.tr|date=26 August 2022}}</ref> The majority of the TV audiences are shared among public broadcaster ] and the network-style channels such as ], ], ] and ]. The ] have a very high penetration as ] and ] systems are widely available.<ref name=cp>. ] ] (January 2006). ''This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the ].''</ref> The ] is the government body overseeing the broadcast media.<ref name=cp/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rtuk.gov.tr/en/about-rtuk/5297/5083/about-rtuk.html|title=About RTÜK|publisher=The Radio and Television Supreme Council (RTÜK)|access-date=18 April 2020|archive-date=6 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806210918/https://www.rtuk.gov.tr/en/about-rtuk/5297/5083/about-rtuk.html}}</ref> By circulation, the ] are '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'' and '']''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gazeteciler.com/gazete-tirajlari.html|title=Gazete Tirajları 02.05.2016 – 08.05.2016|access-date=1 August 2016|work=Gazeteciler.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151219145010/http://www.gazeteciler.com/gazete-tirajlari.html|archive-date=19 December 2015}}</ref>
* {{Cite book
{{Multiple image
|title =
| total_width = 330
|edition =
| align = right
|isbn=
| image1 = Nuri Bilge Ceylan, Cines del Sur.jpg
|url=
| image2 = Beren Saat 17.4.15 cropped.jpg
}}
| image3 = Turkan Soray 1310395.jpg
* {{Cite journal
| footer = ] (left), ] (middle), and ] (right)
|title = '''REQUIRED'''
|issn =
|url=
}} }}
-->
;History
* {{Cite book|title=The Turks in World History|first=Carter Vaughn|last=Findley|publisher=Oxford University Press, USA|year=2004|isbn=0-19-517726-6}}
* {{Cite book|title=The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire|first=Patrick|last=Kinross|publisher=Morrow|year=1977|isbn=0-688-03093-9}}
* {{Cite book|title=Atatürk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey|first=Andrew|last=Mango|publisher=Overlook|year=2000|isbn=1-58567-011-1}}
* {{Cite book|title=The Oxford History of Byzantium|first=Cyril|last=Mango|publisher=Oxford University Press, USA|year=2002|isbn=0-19-814098-3}}
* {{Cite book|title=History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey|first=Stanford Jay|last=Shaw|coauthors=Kural Shaw, Ezel|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1977|isbn=0-521-29163-1}}
* {{Cite book|title=Al Hind: The Making of the Indo Islamic World, Vol. 1, Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam, 7th–11th Centuries|first=André|last=Wink|publisher=Brill Academic Publishers|year=1990|isbn=90-04-09249-8}}


], ], ], and ] represent their period of Turkish cinema.<ref name="Magnan">{{harvnb|Akser|2018|p=156}}</ref> Turkish directors like ], ], ], ] and ] won numerous international awards such as the {{Lang|fr|]|italic=no}} and ].<ref name="berlinale 1964">{{cite web |url=http://www.berlinale.de/en/archiv/jahresarchive/1964/03_preistr_ger_1964/03_Preistraeger_1964.html |title=Berlinale 1964: Prize Winners |access-date=20 February 2010 |work=berlinale.de |archive-date=19 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150319032841/http://www.berlinale.de/en/archiv/jahresarchive/1964/03_preistr_ger_1964/03_Preistraeger_1964.html}}</ref> ]s are increasingly becoming popular beyond Turkey's borders and are among the country's most vital exports, both in terms of profit and public relations.<ref>{{cite web|author=Jenna Krajeski|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/turkey-diyarbakir-kurdish-roles-soap-opera-politics-ayrilik-olmasaydi|title=Turkey: Soap Operas and Politics|publisher=Pulitzer Center|access-date=15 January 2013|date=30 March 2012|archive-date=17 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117025311/http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/turkey-diyarbakir-kurdish-roles-soap-opera-politics-ayrilik-olmasaydi}}</ref> After sweeping the ]'s television market over the past decade, Turkish shows have aired in more than a dozen ] and ]n countries in 2016.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibtimes.com/telenovelas-turkish-dramas-why-turkeys-soap-operas-are-captivating-latin-america-2296321|title=Turkish Dramas Sweep Latin America|website=]|date=9 February 2016|access-date=1 October 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/heres-why-turkish-soaps-are-a-cultural-force-to-reckon-with/articleshow/57289530.cms|title=Here's why Turkish soaps are a cultural force to reckon with! – The Economic Times|website=]|date=22 February 2017 |last1=Irani |first1=Delshad }}</ref> Turkey is today the world's second largest exporter of television series.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-worlds-second-highest-tv-series-exporter-after-us.aspx?pageID=238&nID=73478&NewsCatID=345|title=Turkey world"s second highest TV series exporter after US – Business|website=Hürriyet Daily News |date=27 October 2014 |access-date=14 October 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dailysabah.com/business/turkiye-marches-toward-600-million-in-worldwide-tv-series-sales/news|title=Türkiye marches toward $600 million in worldwide TV series sales|author=Betül Alakent|date=17 October 2022|website=dailysabah.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2019/sep/13/turkish-tv-magnificent-century-dizi-taking-over-world|title=How Turkish TV is taking over the world|author=Fatima Bhutto|date=13 September 2019|website=The Guardian}}</ref>
;Politics and foreign policy
* {{cite web|title=Upsurge amidst Political Uncertainty. Nationalism in post-2004 Turkey. SWP Research Paper 2006/RP 11, October 2006|first=Ioannis N.|last=Grigoriadis|publisher=Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik (German Institute for International and Security Affairs)|location=Berlin|format=PDF|accessdate=2007-07-31|year=2006|url=http://www.swp-berlin.org/common/get_document.php?asset_id=3380}}
* {{Cite book|title = Turkish Politics and the Military|first=William Mathew|last=Hale|publisher=Routledge (UK)|year=1994|isbn=0-415-02455-2|url=http://books.google.com/?id=50O5kEzZ1JQC&pg=RA1-PA1&dq=Turkish+Armed+Forces#PRA1-PA154,M1}}
* Kosebalaban, Hasan. ''Turkish Foreign Policy: Islam, Nationalism, and Globalization'' (Palgrave Macmillan; 2011) 240 pages; examines tensions among secularist nationalism, Islamic nationalism, secular liberalism, and Islamic liberalism in shaping foreign policy since the 1920s; concentrates on era since 2003
* {{Cite book|title=Political Parties in Turkey|first=Barry M.|last=Rubin|coauthors=Heper, Metin|publisher=Routledge (UK)|year=2002|isbn=0-7146-5274-1}}


==See also==
;Foreign relations and military
{{Portal|Turkey}}
* {{Cite book|title=Turkish Foreign Policy In Post Cold War Era|first=İdris|last=Bal|publisher=Universal Publishers|year=2004|isbn=1-58112-423-6|url=http://books.google.com/?id=vDzjkrTDKjYC&pg=PP1&lpg=PP1&dq=turkey+cold+war}}
* ]{{Clear}}
* {{cite web|title=Generating Momentum for a New Era in U.S.-Turkey Relations|first=Steven A.|last=Cook|coauthors=Sherwood-Randall, Elizabeth|publisher=Council on Foreign Relations|format=PDF|accessdate=2006-12-17|date=2006-06-15|url=http://www.cfr.org/content/publications/attachments/TurkeyCSR.pdf}}
* {{Cite book|title=Outposts and Allies: U.S. Army Logistics in the Cold War, 1945–1953|first=James A.|last=Huston|publisher=Susquehanna University Press|year=1988|isbn=0-941664-84-8|url=http://books.google.com/?id=ID4E3Lm8TsgC&pg=PA198&lpg=PA198&dq=turkey+cold+war}}
* {{Cite book|title=Turkey and the European Union: Domestic Politics, Economic Integration, and International Dynamics|first=Barry M.|last=Rubin|coauthors=Çarkoǧlu, Ali|publisher=Routledge (UK)|year=2003|isbn=0-7146-5402-7|url=http://books.google.com/?id=1Nxy_E8Gds4C&pg=PP1&lpg=PP1&dq=Turkey+European+Union}}
* {{Cite journal|title=Turkey/Military service|author=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), Directorate for Movements of Persons, Migration and Consular Affairs – Asylum and Migration Division|publisher=UNHCR|format=PDF|date=July 2001|url=http://www.unhcr.org/home/RSDCOI/3c1622484.pdf}}{{dead link|date=November 2010}}

;Geography and climate
* {{cite web|title=Climate of Turkey|author=Turkish State Meteorological Service|publisher=Turkish State Meteorological Service|accessdate=2006-12-27|year=2006|url=http://classic-web.archive.org/web/20080419130806/http://www.meteor.gov.tr/2006/english/eng-climateofturkey.aspx}}


==Notes==
;Economy
{{notelist}}
* {{cite web|title=Turkey's evolving trade integration into Pan-European markets|first=Bartolomiej|last=Kaminski|coauthors=Ng, Francis|publisher=World Bank|format=PDF|accessdate=2006-12-27|date=2006-05-01|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2006/05/03/000016406_20060503112446/Rendered/PDF/wps3908.pdf}}
* {{Cite book|title=Economics and Politics of Turkish Liberalization|first=Tevfik F.|last=Nas|publisher=Lehigh University Press|year=1992|isbn=0-934223-19-X}}
* {{Cite book|title=OECD Reviews of Regulatory Refom – Turkey: crucial support for economic recovery : 2002|author=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|publisher=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|year=2002|isbn=92-64-19808-3|url=http://books.google.com/?id=ufYU_fR7mLgC&pg=PP1&lpg=PP1&dq=Turkey}}
* {{cite web|title=Turkey Labor Market Study|author=World Bank|publisher=World Bank|format=PDF|accessdate=2006-12-27|year=2005|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTTURKEY/Resources/361616-1144320150009/Labor_C2.pdf}}


{{Clear}}
;Demographics
* {{Cite book|title=Religion and Politics in Turkey|first=Ali|last=Çarkoǧlu|publisher=Routledge (UK)|year=2004|isbn=0-415-34831-5|url=http://books.google.com/?id=t5G_zw9exMQC&pg=PP1&lpg=PP1&dq=Religion+in+Turkey}}
* {{Cite book|title=The other languages of Europe: Demographic, Sociolinguistic and Educational Perspectives|first=Guus|last=Extra|coauthors=Gorter, Durk|publisher=Multilingual Matters|year=2001|isbn=1-85359-509-8|url=http://books.google.com/?id=hvmy_skUPNYC&pg=RA1-PA422&lpg=RA1-PA422&dq=%22ethnic+groups+in+turkey%22}}
* {{Cite book|title=The Alevis in Turkey: The Emergence of a Secular Islamic Tradition|first=David|last=Shankland|publisher=Routledge (UK)|year=2003|isbn=0-7007-1606-8|url=http://books.google.com/?id=lFFRzTqLp6AC&pg=PP1&lpg=PP1&dq=Religion+in+Turkey}}
* {{Cite news|title=Türkiyedeki Kürtlerin Sayısı! (Number of Kurds in Turkey!)|work=]|date=2008-06-06|accessdate=2008-06-07|language=Turkish|url=http://www.milliyet.com.tr/default.aspx?aType=SonDakika&Kategori=yasam&ArticleID=873452&Date=07.06.2008&ver=16}}
* {{cite web|title=2000 Census, population by provinces and districts|author=Turkish Statistical Institute|publisher=Turkish Statistical Institute|format=XLS|accessdate=2006-12-11|year=2000|url=http://www.die.gov.tr/nufus_sayimi/2000tablo5.xls|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20061207220323/http://www.die.gov.tr/nufus_sayimi/2000tablo5.xls|archivedate=2006-12-07}}


==References==
;Culture
{{reflist}}
* {{Cite book|title=A History of Ottoman Architecture|first=Godfrey|last=Goodwin|publisher=Thames & Hudson|year=2003|isbn=0-500-27429-0}}
* {{Cite book|title=Social Theory and Later Modernities: The Turkish Experience|first=İbrahim|last=Kaya|publisher=Liverpool University Press|year=2003|isbn=0-85323-898-7|url=http://books.google.com/?id=0Iy7pJBRgjYC&pg=PA58&lpg=PA58&dq=Turkish+culture}}
{{Div col end}}


==Further reading== === Sources ===
{{Div col|cols=3}} {{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book | last1=Agoston | first1=G | last2=Masters | first2=B| title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire | publisher=Facts On File, Incorporated | year=2009 | isbn=9780816062591 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC}}
* {{Cite book|last=Bozarslan |first=Hamit |chapter=Turkey: Postcolonial discourse in a non-colonised state |editor1-first=Prem ''et al.'' |editor1-last=Poddar |title=Historical Companion to Postcolonial Literatures: Continental Europe and its Colonies |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2008}}
* {{cite book | last=Armour | first=Ian D. | title=A History of Eastern Europe 1740-1918: Empires, Nations and Modernisation | publisher= Bloomsbury Academic | publication-place=London New York | year=2012 | edition=2nd | isbn=978-1-84966-661-9 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=9b6f5vhKJiAC}}
* {{Cite book|title=The Turks Today|first=Andrew|last=Mango|publisher=Overlook|year=2004|isbn=1-58567-615-2}}
* {{cite report |year=2024 |title=Avrupa İnsan Hakları Mahkemesi 2023 Yılı İstatistikleri Değerlendirme Notu |url=https://inhak.adalet.gov.tr/Resimler/Dokuman/6022024100041Avrupa%20%C4%B0nsan%20Haklar%C4%B1%20Mahkemesi%202023%20Y%C4%B1l%C4%B1%20%C4%B0statistikleri%20De%C4%9Ferlendirme%20Notu.pdf |website=Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Justice Human Rights Department |ref = {{harvid|Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Justice Human Rights Department|2024}}}}
* {{Cite book|title=Turkey Unveiled|first=Hugh|last=Pope|coauthors=Pope, Nicole|publisher=Overlook|year=2004|isbn=1-58567-581-4}}
* {{cite book | last=Baird | first=Forrest E. | title=Philosophic Classics Ancient Philosophy, Volume I | publisher=Routledge | year=2016 | isbn=978-1-315-51024-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w-5mDAAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book|title=The Yogurt Man Cometh: Tales of an American Teacher in Turkey|first=Kevin|last=Revolinski|publisher=Citlembik|year=2006|isbn=9944-424-01-3}}
* {{cite report |last1=Bank |first1=A. |last2=Karadag |first2=R. |year=2012 |title=The Political Economy of Regional Power: Turkey under the AKP |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep07618 |publisher=German Institute of Global and Area Studies (GIGA) |archive-date=10 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140210210237/http://www.giga-hamburg.de/de/system/files/publications/wp204_bank-karadag.pdf |url-status=live}}
* Roxburgh, David J. (ed.) (2005). ''Turks: A Journey of a Thousand Years, 600–1600.'' Royal Academy of Arts. ISBN 1-903973-56-2.
* {{cite book | last=Biondich | first=Mark | title=The Balkans: Revolution, War, and Political Violence since 1878 | publisher=Oxford University Press | publication-place=The United States | year=2011 | isbn=978-0-19-929905-8 |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199299058.001.0001 |author-link=Mark Biondich}}
* ''Turkey: A Country Study'' (1996). Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. ISBN 0-8444-0864-6.
* {{cite book | last=Bellwood | first=Peter | title=The Five-Million-Year Odyssey | publisher=Princeton University Press | year=2022| isbn=978-0-691-19757-9 |doi=10.1515/9780691236339 |author-link=Peter Bellwood}}
{{Div col end}}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Bloom |editor-first1=Jonathan M. |editor-last2=Blair |editor-first2=Sheila S. |title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 | isbn=978-0-19-530991-1 | doi=10.1093/acref/9780195309911.001.0001 |editor-link1=Jonathan M. Bloom |editor-link2=Sheila Blair}}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Bosma |editor-first1=Ulbe |editor-last2=Lucassen |editor-first2=Jan |editor-last3=Oostindie |editor-first3=Gert |title=Postcolonial Migrants and Identity Politics: Europe, Russia, Japan and the United States in Comparison |series=International Studies in Social History |volume=18 |year=2012 |publisher=Berghahn Books |isbn=978-0-85745-328-0 |doi=10.1515/9780857453280 |editor-link2=Jan Lucassen |editor-link3=Gert Oostindie}}
** {{harvc |last1=Bosma |first1=Ulbe |last2=Lucassen |first2=Jan |last3=Oostindie |first3=Gert |chapter=Introduction: Postcolonial Migrations and Identity Politics: Towards a Comparative Perspective |in1=Bosma |in2=Lucassen |in3=Oostindie |year=2012 |anchor-year=2012a |pages=1–22 |chapter-url=https://hdl.handle.net/1887/31832}} {{doi|10.1515/9780857453280-003}}
* {{cite book | last1=Bozdogan | first1=Sibel | last2=Akcan | first2=Esra | title=Turkey: Modern Architectures in History | publisher=Reaktion Books | year=2013 | isbn=978-1-86189-979-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d61itxDm_3wC |author-link2=Esra Akcan}}
* {{cite book | last1=Clauson | first1=Gerard | title=An Etymological Dictionary of Pre-thirteenth-century Turkish | publisher= Oxford University Press | year=1972 | isbn=978-0-19-864112-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l6AZAQAAIAAJ |author-link1=Gerard Clauson}}
* {{cite book | editor-last1=Cohen | editor-first1=Saul B. | title=The Columbia Gazetteer of the World: Volume 1 A to G | publisher=Columbia University Press |edition=2nd | year=2008 | isbn=978-0-231-14554-1 | oclc=212893637 |editor-link1=Saul B. Cohen}}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Comrie |editor-first1=Bernard | title=The World's Major Languages | publisher=Routledge |year=2018 |edition=3rd |isbn=978-0-19-506511-4 |doi=10.4324/9781315644936 |editor-link1=Bernard Comrie}}
** {{harvc |last1=Kornfilt |first1=Jaklin |chapter=Turkish and the Turkic Languages |in1=Comrie |year=2018 |pages=536–561 |author-link1=Jaklin Kornfilt}}
* {{cite book |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199252466.001.0001 |title=The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-19-925246-6 |editor-last1=Cormack |editor-last2=Haldon |editor-last3=Jeffreys |editor-first1=Robin |editor-first2=John F. |editor-first3=Elizabeth |publisher=Oxford University Press}}
** {{harvc |last1=Horrocks |first1=Geoffrey |chapter=Language |in1=Cormack |in2=Haldon |in3=Jeffreys |year=2008 |pages=778–784}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199252466.013.0074}}
* {{cite book | last1=Curl | first1=James Stevens | last2=Wilson | first2=Susan |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Architecture |edition=4 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2021 |isbn=9780191918742 |doi=10.1093/acref/9780191918742.001.0001 |author-link1=James Stevens Curl}}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Davidson |editor-first1=Alan |editor-last2=Jaine |editor-first2=Tom |edition=3 |title=] |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-967733-7 |doi=10.1093/acref/9780199677337.001.0001 |editor-link1=Alan Davidson (food writer)}}
** {{harvc |last1=Perry |first1=Charles |chapter=Dolma |in1=Davidson |in2=Jaine |year=2014 |anchor-year=2014a}}
** {{harvc |last1=Jaine |first1=Tom |chapter=Doner kebab |in1=Davidson |in2=Jaine |year=2014}}
** {{harvc |last1=Perry |first1=Charles |chapter=Filo |in1=Davidson |in2=Jaine |year=2014 |anchor-year=2014b}}
** {{harvc |last1=Algar |first1=Ayla |chapter=Turkey |in1=Davidson |in2=Jaine |year=2014}}
* {{cite book |last1=Davison |first1=Roderic H. |title=Essays in Ottoman and Turkish History, 1774-1923: The Impact of the West |year=1990 |publisher=The University of Texas Press |isbn=9780292720640 |doi=10.7560/720640 |author-link1=Roderic H. Davison}}
* {{cite report |author= Directorate-General for Neighbourhood and Enlargement Negotiations (European Commission), European Commission |title=Commission Staff Working Document Türkiye 2023 Report |date=8 November 2023 |website=Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Foreign Affairs Directorate for EU Affairs |url=https://www.ab.gov.tr/siteimages/resimler/T%C3%BCrkiye%20Report%202023.pdf |ref = {{harvid|EU Commission|2023}}}}
* {{cite book | last=Everett-Heath | first=John | title=Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Place Names | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2020 |edition=6 | isbn=9780191905636 | doi=10.1093/acref/9780191905636.001.0001 |author-link1=John Everett-Heath}}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Fierro |editor-first1=Maribel | title=] |volume=2: The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2010 | isbn=9781139056151 | doi=10.1017/chol9780521839570 |editor-link1=Maribel Fierro}}
** {{harvc |last1=Leiser |first1=Gary |chapter=The Turks in Anatolia before the Ottomans |in1=Fierro |year=2010 |pages=299–312}} {{doi|10.1017/CHOL9780521839570.012}}
** {{harvc |last1=Fleet |first1=Kate |chapter=The rise of the Ottomans |in1=Fierro |year=2010 |pages=313–331}} {{doi|10.1017/CHOL9780521839570.013}}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Filho |editor-first1=Walter Leal |editor-last2=Dinis |editor-first2=Maria Alzira Pimenta |editor-last3=Moggi |editor-first3=Sara |editor-last4=Price |editor-first4=Elizabeth |editor-last5=Hope |editor-first5=Alex | title=SDGs in the European Region |series=Implementing the UN Sustainable Development Goals – Regional Perspectives | publisher=Springer Cham |year=2023 | isbn=978-3-031-17460-5 | doi=10.1007/978-3-031-17461-2}}
** {{harvc |last1=Tuğaç |first1=Çiğdem |chapter=Urban Renewal: Turkey’s Solution for Housing Problems for Low-Income Groups and Disaster-Resilient Urbanization |in1=Filho |in2=Dinis |in3=Moggi |in4=Price |in5=Hope |year=2023 |pages=1451–1474}} {{doi|10.1007/978-3-031-17461-2_4}}
* {{cite book | last1=Findley | first1=Carter V. | date = 2005 | title = The Turks in World History | publisher = Oxford University Press, USA |isbn=978-0-19-517726-8 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ToAjDgAAQBAJ |author-link1=Carter V. Findley}}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Gibney |editor-first1=Matthew J. |editor-last2=Hansen |editor-first2=Randall |title=Immigration and asylum: from 1900 to the present | publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2005 |isbn=9781576077962 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3YEbAQAAMAAJ |editor-link2=Randall Hansen}}
** {{harvc |last1=Fábos |first1=Anita |chapter=Muslim Immigration |in1=Gibney |in2=Hansen |year=2005 |pages=434–440}}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Goode |editor-first1=Patrick |title=The Oxford Companion to Architecture |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-860568-3 |doi=10.1093/acref/9780198605683.001.0001}}
** {{harvc |last1=Bozdogan |first1=Sibel |chapter=Turkey, since 1918 |in1=Goode |year=2009}}
* {{cite book |title=The Oxford Companion to Chaucer |editor-last1=Gray |editor-first1=Douglas |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-19-811765-0 | doi=10.1093/acref/9780198117650.001.0001}}
* {{cite report |url=https://fs.hacettepe.edu.tr/hips/dosyalar/Ara%C5%9Ft%C4%B1rmalar%20-%20raporlar/2018%20TNSA/TDHS2018_mainReport_compressed.pdf |title=2018 Turkey Demographic and Health Survey |author=Hacettepe University Institute of Population Studies |year=2019 |location=Ankara, Turkey |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307182845/https://fs.hacettepe.edu.tr/hips/dosyalar/Ara%C5%9Ft%C4%B1rmalar%20-%20raporlar/2018%20TNSA/TDHS2018_mainReport_compressed.pdf |archive-date=7 March 2022}}
* {{cite book | last=Heper | first=M. | title=The State and Kurds in Turkey: The Question of Assimilation| publisher=Palgrave Macmillan| year=2007 | isbn=978-0-230-59360-2 |doi=10.1057/9780230593602}}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Heper |editor-first1=Metin |editor-last2=Sayarı |editor-first2=Sabri |title=The Routledge Handbook of Modern Turkey |publisher=Routledge |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-138-11010-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a0yaXTpWR90C |doi=10.4324/9780203118399}}
** {{harvc |last1=Sayarı |first1=Sabri |chapter=Introduction |in1=Heper |in2=Sayarı |year=2012 |pages=1–2}}
** {{harvc |last1=Hanioğlu |first1=M. Şükrü |chapter=Modern Ottoman period |in1=Heper |in2=Sayarı |year=2012 |pages=15–25 |author-link1=M. Şükrü Hanioğlu}}
** {{harvc |last1=Kayalı |first1=Hasan |chapter=The Young Turks and the CUP |in1=Heper |in2=Sayarı |year=2012 |pages=26–34}}
** {{harvc |last1=Dodd |first1=Clement H. |chapter=The Turkish Republic |in1=Heper |in2=Sayarı |year=2012 |pages=53–64}}
** {{harvc |last1=Halman |first1=Talât S. |chapter=Literature |in1=Heper |in2=Sayarı |year=2012 |pages=76–86 |author-link1=Talât Sait Halman}}
** {{harvc |last1=Denny |first1=Walter B. |chapter=Fine Arts |in1=Heper |in2=Sayarı |year=2012 |pages=87–95 |author-link1=Walter B. Denny}}
** {{harvc |last1=Heper |first1=Metin |chapter=Kemalism/Atatürkism |in1=Heper |in2=Sayarı |year=2012 |pages=139–148}}
** {{harvc |last1=Karaosmanoğlu |first1=Ali L. |chapter=Civil-military relations |in1=Heper |in2=Sayarı |year=2012 |pages=149–159}}
** {{harvc |last1=Özbudun |first1=Ergun |chapter=Constitutions and political system |in1=Heper |in2=Sayarı |year=2012 |pages=194–204}}
** {{harvc |last1=Toprak |first1=Binnaz |chapter=Religion and politics |in1=Heper |in2=Sayarı |year=2012 |pages=217–226}}
** {{harvc |last1=Martin |first1=Lenore G. |chapter=Foreign Policy |in1=Heper |in2=Sayarı |year=2012 |pages=227–236}}
** {{harvc |last1=Grigoriadis |first1=Ioannis N. |chapter=Minorities |in1=Heper |in2=Sayarı |year=2012 |pages=282–292}}
** {{harvc |last1=Yılmaz |first1=Kamil |chapter=Industry |in1=Heper |in2=Sayarı |year=2012 |pages=352–363}}
* {{cite book | last=Howard | first=Douglas A. | title=The History of Turkey | publisher=Greenwood | publication-place=Santa Barbara, California | year=2016 | isbn=978-1-4408-3466-0 |edition=2nd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hE28CwAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book | last=Hoyos | first=Dexter | title=Rome Victorious. The Irresistible Rise of the Roman Empire | publisher=I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd | year=2019 | isbn=978-1-78076-274-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nCvloAEACAAJ}}
* {{cite report |url=https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/cc499a7b-b72a-466c-88de-d792a9daff44/Turkey_2021_Energy_Policy_Review.pdf |title=Turkey 2021 |author=] |year=2021 |publisher= IEA |location=Paris |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240511183728/https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/cc499a7b-b72a-466c-88de-d792a9daff44/Turkey_2021_Energy_Policy_Review.pdf |archive-date=11 May 2024 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite report |ref={{harvid|KGM|2023}}
|url=https://www.kgm.gov.tr/SiteCollectionDocuments/KGMdocuments/MerkezBirimler/Kurumsal/FaaliyetRaporu/2023Faaliyet.pdf |title=2023 Yılı Faaliyet Raporu |author=Karayolları Genel Müdürlüğü |website=Karayolları Genel Müdürlüğü}}
* {{cite book | last1=Karpat | first1=K.H. | title=The Politicization of Islam: Reconstructing Identity, State, Faith, and Community in the Late Ottoman State | publisher=Oxford University Press | series=Studies in Middle Eastern history | year=2001 | isbn=978-0-19-513618-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YmZMCAAAQBAJ |author-link1=Kemal Karpat}}
* {{cite book |last1=Karpat |first1=Kemal H. |year=2004 |title=Studies on Turkish Politics and Society: Selected Articles and Essays |publisher=BRILL |publication-place=Leiden Boston |isbn=978-9004133228 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UZJOEAAAQBAJ |author-link1=Kemal Karpat}}
* {{cite book | last1=Kaser | first1=Karl | title=The Balkans and the Near East: Introduction to a Shared History | publisher=LIT Verlag Münster | publication-place=Berlin Wien |year=2011 | isbn=978-3-643-50190-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j3i8muwLf8AC |author-link1=Karl Kaser (historian)}}
* {{cite book | last1=Kaya | first1=Ibrahim | title=Social Theory and Later Modernities: The Turkish Experience | publisher=Liverpool University Press | year=2004 | isbn=978-1-78138-845-7 | doi=10.2307/j.ctt5vjm76}}
* {{cite book | last1=Kirişci | first1=Kemal | last2=Winrow | first2=Gareth M. | title=The Kurdish Question and Turkey: An Example of a Trans-state Ethnic Conflict | publisher=Routledge | year=1997 | isbn=978-0-7146-4304-5 |doi=10.4324/9781315036649 |author-link1=Kemal Kirişci}}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Krieger |editor-first1=Joel |year=2014 |title=The Oxford Companion to International Relations |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199738878 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LfFpygEACAAJ}}
** {{harvc |last1=Acharya |first1=Amitav |chapter=Emerging Powers |in1=Krieger |year=2014}}
* {{cite book | title=Landscapes and Landforms of Turkey |series=World Geomorphological Landscapes |editor-last1=Kuzucuoğlu |editor-first1=Catherine |editor-last2=Çiner |editor-first2=Attila |editor-last3=Kazancı |editor-first3=Nizamettin | publisher=Springer Cham | year=2019 | isbn=978-3-030-03513-6 | doi=10.1007/978-3-030-03515-0 }}
** {{harvc |last1=Kuzucuoğlu |first1=Catherine |chapter=The Physical Geography of Turkey: An Outline |in1=Kuzucuoğlu |in2=Çiner |in3=Kazancı |year=2019 |pages=7–15}} {{doi|10.1007/978-3-030-03515-0_2}}
** {{harvc |last1=Kuzucuoğlu |first1=Catherine |last2=Şengör |first2=A. M. Celâl |last3=Çiner |first3=Attila |chapter=The Tectonic Control on the Geomorphological Landscapes of Turkey |in1=Kuzucuoğlu |in2=Çiner |in3=Kazancı |year=2019 |pages=17–40 |author-link2=Celâl Şengör}} {{doi|10.1007/978-3-030-03515-0_3}}
** {{harvc |last1=Kuzucuoğlu |first1=Catherine |last2=Çiner |first2=Attila |last3=Kazancı |first3=Nizamettin |chapter=The Geomorphological Regions of Turkey |in1=Kuzucuoğlu |in2=Çiner |in3=Kazancı |year=2019 |pages=41–178 |anchor-year=2019a}} {{doi|10.1007/978-3-030-03515-0_4}}
** {{harvc |last1=Altunel |first1=Erhan |last2=D’Andria |first2=Francesco |chapter=Pamukkale Travertines: A Natural and Cultural Monument in the World Heritage List |in1=Kuzucuoğlu |in2=Çiner |in3=Kazancı |year=2019 |pages=219–229}} {{doi|10.1007/978-3-030-03515-0_8}}
** {{harvc |last1=Çiner |first1=Attila |chapter=Coastal Landforms and Landscapes of Turkey |in1=Kuzucuoğlu |in2=Çiner |in3=Kazancı |year=2019 |pages=233–247}} {{doi|10.1007/978-3-030-03515-0_9}}
** {{harvc |last1=Çiner |first1=Attila |last2=Aydar |first2=Erkan |chapter=A Fascinating Gift from Volcanoes: The Fairy Chimneys and Underground Cities of Cappadocia |in1=Kuzucuoğlu |in2=Çiner |in3=Kazancı |year=2019 |pages=535–549}} {{doi|10.1007/978-3-030-03515-0_31}}
* {{cite book | last=Lee | first=Joo-Yup | title=The Turkic Peoples in World History | publisher=Routledge | year=2023 | isbn=978-1-000-90421-5 |doi=10.4324/9781003256496}}
* {{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of the Developing World |year=2006 |editor-first1=Thomas M. |editor-last1=Leonard |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781579583880 |doi=10.4324/9780203943373}}
** {{harvc |last1=Ahmed |first1=Ali |chapter=Turkey |in1=Leonard |year=2006 |pages=1575–1578}}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Magnan-Park |editor-first1=Aaron Han Joon |editor-last2=Marchetti |editor-first2=Gina |editor-last3=Tan |editor-first3=See Kam | title=The Palgrave Handbook of Asian Cinema | publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-349-95821-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MQ92DwAAQBAJ |doi=10.1057/978-1-349-95822-1}}
** {{harvc |last1=Akser |first1=Murat |chapter=Locating Turkish Cinema Between Populist Tendencies and Art Cinema |in1=Magnan-Park |in2=Marchetti |in3=Tan |year=2018 |pages=151–170}}
* {{cite book | last=Matthews | first=Henry | title=Greco-Roman Cities of Aegean Turkey: History, Archaeology, Architecture | publisher=Ege Yayınları | publication-place=Istanbul, Türkiye | year=2014 | isbn=978-605-4701-41-4 | oclc=885231214}}
* {{cite book | editor-last1=McColl | editor-first=R. W. | title=Encyclopedia of World Geography | publisher=Facts On File | year=2005 | isbn=9780816057863 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DJgnebGbAB8C}}
** {{harvc |last1=Waskey |first1=Andrew J |chapter=Turkey |in1=McColl |year=2005 |pages=922–923}}
* {{cite book |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.001.0001 |date=2012 |isbn=978-0-19-537614-2 |editor-last1=McMahon |editor-last2=Steadman |editor-first1=Gregory |editor-first2=Sharon |title=The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia: (10,000-323 BCE) |publisher=Oxford University Press}}
** {{harvc |last1=McMahon |first1=Gregory |last2=Steadman |first2=Sharon |chapter=Introduction: The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia |in1=McMahon |in2=Steadman |year=2012 |pages=3–12 |anchor-year=2012a}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0001}}
** {{harvc |last1=McMahon |first1=Gregory |chapter=The Land and Peoples of Anatolia through Ancient Eyes |in1=McMahon |in2=Steadman |year=2012 |pages=15–33}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0002}}
** {{harvc |last1=Matthews |first1=Roger |chapter=A History of the Preclassical Archaeology of Anatolia |in1=McMahon |in2=Steadman |year=2012 |pages=34–55}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0003}}
** {{harvc |last1=Steadman |first1=Sharon |chapter=The Early Bronze Age on the Plateau |in1=McMahon |in2=Steadman |year=2012 |pages=229–259}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0010}}
** {{harvc |last1=Michel |first1=Cécile |chapter=The Kārum Period on the Plateau |in1=McMahon |in2=Steadman |year=2012 |pages=313–336}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0013}}
** {{harvc |last1=Khatchadourian |first1=Lori |chapter=The Iron Age in Eastern Anatolia |in1=McMahon |in2=Steadman |year=2012 |pages=464–499}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0020}}
** {{harvc |last1=Greaves |first1=Alan M. |chapter=The Greeks in Western Anatolia |in1=McMahon |in2=Steadman |year=2012 |pages=500–514}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0021}}
** {{harvc |last1=Beckman |first1=Gary |chapter=The Hittite Language: Recovery and Grammatical Sketch |in1=McMahon |in2=Steadman |year=2012 |pages=517–533}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0022}}
** {{harvc |last1=Yakubovich |first1=Ilya |chapter=Luwian and the Luwians |in1=McMahon |in2=Steadman |year=2012 |pages=534–547}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0023}}
** {{harvc |last1=Zimansky |first1=Paul |chapter=Urartian and the Urartians |in1=McMahon |in2=Steadman |year=2012 |pages=548–559}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0024}}
** {{harvc |last1=Sams |first1=G. Kenneth |chapter=Anatolia: The First Millennium B.C.E. in Historical Context |in1=McMahon |in2=Steadman |year=2012 |pages=604–622}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0027}}
** {{harvc |last1=Melchert |first1=H. Craig |chapter=Indo-Europeans |in1=McMahon |in2=Steadman |year=2012 |pages=704–716}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0031}}
** {{harvc |last1=Jablonka |first1=Peter |chapter=Troy in Regional and International Context |in1=McMahon |in2=Steadman |year=2012 |pages=717–733}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0032}}
** {{harvc |last1=Harl |first1=Kenneth W. |chapter=The Greeks in Anatolia: From the Migrations to Alexander the Great |in1=McMahon |in2=Steadman |year=2012 |pages=752–774}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0034}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=McNeill |editor1-first=J. R. |editor1-link=J. R. McNeill |editor2-last=Pomeranz |editor2-first=Kenneth |editor2-link=Kenneth Pomeranz |date=2015 |series=] |volume=7 |title=Production, Destruction and Connection, 1750-Present, Part 1, Structures, Spaces, and Boundary Making |publisher=] |issue=1 |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139196079 |isbn=978-1-108-40775-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SRL0CAAAQBAJ}}
** {{harvc |last1=Levene |first1=Mark |author1-link=Mark Levene |chapter=Genocide |pp=420–440 |in1=McNeill |in2=Pomeranz |year=2015 |author-link1=Mark Levene}}
* {{cite book |editor= Merriam-Webster, Inc |year=1997 |title=Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary |isbn=978-0-87779-546-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Co_VIPIJerIC |publisher=Merriam-Webster}}
* {{cite book | last1=Mitchell | first1=Stephen | title=Anatolia: Land, Men, and Gods in Asia Minor Volume I: The Celts and the Impact of Roman Rule |publisher=Clarendon Press |year=1995 | isbn=978-0-19-815029-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RpjunQEACAAJ |author-link1=Stephen Mitchell (historian)}}
* {{cite report |ref={{harvid|OECD Taking stock of education reforms for access and quality in Türkiye|2023}} |url=https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/docserver/5ea7657e-en.pdf?expires=1716318314&id=id&accname=guest&checksum=226A1C567787D096D48B8815985C91BE |title=Taking stock of education reforms for access and quality in Türkiye |author=OECD |year=2023 |doi=10.1787/5ea7657e-en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240521185110/https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/docserver/5ea7657e-en.pdf?expires=1716318314&id=id&accname=guest&checksum=226A1C567787D096D48B8815985C91BE |archive-date=21 May 2024 |url-status=live |series=OECD Education Policy Perspectives |volume=68 |publisher=OECD Publishing |location=Paris}}
* {{cite book |last=Özbek |first=Çağlar |title=LGBT+ Studies in Turkey |publisher=Transnational Press London |year=2019 | isbn=978-1-912997-11-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7XyFDwAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Özerdem |editor-first1=Alpaslan |editor-last2=Öztürk |editor-first2=Ahmet Erdi |year=2023 |title=A Companion to Modern Turkey's Centennial: Political, Sociological, Economic and Institutional Transformations since 1923 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-1-4744-9254-6 |doi=10.1515/9781474492546 }}
** {{harvc |last1=Hale |first1=William |chapter=Foreword |in1=Özerdem |in2=Öztürk |year=2023 |pages=xii–xv}}
* {{cite book | last1=Peacock | first1=A. C. S. | title=The Great Seljuk Empire | publisher=Edinburgh University Press | publication-place=Edinburgh | year=2015 | isbn=978-0-7486-3827-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hAndCQAAQBAJ |author-link1=A. C. S. Peacock}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|url= http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/forced-ethnic-migration/berna-pekesen-expulsion-and-emigration-of-the-muslims-from-the-balkans |title= Expulsion and Emigration of the Muslims from the Balkans |last= Pekesen |first= Berna |date= 7 March 2012 |encyclopedia=] |publisher=] |access-date=20 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240220192047/http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/forced-ethnic-migration/berna-pekesen-expulsion-and-emigration-of-the-muslims-from-the-balkans |archive-date=20 February 2024|url-status=live}}
* {{cite report |ref={{harvid|ISMEP Guide Books 4|2014}} |year=2014 |title=Retrofitting and Reconstruction Works |series=ISMEP Guide Books |volume=4 |url=https://www.ipkb.gov.tr/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/ISMEP4_GUCLENDIRME_EN140214.pdf |access-date=23 April 2024}}
* {{cite book |last1=Sagona |first1=Antonio |last2=Zimansky |first2=Paul |title=Ancient Turkey |publisher=Routledge |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-134-44027-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SsLKBgAAQBAJ |doi=10.4324/9780203880463 |author-link1=Antonio Sagona}}
* {{cite book | last=Somel | first=S.A. | title=The A to Z of the Ottoman Empire | publisher=Scarecrow Press | series=The A to Z Guide Series | year=2010 | isbn=978-1-4617-3176-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UU8iCY0OZmcC}}
* {{cite book | last1=Stokes | first1=Martin | title=The Republic of Love: Cultural Intimacy in Turkish Popular Music |year=2010 |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |series=Chicago Studies in Ethnomusicology |isbn=978-0-226-77506-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uwnpAkCTo88C |author-link1=Martin Stokes}}
* {{cite report |url=https://shura.org.tr/en/energy-pricing-and-non-market-flows-in-turkeys-energy-sector/ |title=Energy pricing and non-market flows in Turkey's energy sector |last1=Taranto |first1=Yael |last2=Saygın |first2=Değer |others=Metin Koşar |year=2019 |url-status=live|archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806205126/https://www.shura.org.tr/energy_pricing_and_non-market_flows_in_turkeys_energy_sector-2/}}
* {{cite book | editor-last1=Tasar | editor-first1=Eren | editor-last2=Frank | editor-first2=Allen J. | editor-last3=Eden | editor-first3=Jeff | title=From the Khan's Oven: Studies on the History of Central Asian Religions in Honor of Devin Deweese | publisher=BRILL | year=2021 | isbn=978-90-04-47018-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4stKEAAAQBAJ |doi=10.1163/9789004471177}}
** {{harvc |last1=Golden |first1=Peter B. |chapter=Reflections on the Ethnonym Türk |in1=Tasar |in2=Frank |in3=Eden |year=2021 |pages=1–50 |author-link1=Peter Benjamin Golden}} {{doi|10.1163/9789004471177_002}}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Tockner | editor-first1=Klement | editor-last2=Zarfl | editor-first2=Christiane | editor-last3=Robinson | editor-first3=Christopher T. |title=Rivers of Europe |edition=2nd |year=2022 |doi=10.1016/C2017-0-03745-X |isbn=978-0-08-102612-0 }}
** {{harvc |last1=Akbulut |first1=Nuray (Emir) |last2=Bayarı |first2=Serdar |last3=Akbulut |first3=Aydın |last4=Özyurt |first4=Naciye Nur |last5=Sahin |first5=Yalcın |chapter=Rivers of Turkey |in1=Tockner |in2=Zarfl |in3=Robinson |year=2022 |pages=853–882}} {{doi|10.1016/B978-0-08-102612-0.00021-3}}
* {{cite report |ref={{harvid|KONDA|2006}} |url=http://www.konda.com.tr/tr/raporlar/2006_09_KONDA_Toplumsal_Yapi.pdf |title=Toplumsal Yapı Araştırması 2006 |date=2006 |publisher=] |access-date=21 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215004933/http://www.konda.com.tr/tr/raporlar/2006_09_KONDA_Toplumsal_Yapi.pdf |archive-date=15 February 2017}}
* {{cite book | last1=van den Hout | first1=Theo | title=The Elements of Hittite | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2011 | isbn=978-0-521-13300-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C |author-link1=Theo van den Hout}}
* {{Cite report |author=World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) |year=2024 |title=Global Innovation Index 2024: Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship |url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2024/assets/67729/2000%20Global%20Innovation%20Index%202024_WEB3lite.pdf |location=Geneva |publisher=WIPO |doi=10.34667/tind.50062 |author-link=World Intellectual Property Organization}}
* {{cite report |ref={{harvid|World Bank Türkiye - Country Climate and Development Report|2022}} |author=World Bank Group |url=http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099006106072221642/pdf/P177479041cc100c80bacc031005338a440.pdf | hdl=10986/37521 | title=Türkiye - Country Climate and Development Report | year=2022 |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=World Bank Group |access-date =5 May 2024 |url-status =live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240505172225/https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099006106072221642/pdf/P177479041cc100c80bacc031005338a440.pdf |archive-date =5 May 2024 |author-link=World Bank Group}}
{{refend}}


==External links== ==External links==
{{Sister project links|Turkey}} {{Sister project links|Turkey}}
'''General'''
*
*
* {{CIA_World_Factbook link|tu|Turkey}}
* {{OSM relation|174737}}
* from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''
'''Tourism'''
* {{Dmoz|Regional/Middle_East/Turkey}}
* from the ]
* at '']''
* {{Wikiatlas|Turkey}} * {{Wikiatlas|Turkey}}
* *
*
*
*
* {{Wikivoyage-inline}}
'''Government'''
{{osmrelation-inline|174737}}
*
* from ]
*
'''Economy'''
*

{{Turkey topics}} {{Turkey topics}}
{{Navboxes {{Navboxes
|title = Geographic locale |title = Articles related to Turkey
|list = |list =
{{Countries of Asia}}
{{Sovereign states of Europe}} {{Sovereign states of Europe}}
{{Countries of Asia}}
{{Middle East}}
{{Countries and territories bordering the Mediterranean Sea}}
{{Countries bordering the Black Sea}}
{{Balkan countries}}
}}
{{Navboxes
|title = International organisations
|list =
{{G20}}
{{Council of Europe}} {{Council of Europe}}
{{Organization of Turkic States}}
{{European Union candidates}}
{{Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development}}
{{North Atlantic Treaty Organization}}
{{UN Security Council}}
{{OSCE}}
{{Black Sea Naval Co-operation Task Group}}
{{Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation}}
{{World Trade Organization}}
{{Economic Cooperation Organization}} {{Economic Cooperation Organization}}
{{Organization of Islamic Cooperation}}
{{Union for the Mediterranean}}
{{Shanghai Cooperation Organization}}
{{Organisation of Islamic Cooperation}}
{{TURKSOY}} {{TURKSOY}}
{{Turkic Council}} {{Black Sea}}
}} }}
{{Authority control}}
{{Navboxes
|title = Other associations
|list =
{{Turkic-speaking regions}}
{{Global economic classifications}}
<div class="center">
] {{·}} ]
</div>
}}

<!--{{Link FA|ja}}-->


] ]
] ]
] ]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
] ]
] ]
]
] ]
] ]
]
] ]
] ]
] ]
] ]
] ]
]
]
]

]
{{Link GA|fi}}
]
{{Link FA|hr}}
]
{{Link FA|hu}}
]
{{Link FA|ka}}
]
{{Link FA|lv}}
{{Link FA|mk}}
{{Link FA|pt}}
{{Link FA|tt}}
{{Link GA|ar}}

]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]

Latest revision as of 16:06, 19 December 2024

Country in West Asia and Southeast Europe This article is about the country. For the bird, see Turkey (bird). For other uses, see Turkey (disambiguation). "Türkiye" redirects here. For other uses, see Türkiye (disambiguation).

Republic of TürkiyeTürkiye Cumhuriyeti (Turkish)
Flag of Turkey Flag
Anthem: 
İstiklal Marşı
"Independence March"
Location of Turkey
CapitalAnkara
39°55′N 32°51′E / 39.917°N 32.850°E / 39.917; 32.850
Largest cityIstanbul
41°1′N 28°57′E / 41.017°N 28.950°E / 41.017; 28.950
Official languagesTurkish
Spoken languages
  • Predominantly Turkish
List
Ethnic groups (2016)
Demonym(s)
  • Turkish
  • Turk
GovernmentUnitary presidential republic
• President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan
• Vice President Cevdet Yılmaz
• Assembly Speaker Numan Kurtulmuş
• Chief Justice Kadir Özkaya
LegislatureGrand National Assembly
Establishment
• Ottoman Empire c. 1299
• War of Independence 19 May 1919
• Government of the Grand National Assembly 23 April 1920
• Sultanate abolished 1 November 1922
• Treaty of Lausanne 24 July 1923
• Republic declared 29 October 1923
• Current constitution 9 November 1982
Area
• Total783,562 km (302,535 sq mi) (36th)
• Water (%)2.03
Population
• December 2023 estimateNeutral increase 85,372,377 (17th)
• Density111/km (287.5/sq mi) (83rd)
GDP (PPP)2024 estimate
• TotalIncrease $3.457 trillion (12th)
• Per capitaIncrease $40,283 (54th)
GDP (nominal)2024 estimate
• TotalIncrease $1.344 trillion (17th)
• Per capitaIncrease $15,666 (64th)
Gini (2019)Steady 41.9
medium inequality
HDI (2022)Increase 0.855
very high (45th)
CurrencyTurkish lira () (TRY)
Time zoneUTC+3 (TRT)
Calling code+90
ISO 3166 codeTR
Internet TLD.tr

Turkey, officially the Republic of Türkiye, is a country mainly located in Anatolia in West Asia, with a smaller part called East Thrace in Southeast Europe. It borders the Black Sea to the north; Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Iran to the east; Iraq, Syria, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south; and the Aegean Sea, Greece, and Bulgaria to the west. Turkey is home to over 85 million people; most are ethnic Turks, while ethnic Kurds are the largest ethnic minority. Officially a secular state, Turkey has a Muslim-majority population. Ankara is Turkey's capital and second-largest city, while Istanbul is its largest city and economic and financial center. Other major cities include İzmir, Bursa, and Antalya.

Turkey was first inhabited by modern humans during the Late Paleolithic. Home to important Neolithic sites like Göbekli Tepe and some of the earliest farming areas, present-day Turkey was inhabited by various ancient peoples. The Hattians were assimilated by the Anatolian peoples, such as the Hittites. Classical Anatolia transitioned into cultural Hellenization following the conquests of Alexander the Great; Hellenization continued during the Roman and Byzantine eras. The Seljuk Turks began migrating into Anatolia in the 11th century, starting the Turkification process. The Seljuk Sultanate of Rum ruled Anatolia until the Mongol invasion in 1243, when it disintegrated into Turkish principalities. Beginning in 1299, the Ottomans united the principalities and expanded. Mehmed II conquered Constantinople (now known as Istanbul) in 1453. During the reigns of Selim I and Suleiman the Magnificent, the Ottoman Empire became a global power. From 1789 onwards, the empire saw a major transformation, reforms, and centralization while its territory declined.

In the 19th and early 20th centuries, persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction and in the Russian Empire resulted in large-scale loss of life and mass migration into modern-day Turkey from the Balkans, Caucasus, and Crimea. Under the control of the Three Pashas, the Ottoman Empire entered World War I in 1914, during which the Ottoman government committed genocides against its Armenian, Greek, and Assyrian subjects. Following Ottoman defeat, the Turkish War of Independence resulted in the abolition of the sultanate and the signing of the Treaty of Lausanne. The Republic was proclaimed on 29 October 1923, modelled on the reforms initiated by the country's first president, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. Turkey remained neutral during most of World War II, but was involved in the Korean War. Several military interventions interfered with the transition to a multi-party system.

Turkey is an upper-middle-income and emerging country; its economy is the world's 17th-largest by nominal and 12th-largest by PPP-adjusted GDP. It is a unitary presidential republic. Turkey is a founding member of the OECD, G20, and Organization of Turkic States. With a geopolitically significant location, Turkey is a regional power and an early member of NATO. An EU candidate, Turkey is part of the EU Customs Union, CoE, OIC, and TURKSOY.

Turkey has coastal plains, a high central plateau, and various mountain ranges; its climate is temperate with harsher conditions in the interior. Home to three biodiversity hotspots, Turkey is prone to frequent earthquakes and is highly vulnerable to climate change. Turkey has a universal healthcare system, growing access to education, and increasing levels of innovativeness. It is a leading TV content exporter. With 21 UNESCO World Heritage sites, 30 UNESCO intangible cultural heritage inscriptions, and a rich and diverse cuisine, Turkey is the fifth most visited country in the world.

Etymology

Turchia, meaning "the land of the Turks", had begun to be used in European texts for Anatolia by the end of the 12th century. As a word in Turkic languages, Turk may mean "strong, strength, ripe" or "flourishing, in full strength". It may also mean ripe as in for a fruit or "in the prime of life, young, and vigorous" for a person. As an ethnonym, the etymology is still unknown. In addition to usage in languages such as Chinese in the 6th century, the earliest mention of Turk (𐱅𐰇𐰺𐰜, türü̲k̲; or 𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰚, türk/tẄrk) in Turkic languages comes from the Second Turkic Khaganate.

In Byzantine sources in the 10th century, the name Tourkia was used for defining two medieval states: Hungary (Western Tourkia); and Khazaria (Eastern Tourkia). The Mamluk Sultanate, with its ruling elite of Turkic origin, was called the "State of the Turks" (Dawlat at-Turk, or Dawlat al-Atrāk, or Dawlat-at-Turkiyya). Turkestan, also meaning the "land of the Turks", was used for a historic region in Central Asia.

Middle English usage of Turkye or Turkeye is found in The Book of the Duchess (written in 1369–1372) to refer to Anatolia or the Ottoman Empire. The modern spelling Turkey dates back to at least 1719. The bird called turkey was named as such due to trade of guineafowl from Turkey to England. The name Turkey has been used in international treaties referring to the Ottoman Empire. With the Treaty of Alexandropol, the name Türkiye entered international documents for the first time. In the treaty signed with Afghanistan in 1921, the expression Devlet-i Âliyye-i Türkiyye ("Sublime Turkish State") was used, likened to the Ottoman Empire's name.

In December 2021, President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan called for expanded official usage of Türkiye, saying that Türkiye "represents and expresses the culture, civilization, and values of the Turkish nation in the best way". In May 2022, the Turkish government requested the United Nations and other international organizations to use Türkiye officially in English; the UN agreed.

History

Main article: History of Turkey See also: History of Anatolia, History of Thrace, and Ancient regions of Anatolia

Prehistory and ancient history

Main articles: Prehistory of Anatolia and Prehistory of Southeast Europe See also: Hattians, Hittites, Luwians, and Pala (Anatolia) Some henges at Göbekli Tepe were erected as far back as 9600 BC, predating those of Stonehenge by over seven millennia.The Sphinx Gate of Hattusa, the capital of the Hittites

Present-day Turkey has been inhabited by modern humans since the late Paleolithic period and contains some of the world's oldest Neolithic sites. Göbekli Tepe is close to 12,000 years old. Parts of Anatolia include the Fertile Crescent, an origin of agriculture. Other important Anatolian Neolithic sites include Çatalhöyük and Alaca Höyük. Neolithic Anatolian farmers differed genetically from farmers in Iran and Jordan Valley. These early Anatolian farmers also migrated into Europe, starting around 9,000 years ago. Troy's earliest layers go back to around 4500 BC.

Anatolia's historical records start with clay tablets from approximately around 2000 BC that were found in modern-day Kültepe. These tablets belonged to an Assyrian trade colony. The languages in Anatolia at that time included Hattian, Hurrian, Hittite, Luwian, and Palaic. Hattian was a language indigenous to Anatolia, with no known modern-day connections. Hurrian language was used in northern Syria. Hittite, Palaic, and Luwian languages were "the oldest written Indo-European languages", forming the Anatolian sub-group.

Hattian rulers were gradually replaced by Hittite rulers. The Hittite kingdom was a large kingdom in Central Anatolia, with its capital of Hattusa. It co-existed in Anatolia with Palaians and Luwians, approximately between 1700 and 1200 BC. As the Hittite kingdom was disintegrating, further waves of Indo-European peoples migrated from southeastern Europe, which was followed by warfare. The Thracians were also present in modern-day Turkish Thrace. It is not known if the Trojan War is based on historical events. Troy's Late Bronze Age layers matches most with Iliad's story.

Early classical antiquity

Main article: Classical Anatolia See also: Phrygia, Lydia, Lycia, Caria, Urartu, Achaemenid Empire, and Hellenistic period
Lycian Way is a 760 kilometers (470 mi) long hiking path in Southwestern Turkey.

Around 750 BC, Phrygia had been established, with its two centers in Gordium and modern-day Kayseri. Phrygians spoke an Indo-European language, which was closer to Greek than Anatolian languages. Phrygians shared Anatolia with Neo-Hittites and Urartu. Luwian-speakers were probably the majority in various Anatolian Neo-Hittite states. Urartians spoke a non-Indo-European language and their capital was around Lake Van. Urartu and Phrygia fell in seventh century BC. They were replaced by Carians, Lycians and Lydians. These three cultures "can be considered a reassertion of the ancient, indigenous culture of the Hattian cities of Anatolia".

Before 1200 BC, there were four Greek-speaking settlements in Anatolia, including Miletus. Around 1000 BC, Greeks started migrating to the west coast of Anatolia. These eastern Greek settlements played a vital role in shaping the Archaic Greek civilization; important cities included Miletus, Ephesus, Halicarnassus, Smyrna (now İzmir) and Byzantium (now Istanbul), the latter founded by colonists from Megara in the seventh century BCE. These settlements were grouped as Aeolis, Ionia, and Doris, after the specific Greek groups that settled them. Further Greek colonization in Anatolia was led by Miletus and Megara in 750–480 BC. The Greek cities along the Aegean prospered with trade, and saw remarkable scientific and scholarly accomplishments. Thales and Anaximander from Miletus founded the Ionian School of philosophy, thereby laying the foundations of rationalism and Western philosophy.

The Library of Celsus in Ephesus was built by the Romans in 114–117.

Cyrus attacked eastern Anatolia in 547 BC, and Achaemenid Empire eventually expanded into western Anatolia. In the east, the Armenian province was part of the Achaemenid Empire. Following the Greco-Persian Wars, the Greek city-states of the Anatolian Aegean coast regained independence, but most of the interior stayed part of the Achaemenid Empire. Two of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, and the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, were located in Anatolia.

Following the victories of Alexander in 334 BC and 333 BC, the Achaemenid Empire collapsed and Anatolia became part of the Macedonian Empire. This led to increasing cultural homogeneity and Hellenization of the Anatolian interior, which met resistance in some places. Following Alexander's death, the Seleucids ruled large parts of Anatolia, while native Anatolian states emerged in the Marmara and Black Sea areas. In eastern Anatolia, the kingdom of Armenia appeared. In third century BC, Celts invaded central Anatolia and continued as a major ethnic group in the area for around 200 years. They were known as the Galatians.

Rome and Byzantine Empire

Main articles: Classical Anatolia and Byzantine Anatolia See also: Roman Republic, Roman Empire, Christianity in Turkey, and Byzantine Empire
The Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire in 555 under Justinian the Great, at its greatest extent

When Pergamon requested assistance in its conflict with the Seleucids, Rome intervened in Anatolia in the second century BC. Without an heir, Pergamum's king left the kingdom to Rome, which was annexed as province of Asia. Roman influence grew in Anatolia afterwards. Following Asiatic Vespers massacre, and Mithridatic Wars with Pontus, Rome emerged victorious. Around the 1st century BC, Rome expanded into parts of Pontus and Bithynia, while turning rest of Anatolian states into Roman satellites. Several conflicts with Parthians ensued, with peace and wars alternating.

According to Acts of the Apostles, early Christian Church had significant growth in Anatolia because of St Paul's efforts. Letters from St. Paul in Anatolia comprise the oldest Christian literature. Under Roman authority, ecumenical councils such as Council of Nicaea (Iznik) in 325 served as a guide for developing "orthodox expressions of basic Christian teachings".

The Hagia Sophia in Constantinople (now Istanbul) was built by the Eastern Roman emperor Justinian the Great in 532–537.

The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centered in Constantinople during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages. The eastern half of the Empire survived the conditions that caused the fall of the West in the 5th century AD, and continued to exist until the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire remained the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in the Mediterranean world. The term Byzantine Empire was only coined following the empire's demise; its citizens referred to the polity as the "Roman Empire" and to themselves as Romans. Due to the imperial seat's move from Rome to Byzantium, the adoption of Christianity as the state religion, and the predominance of Greek instead of Latin, modern historians continue to make a distinction between the earlier Roman Empire and the later Byzantine Empire.

In the early Byzantine Empire period, the Anatolian coastal areas were Greek speaking. In addition to natives, interior Anatolia had diverse groups such as Goths, Celts, Persians and Jews. Interior Anatolia had been "heavily Hellenized". Anatolian languages eventually became extinct after Hellenization of Anatolia.

Seljuks and Anatolian beyliks

Main articles: Seljuk Empire, Sultanate of Rum, and Anatolian beyliks Further information: Turkic migration, Oghuz Turks, and Turkification Turkey is located in Seljuk Empire1090GHAZNAVID
EMPIRE
KIPCHAKSPECHENEGSFATIMID
CALIPHATE
UYUNIDSGEORGIABYZANTINE
EMPIRE
RUMYADAVASKARAKHANID KHANATE class=notpageimage| Seljuk Empire circa 1090, during the reign of Malik Shah I. To the west, Anatolia was under the independent rule of Suleiman ibn Qutalmish as the Sultanate of Rum.

According to historians and linguists, the Proto-Turkic language originated in Central-East Asia. Initially, Proto-Turkic speakers were potentially both hunter-gatherers and farmers; they later became nomadic pastoralists. Early and medieval Turkic groups exhibited a wide range of both East Asian and West-Eurasian physical appearances and genetic origins, in part through long-term contact with neighboring peoples such as Iranic, Mongolic, Tocharian, Uralic, and Yeniseian peoples. During the 9th and 10th centuries CE, the Oghuz were a Turkic group that lived in the Caspian and Aral steppes. Partly due to pressure from the Kipchaks, the Oghuz migrated into Iran and Transoxiana. They mixed with Iranic-speaking groups in the area and converted to Islam. Oghuz Turks were also known as Turkoman.

A map of independent Turkish principalities in Anatolia during the 14th century

The Seljuks originated from the Kınık branch of the Oghuz Turks who resided in the Yabgu Khaganate. In 1040, the Seljuks defeated the Ghaznavids at the Battle of Dandanaqan and established the Seljuk Empire in Greater Khorasan. Baghdad, the Abbasid Caliphate's capital and center of the Islamic world, was taken by Seljuks in 1055. Given the role Khurasani traditions played in art, culture, and political traditions in the empire, the Seljuk period is described as a mixture of "Turkish, Persian and Islamic influences". In the latter half of the 11th century, the Seljuk Turks began penetrating into medieval Armenia and Anatolia. At the time, Anatolia was a diverse and largely Greek-speaking region after previously being Hellenized.

The Seljuk Turks defeated the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, and later established the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum. During this period, there were also Turkish principalities such as Danishmendids. Seljuk arrival started the Turkification process in Anatolia; there were Turkic/Turkish migrations, intermarriages, and conversions into Islam. The shift took several centuries and happened gradually. Members of Islamic mysticism orders, such as Mevlevi Order, played a role in the Islamization of the diverse people of Anatolia. Seljuk expansion was one of the reasons for the Crusades. In 13th century, there was a second significant wave of Turkic migration, as people fled Mongol expansion. Seljuk sultanate was defeated by the Mongols at the Battle of Köse Dağ in 1243 and disappeared by the beginning of the 14th century. It was replaced by various Turkish principalities.

Ottoman Empire

Main article: Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire at its greatest European extent, in 1683, during the Battle of Vienna

Based around Söğüt, Ottoman Beylik was founded by Osman I in the early 14th century. According to Ottoman chroniclers, Osman descended from the Kayı tribe of the Oghuz Turks. Ottomans started annexing the nearby Turkish beyliks (principalities) in Anatolia and expanded into the Balkans. Mehmed II completed Ottoman conquest of the Byzantine Empire by capturing its capital, Constantinople, on 29 May 1453. Selim I united Anatolia under Ottoman rule. Turkification continued as Ottomans mixed with various indigenous people in Anatolia and the Balkans.

The Ottoman Empire was a global power during the reigns of Selim I and Suleiman the Magnificent. In the 16th and 17th centuries, Sephardic Jews moved into Ottoman Empire following their expulsion from Spain. From the second half of the 18th century onwards, the Ottoman Empire began to decline. The Tanzimat reforms, initiated by Mahmud II in 1839, aimed to modernize the Ottoman state in line with the progress that had been made in Western Europe. The Ottoman constitution of 1876 was the first among Muslim states, but was short-lived.

Topkapı Palace and Dolmabahçe Palace were the primary residences of the Ottoman sultans in Istanbul between 1465 and 1856 and 1856 to 1922, respectively.

As the empire gradually shrank in size, military power and wealth; especially after the Ottoman economic crisis and default in 1875 which led to uprisings in the Balkan provinces that culminated in the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878). The decline of the Ottoman Empire led to a rise in nationalist sentiment among its various subject peoples, leading to increased ethnic tensions which occasionally burst into violence, such as the Hamidian massacres of Armenians, which claimed up to 300,000 lives. Ottoman territories in Europe (Rumelia) were lost in the First Balkan War (1912–1913). Ottomans managed to recover some territory in Europe, such as Edirne, in the Second Balkan War (1913).

In the 19th and early 20th centuries, persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction and in the Russian Empire resulted in estimated 5 million deaths, with the casualties including Turks. Five to seven or seven to nine million refugees migrated into modern-day Turkey from the Balkans, Caucasus, Crimea, and Mediterranean islands, shifting the center of the Ottoman Empire to Anatolia. In addition to a small number of Jews, the refugees were overwhelmingly Muslim; they were both Turkish and non-Turkish people, such as Circassians and Crimean Tatars. Paul Mojzes has called the Balkan Wars an "unrecognized genocide", where multiple sides were both victims and perpetrators. Circassian refugees included the survivors of the Circassian genocide.

Following the 1913 coup d'état, the Three Pashas took control of the Ottoman government. The Ottoman Empire entered World War I on the side of the Central Powers and was ultimately defeated. During the war, the empire's Armenian subjects were deported to Syria as part of the Armenian genocide. As a result, an estimated 600,000 to more than 1 million, or up to 1.5 million Armenians were killed. The Turkish government has refused to acknowledge the events as genocide and states that Armenians were only "relocated" from the eastern war zone. Genocidal campaigns were also committed against the empire's other minority groups such as the Assyrians and Greeks. Following the Armistice of Mudros in 1918, the victorious Allied Powers sought the partition of the Ottoman Empire through the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres.

Republic of Türkiye

Main article: History of the Republic of Turkey
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the founder and the first President of the Turkish Republic

The occupation of Istanbul (1918) and İzmir (1919) by the Allies in the aftermath of World War I initiated the Turkish National Movement. Under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Pasha, a military commander who had distinguished himself during the Battle of Gallipoli, the Turkish War of Independence (1919–1923) was waged with the aim of revoking the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres (1920).

The Turkish Provisional Government in Ankara, which had declared itself the legitimate government of the country on 23 April 1920, started to formalize the legal transition from the old Ottoman into the new Republican political system. The Ankara Government engaged in armed and diplomatic struggle. In 1921–1923, the Armenian, Greek, French, and British armies had been expelled. The military advance and diplomatic success of the Ankara Government resulted in the signing of the Armistice of Mudanya on 11 October 1922. On 1 November 1922, the Turkish Parliament in Ankara formally abolished the Sultanate, thus ending 623 years of monarchical Ottoman rule.

The Treaty of Lausanne of 24 July 1923, which superseded the Treaty of Sèvres, led to the international recognition of the sovereignty of the new Turkish state as the successor state of the Ottoman Empire. On 4 October 1923, the Allied occupation of Turkey ended with the withdrawal of the last Allied troops from Istanbul. The Turkish Republic was officially proclaimed on 29 October 1923 in Ankara, the country's new capital. The Lausanne Convention stipulated a population exchange between Greece and Turkey.

Anıtkabir in Ankara was completed in 1953 to become the mausoleum of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk

Mustafa Kemal became the republic's first president and introduced many reforms. The reforms aimed to transform the old religion-based and multi-communal Ottoman monarchy into a Turkish nation state that would be governed as a parliamentary republic under a secular constitution. Women gained the right to vote nationally in 1934. With the Surname Law, the Turkish Parliament bestowed upon Kemal the honorific surname "Atatürk" (Father Turk). Atatürk's reforms caused discontent in some Kurdish and Zaza tribes leading to the Sheikh Said rebellion in 1925 and the Dersim rebellion in 1937.

İsmet İnönü became the country's second president following Atatürk's death in 1938. In 1939, the Republic of Hatay voted in favor of joining Turkey with a referendum. Turkey remained neutral during almost all of World War II, but entered the war on the side of the Allies on 23 February 1945. Later that year, Turkey became a charter member of the United Nations. In 1950 Turkey became a member of the Council of Europe. After fighting as part of the UN forces in the Korean War, Turkey joined NATO in 1952, becoming a bulwark against Soviet expansion into the Mediterranean.

Tansu Çiller, Turkey's first female prime minister, attends a European Commission meeting in January 1994

Military coups or memorandums, which happened in 1960, 1971, 1980, and 1997, complicated Turkey's transition to a democratic multiparty system. Between 1960 and the end of the 20th century, the prominent leaders in Turkish politics who achieved multiple election victories were Süleyman Demirel, Bülent Ecevit and Turgut Özal. PKK started a "campaign of terrorist attacks on civilian and military targets" in the 1980s. It is designated as a terrorist organization by Turkey, the United States, and the European Union. Tansu Çiller became the first female prime minister of Turkey in 1993. Turkey applied for full membership of the EEC in 1987, joined the European Union Customs Union in 1995 and started accession negotiations with the European Union in 2005. Customs Union had an important impact on the Turkish manufacturing sector.

In 2014, prime minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan won Turkey's first direct presidential election. On 15 July 2016, an unsuccessful coup attempt tried to oust the government. According to the Turkish government, there are 13,251 arrested or convicted people in jail as of 2024, related to the 2016 coup attempt. With a referendum in 2017, the parliamentary republic was replaced by an executive presidential system. The office of the prime minister was abolished, and its powers and duties were transferred to the president. On the referendum day, while the voting was still underway, the Supreme Electoral Council lifted a rule that required each ballot to have an official stamp. The opposition parties claimed that as many as 2.5 million ballots without a stamp were accepted as valid.

Administrative divisions

Main article: Administrative divisions of Turkey Further information: Regions of Turkey and NUTS of Turkey

Turkey has a unitary structure in terms of public administration, and the provinces are subordinate to the central government in Ankara. In province centers the government is represented by the province governors (vali) and in towns by the governors (kaymakam). Other senior public officials are also appointed by the central government, except for the mayors (belediye başkanı) who are elected by the constituents. Turkish municipalities have local legislative bodies (belediye meclisi) for decision-making on municipal issues.

Turkey is subdivided into 81 provinces (il or vilayet) for administrative purposes. Each province is divided into districts (ilçe), for a total of 973 districts. Turkey is also subdivided into 7 regions (bölge) and 21 subregions for geographic, demographic and economic measurements, surveys and classifications; this does not refer to an administrative division.

Ankara Kırklareli Edirne Tekirdağ Çanakkale Balıkesir Bursa Yalova Istanbul Kocaeli Sakarya Düzce Zonguldak Bolu Bilecik Eskişehir Kütahya Manisa İzmir Aydın Muğla Denizli Burdur Uşak Afyonkarahisar Isparta Antalya Konya Mersin Karaman Aksaray Kırşehir Kırıkkale Çankırı Karabük Bartın Kastamonu Sinop Çorum Yozgat Nevşehir Niğde Adana Hatay Osmaniye K. Maraş Kayseri Sivas Tokat Amasya Samsun Ordu Giresun Erzincan Malatya Gaziantep Kilis Şanlıurfa Adıyaman Gümüşhane Trabzon Rize Bayburt Erzurum Artvin Ardahan Kars Ağrı Iğdır Tunceli Elazığ Diyarbakır Mardin Batman Siirt Şırnak Bitlis Bingöl Muş Van Hakkâri

Government and politics

Main articles: Government of Turkey, Politics of Turkey, and Constitution of Turkey See also: Law enforcement in Turkey The Parliament of TurkeyThe Grand National Assembly,
the legislative chamber in AnkaraThe Presidential ComplexThe Presidential Complex, residence and workplace of the President of Turkey

Turkey is a presidential republic within a multi-party system. The current constitution was adopted in 1982. In the Turkish unitary system, citizens are subject to three levels of government: national, provincial, and local. The local government's duties are commonly split between municipal governments and districts, in which the executive and legislative officials are elected by a plurality vote of citizens by district. The government comprises three branches: first is the legislative branch, which is Grand National Assembly of Turkey; second is the executive branch, which is the President of Turkey; and third is the judicial branch, which includes the Constitutional Court, the Court of Cassation and Court of Jurisdictional Disputes.

The Parliament has 600 seats, distributed among the provinces proportionally to the population. The Parliament and the president serve a five-year terms, with elections on the same day. The president is elected by direct vote and cannot run for re-election after two terms, unless the parliament calls early presidential elections during the second term. The Constitutional Court is composed of 15 members, elected for single 12-year terms. They are obliged to retire when they are over the age of 65. Turkish politics have become increasingly associated with democratic backsliding, being described as a competitive authoritarian system.

Parties and elections

Main articles: Elections in Turkey, Political parties in Turkey, and Electoral cycle of Turkey
Results of the 2024 Turkish local elections

Elections in Turkey are held for six functions of government: presidential (national), parliamentary (national), municipality mayors (local), district mayors (local), provincial or municipal council members (local), and muhtars (local). Referendums are also held occasionally. Every Turkish citizen who has turned 18 has the right to vote and stand as a candidate at elections. Universal suffrage for both sexes has been applied throughout Turkey since 1934. In Turkey, turnout rates of both local and general elections are high compared to many other countries, which usually stands higher than 80%. President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan is currently serving as the head of state and head of government. Özgür Özel is the Main Opposition Leader. The last parliamentary and presidential elections were in 2023.

The Constitutional Court can strip the public financing of political parties that it deems anti-secular or having ties to terrorism, or ban their existence altogether. The electoral threshold for political parties at national level is seven percent of the votes. Smaller parties can avoid the electoral threshold by forming an alliance with other parties. Independent candidates are not subject to an electoral threshold.

On the right side of the Turkish political spectrum, parties like the Democrat Party, Justice Party, Motherland Party, and Justice and Development Party became the most popular political parties in Turkey, winning numerous elections. Turkish right-wing parties are more likely to embrace the principles of political ideologies such as conservatism, nationalism or Islamism. On the left side of the spectrum, parties like the Republican People's Party, Social Democratic Populist Party and Democratic Left Party once enjoyed the largest electoral success. Left-wing parties are more likely to embrace the principles of socialism, Kemalism or secularism.

Law

Main article: Judicial system of Turkey
The Court of Cassation is the final court for reviewing verdicts given by courts of criminal and civil justice.

With the founding of the Republic, Turkey adopted a civil law legal system, replacing Sharia-derived Ottoman law. The Civil Code, adopted in 1926, was based on the Swiss Civil Code of 1907 and the Swiss Code of Obligations of 1911. Although it underwent a number of changes in 2002, it retains much of the basis of the original Code. The Criminal Code, originally based on the Italian Criminal Code, was replaced in 2005 by a Code with principles similar to the German Penal Code and German law generally. Administrative law is based on the French equivalent and procedural law generally shows the influence of the Swiss, German and French legal systems. Islamic principles do not play a part in the legal system.

Law enforcement in Turkey is carried out by several agencies under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. These agencies are the General Directorate of Security, the Gendarmerie General Command and the Coast Guard Command. In the years of government by the Justice and Development Party and Erdoğan, particularly since 2013, the independence and integrity of the Turkish judiciary has increasingly been said to be in doubt by institutions, parliamentarians and journalists both within and outside of Turkey, because of political interference in the promotion of judges and prosecutors and in their pursuit of public duty.

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Turkey
Turkey has been a member of NATO since 1952, has its second largest army and is the host of the Allied Land Command headquarters.

Turkey's constant foreign policy goal is to pursue its national interests. These interests are mainly growing the economy, and maintaining security from internal terrorist and external threats. After the establishment of the Republic, Atatürk and İnönü followed the "peace at home, peace in the world" principle until the Cold War's start. Following threats from the Soviet Union, Turkey sought to ally with the United States and joined NATO in 1952. Overall, Turkey aims for good relations with Central Asia, the Caucasus, Russia, the Middle East, and Iran. With the West, Turkey also aims to keep its arrangements. By trading with the east and joining the EU, Turkey pursues economic growth. Turkey joined the European Union Customs Union in 1995, but its EU accession talks are frozen as of 2024.

Members and observers of the Organization of Turkic States

Turkey has been called an emerging power, a middle power, and a regional power. Turkey has sought closer relations with the Central Asian Turkic states after the breakup of the Soviet Union. Closer relations with Azerbaijan, a culturally close country, was achieved. Turkey is a founding member of the International Organization of Turkic Culture and Organization of Turkic States. It is also a member of Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, Council of Europe, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.

Following the Arab Spring, Turkey had problems with countries such as United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, and Egypt. Relations with these countries have improved since then. The exception is Syria, with which Turkey had cut its relations after the start of the Syrian civil war. There are disputes with Greece over maritime boundaries and with Cyprus.

In 2018, the Turkish military and the Turkish-backed forces began an operation in Syria aimed at ousting US-backed YPG (which Turkey considers to be an offshoot of the outlawed PKK) from the enclave of Afrin. Turkey has also conducted airstrikes in Iraqi Kurdistan, which was criticized by Iraq for violating its sovereignty and killing civilians. Diplomatic relations with Israel were damaged after the Gaza flotilla raid, normalized in 2016, and cut again following the Israeli invasion of the Gaza Strip. In 2024, Turkey stopped trading with Israel.

Military

Main article: Turkish Armed Forces See also: Turkish Land Forces, Turkish Naval Forces, and Turkish Air Force
The TAI TF Kaan is currently being produced by Turkish Aerospace Industries for the Turkish Air Force.

Turkish Armed Forces is responsible for defense against foreign threats. While the Commander-in-Chief is the President, General Staff, Air Force, Naval Force, and Land Force usually report to the Minister of National Defence. The Gendarmerie General Command and the Coast Guard Command are under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Interior. Military service is required for 6–12 months for men, which is reduced to one month after paying a fee. Turkey does not recognize conscientious objection and does not offer a civilian alternative to military service.

Baykar Kızılelma UCAV on TCG Anadolu

Turkey has the second-largest standing military force in NATO, after the United States, with an estimated strength of 890,700 military personnel as of February 2022. As part of the nuclear sharing policy of NATO, Turkey hosts approximately 20 United States B61 nuclear bombs at the Incirlik Air Base. The Turkish Armed Forces have a relatively substantial military presence abroad, with military bases in Albania, Iraq, Qatar, and Somalia. The country also maintains a force of 36,000 troops in Northern Cyprus since 1974.

Turkey has participated in international missions under the United Nations and NATO since the Korean War, including peacekeeping missions in Somalia, Yugoslavia and the Horn of Africa. It supported coalition forces in the First Gulf War, contributed military personnel to the International Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan, and remains active in Kosovo Force, Eurocorps and EU Battlegroups. As of 2016, Turkey has assisted Peshmerga forces in northern Iraq and the Somali Armed Forces with security and training.

Human rights

Main article: Human rights in Turkey
Women demonstrating and asking for non-interference with their clothing in Kadıköy, Istanbul

Article 2 of the Turkish Constitution includes references to upholding the rule of law and human rights. In the 2000s, legal changes were made for public use of and teaching in the Kurdish language. This included opening a Kurdish-language national TV channel. Various "openings" were made to address concerns of minorities such as Alevi, ethnic Kurds, and ethnic Romani people. Sentences for violence against women were strengthened.

In 2013, widespread protests erupted, sparked by a plan to demolish Gezi Park but soon growing into general anti-government dissent. On 20 May 2016, the Turkish parliament stripped almost a quarter of its members of immunity from prosecution, including 101 deputies from the pro-Kurdish HDP and the main opposition CHP party. According to the Committee to Protect Journalists, there are 13 jailed journalists in Turkey. In its 2023 report, the European Commission criticized how democratic institutions in Turkey operate. The criticism was rejected by Turkey. As of 2023, Turkey was the country with the highest number of European Court of Human Rights cases.

Istanbul Pride was organized in 2003 for the first time. Since 2015, parades in Istanbul have been denied permission by the government.

Prior to 1858, Ottoman Empire had "a lenient legal accommodation of same-sex intimacy". When prosecuted, the punishment was monetary fines. In 1858, the 1810 French Penal Code was adopted by the Ottomans, which had no penalties for same-sex intimacy that is private. Under the Republic, same sex acts have never been criminalized. However, LGBT people in Turkey face discrimination, harassment and even violence. In a survey conducted in 2016, 33% of respondents said that LGBT people should have equal rights, which increased to 45% in 2020. Another survey in 2018 found that the proportion of people who would not want a homosexual neighbor decreased from 55% in 2018 to 47% in 2019.

When the annual Istanbul Pride was inaugurated in 2003, Turkey became the first Muslim-majority country to hold a gay pride march. Since 2015, parades at Taksim Square and İstiklal Avenue have been denied government permission, citing security concerns, but hundreds of people have defied the ban each year. The bans were criticized.

Geography

Main article: Geography of Turkey See also: List of national parks of Turkey
Topographic map of Turkey

Turkey covers an area of 783,562 square kilometres (302,535 square miles). With Turkish straits and Sea of Marmara in between, Turkey bridges Western Asia and Southeastern Europe. Turkey's Asian side covers 97% of its surface, and is often called Anatolia. Another definition of Anatolia's eastern boundary is an imprecise line from the Black Sea to Gulf of Iskenderun. Eastern Thrace, Turkey's European side, includes around 10% of the population and covers 3% of the surface area. The country is encircled by seas on three sides: the Aegean Sea to the west, the Black Sea to the north and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Turkey is bordered by Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan and Iran to the east. To the south, it's bordered by Syria and Iraq. To the north, its Thracian area is bordered by Greece and Bulgaria.

Turkey is divided into "seven major regions": Marmara, Aegean, Central Anatolia, Black Sea, Eastern Anatolia, Southeastern Anatolia and the Mediterranean. As a general trend, the inland Anatolian Plateau becomes increasingly rugged as it progresses eastward. Mountain ranges include Köroğlu and Pontic mountain ranges to the north, and the Taurus Mountains to the south. The Lakes Region contains some of the largest lakes in Turkey such as Lake Beyşehir and Lake Eğirdir.

Tectonic map of Turkey. Straight lines and lines with triangles denote different types of faults, such as North Anatolian Fault and East Anatolian Fault.

Geographers have used the eastern Anatolian plateau, Iranian plateau, and Armenian plateau terms to refer to the mountainous area around where Arabian and Eurasian tectonic plates merge. The eastern Anatolian plateau and Armenian plateau definitions largely overlap. The Eastern Anatolia Region contains Mount Ararat, Turkey's highest point at 5,137 metres (16,854 feet), and Lake Van, the largest lake in the country. Eastern Turkey is home to the sources of rivers such as the Euphrates, Tigris and Aras. The Southeastern Anatolia Region includes the northern plains of Upper Mesopotamia.

Earthquakes happen frequently in Turkey. Almost the entire population lives in areas with varying seismic risk levels, with around 70% in highest or second-highest seismic areas. Anatolian plate is bordered by North Anatolian Fault zone to the north; East Anatolian Fault zone and Bitlis–Zagros collision zone to the east; Hellenic and Cyprus subduction zones to the south; and Aegean extensional zone to the west. After 1999 İzmit and 1999 Düzce earthquakes, North Anatolian Fault zone activity "is considered to be one of the most dangerous natural hazards in Turkey". 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquakes were the deadliest in contemporary Turkish history. Turkey is sometimes unfavorably compared to Chile, a country with a similar developmental level that is more successful with earthquake preparedness.

Biodiversity

Main articles: Wildlife of Turkey, Fauna of Turkey, and Flora and vegetation of Turkey See also: Environmental issues in Turkey
A white Turkish Angora cat with odd eyes (heterochromia), which is common among the Angoras

Turkey's position at the crossroads of the land, sea and air routes between the three Old World continents and the variety of the habitats across its geographical regions have produced considerable species diversity and a vibrant ecosystem. Out of the 36 biodiversity hotspots in the world, Turkey includes 3 of them. These are the Mediterranean, Irano-Anatolian, and Caucasus hotspots.

The forests of Turkey are home to the Turkey oak. The most commonly found species of the genus Platanus (plane) is the orientalis. The Turkish pine (Pinus brutia) is mostly found in Turkey and other east Mediterranean countries. Several wild species of tulip are native to Anatolia, and the flower was first introduced to Western Europe with species taken from the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.

There are 40 national parks, 189 nature parks, 31 nature preserve areas, 80 wildlife protection areas and 109 nature monuments in Turkey such as Gallipoli Peninsula Historical National Park, Mount Nemrut National Park, Ancient Troy National Park, Ölüdeniz Nature Park and Polonezköy Nature Park. The Northern Anatolian conifer and deciduous forests is an ecoregion which covers most of the Pontic Mountains in northern Turkey, while the Caucasus mixed forests extend across the eastern end of the range. The region is home to Eurasian wildlife such as the Eurasian sparrowhawk, golden eagle, eastern imperial eagle, lesser spotted eagle, Caucasian black grouse, red-fronted serin, and wallcreeper.

The Anatolian leopard is still found in very small numbers in the northeastern and southeastern regions of Turkey. The Eurasian lynx, the European wildcat and the caracal are other felid species which are found in the forests of Turkey. The Caspian tiger, now extinct, lived in the easternmost regions of Turkey until the latter half of the 20th century. Renowned domestic animals from Ankara include the Angora cat, Angora rabbit and Angora goat; and from Van Province the Van cat. The national dog breeds are the Kangal (Anatolian Shepherd), Malaklı and Akbaş.

Climate

Main article: Climate of Turkey See also: Climate change in Turkey
Köppen climate types of Turkey for the 1980–2016 period

The coastal areas of Turkey bordering the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas have a temperate Mediterranean climate, with hot, dry summers and mild to cool, wet winters. The coastal areas bordering the Black Sea have a temperate oceanic climate with warm, wet summers and cool to cold, wet winters. The Turkish Black Sea coast receives the most precipitation and is the only region of Turkey that receives high precipitation throughout the year. The eastern part of the Black Sea coast averages 2,200 millimetres (87 in) annually which is the highest precipitation in the country. The coastal areas bordering the Sea of Marmara, which connects the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea, have a transitional climate between a temperate Mediterranean climate and a temperate oceanic climate with warm to hot, moderately dry summers and cool to cold, wet winters.

Snow falls on the coastal areas of the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea almost every winter but usually melts in no more than a few days. However, snow is rare in the coastal areas of the Aegean Sea and very rare in the coastal areas of the Mediterranean Sea. Winters on the Anatolian plateau are especially severe. Temperatures of −30 to −40 °C (−22 to −40 °F) do occur in northeastern Anatolia, and snow may lie on the ground for at least 120 days of the year, and during the entire year on the summits of the highest mountains. In central Anatolia the temperatures can drop below −20 °C (−4 °F) with the mountains being even colder. Mountains close to the coast prevent Mediterranean influences from extending inland, giving the central Anatolian Plateau a continental climate with sharply contrasting seasons.

Due to socioeconomic, climatic, and geographic factors, Turkey is highly vulnerable to climate change. This applies to nine out of ten climate vulnerability dimensions, such as "average annual risk to wellbeing". OECD median is two out of ten. Inclusive and swift growth is needed for decreasing vulnerability. Turkey aims to achieve net zero emissions by 2053. Accomplishing climate goals would require large investments, but would also result in net economic benefits, broadly due to reduced imports of fuel and due to better health from lowering air pollution.

Examples from some of Turkey's seven geographical regions

Economy

Main article: Economy of Turkey See also: Tourism in Turkey
Turkey is expected to have fast economic growth due to demographics and rapid urbanization. The following table is from the OECD Long Term Projections.

Turkey is an upper-middle-income country and an emerging market. A founding member of the OECD and G20, it is the 17th-largest economy by nominal and the 12th-largest economy by PPP-adjusted GDP in the world. It is classified among newly industrialized countries. Services account for the majority of GDP, whereas industry accounts for more than 30%. Agriculture contributes about 7%. According to IMF estimates, Turkey's GDP per capita by PPP is $40,283 in 2024, while its nominal GDP per capita is $15,666. Foreign direct investment in Turkey peaked at $22.05 billion in 2007 and dropped to $13.09 billion in 2022. Potential growth is weakened by long-lasting structural and macro obstacles, such as slow rates of productivity growth and high inflation.

Togg T10S sedan produced by Togg, a Turkish automotive company which manufactures electric vehicles

Turkey has a diversified economy; main industries include automobiles, electronics, textiles, construction, steel, mining, and food processing. It is a major agricultural producer. Turkey ranks 8th in crude steel production, and 13th in motor vehicle production, ship building (by tonnage), and annual industrial robot installation in the world. Turkish automative companies include TEMSA, Otokar, BMC and Togg. Togg is the first all-electric vehicle company of Turkey. Arçelik, Vestel, and Beko are major manufacturers of consumer electronics. Arçelik is one of the largest producers of household goods in the world. In 2022, Turkey ranked second in the world in terms of the number of international contractors in the top 250 list. It is also the fifth largest in the world in terms of textile exports. Turkish Airlines is one of the largest airlines in the world.

Gulf of Antalya in Turkish Riviera. Antalya is the fourth most visited city in the world.

Between 2007 and 2021, the share of population below the PPP-$6.85 per day international poverty threshold declined from 20% to 7.6%. In 2023, 13.9% of the population was below the national at-risk-of-poverty rate. In 2021, 34% of the population were at risk of poverty or social exclusion, using Eurostat definition. Unemployment in Turkey was 10.4% in 2022. In 2021, it was estimated that 47% of total disposable income was received by the top 20% of income earners, while the lowest 20% received only 6%.

Tourism accounts for about 8% of Turkey's GDP. In 2022, Turkey ranked fifth in the world in the number of international tourist arrivals with 50.5 million foreign tourists. Turkey has 21 UNESCO World Heritage Sites and 84 World Heritage Sites in tentative list. Turkey is home to 519 Blue Flag beaches, third most in the world. According to Euromonitor International report, Istanbul is the most visited city in the world, with more than 20.2 million foreign visitors in 2023. Antalya has surpassed Paris and New York to become the fourth most visited city in the world, with more than 16.5 million foreign visitors.

Infrastructure

Main articles: Energy in Turkey, Renewable energy in Turkey, and Transport in Turkey See also: Communications in Turkey and Water supply and sanitation in Turkey
Keban Dam in Elazığ Province on the Euphrates. In 2019, Turkey generated 29.2% of its electricity from hydroelectricity.

Turkey is the 16th largest electricity producer in the world. Turkey's energy generation capacity increased significantly, with electricity generation from renewable sources tripling in the past decade. It produced 43.8% of its electricity from such sources in 2019. Turkey is also the fourth-largest producer of geothermal power in the world. Turkey's first nuclear power station, Akkuyu, will increase diversification of its energy mix. When it comes to total final consumption, fossil fuels still play a large role, accounting for 73%. A major reason of Turkey's greenhouse gas emissions is the large proportion of coal in the energy system. As of 2017, while the government had invested in low carbon energy transition, fossil fuels were still subsidized. By 2053, Turkey aims to have net zero emissions.

The main terminal of Istanbul Airport has an annual passenger capacity of 90 million and is the world's largest terminal building under a single roof.

Turkey has made security of its energy supply a top priority, given its heavy reliance on gas and oil imports. Turkey's main energy supply sources are Russia, West Asia, and Central Asia. Gas production began in 2023 in the recently discovered Sakarya gas field. When fully operational, it will supply about 30% of the natural gas needed domestically. Turkey aims to become a hub for regional energy transportation. Several oil and gas pipelines span the country, including the Blue Stream, TurkStream, and Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipelines.

As of 2023, Turkey has 3,726 kilometers of controlled-access highways and 29,373 kilometers of divided highways. Multiple bridges and tunnels connect Asian and European sides of Turkey; the Çanakkale 1915 Bridge on the Dardanelles strait is the longest suspension bridge in the world. Marmaray and Eurasia tunnels under the Bosporus connect both sides of Istanbul. The Osman Gazi Bridge connects the northern and southern shores of the Gulf of İzmit.

Turkish State Railways operates both conventional and high speed trains, with the government expanding both. High-speed rail lines include the Ankara-Istanbul, Ankara-Konya, and Ankara-Sivas routes. Istanbul Metro is the largest subway network in the country with around 704 million annual ridership in 2019. There are 115 airports as of 2024. Istanbul Airport is one of the top 10 busiest airports in the world. Turkey aims to become a transportation hub. It is part of various routes that connect Asia and Europe, including the Middle Corridor. In 2024, Turkey, Iraq, UAE, and Qatar signed an agreement to link Iraqi port facilities to Turkey via road and rail connections.

Science and technology

Main article: Science and technology in Turkey See also: Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey
Göktürk-1, Göktürk-2 and Göktürk-3 are the Earth observation satellites of the Turkish Ministry of National Defense, while state-owned Türksat operates the Türksat series of communications satellites.

Turkey's spending on research and development as a share of GDP has risen from 0.47% in 2000 to 1.40% in 2021. Turkey ranks 16th in the world in terms of article output in scientific and technical journals, and 35th in Nature Index. Turkish patent office ranks 21st worldwide in overall patent applications, and 3rd in industrial design applications. Vast majority of applicants to the Turkish patent office are Turkish residents. In all patent offices globally, Turkish residents rank 21st for overall patent applications. In 2024, Turkey ranked 37th in the world and 3rd among its upper-middle income group in the Global Innovation Index.

TÜBİTAK is one of the main agencies for funding and carrying out research. Turkey's space program plans to develop a national satellite launch system, and to improve capabilities in space exploration, astronomy, and satellite communication. Under the Göktürk Program, Turkish Space Systems, Integration and Test Center was built. Turkey's first communication satellite manufactured domestically, Türksat 6A, will be launched in 2024. As part of a planned particle accelerator center, an electron accelerator called TARLA became operational in 2024. An Antarctic research station is planned on Horseshoe Island.

Turkey is considered a significant power in unmanned aerial vehicles. Aselsan, Turkish Aerospace Industries, Roketsan, and Asfat are among the top 100 defense companies in the world. Turkish defense companies spend a significant portion of their budgets for research and development. Aselsan also invests in research in quantum technology.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Turkey See also: Turkish people
Istanbul is Turkey's largest city, and its economic and financial center.

According to the Address-Based Population Recording System, the country's population was 85,372,377 in 2023, excluding Syrians under temporary protection. 93% lived in province and district centers. People within the 15–64 and 0–14 age groups corresponded to 68.3% and 21.4% of the total population, respectively. Those aged 65 years or older made up 10.2%. Between 1950 and 2020, Turkey's population more than quadrupled from 20.9 million to 83.6 million; however, the population growth rate was 0.1% in 2023. In 2023, the total fertility rate was 1.51 children per woman, below the replacement rate of 2.10 per woman. In a 2018 health survey, the ideal children number was 2.8 children per woman, rising to 3 per married woman.

Ethnicity and language

See also: Turkish people, Minorities in Turkey, Languages of Turkey, and Turkish language
Percentage of ethnic Kurds in Turkey by region

Article 66 of the Turkish Constitution defines a Turk as anyone who is a citizen. It is estimated that there are at least 47 ethnic groups represented in Turkey. Reliable data on the ethnic mix of the population is not available because census figures do not include statistics on ethnicity after the 1965 Turkish census. According to the World Factbook, 70–75% of the country's citizens are ethnic Turks. Based on a survey, KONDA's estimation was 76% in 2006, with 78% of adult citizens self-identifying their ethnic background as Turk. In 2021, 77% of adult citizens identified as such in a survey.

Kurds are the largest ethnic minority. Their exact numbers remain disputed, with estimates ranging from 12 to 20% of the population. According to a 1990 study, Kurds made up around 12% of the population. The Kurds make up a majority in the provinces of Ağrı, Batman, Bingöl, Bitlis, Diyarbakır, Hakkari, Iğdır, Mardin, Muş, Siirt, Şırnak, Tunceli and Van; a near majority in Şanlıurfa (47%); and a large minority in Kars (20%). In addition, internal migration has resulted in Kurdish diaspora communities in all of the major cities in central and western Turkey. In Istanbul, there are an estimated three million Kurds, making it the city with the largest Kurdish population in the world. 19% of adult citizens identified as ethnic Kurds in a survey in 2021. Some people have multiple ethnic identities, such as both Turk and Kurd. In 2006, an estimated 2.7 million ethnic Turks and Kurds were related from interethnic marriages.

According to the World Factbook, non-Kurdish ethnic minorities are 7–12% of the population. In 2006, KONDA estimated that non-Kurdish and non-Zaza ethnic minorities constituted 8.2% of the population; these were people that gave general descriptions such as Turkish citizen, people with other Turkic backgrounds, Arabs, and others. In 2021, 4% of adult citizens identified as non-ethnic Turk or non-ethnic Kurd in a survey. According to the Constitutional Court, there are only four officially recognized minorities in Turkey: the three non-Muslim minorities recognized in the Treaty of Lausanne (Armenians, Greeks, and Jews) and the Bulgarians. In 2013, the Ankara 13th Circuit Administrative Court ruled that the minority provisions of the Lausanne Treaty should also apply to Assyrians in Turkey and the Syriac language. Other unrecognized ethnic groups include Albanians, Bosniaks, Circassians, Georgians, Laz, Pomaks, and Roma.

Areas with speakers of Turkic languages

The official language is Turkish, which is the most widely spoken Turkic language in the world. It is spoken by 85% to 90% of the population as a first language. Kurdish speakers are the largest linguistic minority. A survey estimated 13% of the population speak Kurdish or Zaza as a first language. Other minority languages include Arabic, Caucasian languages, and Gagauz. The linguistic rights of the officially recognized minorities are de jure recognized and protected for Armenian, Bulgarian, Greek, Hebrew, and Syriac. There are multiple endangered languages in Turkey.

  Largest cities or towns in Turkey
TÜİK's address-based calculation from 31 December 2023 published at 7th of February 2024.
Rank Name Pop. Rank Name Pop.
Istanbul
Istanbul
Ankara
Ankara
1 Istanbul 15,655,924 11 Mersin 1,938,389 İzmir
İzmir
Bursa
Bursa
2 Ankara 5,803,482 12 Diyarbakır 1,818,133
3 İzmir 4,479,525 13 Hatay 1,544,640
4 Bursa 3,214,571 14 Manisa 1,475,716
5 Antalya 2,696,249 15 Kayseri 1,445,683
6 Konya 2,320,241 16 Samsun 1,377,546
7 Adana 2,270,298 17 Balıkesir 1,273,519
8 Şanlıurfa 2,213,964 18 Tekirdağ 1,167,059
9 Gaziantep 2,164,134 19 Aydın 1,161,702
10 Kocaeli 2,102,907 20 Van 1,127,612

Immigration

Main article: Immigration to Turkey

Excluding Syrians under temporary protection, there were 1,570,543 foreign citizens in Turkey in 2023. Millions of Kurds fled across the mountains to Turkey and the Kurdish areas of Iran during the Gulf War in 1991. Turkey's migrant crisis in the 2010s and early 2020s resulted in the influx of millions of refugees and immigrants. Turkey hosts the largest number of refugees in the world as of April 2020. The Disaster and Emergency Management Presidency manages the refugee crisis in Turkey. Before the start of the Syrian civil war in 2011, the estimated number of Arabs in Turkey varied from 1 million to more than 2 million.

In November 2020, there were 3.6 million Syrian refugees in Turkey; these included other ethnic groups of Syria, such as Syrian Kurds and Syrian Turkmens. As of August 2023, the number these refugees was estimated to be 3.3 million. The number of Syrians had decreased by about 200,000 people since the beginning of the year. The government has granted citizenship to 238 thousand Syrians by November 2023. As of May 2023, approximately 96,000 Ukrainian refugees of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine have sought refuge in Turkey. In 2022, nearly 100,000 Russian citizens migrated to Turkey, becoming the first in the list of foreigners who moved to Turkey, meaning an increase of more than 218% from 2021.

Religion

Main article: Religion in Turkey Left: Çamlıca Mosque in Istanbul was designed by two female architects. Right: Mor Hananyo Monastery near Mardin. From 1293 to 1932, it was the headquarters of Syriac Orthodox Church.

Turkey is a secular state with no official state religion; the constitution provides for freedom of religion and conscience. According to the World Factbook, Muslims constitute 99.8% of the population, most of them being Sunni. Based on a survey, KONDA's estimate for Muslims was 99.4% in 2006. According to Minority Rights Group International, estimates of share of Alevi are between 10% and 40% of the population. KONDA's estimate was 5% in 2006. 4% of adult citizens identified as Alevi in a survey in 2021, while 88% identified as Sunni.

The percentage of non-Muslims in modern-day Turkey was 19.1% in 1914, but fell to 2.5% in 1927. Currently, non-Muslims constitute 0.2% of the population according to the World Factbook. In 2006, KONDA's estimate was 0.18% for people with non-Islam religions. Some of the non-Muslim communities are Armenians, Assyrians, Bulgarian Orthodox, Catholics, Chaldeans, Greeks, Jews, and Protestants. Sources estimate that the Christian population in Turkey ranges between 180,000 and 320,000. Turkey has the largest Jewish community among the Muslim-majority countries. Currently, there are 439 churches and synagogues in Turkey.

In 2006, KONDA's estimate was 0.47% for those with no religion. According to KONDA, share of adult citizens who identified as unbeliever increased from 2% in 2011 to 6% in 2021. A 2020 Gezici Araştırma poll found that 28.5% of the Generation Z identify as irreligious.

Education

Main article: Education in Turkey
Istanbul University was restructured in 1933, after being established as a theological school in 1453.

In the past 20 years, Turkey has improved quality of education and has made significant progress in increasing education access. From 2011 to 2021, improvements in education access include "one of the largest increases in educational attainment for 25-34 year-olds at upper secondary non-tertiary or tertiary education", and quadrupling of pre-school institutions. PISA results suggest improvements in education quality. There is still a gap with OECD countries. Significant challenges include differences in student outcomes from different schools, differences between rural and urban areas, pre-primary education access, and arrival of students who are Syrian refugees.

Istanbul Technical University is the world's third-oldest technical university.

The Ministry of National Education is responsible for pre-tertiary education. Compulsory education is free at public schools and lasts 12 years, divided into three parts. There are 208 universities in Turkey. Students are placed to universities based on their YKS results and their preferences, by the Measuring, Selection and Placement Center. All state and private universities are under the control of the Higher Education Board (Turkish: Yükseköğretim Kurulu, YÖK). Since 2016, the president of Turkey directly appoints all rectors of all state and private universities.

According to the 2024 Times Higher Education ranking, the top universities were Koç University, Middle East Technical University, Sabancı University, and Istanbul Technical University. According to Academic Ranking of World Universities, the top ones were Istanbul University, University of Health Sciences (Turkey), and Hacettepe University. Turkey is a member of the Erasmus+ Programme. Turkey has become a hub for foreign students in recent years, with 795,962 foreign students in 2016. In 2021 Türkiye Scholarships, a government-funded program, received 165,000 applications from prospective students in 178 countries.

Health

Main article: Health care in Turkey
Başakşehir Çam and Sakura City Hospital in Istanbul. It contains 2,068 seismic base isolation units to withstand earthquakes.

The Ministry of Health has run a universal public healthcare system since 2003. Known as Universal Health Insurance (Genel Sağlık Sigortası), it is funded by a tax surcharge on employers, currently at 5%. Public-sector funding covers approximately 75.2% of health expenditures. Despite the universal health care, total expenditure on health as a share of GDP in 2018 was the lowest among OECD countries at 6.3% of GDP, compared to the OECD average of 9.3%. There are many private hospitals in the country. The government planned several hospital complexes, known as city hospitals, to be constructed since 2013. Turkey is one of the top 10 destinations for health tourism.

Average life expectancy is 78.6 years (75.9 for males and 81.3 for females), compared with the EU average of 81 years. Turkey has high rates of obesity, with 29.5% of its adult population having a body mass index (BMI) value of 30 or above. Air pollution is a major cause of early death.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Turkey See also: Arts in Turkey, Turkish folklore, and Festivals in Turkey

In the 19th century, Turkish identity was debated in the Ottoman Empire, with three main views: Turkism, Islamism and Westernism. In addition to Europe or Islam, Turkish culture was also influenced by Anatolia's native cultures. After the establishment of the republic, Kemalism emphasized Turkish culture, attempted to make "Islam a matter of personal conviction", and pursued modernization. Currently, Turkey has various local cultures. Things such as music, folk dance, or kebap variety may be used to identify a local area. Turkey also has a national culture, such as national sports leagues, music bands, film stars, and trends in fashion.

Literature, theatre, and visual arts

Main articles: Turkish literature, Theatre of Turkey, and Turkish art
Nobel-laureate Turkish novelist Orhan Pamuk and his Turkish Angora cat at his personal writing space
Süreyya Opera House is on the Asian side of Istanbul and Atatürk Cultural Center is the main opera house on the European side. Zorlu PSM is the city's largest performing arts theater and concert hall.

Turkish literature goes back more than a thousand years. The Seljuk and Ottoman periods include numerous works of literature and poetry. Turkic tales and poetry from Central Asia were also kept alive. Tales of Dede Korkut is an example of the oral narrative tradition. Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk, from the 11th century, contains Turkish linguistic information and poetry. Yunus Emre, influenced by Rumi, was one of the most important writers of Anatolian Turkish poetry. Ottoman Divan poetry used "refined diction" and complex vocabulary. It included Sufi mysticism, romanticism, and formal elements.

Beginning in the 19th century, Ottoman literature was influenced by the West. New genres, such as novels and journalistic style, were introduced. Aşk-ı Memnu, written by Halid Ziya Uşaklıgil, was the "first truly refined Turkish novel". Fatma Aliye Topuz, the first female Turkish novelist, wrote fiction. After the proclamation of the republic in 1923, Atatürk instituted reforms such as the language reform and alphabet reform. Since then, Turkish literature reflected the socioeconomic conditions in Turkey with increasing variety. "Village Novel" genre appeared in the mid-1950s, which talked about difficulties faced from poverty. An example is Memed, My Hawk by Yaşar Kemal, which was Turkey's first Nobel Prize in Literature nominee in 1973. Orhan Pamuk won the 2006 Nobel Prize in Literature.

Turkey has four "major theatrical traditions": "folk theatre, popular theatre, court theater, and Western theater." Turkish folk theatre goes back thousands of years and has survived among rural communities. Popular theatre includes plays by live actors, puppet and shadow plays, and storytelling performances. An example for shadow play is Karagöz and Hacivat. Court theatre was the refined version of popular theatre. Beginning in the 19th century, Western theatre tradition started appearing in Turkey. Following the establishment of Turkish Republic, a state conservatory and the State Theatre Company were formed.

Turkey's visual arts scene can be categorized into two, as "decorative" and "fine" arts. Fine arts, or güzel sanatlar, includes sculpture and painting. Turkish artists in these areas have gained global recognition. Photography, fashion design, graphic arts, and graphic design are some of the other areas Turkish artists are known for in the world. The inaugural contemporary Turkish art sale by Sotheby's London was in 2009. Istanbul Modern and the Istanbul Biennial are examples of art galleries or exhibitions of contemporary Turkish art. Turkey has also seen a resurgence of traditional arts. This includes Ottoman-era traditional arts, such as ceramics and carpets. Textile and carpet design, glass and ceramics, calligraphy, paper marbling (ebru) are some of the art forms for which modern-day Turkish artists are recognized as leaders in the Islamic world.

Music and dance

Main articles: Turkish folk dance and Music of Turkey
Barış Manço was a Turkish rock musician and one of the founders of the Anatolian rock genre.

Although classifying genres of Turkish music can be problematic, three broad categories can be considered. These are "Turkish folk music", "Turkish art music", and multiple popular music styles. These Popular music styles include arabesque, pop, and Anatolian rock.

The resurging popularity of pop music gave rise to several international Turkish pop stars such as Ajda Pekkan, Sezen Aksu, Erol Evgin, MFÖ, Tarkan, Sertab Erener, Teoman, Kenan Doğulu, Levent Yüksel and Hande Yener. Internationally acclaimed Turkish jazz and blues musicians and composers include Ahmet Ertegun (founder and president of Atlantic Records), Nükhet Ruacan and Kerem Görsev.

Architecture

Main article: Architecture of Turkey See also: Ottoman architecture Built by Mimar Sinan, Selimiye Mosque in Edirne is an example of classical Ottoman architecture.Tayyare Apartments in Istanbul, an example of the first national architectural movementWith its traditional Turkish houses, Odunpazarı district in Eskişehir is a tentative UNESCO World Heritage site.

Turkey is home to numerous Neolithic settlements, such as Çatalhöyük. From the Bronze Age, important architectural remnants include Alaca Höyük and the 2nd layer of Troy. There are various examples of Ancient Greek and Ancient Roman architectures, especially in the Aegean region. Byzantine architecture dates back to the 4th century AD. Its best example is Hagia Sophia. Byzantine architectural style continued to develop after the conquest of Istanbul, such as Byzantine Revival architecture. During Seljuk Sultanate of Rum and Turkish principalities period, a distinct architecture emerged, which incorporated Byzantine and Armenian architectures with architectural styles found in West Asia and Central Asia. Seljuk architecture often used stones and bricks, and produced numerous caravanserais, madrasas and mausoleums.

Ottoman architecture emerged in northwest Anatolia and Thrace. Early Ottoman architecture mixed "traditional Anatolian Islamic architecture with local building materials and techniques". Following the conquest of Istanbul, classical Ottoman architecture emerged in the 16th and 17th centuries. The most important architect of the classical period is Mimar Sinan, whose major works include the Şehzade Mosque, Süleymaniye Mosque, and Selimiye Mosque. Beginning in the 18th century, Ottoman architecture was influenced by European elements, resulting in development of Ottoman baroque style. European influence continued in the 19th century; examples include works of Balyan family such as neo-Baroque style Dolmabahçe Palace. The last period of Ottoman architecture consists of the First National Architectural Movement, including works of Vedat Tek and Mimar Kemaleddin.

Since 1918, Turkish architecture can be divided into three parts. From 1918 to 1950, the first one includes the First National Architectural Movement period, which transitioned into modernist architecture. Modernist and monumental buildings were preferred for public buildings, whereas "Turkish house" type vernacular architecture influenced private houses. From 1950 to 1980, the second part includes urbanization, modernization, and internationalization. For residential housing, "reinforced concrete, slab-block, medium-rise apartments" became prevalent. Since 1980, the third part is defined by consumer habits and international trends, such as shopping malls and office towers. Luxury residences with "Turkish house style" have been in demand. In the 21st century, urban renewal projects have become a trend. Resilience against natural disasters such as earthquakes is one of the main goals for urban renewal projects. Around one-third of Turkey's building stock, corresponding to 6.7 million units, were assessed risky and needing urban renewal.

Cuisine

Main article: Turkish cuisine See also: Ottoman cuisine
Turkish coffee with Turkish delight. Turkish coffee is a UNESCO-listed intangible cultural heritage of Turks.

Turkey has a diverse and rich cuisine, varying geographically. Turkish cuisine has been influenced by Anatolian, Mediterranean, Iranian, Central Asian, and East Asian cuisines. Turkish and Ottoman cuisine have also influenced others. Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk, from the 11th century, documents "the ancient lineage of much of present-day Turkish cuisine". Güveç, Bulgur, and Börek are some of the earliest recorded examples of Turkish cuisine. Even though kebab as a word comes from Persian, Turkic people had been familiar with using skewers to cook meat. Turkish cuisine can be distinguished by its various kinds of kebabs. Similarly, pilaf dishes were influenced by Turkish cuisine. Further information about cuisine during the Seljuk and Ottoman periods comes from the works of Rumi and Evliya Çelebi. The latter describes "food-related guilds of Istanbul".

Food staples in Turkey include bread and yogurt. Some of bread varieties are lavash and pide (a type of pita bread). Ayran is a drink made of yoghurt. In western parts of Turkey, olive oil is used. Grains include wheat, maize, barley, oats, and millet. Beans, chickpeas, nuts, aubergines, and lamb are some of the commonly used ingredients. Doner kebab, originally from Turkey, is marinated lamb slices cooked vertically. Seafood includes anchovy and others. Dolma varieties and mantı are made by stuffing vegetables or pasta. Sarma is made by rolling edible leaf over the filling. Yahni dishes are vegetable stews. Turkey is one of the countries with the meze tradition. Honey, pekmez, dried fruit, or fruit are used for sweetening. Filo is an originally Turkish dough that is used to make baklava. Turkish delight is a "delicate but gummy jelly".

Sports

Main article: Sport in Turkey See also: Football in Turkey
Turkey at UEFA Euro 2016

The most popular sport is association football. Galatasaray won the UEFA Cup and UEFA Super Cup in 2000. The Turkey national football team won the bronze medal at the 2002 FIFA World Cup, the 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup and UEFA Euro 2008.

Other mainstream sports such as basketball and volleyball are also popular. The men's national basketball team and women's national basketball team have been successful. Anadolu Efes S.K. is the most successful Turkish basketball club in international competitions. Fenerbahçe reached the final of the EuroLeague in three consecutive seasons (2015–2016, 2016–2017 and 2017–2018), becoming the European champions in 2017.

VakıfBank S.K. is one of the best women's volleyball team in the world, having won the FIVB World Championship four times and the CEV Champions Cup six times.

The final of the 2013–14 EuroLeague Women basketball championship was played between two Turkish teams, Galatasaray and Fenerbahçe, and won by Galatasaray. Fenerbahçe won the 2023 FIBA Europe SuperCup Women after two consecutive Euroleague wins in the 2022–23 and 2023–24 seasons.

The women's national volleyball team has won several medals. Women's volleyball clubs, namely VakıfBank S.K., Fenerbahçe and Eczacıbaşı, have won numerous European championship titles and medals.

The traditional national sport of Turkey has been yağlı güreş (oil wrestling) since Ottoman times. Edirne Province has hosted the annual Kırkpınar oil wrestling tournament since 1361, making it the oldest continuously held sporting competition in the world. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, oil wrestling champions such as Koca Yusuf, Nurullah Hasan and Kızılcıklı Mahmut acquired international fame in Europe and North America by winning world heavyweight wrestling championship titles. International wrestling styles governed by FILA such as freestyle wrestling and Greco-Roman wrestling are also popular, with many European, World and Olympic championship titles won by Turkish wrestlers both individually and as a national team.

Media and cinema

Main article: Media in Turkey See also: Cinema of Turkey

Hundreds of television channels, thousands of local and national radio stations, several dozen newspapers, a productive and profitable national cinema and a rapid growth of broadband Internet use constitute a vibrant media industry in Turkey. The majority of the TV audiences are shared among public broadcaster TRT and the network-style channels such as Kanal D, Show TV, ATV and Star TV. The broadcast media have a very high penetration as satellite dishes and cable systems are widely available. The Radio and Television Supreme Council (RTÜK) is the government body overseeing the broadcast media. By circulation, the most popular newspapers are Posta, Hürriyet, Sözcü, Sabah and Habertürk.

Nuri Bilge Ceylan (left), Beren Saat (middle), and Türkan Şoray (right)

Filiz Akın, Fatma Girik, Hülya Koçyiğit, and Türkan Şoray represent their period of Turkish cinema. Turkish directors like Metin Erksan, Nuri Bilge Ceylan, Yılmaz Güney, Zeki Demirkubuz and Ferzan Özpetek won numerous international awards such as the Palme d'Or and Golden Bear. Turkish television dramas are increasingly becoming popular beyond Turkey's borders and are among the country's most vital exports, both in terms of profit and public relations. After sweeping the Middle East's television market over the past decade, Turkish shows have aired in more than a dozen South and Central American countries in 2016. Turkey is today the world's second largest exporter of television series.

See also

Notes

  1. Turkish: Türkiye, Turkish: [ˈtyɾcije]
  2. Turkish: Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, Turkish: [ˈtyɾcije dʒumˈhuːɾijeti]
  3. The origin of Indo-European languages is unknown. They may be native to Anatolia or non-native.
  4. Even though they are not explicitly mentioned in the Treaty of Lausanne.
  5. The Bulgarian community in Turkey is now so small that this disposition is de facto not applied.
  6. The Turkish government considers that, for the purpose of the Treaty of Lausanne, the language of Turkish Jews is Hebrew, even though the mother tongue of Turkish Jews was not Hebrew but historically Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino) or other Jewish languages.

References

  1. "The Turkish Flag and The Turkish National Anthem (Independence March)". Republic of Türkiye, Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 4 August 2024.
  2. "Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Anayasası" (in Turkish). Grand National Assembly of Turkey. Archived from the original on 2 July 2020. Retrieved 1 July 2020. 3. Madde: Devletin Bütünlüğü, Resmi Dili, Bayrağı, Milli Marşı ve Başkenti: Türkiye Devleti, ülkesi ve milletiyle bölünmez bir bütündür. Dili Türkçedir. Bayrağı, şekli kanununda belirtilen, beyaz ay yıldızlı al bayraktır. Milli marşı "İstiklal Marşı" dır. Başkenti Ankara'dır.
  3. "Mevzuat: Anayasa" (in Turkish). Constitutional Court of Turkey. Archived from the original on 21 June 2020. Retrieved 1 July 2020.
  4. ^ "Turkey (Turkiye)". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 19 May 2024.
  5. ^ "Turkish Constitution". Anayasa Mahkemesi. Archived from the original on 10 January 2021. Retrieved 12 April 2022.
  6. "Surface water and surface water change". Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Archived from the original on 24 March 2021. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
  7. ^ "The Results of Address Based Population Registration System, 2023". www.tuik.gov.tr. Turkish Statistical Institute. 6 February 2024. Archived from the original on 6 February 2024. Retrieved 6 February 2024.
  8. ^ "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2024 Edition. (Türkiye)". www.imf.org. International Monetary Fund. 22 October 2024. Retrieved 22 October 2024.
  9. "Gini index (World Bank estimate) – Turkey". World Bank. 2019. Archived from the original on 17 May 2019. Retrieved 15 November 2021.
  10. "Human Development Index (HDI)". United Nations Development Programme. Archived from the original on 10 June 2022. Retrieved 18 March 2024.
  11. Howard 2016, p. 24
    • Howard 2016, pp. 24–28: "Göbekli Tepe’s close proximity to several very early sites of grain cultivation helped lead Schmidt to the conclusion that it was the need to maintain the ritual center that first encouraged the beginnings of settled agriculture—the Neolithic Revolution"
    • McMahon & Steadman 2012a, pp. 3–12
    • Matthews 2012, p. 49
    • Ahmed 2006, p. 1576: "Turkey’s diversity is derived from its central location near the world’s earliest civilizations as well as a history replete with population movements and invasions. The Hattite culture was prominent during the Bronze Age prior to 2000 BCE, but was replaced by the Indo-European Hittites who conquered Anatolia by the second millennium. Meanwhile, Turkish Thrace came to be dominated by another Indo-European group, the Thracians for whom the region is named."
    • Steadman 2012, p. 234: "By the time of the Old Assyrian Colony period in the early second millennium b.c.e . (see Michel, chapter 13 in this volume) the languages spoken on the plateau included Hattian, an indigenous Anatolian language, Hurrian (spoken in northern Syria), and Indo-European languages known as Luwian, Hittite, and Palaic"
    • Michel 2012, p. 327
    • Melchert 2012, p. 713
    • Howard 2016, p. 26
    • Howard 2016, p. 29: "The sudden disappearance of the Persian Empire and the conquest of virtually the entire Middle Eastern world from the Nile to the Indus by Alexander the Great caused tremendous political and cultural upheaval. ... statesmen throughout the conquered regions attempted to implement a policy of Hellenization. For indigenous elites, this amounted to the forced assimilation of native religion and culture to Greek models. It met resistance in Anatolia as elsewhere, especially from priests and others who controlled temple wealth."
    • Ahmed 2006, p. 1576: "Subsequently, hellenization of the elites transformed Anatolia into a largely Greek-speaking region"
    • McMahon & Steadman 2012a, p. 5
    • McMahon 2012, p. 16
    • Sams 2012, p. 617
    • Davison 1990, pp. 3–4: "So the Seljuk sultanate was a successor state ruling part of the medieval Greek empire, and within it the process of Turkification of a previously Hellenized Anatolian population continued. That population must already have been of very mixed ancestry, deriving from ancient Hittite, Phrygian, Cappadocian, and other civilizations as well as Roman and Greek."
    • Howard 2016, pp. 33–44
  12. ^ Howard 2016, pp. 38–39
  13. ^ Howard 2016, p. 45
  14. ^ Somel 2010, p. xcvii
    • Kaser 2011, p. 336: "The emerging Christian nation states justified the prosecution of their Muslims by arguing that they were their former “suppressors”. The historical balance: between about 1820 and 1920, millions of Muslim casualties and refugees back to the remaining Ottoman Empire had to be registered; estimations speak about 5 million casualties and the same number of displaced persons"
    • Fábos 2005, p. 437: "Muslims had been the majority in Anatolia, the Crimea, the Balkans, and the Caucasus and a plurality in southern Russia and sections of Romania. Most of these lands were within or contiguous with the Ottoman Empire. By 1923, 'only Anatolia, eastern Thrace, and a section of the southeastern Caucasus remained to the Muslim land ... Millions of Muslims, most of them Turks, had died; millions more had fled to what is today Turkey. Between 1821 and 1922, more than five million Muslims were driven from their lands. Five and one-half million Muslims died, some of them killed in wars, others perishing as refugees from starvation and disease' (McCarthy 1995, 1). Since people in the Ottoman Empire were classified by religion, Turks, Albanians, Bosnians, and all other Muslim groups were recognized—and recognized themselves—simply as Muslims. Hence, their persecution and forced migration is of central importance to an analysis of 'Muslim migration.'"
    • Karpat 2001, p. 343: "The main migrations started from Crimea in 1856 and were followed by those from the Caucasus and the Balkans in 1862 to 1878 and 1912 to 1916. These have continued to our day. The quantitative indicators cited in various sources show that during this period a total of about 7 million migrants from Crimea, the Caucasus, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean islands settled in Anatolia. These immigrants were overwhelmingly Muslim, except for a number of Jews who left their homes in the Balkans and Russia in order to live in the Ottoman lands. By the end of the century the immigrants and their descendants constituted some 30 to 40 percent of the total population of Anatolia, and in some western areas their percentage was even higher." ... "The immigrants called themselves Muslims rather than Turks, although most of those from Bulgaria, Macedonia, and eastern Serbia descended from the Turkish Anatolian stock who settled in the Balkans in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries."
    • Karpat 2004, pp. 5–6: "Migration was a major force in the social and cultural reconstruction of the Ottoman state in the nineteenth century. While some seven to nine million, mostly Muslim, refugees from lost territories in the Caucasus, Crimea, Balkans and Mediterranean islands migrated to Anatolia and Eastern Thrace, during the last quarter of the nineteenth and the early part of the twentieth centuries..."
    • Pekesen 2012: "The immigration had far-reaching social and political consequences for the Ottoman Empire and Turkey." ... "Between 1821 and 1922, some 5.3 million Muslims migrated to the Empire.50 It is estimated that in 1923, the year the republic of Turkey was founded, about 25 per cent of the population came from immigrant families.51"
    • Biondich 2011, p. 93: "The road from Berlin to Lausanne was littered with millions of casualties. In the period between 1878 and 1912, as many as two million Muslims emigrated voluntarily or involuntarily from the Balkans. When one adds those who were killed or expelled between 1912 and 1923, the number of Muslim casualties from the Balkan far exceeds three million. By 1923 fewer than one million remained in the Balkans"
    • Armour 2012, p. 213: "To top it all, the Empire was host to a steady stream of Muslim refugees. Russia between 1854 and 1876 expelled 1.4 million Crimean Tartars, and in the mid-1860s another 600,000 Circassians from the Caucasus. Their arrival produced further economic dislocation and expense."
    • Bosma, Lucassen & Oostindie 2012a, p. 17: "In total, many millions of Turks (or, more precisely, Muslim immigrants, including some from the Caucasus) were involved in this ‘repatriation’ – sometimes more than once in a lifetime – the last stage of which may have been the immigration of seven hundred thousand Turks from Bulgaria between 1940 and 1990. Most of these immigrants settled in urban north-western Anatolia. Today between a third and a quarter of the Republic’s population are descendants of these Muslim immigrants, known as Muhacir or Göçmen"
  15. ^ Tatz, Colin; Higgins, Winton (2016). The Magnitude of Genocide. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-4408-3161-4.
  16. Schaller, Dominik J.; Zimmerer, Jürgen (2008). "Late Ottoman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies – introduction". Journal of Genocide Research. 10 (1): 7–14. doi:10.1080/14623520801950820. ISSN 1462-3528. S2CID 71515470.
  17. Morris, Benny; Ze'evi, Dror (2021). The Thirty-Year Genocide - Turkey's Destruction of Its Christian Minorities, 1894–1924. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674251434.
  18. "The Political Economy of Regional Power: Turkey" (PDF). giga-hamburg.de. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 February 2014. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
  19. "Turkey". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 28 August 2022. Retrieved 29 February 2024.
  20. ^ Birben, Üstüner (2019). "The Effectiveness of Protected Areas in Biodiversity Conservation: The Case of Turkey". CERNE. 25 (4): 424–438. doi:10.1590/01047760201925042644. ISSN 0104-7760. Turkey has 3 out of the 36 biodiversity hotspots on Earth: the Mediterranean, Caucasus, and Irano-Anatolian hotspots
  21. ^ Ahmed 2006, pp. 1575–1576
  22. ^ World Bank Türkiye - Country Climate and Development Report 2022, p. 7
  23. Berg, Miriam (2023). Turkish Drama Serials: The Importance and Influence of a Globally Popular Television Phenomenon. University of Exeter Press. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-1-80413-043-8.
  24. "Türkiye". UNESCO. Archived from the original on 2 March 2024. Retrieved 2 March 2024.
  25. ^ Yayla, Önder; Aktaş, Semra Günay (2021). "Mise en place for gastronomy geography through food: Flavor regions in Turkey". International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science. 26. doi:10.1016/j.ijgfs.2021.100384. Archived from the original on 2 March 2024. Retrieved 2 March 2024.
  26. Agoston & Masters 2009, p. 574
  27. Howard 2016, p. 31
  28. ^ Everett-Heath 2020, Türkiye (Turkey)
  29. Golden 2021, p. 30
  30. Clauson 1972, pp. 542–543
  31. Golden 2021, pp. 6–7
  32. Golden 2021, pp. 9, 16
  33. Jenkins, Romilly James Heald (1967). De Administrando Imperio by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus. Corpus fontium historiae Byzantinae (New, revised ed.). Dumbarton Oaks Center for Byzantine Studies. p. 65. ISBN 978-0-88402-021-9. Archived from the original on 20 January 2023. Retrieved 28 August 2013. According to Constantine Porphyrogenitus, writing in his De Administrando Imperio (c. 950 AD) "Patzinakia, the Pecheneg realm, stretches west as far as the Siret River (or even the Eastern Carpathian Mountains), and is four days distant from Tourkia ."
  34. Findley 2005, p. 51
  35. Golden 2021, pp. 2–3
  36. Everett-Heath 2020, Turkestan, Central Asia, Kazakhstan
  37. Gray 2003, Turkye, (Turkeye) Turkey; Book of the Duchess, The; Map 1; Map 3.
  38. "Turkey". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
  39. Cevdet Küçük (2012). "Türkiye". TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 41 (Tevekkül – Tüsterî) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation, Centre for Islamic Studies. p. 567. ISBN 978-975-389-713-6.
  40. "Marka Olarak 'Türkiye' İbaresinin Kullanımı (Presidential Circular No. 2021/24 on the Use of the Term "Türkiye" as a Brand)" (PDF). Resmî Gazete (Official Gazette of the Republic of Türkiye). 4 December 2021. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 May 2022. Retrieved 11 April 2022.
  41. Soylu, Ragip (17 January 2022). "Turkey to register its new name Türkiye to UN in coming weeks". Middle East Eye. Archived from the original on 6 June 2022. Retrieved 11 April 2022.
  42. "UN to use 'Türkiye' instead of 'Turkey' after Ankara's request". TRT World. 2 June 2022. Archived from the original on 2 June 2022. Retrieved 3 June 2022.
  43. Wertheimer, Tiffany (2 June 2022). "Turkey changes its name in rebranding bid". BBC News Online. Archived from the original on 2 June 2022. Retrieved 2 June 2022.
  44. "The World's First Temple". Archaeology magazine. November–December 2008. p. 23. Archived from the original on 29 March 2012. Retrieved 25 July 2012.
  45. ^ Howard 2016, p. 24
  46. Casson, Lionel (1977). "The Thracians" (PDF). The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin. 35 (1): 2–6. doi:10.2307/3258667. JSTOR 3258667. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 May 2019. Retrieved 3 April 2013.
  47. Bellwood 2022, p. 224
  48. ^ Howard 2016, p. 25
  49. Bellwood 2022, p. 229
  50. Bellwood 2022, p. 229
  51. Kılınç, Gülşah Merve; Omrak, Ayça; Özer, Füsun; Günther, Torsten; Büyükkarakaya, Ali Metin; Bıçakçı, Erhan; Baird, Douglas; Dönertaş, Handan Melike; Ghalichi, Ayshin; Yaka, Reyhan; Koptekin, Dilek; Açan, Sinan Can; Parvizi, Poorya; Krzewińska, Maja; Daskalaki, Evangelia A. (June 2016). "The Demographic Development of the First Farmers in Anatolia". Current Biology. 26 (19): 2659–2666. Bibcode:2016CBio...26.2659K. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2016.07.057. PMC 5069350. PMID 27498567.
  52. Lipson, Mark; Szécsényi-Nagy, Anna; Mallick, Swapan; Pósa, Annamária; Stégmár, Balázs; Keerl, Victoria; Rohland, Nadin; Stewardson, Kristin; Ferry, Matthew; Michel, Megan; Oppenheimer, Jonas; Broomandkhoshbacht, Nasreen; Harney, Eadaoin; Nordenfelt, Susanne; Llamas, Bastien (November 2017). "Parallel palaeogenomic transects reveal complex genetic history of early European farmers". Nature. 551 (7680): 368–372. Bibcode:2017Natur.551..368L. doi:10.1038/nature24476. ISSN 0028-0836. PMC 5973800. PMID 29144465.
  53. ^ Howard 2016, p. 26
  54. ^ Steadman 2012, p. 234
  55. Michel 2012, p. 327
  56. Sagona & Zimansky 2015, p. 246
  57. ^ Beckman 2012, p. 522
  58. Heggarty, Paul (2021). "Cognacy Databases and Phylogenetic Research on Indo-European". Annual Review of Linguistics. 7: 371–394. doi:10.1146/annurev-linguistics-011619-030507.
  59. Bellwood 2022, p. 242
  60. Melchert 2012, p. 713
  61. Howard 2016, pp. 26–27
  62. Ahmed 2006, p. 1576
  63. Jablonka 2012, pp. 724–726
  64. McMahon 2012, p. 17
  65. Denisyuk, Yulia (29 October 2023). "Photo story: tombs, turquoise seas and trekking along Turkey's Lycian Way". National Geographic. National Geographic Traveller.
  66. ^ Howard 2016, p. 27
  67. Yakubovich 2012, p. 538
  68. Zimansky 2012, p. 552
  69. ^ Howard 2016, p. 28
  70. "Anatolia – Greek colonies on the Anatolian coasts, c. 1180–547 bce". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 21 March 2023. Retrieved 2 February 2024. Before the Greek migrations that followed the end of the Bronze Age (c. 1200 BCE), probably the only Greek-speaking communities on the west coast of Anatolia were Mycenaean settlements at Iasus and Müskebi on the Halicarnassus peninsula and walled Mycenaean colonies at Miletus and Colophon.
  71. Harl 2012, p. 760: "Greek cities on the shores of Asia Minor and on the Aegean islands were the nexus of trade and cultural exchange in the early Greek world, so Archaic Greek civilization was to a great extent the product of the Greek cities of Asia Minor."
  72. Harl 2012, pp. 753–756
  73. Greaves 2012, p. 505
  74. Harl 2012, p. 753
  75. Harl 2012, pp. 753–754
  76. Rovelli, C. (2023). Anaximander: And the Birth of Science. Penguin Publishing Group. pp. 20–30. ISBN 978-0-593-54237-8. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
  77. Baird 2016, p. 8
  78. Mark Cartwright. "Celsus Library". World History Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 2 February 2017.
  79. "The Temple of Artemis at Ephesus: The Un-Greek Temple and Wonder". World History Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 17 February 2017.
  80. McMahon & Steadman 2012a, p. 5
  81. McMahon 2012, p. 16
  82. Sams 2012, p. 617
  83. Howard 2016, p. 29: "The sudden disappearance of the Persian Empire and the conquest of virtually the entire Middle Eastern world from the Nile to the Indus by Alexander the Great caused tremendous political and cultural upheaval." ... "statesmen throughout the conquered regions attempted to implement a policy of Hellenization. For indigenous elites, this amounted to the forced assimilation of native religion and culture to Greek models. It met resistance in Anatolia as elsewhere, especially from priests and others who controlled temple wealth."
  84. Mitchell 1995, pp. 3–4
  85. Howard 2016, p. 29
  86. Hoyos 2019, pp. 35–37
  87. Hoyos 2019, pp. 62, 83, 115
  88. Howard 2016, p. 30
  89. Howard 2016, p. 30
  90. "Hagia Sophia". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 29 April 2021. Retrieved 2 February 2017.
  91. ^ Horrocks 2008, pp. 778–779: "Thus the majority of traditional 'Greek' lands, including the coastal areas of Asia Minor, remained essentially Greek-speaking, despite the superimposition of Latin and the later Slavic incursions into the Balkans during the sixth and seventh centuries. Even on the Anatolian plateau, where Hellenic culture had come only with Alexander's conquests, both the extremely heterogeneous indigenous populations and immigrant groups (including Celts, Goths, Jews, and Persians) had become heavily Hellenized, as the steady decline in epigraphic evidence for the native languages and the great mass of public and private inscriptions in Greek demonstrate. Though the disappearance of these languages from the written record did not entail their immediate abandonment as spoken languages,..."
  92. van den Hout 2011, p. 1
  93. Uchiyama, Junzo; et al. (21 May 2020). "Populations dynamics in Northern Eurasian forests: a long-term perspective from Northeast Asia". Evolutionary Human Sciences. 2. Cambridge University Press: e16. doi:10.1017/ehs.2020.11. PMC 10427466. PMID 37588381. Most linguists and historians agree that Proto-Turkic, the common ancestor of all ancient and contemporary Turkic languages, must have been spoken somewhere in Central-East Asia
  94. Uchiyama, Junzo; et al. (21 May 2020). "Populations dynamics in Northern Eurasian forests: a long-term perspective from Northeast Asia". Evolutionary Human Sciences. 2. Cambridge University Press: e16. doi:10.1017/ehs.2020.11. PMC 10427466. PMID 37588381. To sum up, the palaeolinguistic reconstruction points to a mixed subsistence strategy and complex economy of the Proto-Turkic-speaking community. It is likely that the subsistence of the Early Proto-Turkic speakers was based on a combination of hunting–gathering and agriculture, with a later shift to nomadic pastoralism as an economy basis, partly owing to the interaction of the Late Proto-Turkic groups with the Iranian-speaking herders of the Eastern Steppe.
    • Lee 2023, p. 4: "It should also be noted that even the early Turkic peoples, including the Tiele and the Türks, were made up of heterogeneous elements. Importantly, DNA studies demonstrate that the expansion process of the Turkic peoples involved the Turkicization of various non-Turkic-speaking groups. The “Turks” intermixed with and Turkicized various indigenous groups across Eurasia: Uralic hunter-gatherers in northern Eurasia; Mongolic nomads in Mongolia; Indo-European-speaking nomads and sedentary populations in Xinjiang, Transoxiana, Iran, Kazakhstan, and South Siberia; and Indo-European elements (the Byzantine subjects, among others) in Anatolia and the Balkans.11"
    • Findley 2005, p. 18: "Moreover, Turks do not all physically look alike. They never did. The Turks of Turkey are famous for their range of physical types. Given the Turks' ancient Inner Asian origins, it is easy to imagine that they once presented a uniform Mongoloid appearance. Such traits seem to be more characteristic in the eastern Turkic world; however, uniformity of type can never have prevailed there either. Archeological evidence indicates that Indo-Europeans, or certainly Europoid physical types, inhabited the oases of the Tarim basin and even parts of Mongolia in ancient times. In the Tarim basin, persistence of these former inhabitants' genes among the modern Uyghurs is both observable and scientifically demonstrable.32 Early Chinese sources describe the Kirghiz as blue-eyed and blond or red-haired. The genesis of Turkic ethnic groups from earliest times occurred in confederations of diverse peoples. As if to prove the point, the earliest surviving texts in Turkic languages are studded with terms from other languages."
    • Golden, Peter B. (25 July 2018). "The Ethnogonic Tales of the Türks". The Medieval History Journal. 21 (2): 291–327. doi:10.1177/0971945818775373. ISSN 0971-9458. S2CID 166026934. Archived from the original on 14 February 2021. Retrieved 12 March 2024."Some DNA tests point to the Iranian connections of the Ashina and Ashide,133 highlighting further that the Turks as a whole 'were made up of heterogeneous and somatically dissimilar populations'.134 Geographically, the accounts cover the regions of Inner Mongolia, Gansu, Xinjiang, the Yenisei zone and the Altay, regions with Turkic, Indo-European (Iranian and Tokharian), Yeniseic, Uralic and other populations. Wusun elements, like most steppe polities of an ethno-linguistic mix, may have also played a substratal role."
    • Lee, Joo-Yup; Kuang, Shuntu (18 October 2017). "A Comparative Analysis of Chinese Historical Sources and Y-DNA Studies with Regard to the Early and Medieval Turkic Peoples". Inner Asia. 19 (2). Brill: 197–239. doi:10.1163/22105018-12340089. ISSN 2210-5018. Retrieved 20 June 2020. Both Chinese histories and modern dna studies indicate that the early and medieval Turkic peoples were made up of heterogeneous populations
  95. ^ Lee 2023, p. 84
  96. Wink, Andre (1990). Al Hind: The Making of the Indo Islamic World, Vol. 1, Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam, 7th–11th Centuries. Brill Academic Publishers. p. 21. ISBN 978-90-04-09249-5.
  97. Lee 2023, p. 91
  98. ^ Howard 2016, p. 34
  99. Peacock 2015, p. 9
  100. Ahmed 2006, p. 1576: "Subsequently, hellenization of the elites transformed Anatolia into a largely Greek-speaking region"
  101. ^ Davison 1990, pp. 3–4: "So the Seljuk sultanate was a successor state ruling part of the medieval Greek empire, and within it the process of Turkification of a previously Hellenized Anatolian population continued. That population must already have been of very mixed ancestry, deriving from ancient Hittite, Phrygian, Cappadocian, and other civilizations as well as Roman and Greek."
  102. Howard 2016, pp. 34–36
  103. Howard 2016, p. 36
  104. Ahmed 2006, p. 1576
  105. Findley 2005, pp. 71–73, 225
  106. Howard 2016, pp. 36–38
  107. Howard 2016, p. 33
  108. Leiser 2010, p. 303
  109. Davison 1990, p. 4
  110. Howard 2016, pp. 37–39
  111. Howard 2016, p. 35
  112. Howard 2016, p. 38
  113. Leiser 2010, pp. 308–310
  114. Leiser 2010, pp. 309–310
  115. Fleet 2010, pp. 313–314
  116. ^ Lee 2023, p. 94
  117. Howard 2016, pp. 40–41
  118. Howard 2016, p. 43
  119. Agoston & Masters 2009, p. 302
  120. Hanioğlu 2012, p. 19
  121. Özbudun 2012, p. 194
  122. Simons, Marlise (22 August 1993). "Center of Ottoman Power". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 12 July 2018. Retrieved 4 June 2009.
  123. "Dolmabahce Palace". dolmabahcepalace.com. Archived from the original on 16 March 2016. Retrieved 4 August 2014.
  124. Niall Ferguson (2 January 2008). "An Ottoman warning for indebted America". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 25 January 2014. Retrieved 5 September 2016.
  125. "Collapse of the Ottoman Empire, 1918–1920". nzhistory.net.nz. Archived from the original on 19 December 2015. Retrieved 9 August 2014.
  126. Isa Blumi (2013). Ottoman Refugees, 1878–1939: Migration in a Post-Imperial World. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-4725-1536-0. Archived from the original on 29 December 2020. Retrieved 23 April 2020.
  127. Kaser 2011, p. 336
  128. ^ Fábos 2005, p. 437
  129. Howard 2016, p. 70
  130. Karpat 2001, p. 343
  131. Armour 2012, p. 213
  132. Mojzes, Paul (November 2013). "Ethnic cleansing in the Balkans, why did it happen and could it happen again" (PDF). Cicero Foundation. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 February 2024. Retrieved 23 February 2024.
  133. Levene 2015, p. 430–431
  134. Roderic H. Davison; Review "From Paris to Sèvres: The Partition of the Ottoman Empire at the Peace Conference of 1919–1920" by Paul C. Helmreich in Slavic Review, Vol. 34, No. 1 (March 1975), pp. 186–187
  135. ^ "Armenian Genocide". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 1 November 2020. Retrieved 4 January 2023.
  136. "Fact Sheet: Armenian Genocide". University of Michigan. Archived from the original on 18 August 2010. Retrieved 15 July 2010.
  137. Freedman, Jeri (2009). The Armenian genocide (1st ed.). Rosen Pub. Group. ISBN 978-1-4042-1825-3. Archived from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 3 April 2015.
  138. Totten, Samuel, Paul Robert Bartrop, Steven L. Jacobs (eds.) Dictionary of Genocide. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2008, p. 19. ISBN 978-0-313-34642-2.
  139. "Erdogan: Turkey will 'never accept' genocide charges". Deutsche Welle. Archived from the original on 7 February 2018. Retrieved 7 February 2018.
  140. Raziye Akkoç (15 October 2015). "ECHR: Why Turkey won't talk about the Armenian genocide". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022. Retrieved 28 May 2016.
  141. Donald Bloxham (2005). The Great Game of Genocide: Imperialism, Nationalism, And the Destruction of the Ottoman Armenians. Oxford University Press. p. 150. ISBN 978-0-19-927356-0. Retrieved 9 February 2013.
  142. Levene, Mark (Winter 1998). "Creating a Modern 'Zone of Genocide': The Impact of Nation- and State-Formation on Eastern Anatolia, 1878–1923". Holocaust and Genocide Studies. 12 (3): 393–433. doi:10.1093/hgs/12.3.393.
  143. Ferguson, Niall (2007). The War of the World: Twentieth-Century Conflict and the Descent of the West. Penguin Group. p. 180. ISBN 978-0-14-311239-6.
  144. ^ "The Treaty of Sèvres, 1920". Harold B. Library, Brigham Young University. Archived from the original on 12 November 2017. Retrieved 18 April 2020.
  145. ^ Mango, Andrew (2000). Atatürk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey. Overlook. p. lxxviii. ISBN 978-1-58567-011-6.
  146. Robert H. Hewsen. Armenia: A Historical Atlas, p. 237. ISBN 0-226-33228-4
  147. Psomiades, Harry J. (2000). The Eastern Question, the Last Phase: a study in Greek-Turkish diplomacy. Pella. pp. 27–38. ISBN 0-918618-79-7.
  148. Macfie, A. L. (1979). "The Chanak affair (September–October 1922)". Balkan Studies. 20 (2): 309–41.
  149. Heper, Metin; Criss, Nur Bilge (2009). Historical Dictionary of Turkey. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-6281-4. Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 13 October 2020.
  150. Axiarlis, Evangelia (2014). Political Islam and the Secular State in Turkey: Democracy, Reform and the Justice and Development Party. I.B. Tauris. p. 11.
  151. Clogg, Richard (2002). A Concise History of Greece. Cambridge University Press. p. 101. ISBN 978-0-521-00479-4. Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 9 February 2013.
  152. Gerhard Bowering; Patricia Crone; Wadad Kadi; Devin J. Stewart; Muhammad Qasim Zaman; Mahan Mirza (2012). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton University Press. p. 49. ISBN 978-1-4008-3855-4. Retrieved 14 August 2013. Following the revolution, Mustafa Kemal became an important figure in the military ranks of the Ottoman Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) as a protégé ... Although the sultanate had already been abolished in November 1922, the republic was founded in October 1923. ... ambitious reform programme aimed at the creation of a modern, secular state and the construction of a new identity for its citizens.
  153. Heper 2012, p. 146
  154. Hassan, Mona (10 January 2017). Longing for the Lost Caliphate: A Transregional History. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-8371-4. Archived from the original on 17 January 2023. Retrieved 23 April 2020.
  155. Soner Çağaptay (2002). "Reconfiguring the Turkish nation in the 1930s". Nationalism and Ethnic Politics. 8 (2). Yale University: 67–82. doi:10.1080/13537110208428662. S2CID 143855822.
  156. Dodd 2012, p. 55
  157. MacFie, A.L. (1989). "The Turkish straits in the second world war, 1939–45". Middle Eastern Studies. 25 (2): 238–248. doi:10.1080/00263208908700778.
  158. "Growth in United Nations membership (1945–2005)". United Nations. 3 July 2006. Archived from the original on 17 January 2016. Retrieved 30 October 2006.
  159. Sayarı 2012, p. 1
  160. Karaosmanoğlu 2012, p. 149
  161. Hale 2023, p. xiii
  162. "PKK". Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 29 September 2024.
  163. "U.S. Department of State – Bureau of Counterterrorism: Foreign Terrorist Organizations". U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on 16 December 2020. Retrieved 18 April 2020.
  164. "Council of the European Union: Council Decision (CFSP) 2019/1341 of 8 August 2019 updating the list of persons, groups and entities subject to Articles 2, 3 and 4 of Common Position 2001/931/CFSP on the application of specific measures to combat terrorism". Official Journal of the European Union. Archived from the original on 18 December 2020. Retrieved 18 April 2020.
  165. "Chronology of Turkey-EU relations". Turkish Secretariat of European Union Affairs. Archived from the original on 15 May 2007. Retrieved 30 October 2006.
  166. Dodd 2012, pp. 59–63
  167. Yılmaz 2012, p. 360
  168. Bartolomiej Kaminski; Francis Ng (1 May 2006). "Turkey's evolving trade integration into Pan-European markets" (PDF). World Bank. p. 3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 June 2007. Retrieved 27 December 2006.
  169. "Recep Tayyip Erdogan wins Turkish presidential election". BBC News. 10 August 2014. Archived from the original on 25 November 2022. Retrieved 25 November 2022.
  170. Cunningham, Erin; Sly, Liz; Karatas, Zeynep (16 July 2016). "Turkey rounds up thousands of suspected participants in coup attempt". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 18 July 2016. Retrieved 17 July 2016.
  171. "Adalet Bakanı Yılmaz Tunç, 15 Temmuz'u Değerlendirdi". Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Adalet Bakanlığı. 12 July 2024. Retrieved 30 September 2024.
  172. Karakaş, İsmet; Sarica, Abdullah (12 July 2024). "Adalet Bakanı Tunç: Demokrasiye müdahale olmasın diye hem yargımız hem yasamamız gerekli tedbirleri almaya devam ediyor". Anadolu Agency.
  173. ^ "Here's why Turkish opposition parties are contesting the referendum results". Washington Post. 16 April 2017. Archived from the original on 19 April 2017. Retrieved 17 April 2017.
  174. "General Structure of Turkish Public Administration" (PDF). justice.gov.tr/. Ministry of Justice. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 March 2015. Retrieved 14 August 2014.
  175. "Ministry of Internal Affairs: Administrative Units in Turkey". Archived from the original on 18 August 2014. Retrieved 17 April 2020.
  176. "CIA World Factbook: Turkey". Cia.gov. Archived from the original on 10 January 2021. Retrieved 29 August 2011.
  177. Özbudun 2012, p. 194
  178. "Duties and Powers". global.tbmm.gov.tr. The Grand National Assembly of Turkey. Archived from the original on 5 April 2019. Retrieved 12 April 2022.
  179. "Duties and Powers". Presidency Of The Republic Of Turkey. Archived from the original on 15 May 2023. Retrieved 11 April 2022.
  180. "Law on Constitutional Court | Anayasa Mahkemesi". www.anayasa.gov.tr.
  181. "Law on Constitutional Court". anayasa.gov.tr. Archived from the original on 7 March 2022. Retrieved 12 April 2022.
  182. Esen, Berk; Gumuscu, Sebnem (11 May 2020). "Why did Turkish democracy collapse? A political economy account of AKP's authoritarianism". Party Politics. 27 (6). SAGE Publications: 1075–1091. doi:10.1177/1354068820923722. hdl:11693/75894. ISSN 1354-0688. S2CID 219458590.
  183. Borsuk, Imren; Levin, Paul T. (3 April 2021). "Social coexistence and violence during Turkey's authoritarian transition". Southeast European and Black Sea Studies. 21 (2). Informa UK Limited: 175–187. doi:10.1080/14683857.2021.1909292. ISSN 1468-3857. S2CID 233594832.
  184. "Turkish women celebrate 85th anniversary of suffrage". Hürriyet Daily News. 5 December 2019. Archived from the original on 12 April 2022. Retrieved 12 April 2022.
  185. "Erdogan wins Turkey's election". CNN. 28 May 2023. Archived from the original on 28 May 2023. Retrieved 28 May 2023.
  186. "Erdogan wins five more years as Turkey's president". BBC. 28 May 2023. Archived from the original on 28 May 2023. Retrieved 28 May 2023.
  187. "Euro court backs Turkey Islamist ban". BBC. 31 July 2001. Archived from the original on 7 July 2018. Retrieved 14 December 2006.
  188. "Turkey's Kurd party ban criticized". BBC. 14 March 2003. Archived from the original on 7 July 2018. Retrieved 14 December 2006.
  189. "AK Party, MHP announce draft for Turkey's new election law". Daily Sabah. 14 March 2022. Archived from the original on 21 March 2022. Retrieved 22 March 2022.
  190. Yılmaz, Hakan. "Conservatism in Turkey" (PDF). European Stability Initiative. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 March 2022. Retrieved 12 April 2022.
  191. Kate Fleet; Suraiya Faroqhi; Reşat Kasaba (2008). The Cambridge History of Turkey. Cambridge University Press. pp. 357–358. ISBN 978-0-521-62096-3. Archived from the original on 17 January 2023. Retrieved 13 June 2013.
  192. Tarman, Z. Derya (2012). "Turkey". In Smits, Jan M. (ed.). Elgar Encyclopedia of Comparative Law (2nd ed.). Edward Elgar. p. 940. ISBN 978-1-84980-415-8. Archived from the original on 6 April 2023. Retrieved 20 March 2023.
  193. Tarman, Z. Derya (2012). "Turkey". In Smits, Jan M. (ed.). Elgar Encyclopedia of Comparative Law (2nd ed.). Edward Elgar. p. 941. ISBN 978-1-84980-415-8. Archived from the original on 6 April 2023. Retrieved 20 March 2023.
  194. "OSCE POLIS".
  195. "European Commission: Turkey 2015 report" (PDF). European Commission. 10 November 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 August 2016. Retrieved 6 July 2016.
  196. "European Parliament resolution of 14 April 2016 on the 2015 report on Turkey". European Parliament. 14 April 2016. Archived from the original on 17 August 2016. Retrieved 6 July 2016.
  197. "Turkey's institutions are failing to comply with good governance principles and combat corruption". Transparency International. 7 April 2016. Archived from the original on 3 December 2019. Retrieved 6 July 2016.
  198. Martin 2012, p. 227
  199. Martin 2012, p. 228
  200. Dodd 2012, p. 56
  201. Martin 2012, p. 228
  202. ^ Martin 2012, pp. 234–235
  203. Martin 2012, p. 229
  204. "Turkey's top diplomat attends first EU meeting in 5 years in bid to boost ties". Reuters. 29 August 2024.
  205. Acharya 2014, Emerging Powers
  206. Giedraityte, Ieva (2023). "Beyond hierarchy: Regional orders in the twenty-first century". International Politics. doi:10.1057/s41311-023-00511-2.
  207. Bank & Karadag 2012, p. 3
  208. ^ Martin 2012, p. 230
  209. "About TURKSOY". International Organization of Turkic Culture. Retrieved 23 September 2024.
  210. "Organization of Turkic States". Organization of Turkic States. Retrieved 23 September 2024.
  211. "National Foreign Policy in the "Century Of Türkiye": A Synopsis". Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 24 September 2024.
  212. ^ "In Middle East, once improbable ententes set new tone". Reuters. 19 May 2023. Retrieved 24 September 2024.
  213. "Turkey heads to Arab League ministerial for first time in 13 years, source says". Reuters. 9 September 2024. Retrieved 24 September 2024.
  214. "Egypt's Sisi makes first presidential visit to Turkey in 12 years". Reuters. 4 September 2024. Retrieved 24 September 2024.
  215. "Syrian president says efforts to restore ties with Turkey have yielded no results". Reuters. 25 August 2024. Retrieved 24 September 2024.
  216. Martin 2012, p. 235
  217. Aaron Stein; Michelle Foley (26 January 2016). "The YPG-PKK connection". Atlantic Council. Archived from the original on 31 December 2022. Retrieved 31 December 2022.
  218. "PKK". mfa.gov.tr. Republic of Türkiye, Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Archived from the original on 25 March 2023. Retrieved 31 December 2022.
  219. "Turkey takes full control of Syria's Afrin: military source". reuters.com. Reuters. 24 March 2018. Archived from the original on 7 January 2023. Retrieved 7 January 2023.
  220. "The YPG menace: Understanding PKK's Syria offshoot". trtworld.com. TRT World. 25 May 2022. Archived from the original on 7 January 2023. Retrieved 7 January 2023.
  221. Dana Taib Menmy (23 June 2020). "Fear and anger greets Turkish air strikes in northern Iraq". Middle East Eye. Archived from the original on 18 March 2024. Retrieved 18 March 2024. "Turkish incursions and air strikes on Iraqi territory have been a constant issue for the Iraqi foreign ministry since 2003, with no resolution in sight," Sajad Jiyad, a political analyst based in Baghdad, told MEE.
  222. Martin 2012, p. 234
  223. "Israel and Turkey end rift over Gaza flotilla killings". BBC News. BBC. 27 June 2016. Archived from the original on 5 May 2022. Retrieved 27 June 2016.
  224. ^ "Israeli-Turkish trade on life support as relations hit bottom". Reuters. 28 May 2024. Retrieved 24 September 2024.
  225. Gareth Jennings (24 November 2022). "Turkish future fighter comes together ahead of 'victory day' roll-out". janes.com. Archived from the original on 17 February 2023. Retrieved 4 December 2022.
  226. "Turkey's Domestic 5th Generation TF-X Fighter Jet Is On The Final Assembly Line". overtdefense.com. 25 November 2022. Archived from the original on 4 December 2022. Retrieved 4 December 2022.
  227. Joseph Trevithick (10 January 2023). "Unique Sensor Setup Emerges On Turkey's Stealthy New Fighter". thedrive.com. Archived from the original on 14 March 2023. Retrieved 12 January 2023.
  228. "Mission". Republic of Türkiye Ministry of National Defence General Staff. Retrieved 29 September 2024.
  229. "İçişleri Bakanlığı Teşkilat Şeması". Türkiye Cumhuriyeti İçişleri Bakanlığı. Retrieved 29 September 2024.
  230. "Recruiting Law" (PDF). Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Millî Savunma Bakanlığı. Retrieved 29 September 2024.
  231. "New military service law approved". Hürriyet Daily News. Ankara. 26 June 2019.
  232. "EBCO: European Bureau for Conscientious Objection". Ebco-beoc.eu. Archived from the original on 10 January 2016. Retrieved 4 September 2010.
  233. The International Institute for Strategic Studies (2022). The Military Balance. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-032-27900-8. ISSN 0459-7222.
  234. Fayet, Héloïse; Futter, Andrew; Kühn, Ulrich (2024). "Forum: Towards a European Nuclear Deterrent". Survival. 66 (5): 67–98. doi:10.1080/00396338.2024.2403218.
  235. Kristensen, Hans M.; Korda, Matt (2021). "United States nuclear weapons, 2021". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. 77 (1): 43–63. Bibcode:2021BuAtS..77a..43K. doi:10.1080/00963402.2020.1859865.
  236. "Mapping the Turkish Military's Expanding Footprint". Bloomberg. 7 March 2019. Retrieved 17 March 2022.
  237. Larrabee, F. Stephen; Lesser, Ian O. (2003). Turkish foreign policy in an age of uncertainty. Rand Corporation. pp. 94. ISBN 978-0-8330-3404-5. albania.
  238. "What is Turkey doing in Iraq?". Hürriyet Daily News. 8 October 2016. Archived from the original on 19 October 2017. Retrieved 5 April 2017.
  239. "Seeing shared threats, Turkey sets up military base in Qatar". Reuters. 28 April 2016. Archived from the original on 8 February 2019. Retrieved 2 July 2017.
  240. "Turkey to open its largest military base in Somalia". TRT World. 30 September 2017. Archived from the original on 9 September 2022. Retrieved 21 June 2018.
  241. Richmond, Oliver P. (1998). Mediating in Cyprus: The Cypriot Communities and the United Nations. Psychology Press. p. 260. ISBN 978-0-7146-4877-4. Retrieved 9 February 2013.
  242. "Enter the EU Battle Groups" (PDF). Chaillot Paper no. 97. European Union Institute for Security Studies. February 2007. p. 88. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 18 February 2012.
  243. "Contribution of Turkish Armed Forces to Peace Support Operations". tsk.tr. Turkish Armed Forces. Archived from the original on 19 February 2015. Retrieved 3 August 2014.
  244. "Turkey finalizes military training base in Somalia". hurriyetdailynews.com. 3 October 2016. Archived from the original on 6 April 2017. Retrieved 5 April 2017.
  245. "Turkey trains Kurdish peshmerga forces in fight against Islamic State". Reuters. 22 November 2014. Archived from the original on 23 April 2022. Retrieved 5 April 2017.
  246. Uçar, Burcu Purtul (30 July 2017). "Kadıköy'de "Kıyafetime Karışma" eylemi". Hürriyet. Archived from the original on 16 November 2022. Retrieved 23 June 2024.
  247. Özbudun 2012, p. 197
  248. ^ Toprak 2012, p. 222
  249. Mullen, Jethro; Cullinane, Susannah (4 June 2013). "What's driving unrest and protests in Turkey?". CNN. Archived from the original on 14 October 2017. Retrieved 6 June 2013.
  250. "Turkish parliament moves to strip lawmakers' immunity from prosecution Archived 21 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine". Deutsche Welle. 20 May 2016.
  251. "Turkey Violated Pro-Kurdish MPs' Rights, European Court Rules". Balkan Insight. 1 February 2022. Archived from the original on 11 November 2022. Retrieved 11 November 2022.
  252. Getz, Arlene. "2023 prison census: Jailed journalist numbers near record high; Israel imprisonments spike". Committee to Protect Journalists. Retrieved 30 September 2024.
  253. EU Commission 2023, p. 4
  254. "No: 291, 8 November 2023, Press Release Regarding the European Commission 2023 Report on Türkiye". Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 8 November 2023.
  255. Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Justice Human Rights Department 2024, p. 1
  256. ^ "17th İstanbul LGBTI+ Pride Parade: Police Attack with Shields, Pepper Gas After Pride Parade Statement Read". Bianet – Bagimsiz Iletisim Agi.
  257. Ozsoy, Elif Ceylan (2021). "Decolonizing Decriminalization Analyses: Did the Ottomans Decriminalize Homosexuality in 1858?". Journal of Homosexuality. 68 (12): 1979–2002. doi:10.1080/00918369.2020.1715142. hdl:10871/120331. PMID 32069182.
  258. Özbek 2019, p. 34
  259. Birch, Nicholas (19 July 2008). "Was Ahmet Yildiz the victim of Turkey's first gay honour killing?". Independent. Retrieved 8 May 2021.
  260. "Almost half of people in Turkey think that LGBT+ people should have equal rights, nine percent more than last year, according to a survey". Retrieved 11 May 2010.
  261. "Perceptions of Gender Equality". Retrieved 11 May 2010.
  262. "Turkey's LGBT community draws hope from Harvey Milk". Al Monitor. 17 June 2016. Retrieved 27 January 2022.
  263. "UN Demographic Yearbook" (PDF). Retrieved 1 November 2010.
  264. Kuzucuoğlu 2019, p. 7
  265. Merriam-Webster, Inc 1997, p. 46: "Anatolia: The part of Turkey in Asia equivalent to the peninsula of Asia Minor up to indefinite line on E from Gulf of Iskenderun to Black Sea comprising about three fifths of Turkey's provinces"
  266. Helen Chapin Metz, ed. (1995). "Turkey: A Country Study | Geography". Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress. Retrieved 31 May 2024.
  267. ^ Waskey 2005, p. 922
  268. Helen Chapin Metz, ed. (1995). "Turkey: A Country Study | External Boundaries". Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress. Retrieved 31 May 2024.
  269. "Geography of Turkey". Turkish Ministry of Tourism. 2005. Retrieved 13 December 2006.
  270. Sianko, Ilya; Ozdemir, Zuhal; Khoshkholghi, Soheil; Garcia, Reyes; Hajirasouliha, Iman; Yazgan, Ufuk; Pilakoutas, Kypros (2020). "A practical probabilistic earthquake hazard analysis tool: Case study Marmara region". Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering. 18 (6): 2523–2555. Bibcode:2020BuEE...18.2523S. doi:10.1007/s10518-020-00793-4.
  271. Khatchadourian 2012, p. 467
  272. "Mount Ararat". britannica.com. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
  273. "Lake Van". britannica.com. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
  274. ISMEP Guide Books 4 2014, p. 8
  275. ^ "Türkiye Overview". The World Bank. Archived from the original on 3 May 2024. Retrieved 3 May 2024.
  276. Kuzucuoğlu, Çiner & Kazancı 2019a, p. 41
  277. Kuzucuoğlu, Şengör & Çiner 2019, p. 33
  278. "Rising toll makes quake deadliest in Turkey's modern history". Associated Press News. 14 February 2023. Archived from the original on 28 October 2023.
  279. "Şili ve Türkiye: Binalar yaşatır, binalar öldürür". T24. Archived from the original on 18 August 2023.
  280. "Profesör Mustafa Erdik: Türkiye'de imar barışı olmasaydı da çok şey değişmezdi". Independent Türkçe. Archived from the original on 6 April 2024.
  281. "Şili depremle mücadelede nasıl başarılı oldu?". BBC News Türkçe. 29 August 2023. Archived from the original on 29 December 2023.
  282. "Biodiversity in Turkey". 6 May 2012. Archived from the original on 7 April 2016. Retrieved 9 August 2014.
  283. Blunt, Wilfrid. Tulipomania. p. 7.
  284. E.S. Forster (trans. et ed.), The Turkish Letters of Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq (Oxford, 1927).
  285. "Statistics". milliparklar.gov.tr. Ministry of Forest and Water – General Directorare of Nature Conservation and National Parks. Archived from the original on 17 December 2015. Retrieved 12 June 2014.
  286. Couzens, Dominic (2008). Top 100 Birding Sites of the World. University of California Press. pp. 73–75. ISBN 978-0-520-25932-4.
  287. ^ Can, O.E. (2004). Status, conservation and management of large carnivores in Turkey. Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats. Standing Committee, 24th meeting, 29 November-3 December 2004, Strasbourg.
  288. "Diyarbakır'da öldürülen leopar İran Parsı çıktı". 19 November 2013. Archived from the original on 23 October 2016. Retrieved 21 July 2015.
  289. Üstay, A.H. (1990). Hunting in Turkey. BBA, Istanbul.
  290. "Specific Animals of Turkey". gateofturkey.com. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 12 June 2014.
  291. Beck, Hylke E.; Zimmermann, Niklaus E.; McVicar, Tim R.; Vergopolan, Noemi; Berg, Alexis; Wood, Eric F. (2018). "Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution". Scientific Data. 5. Bibcode:2018NatSD...580214B. doi:10.1038/sdata.2018.214. PMC 6207062. PMID 30375988.
  292. ^ "Climate of Turkey" (PDF). General Directorate of Meteorology. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 March 2014. Retrieved 24 January 2014.
  293. World Bank Türkiye - Country Climate and Development Report 2022, p. 28: "The first prerequisite for reducing vulnerability and impacts of climate change is rapid, robust, and inclusive growth"
  294. ^ World Bank Türkiye - Country Climate and Development Report 2022, p. 6
  295. World Bank Türkiye - Country Climate and Development Report 2022, pp. 9, 51
  296. Altunel & D’Andria 2019, p. 219
  297. Kuzucuoğlu, Çiner & Kazancı 2019a, p. 46
  298. Çiner & Aydar 2019, p. 535
  299. Çiner 2019, p. 238
  300. Kuzucuoğlu, Çiner & Kazancı 2019a, p. 138
  301. "Economic Outlook No 109 - February 2022 - Long-term baseline projections". Retrieved 11 February 2022.
  302. Duttagupta, Rupa; Pazarbasioglu, Ceyla. "Miles to Go: Emerging markets must balance overcoming the pandemic, returning to more normal policies, and rebuilding their economies". International Monetary Fund. Archived from the original on 5 May 2024. Retrieved 5 May 2024.
  303. ^ "World Economic Outlook Database". International Monetary Fund. October 2024.
  304. ^ "Turkey (Turkiye) - Economy". CIA World Factbook. May 2024. Retrieved 9 May 2024.
  305. "Foreign direct investment, net inflows (BoP, current US$) – Turkey". The World Bank. Retrieved 10 August 2021.
  306. "TOGG Official Website". togg.com.tr. Retrieved 3 April 2020.
  307. Jay Ramey (30 December 2019). "Turkey Bets on EVs with the Pininfarina-Designed TOGG". autoweek.com.
  308. "'A game changer': Türkiye inaugurates its first national car plant". TRT World. 30 October 2022.
  309. Dan Mihalascu (4 November 2022). "Turkey's National Carmaker Togg Starts Production Of 2023 C SUV EV". insideevs.com.
  310. "FAO in Türkiye | Türkiye at a glance". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Archived from the original on 20 December 2022. Retrieved 17 May 2024.
  311. Taymaz, Erol; Yilmaz, Kamil (2008). "Integration with the Global Economy: The Case of Turkish Automobile and Consumer Electronics Industries". SSRN. doi:10.2139/ssrn.1274804. hdl:10986/28034.
  312. "Beko owner warns of 'very tough' 2024 for Europe's home appliance market". Financial Times. 31 October 2023. Archived from the original on 9 May 2024. Retrieved 10 May 2024.
  313. "Turkish International Contracting Services: (1972-2022)" (PDF). Turkish Contractors Association. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 January 2024.
  314. "Sectoral Roadmaps: Textile Sector in Turkey" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 2020.
  315. ^ "2023's Top 100 City Destinations Ranking: Triumphs and Turmoil Uncovered". Euromonitor International. 11 December 2023. Retrieved 2 January 2024.
  316. "Poverty and Living Conditions Statistics, 2023". www.tuik.gov.tr. Turkish Statistical Institute. 30 January 2024. Retrieved 5 May 2024.
  317. Eurostat (2022). "Persons at risk of poverty or social exclusion by age and sex". Eurostat. doi:10.2908/ILC_PEPS01N. Retrieved 5 May 2024.
  318. "Unemployment, total (% of total labor force) (national estimate) – Turkey | Data". data.worldbank.org. Retrieved 14 April 2021.
  319. "Income and Living Conditions Survey, 2021". Turkish Statistical Institute. 6 May 2022. Retrieved 6 January 2023.
  320. "Turkey's Travel & Tourism Sector to Grow at Twice the Rate of the National Economy". World Travel and Tourism Council. Archived from the original on 21 January 2024.
  321. "International Tourism – 2023 starts on a strong note with the Middle East recovering 2019 levels in the first quarter" (PDF). UNWTO. Retrieved 25 August 2023.
  322. "Blue Flag sites". Blue Flag.
  323. IEA 2021, p. 187
  324. "30 Years of World Bank Group Partnership with Turkey: Achieving Development Results Together". World Bank. Archived from the original on 8 May 2023.
  325. IEA 2021, p. 3
  326. IEA 2021, p. 73
  327. Richter, Alexander (27 January 2020). "The Top 10 Geothermal Countries 2019 – based on installed generation capacity (MWe)". Think GeoEnergy – Geothermal Energy News. Archived from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 19 February 2021.
  328. ^ IEA 2021, p. 11
  329. IEA 2021, pp. 18–19
  330. IEA 2021, p. 172
  331. Taranto & Saygın 2019, p. 7
  332. "Turkey's TPAO begins gas production from Sakarya field in Black Sea". 21 April 2023. Archived from the original on 10 March 2024.
  333. "Sakarya Gas Field Development, Black Sea, Turkey". 1 February 2023.
  334. ^ Novikau, Aliaksandr; Muhasilović, Jahja (2023). "Turkey's quest to become a regional energy hub: Challenges and opportunities". Heliyon. 9 (11): e21535. Bibcode:2023Heliy...921535N. doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e21535. PMC 10660518. PMID 38027852.
  335. KGM 2023, pp. 12, 14
  336. "Turkey opens record breaking 1915 Canakkale Bridge". BBC Newsround. 22 March 2022. Archived from the original on 27 March 2022.
  337. "Istanbul's $1.3BN Eurasia Tunnel prepares to open". Anadolu Agency. 19 December 2016.
  338. "Türkiye, Cumhuriyet'in 100. Yılında hızlı tren ağlarıyla örülüyor". TRT Haber. 25 October 2023. Archived from the original on 3 November 2023.
  339. "Yüksek Hızlı Tren". TCDD Taşımacılık. Retrieved 14 May 2024.
  340. "Istanbul Metro Passenger Statistics" (PDF). Istanbul Metro (in Turkish). 6 January 2020. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 July 2020. Retrieved 16 January 2020.
  341. "Turkey (Turkiye)". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 14 May 2024.
  342. "Erdoğan reveals 2053 'Transport and Logistics Master Plan'". Hürriyet Daily News. 13 April 2022.
  343. ^ Atlı, Altay (2018). "Turkey as a Eurasian Transport Hub: Prospects for Inter-Regional Partnership". PERCEPTIONS: Journal of International Affairs. 23 (2): 117–134.
  344. "Iraq, Turkey, Qatar, UAE sign preliminary deal to cooperate on Development Road project". Reuters. 22 April 2024.
  345. OECD (2024). "Gross domestic spending on R&D (indicator)". doi:10.1787/d8b068b4-en. Retrieved 16 May 2024.
  346. "Scientific and technical journal articles". The World Bank. Retrieved 15 May 2024.
  347. "Nature Index | Country/Territory tables". Nature. Retrieved 15 May 2024.
  348. World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) (2023). "Intellectual property statistical country profile 2022: Türkiye" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 March 2024.
  349. World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) 2024, p. 18
  350. "Who we are". TÜBİTAK. Retrieved 15 May 2024.
  351. ^ "EURAXESS | Country profile: Türkiye". The European Union. 4 July 2023. Archived from the original on 19 April 2024.
  352. Uygur, A. B.; Haktanir, O. O.; Yılmaz, F.; Işik, H. G.; Aşansü, Z. (2015). "Turkey's new Assembly, Integration and Test (AIT) center and its comparison with AIT centers in Europe". 2015 7th International Conference on Recent Advances in Space Technologies (RAST). pp. 71–74. doi:10.1109/RAST.2015.7208318. ISBN 978-1-4673-7760-7.
  353. "Production process of Türksat-6A completed: Minister". Hürriyet Daily News. 29 April 2024.
  354. Yavaş, Ö. (2012). "The status and road map of Turkish Accelerator Center (TAC)". Journal of Physics: Conference Series. 347 (1): 012008. Bibcode:2012JPhCS.347a2008Y. doi:10.1088/1742-6596/347/1/012008.
  355. "Yerli süper iletken elektron hızlandırıcısı devreye alındı". TRT Haber. 8 May 2024. Archived from the original on 11 May 2024.
  356. "Turkey plans its own Antarctic station". Archived from the original on 1 November 2023. Retrieved 3 May 2022.
  357. Rossiter, Ash; Cannon, Brendon J. (2022). "Turkey's rise as a drone power: Trial by fire". Defense & Security Analysis. 38 (2): 210–229. doi:10.1080/14751798.2022.2068562.
  358. "Türkiye's 4 defense firms included in world's top 100 list". Anadolu Ajansı. 7 August 2023.
  359. "Turkish defense giants devote huge budgets to R&D". Anadolu Ajansı. 10 November 2021.
  360. "ASELSAN'ın kuantum çalışmalarında ilk ürünler ortaya çıktı". Anadolu Agency. 27 December 2023.
  361. "The Results of Address Based Population Registration System, 2022". Turkish Statistical Institute. 6 February 2023. Retrieved 22 May 2023.
  362. "Population Statistics And Projections". Turkstat.gov.tr. Retrieved 24 July 2023.
  363. "Birth Statistics, 2023". www.tuik.gov.tr. Turkish Statistical Institute. 15 May 2024. Retrieved 19 May 2024.
  364. Hacettepe University Institute of Population Studies 2019, p. 72
  365. "Kürt Meselesi̇ni̇ Yeni̇den Düşünmek" (PDF). KONDA. July 2010. pp. 19–20. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 January 2016. Retrieved 11 June 2013.
  366. Bayir, Derya (22 April 2016). Minorities and Nationalism in Turkish Law. Routledge. pp. 144–145. ISBN 978-1-317-09579-8.
  367. Mutlu, Servet (1996). "Ethnic Kurds in Turkey: A Demographic Study". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 28 (4): 517–541. doi:10.1017/S0020743800063819. S2CID 154212694.
  368. Extra, Guus; Gorter, Durk (2001). The other languages of Europe: Demographic, Sociolinguistic and Educational Perspectives. Multilingual Matters. ISBN 978-1-85359-509-7.
  369. ^ KONDA 2006, p. 17
  370. ^ "If Turkey Had 100 People". KONDA. Archived from the original on 7 March 2024. Retrieved 7 March 2024.
  371. ^ Kirişci & Winrow 1997, pp. 119–121
  372. Migdal, Joel S. (2004). Boundaries and Belonging: States and Societies in the Struggle to Shape Identities and Local Practices. Cambridge University Press. p. 129. ISBN 978-1-139-45236-6.
  373. Aktürk, Şener (12 November 2012). Regimes of Ethnicity and Nationhood in Germany, Russia, and Turkey. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-85169-5.
  374. Watts, Nicole F. (2010). Activists in Office: Kurdish Politics and Protest in Turkey (Studies in Modernity and National Identity). University of Washington Press. p. 167. ISBN 978-0-295-99050-7.
  375. Amikam Nachmani (2003). Turkey: Facing a New Millenniium: Coping With Intertwined Conflicts. Manchester University Press. pp. 90–. ISBN 978-0-7190-6370-1. Retrieved 5 May 2013.
  376. Kirişci & Winrow 1997, p. 3
  377. Heper 2007, p. 54
  378. KONDA 2006, p. 18
  379. ^ Bayır, Derya (2013). Minorities and nationalism in Turkish law. Cultural Diversity and Law. Ashgate Publishing. pp. 88–90, 203–204. ISBN 978-1-4094-7254-4.
  380. Köksal, Yonca (2006). "Minority Policies in Bulgaria and Turkey: The Struggle to Define a Nation". Southeast European and Black Sea Studies. 6 (4): 501–521. doi:10.1080/14683850601016390. ISSN 1468-3857. S2CID 153761516.
  381. Özlem, Kader (2019). "An Evaluation on Istanbul's Bulgarians as the "Invisible Minority" of Turkey". Turan-Sam. 11 (43): 387–393. ISSN 1308-8041.
  382. ^ Toktaş, Şule; Araş, Bulent (2009). "The EU and Minority Rights in Turkey". Political Science Quarterly. 124 (4): 697–720. doi:10.1002/j.1538-165X.2009.tb00664.x. ISSN 0032-3195. JSTOR 25655744.
  383. ^ Yağmur, Kutlay (2001), Extra, G.; Gorter, D. (eds.), "Turkish and other languages in Turkey", The Other Languages of Europe, Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, pp. 407–427, ISBN 978-1-85359-510-3, retrieved 6 October 2023, "Mother tongue" education is mostly limited to Turkish teaching in Turkey. No other language can be taught as a mother tongue other than Armenian, Greek, and Hebrew, as agreed in the Lausanne Treaty Like Jews and Greeks, Armenians enjoy the privilege of an officially recognized minority status. No language other than Turkish can be taught at schools or at cultural centers. Only Armenian, Greek, and Hebrew are exceptions to this constitutional rule.
  384. ^ Zetler, Reyhan (2014). "Turkish Jews between 1923 and 1933 – What Did the Turkish Policy between 1923 and 1933 Mean for the Turkish Jews?" (PDF). Bulletin der Schweizerischen Gesellschaft für Judaistische Forschung (23): 26. OCLC 865002828.
  385. Ankara 13th Circuit Administrative Court, 18 June 2013 (E. 2012/1746, K. 2013/952).
  386. ^ Akbulut, Olgun (19 October 2023). "For Centenary of the Lausanne Treaty: Re-Interpretation and Re-Implementation of Linguistic Minority Rights of Lausanne". International Journal on Minority and Group Rights. -1 (aop): 1–24. doi:10.1163/15718115-bja10134. ISSN 1385-4879. S2CID 264412993.
  387. ^ Erdem, Fazıl Hüsnü; Öngüç, Bahar (30 June 2021). "Süryanıce Anadılınde Eğıtım Hakki: Sorunlar Ve Çözüm Önerılerı". Dicle Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi (in Turkish). 26 (44): 3–35. ISSN 1300-2929.
  388. Jaipaul L. Roopnarine (2015). Fathers Across Cultures: The Importance, Roles, and Diverse Practices of Dads: The Importance, Roles, and Diverse Practices of Dads. ABC-CLIO. p. 328. ISBN 978-1-4408-3232-1. Kurds are the largest ethnic minority group (about 20%), and Armenians, Greeks, Sephardic Jews,...
  389. al-Shamahi, Abubakr (8 June 2015). "Turkey's ethnic make-up: A complex melting pot". alaraby. Archived from the original on 7 November 2017. Retrieved 3 November 2017.
  390. "The Ethnic Groups Of Turkey". WorldAtlas. 18 July 2019.
  391. Katzner, Kenneth (2002). Languages of the World, Third Edition. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-25004-7.
  392. "Turkey Overview". minorityrights.org. 19 June 2015. Archived from the original on 9 September 2015.
  393. ^ KONDA 2006, p. 19
  394. "Türkiye'nin yüzde 85'i 'anadilim Türkçe' diyor". Milliyet.com.tr. Retrieved 4 November 2012.
  395. ^ Kornfilt 2018, p. 537
  396. "Trends in International Migrant Stock: The 2013 Revision". esa.un.org. United Nations. Archived from the original on 10 December 2015. Retrieved 14 August 2014.
  397. "Syria Regional Refugee Response: Turkey". unhcr.org. Retrieved 21 April 2020.
  398. Luke Coffey (18 February 2016). "Turkey's demographic challenge". www.aljazeera.com.
  399. "UNHCR Turkey Operational Update November 2020". UNHCR. 15 December 2020. Retrieved 10 March 2024.
  400. "Number of Syrian Kurds fleeing to Turkey nears 140,000; humanitarian needs mount". UNHCR. 23 September 2014. Archived from the original on 27 October 2023. Retrieved 10 March 2024.
  401. Pamuk, Humeyra (29 January 2016). "Syrian Turkmens cross to Turkey, fleeing advances of pro-Assad forces". Reuters. Archived from the original on 15 July 2023. Retrieved 10 March 2024.
  402. "Number of Syrians in Turkey July 2023 – Refugees Association". multeciler.org.tr.
  403. "İçişleri Bakanı Yerlikaya, Türk vatandaşı olan Suriyelilerin sayısının 238 bine yaklaştığını açıkladı". BBC. 9 November 2023. Retrieved 10 March 2024.
  404. "Uncertain Futures: Ukrainian Refugees in Turkey, One Year On". pulitzercenter.org. Retrieved 11 May 2023.
  405. Airport, Turkish Airlines planes are parked at the new Istanbul (24 July 2023). "Russian migration to Turkey spikes by 218% in aftermath of Ukraine war – Al-Monitor: Independent, trusted coverage of the Middle East". al-monitor.com.
  406. "Istanbul's giant mosque to be 'women-friendly,' architects say". Hürriyet Daily News. 14 November 2014.
  407. "Late Antique and Medieval Churches and Monasteries of Midyat and Surrounding Area (Tur 'Abdin)". UNESCO. 15 April 2021.
  408. Markessini, J. (2012). Around the World of Orthodox Christianity – Five Hundred Million Strong: The Unifying Aesthetic Beauty. Dorrance Publishing Company. p. 31. ISBN 978-1-4349-1486-6. Retrieved 25 October 2019.
  409. Axel Tschentscher. "International Constitutional Law: Turkey Constitution". Servat.unibe.ch. Retrieved 1 November 2010.
  410. "Turkey: Islam and Laicism Between the Interests of State, Politics, and Society" (PDF). Peace Research Institute Frankfurt. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 October 2008. Retrieved 19 October 2008.
  411. ^ KONDA 2006, p. 24
  412. "World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – Turkey: Alevis". refworld.org. Retrieved 22 April 2015.
  413. İçduygu, Ahmet; Toktaş, Şule; Ali Soner, B. (1 February 2008). "The politics of population in a nation-building process: Emigration of non-Muslims from Turkey". Ethnic and Racial Studies. 31 (2): 358–389. doi:10.1080/01419870701491937. S2CID 143541451.
  414. Grigoriadis 2012, p. 290
  415. "Türkiye farklı inançlara sağlanan ibadet yeri sayısında Batı'nın 5 kat önünde". www.aa.com.tr. Retrieved 23 August 2024.
  416. "Global Christianity - A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Christian Population" (PDF). Pew Research Center. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 February 2021. Retrieved 2 June 2022.
  417. DellaPergola, Sergio (2018). "World Jewish Population, 2018" (PDF). In Dashefsky, Arnold; Sheskin, Ira M. (eds.). The American Jewish Year Book, 2018. Vol. 118. Dordrecht: Springer. pp. 361–452. ISBN 978-3-030-03906-6.
  418. "Türkiye'de Hristiyan ve Yahudilere ait 439 ibadethane ve 24 dernek var". Independent Türkçe.
  419. "Gezici Araştırma Merkezi Başkanı Murat Gezici SÖZCÜ'ye açıkladı: Türkiye'nin kaderi Z kuşağının elinde". sozcu.com.tr. 11 June 2020.
  420. "Gezici Araştırma Merkezi Başkanı Murat Gezici: Türkiye'nin kaderi Z kuşağının elinde". gercekgundem.com. 11 June 2020.
  421. Cohen 2008, p. 1713
  422. ^ OECD Taking stock of education reforms for access and quality in Türkiye 2023, p. 3
  423. ^ OECD Taking stock of education reforms for access and quality in Türkiye 2023, p. 35
  424. "World Oldest Universities". Archived from the original on 15 January 2008.
  425. "Education in Turkey". World Education Services. Retrieved 12 June 2013.
  426. "Turkish Higher Education System". Study in Türkiye. Retrieved 21 May 2024.
  427. "Eurydice | Türkiye". The European Union. 27 November 2023.
  428. Mustafa Akyol (7 November 2016). "Turkish universities latest domino in Erdogan's path". Al-Monitor.
  429. "World University Rankings 2024". Times Higher Education. 25 September 2023. Retrieved 22 May 2024.
  430. "2023 Academic Ranking of World Universities". Shanghai Ranking. Retrieved 22 May 2024.
  431. "Erasmus+ EU programme for education, training, youth and sport | Eligible countries". The European Union. Retrieved 22 May 2024.
  432. "Türkiye'deki yabancı öğrenci sayısı 795 bin 962'ye ulaştı". Retrieved 5 January 2022.
  433. "Türkıye Scholarships – Türkıye for Education" (PDF). Retrieved 30 August 2013.
  434. "Türkiye Scholarships-FAQ". Retrieved 30 August 2013.
  435. "Scholarships". Turkey Scholarship. Retrieved 7 January 2019.
  436. "Başakşehir Çam ve Sakura Şehir Hastanesi'nde 2 bin 68 sismik izolatör var". Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Sağlık Bakanlığı. 14 February 2023.
  437. ^ Atun, Rifat (2015). "Transforming Turkey's Health System — Lessons for Universal Coverage". New England Journal of Medicine. 373 (14): 1285–1289. doi:10.1056/NEJMp1410433. PMID 26422719.
  438. ^ Oguz, Ahmet Bunyan (2020). "Turkish Health Policies: Past, Present, and Future". Social Work in Public Health. 35 (6): 456–472. doi:10.1080/19371918.2020.1806167. PMID 32811368.
  439. "Türkiye ranks among top 10 health tourism destinations globally". TRT World. Retrieved 22 May 2024.
  440. "WHO Mean Body Mass Index (BMI)". World Health Organization. Retrieved 5 February 2019.
  441. Akyuz, Ezgi; Samavati, Mehrdad; Kaynak, Burcak (14 August 2020). "Spatial distribution of health risks associated with PM2.5 in Turkey and Iran using satellite and ground observations". Atmospheric Pollution Research. 11 (12): 2350–2360. Bibcode:2020AtmPR..11.2350A. doi:10.1016/j.apr.2020.08.011. ISSN 1309-1042. S2CID 225477420.
  442. Kaya 2004, pp. 57–59
  443. Kaya 2004, p. 58
  444. Kaya 2004, p. 63
  445. Howard 2016, p. 6
  446. ^ Halman 2012, pp. 76–85
  447. "Turkey commemorates master author Yaşar Kemal". Hürriyet Daily News. 27 February 2021.
  448. And, M. (1983). "Theatre in Turkey". Turkish Studies Association Bulletin. 7 (2): 20–31. JSTOR 43385121.
  449. Denny 2012, pp. 94–95
  450. Stokes 2010, p. 14
  451. "Award Winning Legends". 28 February 2018.
  452. "Odunpazari Historical Urban Site". UNESCO. 13 April 2012.
  453. Sagona & Zimansky 2015, pp. 44–46, 82–86
  454. Matthews 2014, pp. 9–13
  455. Curl & Wilson 2021, Byzantine architecture
  456. Bloom & Blair 2009, Architecture | V. c. 900–c. 1250 | C. Anatolia
  457. Curl & Wilson 2021, Seljuk or Saljuk architecture
  458. Bloom & Blair 2009, Architecture | VI. c. 1250–c. 1500 | B. Anatolia | 2. Ottomans to 1453
  459. ^ Bloom & Blair 2009, Architecture | VII. c. 1500–c. 1900 | A. Ottoman Empire
  460. ^ Bloom & Blair 2009, Architecture | VII. c. 1500–c. 1900 | A. Ottoman Empire | 2. Turkey
  461. Bloom & Blair 2009, Architecture | VII. c. 1500–c. 1900 | A. Ottoman Empire | 2. Turkey; Balyan
  462. Bozdogan 2009, Turkey, since 1918
  463. Bozdogan & Akcan 2013, p. 284
  464. Tuğaç 2023, p. 1469
  465. Tuğaç 2023, p. 1465
  466. "Turkish coffee culture and tradition". UNESCO. 5 December 2013. Retrieved 18 August 2014.
  467. Çakır Morin, Arzu (5 December 2013). "Türk kahvesi Unesco korumasında". Hürriyet (in Turkish). Retrieved 18 August 2014.
  468. ^ Algar 2014, Turkey
  469. Jaine 2014, doner kebab
  470. Perry 2014a, dolma
  471. Davidson & Jaine 2014, mezze
  472. Perry 2014b, filo: "Although known to Europeans and N. Americans by a Greek name, the dough is clearly of Turkish origin."
  473. Davidson & Jaine 2014, Turkish delight
  474. Burak Sansal (2006). "Sports in Turkey". allaboutturkey.com. Retrieved 13 December 2006.
  475. "Galatasaray AŞ". uefa.com. Retrieved 10 August 2014.
  476. "Historical Achievements". tff.org. Retrieved 10 August 2014.
  477. Ian Whittell. "Basketball Capitals: Cities in Focus – Istanbul". espn.co.uk. ESPN Sports Media Ltd. Retrieved 22 December 2022.
  478. "Historic achievements of the Efes Pilsen Basketball Team". Anadolu Efes Spor Kulübü. Archived from the original on 3 May 2008. Retrieved 9 February 2013.
  479. "Anadolu Efes S.K.: Our successes". Archived from the original on 24 March 2012. Retrieved 9 August 2014.
  480. "Galatasaray Lift EuroLeague Women Title". fibaeurope.com. Retrieved 10 August 2014.
  481. "National Team's Activities". tvf.org.tr. Archived from the original on 29 August 2014. Retrieved 10 August 2014.
  482. "2023 CEV Women's Champions League Super Final: VakifBank Istanbul – Ezcacibasi Dynavit Istanbul". championsleague.cev.eu. 20 May 2023.
  483. Burak Sansal (2006). "Oiled Wrestling". allaboutturkey.com. Retrieved 13 December 2006.
  484. "Historical Kırkpınar oil wrestling festival kicks off in northwestern Turkey". Daily Sabah. 13 July 2018.
  485. "Kırkpınar Oiled Wrestling Tournament: History". Kirkpinar.com. 21 April 2007. Archived from the original on 1 August 2008. Retrieved 1 November 2010.
  486. Gegner, Christiane. "FILA Wrestling Database". Iat.uni-leipzig.de. Archived from the original on 13 March 2009. Retrieved 1 November 2010.
  487. "The Political Economy of the Media in Turkey: A Sectoral Analysis" (PDF). tesev.org.tr. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 July 2012. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
  488. "Survey on Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Usage in Households and by Individuals, 2022". data.tuik.gov.tr. Turkish Statistical Institute. 26 August 2022.
  489. ^ Turkey country profile. Library of Congress Federal Research Division (January 2006). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  490. "About RTÜK". The Radio and Television Supreme Council (RTÜK). Archived from the original on 6 August 2020. Retrieved 18 April 2020.
  491. "Gazete Tirajları 02.05.2016 – 08.05.2016". Gazeteciler.com. Archived from the original on 19 December 2015. Retrieved 1 August 2016.
  492. Akser 2018, p. 156
  493. "Berlinale 1964: Prize Winners". berlinale.de. Archived from the original on 19 March 2015. Retrieved 20 February 2010.
  494. Jenna Krajeski (30 March 2012). "Turkey: Soap Operas and Politics". Pulitzer Center. Archived from the original on 17 January 2013. Retrieved 15 January 2013.
  495. "Turkish Dramas Sweep Latin America". International Business Times. 9 February 2016. Retrieved 1 October 2016.
  496. Irani, Delshad (22 February 2017). "Here's why Turkish soaps are a cultural force to reckon with! – The Economic Times". The Economic Times.
  497. "Turkey world"s second highest TV series exporter after US – Business". Hürriyet Daily News. 27 October 2014. Retrieved 14 October 2017.
  498. Betül Alakent (17 October 2022). "Türkiye marches toward $600 million in worldwide TV series sales". dailysabah.com.
  499. Fatima Bhutto (13 September 2019). "How Turkish TV is taking over the world". The Guardian.

Sources

External links

General

Tourism

Government

Economy

Turkey Turkey
History
Ancient and Middle Ages
Seljuks and Beyliks
Ottoman Empire
Republic of Türkiye
Overviews
Topics
Geography
Regions
(west to east)
Topics
Government
Branches
Politics
Topics
Economy
Demographics
Society
Culture
Articles related to Turkey
Countries and dependencies of Asia
Sovereign states
States with limited
recognition
Dependent
territories
Australia
Greece
United Kingdom
Special administrative
regions of China
  • Spans the conventional boundary between Asia and another continent.
  • Considered European for cultural, political and historical reasons but is geographically in West Asia.
Countries and dependencies of Europe
Sovereign states
States with limited
recognition
Dependent
territories
Denmark
United Kingdom
Crown Dependencies
Special areas
of internal
sovereignty
Finland
Norway
United Kingdom
  • Spans the conventional boundary between Europe and another continent.
  • Considered European for cultural, political and historical reasons but is geographically in Western Asia.
  • Oceanic islands within the vicinity of Europe are usually grouped with the continent even though they are not situated on its continental shelf.
  • Governed by the Holy See which has sovereignty over Vatican City.
Council of Europe
Institutions
Members
Observers
Former members
 Organization of Turkic States
Members
Observers
Summits
Symbols
Award
Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO)
Politics
Symbols
Summits
Member
Observers
Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC)
Member states
Members
Suspended
Observers
Countries
and territories
Muslim
communities
International
organizations
History
Declarations
Sessions
Extraordinary
Demographics
  • As the "Turkish Cypriot State".
Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO)
Summits
Member states
Observer states
Dialogue partners
Guests
Applicants
See also
International Organization of Turkic Culture (TÜRKSOY)
Members
Observers
Related
Black Sea
Countries bordering the Black Sea
Cities
Disputed statehood — partial international recognition, but considered by most countries to be Georgian territory.
Categories: