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{{Short description|Political ideologies favoring social hierarchy}} | |||
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'''Right-wing politics''' hold that ] and ] are inevitable, natural, normal, or desirable,<ref>{{cite web|work=A Political Glossary|url=http://www.auburn.edu/~johnspm/gloss/right-wing Auburn University website |last=Johnson|first=Paul|title=Right-wing, rightist|year=2005|accessdate=23 October 2014}}</ref><ref>Bobbio, Norberto and Allan Cameron,''Left and Right: The Significance of a Political Distinction''. ], 1997, p. 51, 62. ISBN 978-0-226-06246-4</ref><ref name="autogenerated1">J. E. Goldthorpe. ''An Introduction to Sociology''. p. 156. ISBN 0-521-24545-1.</ref> typically defending this position on the basis of ], ] or ].<ref>Rodney P. Carlisle. ''Encyclopedia of politics: the left and the right, Volume 2''. University of Michigan; Sage Reference, 2005. p.693, 721. ISBN 1-4129-0409-9</ref><ref name="T. Alexander Smith 2003. p. 30">T. Alexander Smith, Raymond Tatalovich. ''Cultures at war: moral conflicts in western democracies''. Toronto, Canada: Broadview Press, Ltd, 2003. p. 30. "That viewpoint is held by contemporary sociologists, for whom 'right-wing movements' are conceptualized as 'social movements whose stated goals are to maintain structures of order, status, honor, or traditional social differences or values' as compared to left-wing movements which seek 'greater equality or political participation.' In other words, the sociological perspective sees preservationist politics as a right-wing attempt to defend privilege within the ''social hierarchy''."</ref><ref name="Allan Cameron pg. 37">''Left and right: the significance of a political distinction'', Norberto Bobbio and Allan Cameron, p. 37, ], 1997.</ref><ref name="Fuchs, D. 1990. p. 203">], cited in Fuchs, D., and Klingemann, H. 1990. The left-right schema. pp. 203–34 in Continuities in Political Action: A Longitudinal Study of Political Orientations in Three Western Democracies, ed.M.Jennings et al. Berlin:de Gruyter</ref><ref name=Lukes>Lukes, Steven. 'Epilogue: The Grand Dichotomy of the Twentieth Century': concluding chapter to T. Ball and R. Bellamy (eds.), The Cambridge History of Twentieth-Century Political Thought. pp.610–612</ref><ref name="Clark, William 2003">Clark, William. Capitalism, not Globalism. University of Michigan Press, 2003. ISBN 0-472-11293-7, ISBN 978-0-472-11293-7</ref> Hierarchy and inequality may be viewed as natural results of traditional social differences<ref>Smith, T. Alexander and Raymond Tatalovich. ''Cultures at War: Moral Conflicts in Western Democracies'' (Toronto, Canada: Broadview Press, Ltd., 2003) p. 30. "That viewpoint is held by contemporary sociologists, for whom 'right-wing movements' are conceptualized as 'social movements whose stated goals are to maintain structures of order, status, honor, or traditional social differences or values' as compared to left-wing movements which seek 'greater equality or political participation.' '</ref> or competition in market economies.<ref>Scruton, Roger “A Dictionary of Political Thought” "Defined by contrast to (or perhaps more accurately conflict with) the left the term right does not even have the respectability of a history. As now used it denotes several connected and also conflicting ideas (including) 1)conservative, and perhaps authoritarian, doctrines concerning the nature of civil society, with emphasis on custom, tradition, and allegiance as social bonds ... 8) belief in free enterprise free markets and a capitalist economy as the only mode of production compatible with human freedom and suited to the temporary nature of human aspirations ..." pp. 281–2, Macmillan, 1996</ref><ref>J. E. Goldthorpe. ''An Introduction to Sociology''. "There are ... those who accept inequality as natural, normal, and even desirable. Two main lines of thought converge on the Right or conservative side...the truly Conservative view is that there is a natural hierarchy of skills and talents in which some people are born leaders, whether by heredity or family tradition. ... now ... the more usual right-wing view, which may be called 'liberal-conservative', is that unequal rewards are right and desirable so long as the competition for wealth and power is a fair one." p. 156. Cambridge, England, UK; Oakleigh, Melbourne, Australia; New York, New York, USA p. 156. ISBN 0-521-24545-1.</ref> | |||
'''Right-wing politics''' is the range of ] that view certain ]s and ] as inevitable, natural, normal, or desirable,{{R|Johnson-2005|Bobbio-1996|Goldthorpe-1985a}} typically supporting this position based on ], ], ], ], ], or ].{{R|EB online|Carlisle|T. Alexander Smith 2003. p. 30|Allan Cameron pg. 37|Fuchs, D. 1990. p. 203|Lukes|Clark}} Hierarchy and ] may be seen as natural results of traditional social differences{{R|Smith-2003b|Gidron-2019a}} or competition in ].{{R|Scruton-1996|Goldthorpe-1985b|Gidron-2019b}} | |||
The political terms ''Right'' and '']'' were first used during the ] (1789–99), and referred to seating arrangements in the French parliament; those who sat to the right of the chair of the parliamentary president were broadly supportive of the institutions of the monarchist '']''.<ref name="Parliaments 1988 pp. 287–302">Goodsell, Charles T., "The Architecture of Parliaments: Legislative Houses and Political Culture", British Journal of Political Science, Vol. 18, No. 3 (July , 1988) pp. 287–302</ref><ref>Linski, Gerhard, ''Current Issues and Research In Macrosociology'' (Brill Archive, 1984) p. 59</ref><ref>Clark, Barry ''Political Economy: A Comparative Approach'' (Praeger Paperback, 1998) pp. 33–34</ref><ref name="Knapp"/> The original Right in France was formed as a ] against the Left, and comprised those politicians supporting hierarchy, tradition, and ].<ref>Rodney P. Carlisle. ''Encyclopedia of politics: the left and the right, Volume 2''. University of Michigan; Sage Reference, 2005, p. 693. ISBN 1-4129-0409-9</ref> The use of the expression ''la droite'' (''the right'') became prominent in France after the restoration of the monarchy in 1815, when it was applied to the ]s.<ref>Gauchet, Marcel, "Right and Left" in Nora, Pierre, ed., ''Realms of Memory: Conflicts and Divisions'' (1996) pp. 247–8</ref> The people of English-speaking countries did not apply the terms "right" and "left" to their own politics until the ].<ref>"The English Ideology: Studies in the Language of Victorian Politics" George Watson Allen Lane: London 1973 p.94</ref> | |||
Right-wing politics are considered the counterpart to ], and the ] is the most common ].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=McClosky|first1=Herbert|last2=Chong|first2=Dennis|date=July 1985|title=Similarities and Differences Between Left-Wing and Right-Wing Radicals|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/british-journal-of-political-science/article/abs/similarities-and-differences-between-leftwing-and-rightwing-radicals/C46411F0228745583D2EB8E91A19D881|journal=British Journal of Political Science|language=en|volume=15|issue=3|pages=329–363|doi=10.1017/S0007123400004221|s2cid=154330828|issn=1469-2112}}</ref> The right includes ] and ],<ref>Leonard V. Kaplan, Rudy Koshar, ''The Weimar Moment: Liberalism, Political Theology, and Law'' (2012) p. 7–8.</ref><ref>Alan S. Kahan, ''Mind Vs. Money: The War Between Intellectuals and Capitalism'' (2010), p. 184.</ref><ref>Jerome L. Himmelstein, ''To the right: The transformation of American conservatism'' (1992).</ref> as well as ]. "Right" and "right-wing" have been variously used as compliments and ]s describing ], ], and ] economic and social ideas.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Desk Encyclopedia of World History|publisher=]|year=2006|isbn=978-0-7394-7809-7|editor-last=Wright|editor-first=Edmund|location=New York|pages=370, 541}}</ref> | |||
From the 1830s to the 1880s, there was a shift in the ] of ] structure and the economy, moving away from ] and ] towards ].<ref>Alan S. Kahan. ''Mind Vs. Money: The War Between Intellectuals and Capitalism''. New Brunswick, New Jersey: ], 2010. p. 88.</ref> This general economic shift toward capitalism affected ] movements such as the ], which responded by becoming supportive of capitalism.<ref>Ian Adams. ''Political Ideology Today''. Manchester, England, UK; New York, New York, USA: ], 2001. p. 57.</ref> | |||
== Positions == | |||
Although Daniel Galsworthy (biggest tory supporter ever) originated with ], ] and ], the term right-wing has been applied to extreme movements including ], ], and ].<ref>Iain McLean and Alistair McMillan, ''The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics'', ''Right(-wing)...and for extreme right parties racism and fascism.'', p. 465, Oxford, 2009, ISBN 978-0-19-920780-0.</ref> | |||
The following positions are typically associated with right-wing politics. | |||
=== Anti-communism === | |||
In the United States, the Right includes both economic and social conservatives.<ref>Jerome L. Himmelstein, ''To the right: The transformation of American conservatism'' (1992).</ref> In Europe, economic conservatives are usually considered liberal, and the Right includes nationalists, ] opposition to immigration, religious conservatives, and historically a significant presence of right-wing movements with ] sentiments including conservatives and fascists who opposed what they saw as the selfishness and excessive ] inherent in contemporary capitalism.<ref>Leonard V. Kaplan, Rudy Koshar, ''The Weimar Moment: Liberalism, Political Theology, and Law'' (2012) p 7-8.</ref><ref>Alan S. Kahan, ''Mind Vs. Money: The War Between Intellectuals and Capitalism'' (2010) p 184.</ref> | |||
{{more citations needed section|date=January 2019}} | |||
Early ] used the term "right-wing" in reference to conservatives, placing the conservatives on the right, the liberals in the centre and the communists on the left. Both the conservatives and the liberals were strongly ], although conservatives' anti-communism is much stronger than liberals'. The history of the use of the term ''right-wing'' about anti-communism is a complicated one.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hendershot|first1=Cyndy|title=Anti-Communism and Popular Culture in Mid-Century America|date=2003|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-0786414406|location=Jefferson, N.C.}}</ref> | |||
Early Marxist movements were at odds with the traditional monarchies that ruled over much of the ]an continent at the time. Many European monarchies outlawed the public expression of communist views and the '']'', which began " spectre is haunting Europe", and stated that monarchs feared for their thrones. Advocacy of communism was illegal in the ], the ], and ], the three most powerful monarchies in continental Europe before ]. Many monarchists (except ]) viewed inequality in wealth and political power as resulting from a divine natural order. The struggle between monarchists and communists was often described as a struggle between the Right and the Left. | |||
==History== | |||
] propaganda poster depicting the ] which says "For a united Russia", 1919]] | |||
By ], in most European monarchies the ] had become discredited and was replaced by ] and ] movements. Most European monarchs became figureheads, or they yielded some power to elected governments. The most conservative European monarchy, the Russian Empire, was replaced by the communist ]. The ] inspired a series of other ]. Many of these, such as the ], were defeated by nationalist and monarchist military units. During this period, nationalism began to be considered right-wing, especially when it opposed the internationalism of the communists. | |||
The 1920s and 1930s saw the decline of traditional right-wing politics. The mantle of conservative anti-communism was taken up by the rising ] movements on the one hand and by American-inspired ] on the other. When communist groups and political parties began appearing around the world, their opponents were usually ] and the term ''right-wing'' came to be applied to ]. | |||
After ], communism became a global phenomenon and anti-communism became an integral part of the domestic and foreign policies of the ] and its ] allies. Conservatism in the post-war era abandoned its monarchist and aristocratic roots, focusing instead on patriotism, religious values, and nationalism. Throughout the ], postcolonial governments in ], ], and ] turned to the United States for political and economic support. Communists were also enemies of capitalism, portraying ] as the oppressor of the masses. The United States made anti-communism the top priority of its foreign policy, and many American conservatives sought to combat what they saw as communist influence at home. This led to the adoption of several domestic policies that are collectively known under the term '']''. While both liberals and conservatives were anti-communist, the followers of Senator McCarthy were called ''right-wing'' and those on the right called liberals who favored free speech, even for communists, ''leftist''.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Nunberg|first=Geoffrey|date=17 April 2003|title=Sticks and Stones; The Defanging of a Radical Epithet|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/08/17/weekinreview/sticks-and-stones-the-defanging-of-a-radical-epithet.html}}</ref> | |||
=== Economics === | |||
{{Main|Capitalism|Corporatism}} | |||
] (left) and ] (right)]] | |||
Early forms of corporatism would be developed in ] and used in ]. Plato would develop the ideas of ] and ] corporatist systems of natural based classes and social hierarchies that would be organized based on function, such that groups would cooperate to achieve social harmony by emphasizing ] interests over ] interests.<ref>Adler, Franklin Hugh. ''Italian Industrialists from Liberalism to Fascism: The Political Development of the Industrial Bourgeoisie, 1906–34''. p. 349.</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Wiarda|first=Howard J.|title=Corporatism and comparative politics: the other great "ism"|date=1997|publisher=Sharpe|isbn=978-1-56324-716-3|series=Comparative politics series|location=Armonk, NY}}</ref> Corporatism as a ] advocates the organization of society by ]—such as agricultural, labour, military, scientific, or guild associations—based on their common interests.<ref>{{cite book|last=Wiarda|first=Howard J.|url=https://archive.org/details/corporatismcompa0000wiar|title=Corporatism and Comparative Politics: The Other Great "Ism"|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|year=1997|pages=27,141}}</ref><ref name="Clarke, Paul A. B. 2001. Pp. 113">Clarke, Paul A. B; Foweraker, Joe. ''Encyclopedia of democratic thought''. London, UK; New York, US: Routledge, 2001. Pp. 113</ref> | |||
After the ] corporatism became limited to ]s and to the idea of Christian brotherhood, especially in the context of economic transactions.<ref name=":0" /> From the ] onwards corporatist organizations became increasingly common in Europe, including such groups as religious orders, ], ], ] such as the ] and the ], educational organizations such as the emerging ] and ], the ] ] and ], and most notably the ] which dominated the economics of population centers in ].<ref name=":0" /> | |||
In post-revolutionary France, the Right fought against the rising power of those who had grown rich through commerce, and sought to preserve the rights of the hereditary nobility. They were uncomfortable with capitalism, the Enlightenment, individualism, and industrialism, and fought to retain traditional social hierarchies and institutions.<ref name="Parliaments 1988 pp. 287–302" /><ref name="Appleby">{{cite book|last1=Marty|first1=Martin E.|title=Fundamentalisms Observed|last2=Appleby|first2=R. Scott|date=1994|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-50878-8|edition=2nd|location=Chicago|page=91|quote=Reactionary right-wing themes emphasizing authority, social hierarchy, and obedience, as well as condemnations of liberalism, the democratic ethos, the "rights of man" associated with the legacy of the Enlightenment and the French Revolution, and the political and cultural ethos of modern liberal democracy are especially prominent in the writings and public statements of Archbishop Lefebvre.}}</ref> In Europe's history, there have been strong ] right-wing movements, such as in the ], that have exhibited hostility to all forms of ] (including ]) and have historically advocated for paternalist class harmony involving an organic-hierarchical society where workers are protected while class hierarchy remains.<ref>''Modern Catholic Social Teaching: The Popes Confront the Industrial Age'', 1740–1958. Paulist Press, 2003, p. 132.</ref> | |||
In the nineteenth century, the Right had shifted to support the newly rich in some European countries (particularly Britain) and instead of favouring the nobility over industrialists, favoured capitalists over the working class. Other right-wing movements—such as ] in Spain and nationalist movements in France, Germany, and Russia—remained hostile to capitalism and industrialism. Nevertheless, a few right-wing movements—notably the French ], ], and American ]—are often in opposition to capitalist ethics and the effects they have on society. These forces see capitalism and industrialism as infringing upon or causing the decay of social traditions or hierarchies that are essential for social order.<ref name="Fascism">{{cite book|last1=Payne|first1=Stanley G.|title=Fascism: Comparison and Definition|date=1983|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|isbn=978-0-299-08064-8|location=Madison, Wisc.|page=19|quote=Right radicals and conservative authoritarians almost without exception became corporatists in formal doctrines of political economy, but the fascists were less explicit and in general less schematic.}}</ref> | |||
In modern times, "right-wing" is sometimes used to describe ]. In Europe, capitalists formed alliances with the Right during their conflicts with workers after 1848. In France, the Right's support of capitalism can be traced to the late nineteenth century.<ref name="Knapp" /> The so-called ] Right, popularised by ] ] and ] ], combines support for ], ], and ] with traditional right-wing support for social conformity.<ref name="Lukes" /> ] (sometimes known as ] or ]) supports a decentralised economy based on ] and holds ], ], and ] to be the most important kinds of freedom. Political theorist Russell Kirk believed that freedom and property rights were interlinked.<ref name="heritage.org">{{cite web|last=John|first=David C.|date=21 November 2003|title=The Origins of the Modern American Conservative Movement|url=http://www.heritage.org/Research/PoliticalPhilosophy/HL811.cfm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100308173749/http://www.heritage.org/Research/PoliticalPhilosophy/HL811.cfm|archive-date=8 March 2010|access-date=13 May 2010|publisher=heritage.org|df=dmy-all}}</ref> | |||
=== Nationalism === | |||
{{Main|Nationalism|Neo-nationalism}} | |||
In France, ] was originally a left-wing and republican ideology.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Doyle|first1=William|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryoff00doyl|title=The Oxford History of the French Revolution|date=2002|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-925298-5|edition=2nd|location=Oxford |quote="An exuberant, uncompromising nationalism lay behind France's revolutionary expansion in the 1790s...", "The message of the French Revolution was that the people are sovereign; and in the two centuries since it was first proclaimed it has conquered the world."}}</ref> After ] and the ], nationalism became a trait of the right-wing.<ref>] (dir.), ''Histoire de l'extrême droite en France'' (1993).</ref> Right-wing nationalists sought to define and defend a "true" national identity from elements which they believed were corrupting that identity.<ref name="Knapp" /> Some were ], who in accordance with ] and ] applied the concept of "]" to ] and ].<ref>Adams, Ian ''Political Ideology Today'' (2nd edition), Manchester University Press, 2002, p. 68.</ref> | |||
Right-wing nationalism was influenced by ] in which the state derives its political legitimacy from the organic unity of those who it governs. This generally includes the language, race, culture, religion, and customs of the nation, all of which were "born" within its culture. Linked with right-wing nationalism is ], which supports the preservation of the heritage of a nation or culture and often sees deviations from cultural norms as an existential threat.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ramet|first1=Sabrina|title=The Radical Right in Central and Eastern Europe since 1989|last2=Griffin|first2=Roger|date=1999|publisher=The Pennsylvania State University Press|isbn=978-0271018119|location=University Park}}</ref>{{page needed|date=November 2016}} | |||
In the 21st century, ] came to prominence after the ] in the ]. It is typically associated with cultural conservatism, ], ], and ] and is ]. The ] takes historical association in determining membership in a nation, rather than ].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Barber|first=Tony|date=2016-07-11|title=A renewed nationalism is stalking Europe|work=Financial Times|url=https://www.ft.com/content/53fc4518-4520-11e6-9b66-0712b3873ae1|access-date=2023-09-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Neo-Nationalism - ECPS|url=https://www.populismstudies.org/Vocabulary/neo-nationalism/|access-date=2023-09-23|language=en-US}}</ref> | |||
=== Natural law and traditionalism === | |||
Right-wing politics typically justifies a hierarchical society based on ] or ].<ref name="T. Alexander Smith 2003. p. 30" /><ref name="Allan Cameron pg. 37" /><ref name="Fuchs, D. 1990. p. 203"/><ref name="Lukes" /><ref name="Clark"/><ref name="autogenerated68">''Left and right: the significance of a political distinction'', Norberto Bobbio and Allan Cameron, pg. 68, ], 1997.</ref> | |||
Traditionalism was advocated by a group of United States university professors (labelled the "New Conservatives" by the popular press) who rejected the concepts of ], ], ], and ], seeking instead to promote what they identified as cultural and educational renewal<ref>Bruce Frohnen, Jeremy Beer and Jeffrey O. Nelson, ed. (2006) ''American Conservatism: An Encyclopedia'' Wilmington, DE: ISI Books, p. 870.</ref> and a revived interest in concepts perceived by traditionalists as truths that endure from age to age alongside basic institutions of western society such as the church, the family, the state, and business. | |||
=== Populism === | |||
{{Main article|Right-wing populism}} | |||
] during the ], 12 September 2009.]] | |||
] is a combination of ], ] and sometimes ], ], along with ], using populist rhetoric to provide a critique of existing political institutions.<ref>] and Rovira Kaltwasser, Cristóbal (2017) ''Populism: a Very Short Introduction''. New York: Oxford University Press. pp.14-15, 72-73. {{isbn|978-0-19-023487-4}}</ref> According to Margaret Canovan, a right-wing populist is "a charismatic leader, using the tactics of politicians' populism to go past the politicians and intellectual elite and appeal to the reactionary sentiments of the populace, often buttressing his claim to speak for the people by the use of referendums".<ref name="Canovan">{{cite book|last1=Canovan|first1=Margaret|url=https://archive.org/details/populism00cano|title=Populism|date=1981|publisher=Harcourt Brace Jovanovich|isbn=978-0151730780|edition=1st|location=New York}}</ref>{{page needed|date=November 2016}} | |||
In Europe, right-wing populism often takes the form of distrust of the ], and of politicians in general, combined with ] rhetoric and a call for a return to traditional, national values.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hayward|first1=Jack|title=Elitism, Populism, and European Politics|date=2004|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0198280354|location=Oxford}}</ref> Daniel Stockemer states, the radical right is, "Targeting immigrants as a threat to employment, security and cultural cohesion."<ref name="Daniel Stockemer 2016">Daniel Stockemer, "Structural data on immigration or immigration perceptions? What accounts for the electoral success of the radical right in Europe?." ''JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies'' 54.4 (2016): 999-1016.</ref> | |||
In the United States, the ] stated that the core beliefs for membership were the primacy of individual liberties as defined by the Constitution of the United States, preference for a small federal government, and respect for the rule of law. Some policy positions included opposition to illegal immigration and support for a strong national military force, the right to individual gun ownership, cutting taxes, reducing government spending, and balancing the budget.<ref>{{cite web|date=2 September 2004|title=About Us|url=http://www.teaparty.org/about-us/|access-date=15 November 2016|publisher=Tea Party}}</ref> | |||
In Indonesia, Islamic populism has a significant impact on right-wing politics.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Hadiz |first=Vedi R. |date=2018-08-08 |title=Imagine All the People? Mobilising Islamic Populism for Right-Wing Politics in Indonesia |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00472336.2018.1433225 |journal=Journal of Contemporary Asia |language=en |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=566–583 |doi=10.1080/00472336.2018.1433225 |issn=0047-2336}}</ref> This is largely due to the historical context which Islamic organizations had during the 1960s in destroying the Indonesian Communist Party.<ref name=":1" /> Whilst the party is adopting democratic processes with neo-liberal market economies, socially pluralist positions aren't necessarily adopted.<ref name=":1" /> The Islamic populism in Indonesia has boosted its influence in 1998 after the demise of the Suharto authoritarian regime.<ref name=":1" /> Islamic populism in Indonesia has similar properties with Islamic populist regimes like in the Middle East, Turkey and North Africa (MENA).<ref name=":1" /> The emphasis on social justice, pluralism, equality and progressive agendas could be potentially mobilized by Islamic cultural resources.<ref name=":1" /> | |||
In India, ] supporters have more authoritarian, nativist, and populist ideas than other Indian citizens.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Ammassari |first=Sofia |last2=Fossati |first2=Diego |last3=McDonnell |first3=Duncan |date=October 2023 |title=Supporters of India's BJP: Distinctly Populist and Nativist |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0017257X22000185/type/journal_article |journal=Government and Opposition |language=en |volume=58 |issue=4 |pages=807–823 |doi=10.1017/gov.2022.18 |issn=0017-257X}}</ref> Under Narendra Modi, the BJP, populism is a core part of the party's ideology.<ref name=":2" /> The main populist idea is that the ordinary, "good" individuals are continuously under attack from the "bad" political forces, media, etc.<ref name=":2" /> Since Narendra Modi became the leader of the BJP, it has increasingly been associated as a populist radical right party (PRR), however, traditionally the party was viewed as a Hindu nationalist party.<ref name=":2" /> | |||
=== Religion === | |||
] ] (1723–1775), ], propagated the ideals of the ] the ] as his kingdom's ruling ideology.]] | |||
Philosopher and diplomat ] argued for the indirect authority of the ] over temporal matters. According to Maistre, only governments which were founded upon Christian constitutions—which were implicit in the customs and institutions of all European societies, especially the ] European monarchies—could avoid the disorder and bloodshed that followed the implementation of ] political programs, such as the chaos which occurred during the ]. Some prelates of the ]–established by ] and headed by the current sovereign—are given seats in the ] (as ]), but they are considered politically neutral rather than specifically right- or left-wing. | |||
American right-wing media outlets oppose sex outside marriage and ], and they sometimes reject scientific positions on ] and other matters where science tends to disagree with the ].<ref>{{cite book|last=DeGette|first=Diana|url=https://archive.org/details/sexsciencestemce00dege|title=Sex, Science, and Stem Cells: Inside the Right Wing Assault on Reason|publisher=]|year=2008|isbn=978-1-59921-431-3}}</ref><ref>Chris Mooney, ''The Republican War on Science: Revised and Updated'', ASIN: B001OQOIPM</ref> | |||
The term '']'' has been used by right-wing parties—such as the ] in the United States, the ] in Australia, the ] in the United Kingdom, and the ] in India—to signify support for traditional families and opposition to the changes the modern world has made in how families live. Supporters of "family values" may oppose ], ], and ].<ref>{{cite web|title=2004 Republican Party Platform: A Safer World and a More Hopeful America|url=http://msnbcmedia.msn.com/i/msnbc/Sections/News/Politics/Conventions/RNC-2004platform.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120523005435/http://msnbcmedia.msn.com/i/msnbc/Sections/News/Politics/Conventions/RNC-2004platform.pdf|archive-date=23 May 2012|access-date=23 July 2012|publisher=MSNBC}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.salon.com/2019/07/05/how-did-the-republican-party-become-so-conservative/|title=How did the Republican Party become so conservative?|work=Salon|last=Rozsa|first=Matthew|date=July 5, 2019|access-date=March 7, 2022|quote=To understand how the Republican Party became associated with right-wing politics — and, for that matter, how the Democratic Party became associated with a left-wing, progressive philosophy — it is essential to understand the history of the Grand Old Party.}}</ref> | |||
Outside the West, the ] has attracted privileged groups which fear encroachment on their dominant positions, as well as "plebeian" and impoverished groups which seek recognition around a majoritarian rhetoric of cultural pride, order, and national strength.<ref>Thomas Blom Hansen, ''The Saffron Wave: Democracy and Hindu Nationalism in Modern India'', Princeton University Press, 2001, {{ISBN|1-4008-0342-X}}, 9781400803422.</ref> | |||
In Israel, ] advocated that Israel should be a ], where non-] have no voting rights,<ref>{{cite web|title=Israel's Ayatollahs: Meir Kahane and the Far Right in Israel|url=http://kahane.org/meir/interview.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090219141224/http://kahane.org/meir/interview.htm|archive-date=19 February 2009|quote="Any non-Jew, including the Arabs, can have the status of a foreign resident in Israel if he accepts the law of the Halacha. I don't differentiate between Arabs and non-Arabs. The only difference I make is between Jews and non-Jews. If a non-Jew wants to live here, he must agree to be a foreign resident, be he Arab or not. He does not have and cannot have national rights in Israel. He can have civil rights, social rights, but he cannot be a citizen; he won't have the right to vote. Again, whether he's Arab or not."}}</ref> and the far-right ] strictly opposes Jewish assimilation and the Christian presence in Israel.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Rubin|first1=Shira|title=Good Will and Peace Towards Men Elusive This Year in Nazareth|url=https://forward.com/news/327875/good-will-and-peace-towards-men-elusive-this-year-in-nazareth/|website=Forward|date=24 December 2015}}</ref> The ] (JDL) in the United States was classified as "a right wing terrorist group" by the FBI in 2001.<ref>{{cite web|title=FBI — Terrorism 2000/2001|url=https://www.fbi.gov/stats-services/publications/terror|publisher=Federal Bureau of Investigation}}</ref> | |||
Many ] groups have been called right-wing, including the ],<ref>{{cite web|author=Demirtas, Burcu|date=27 March 2009|title=Rescue Teams Could Not Reach Turkish Party Leader, Muhsin Yazicioglu after Helicopter Crash|url=http://www.turkishweekly.net/news/68827/rescue-teams-could-not-reach-turkish-party-leader-muhsin-yazicioglu-after-helicopter-crash.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305234419/http://www.turkishweekly.net/news/68827/rescue-teams-could-not-reach-turkish-party-leader-muhsin-yazicioglu-after-helicopter-crash.html|archive-date=5 March 2012|access-date=1 June 2012|publisher=Turkishweekly.net|df=dmy-all}}</ref> the ]/Association of Militant Clergy,<ref>{{cite web|date=Fall 2007|title=Readings|url=http://www.uvm.edu/~fgause/168read.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121006083545/http://www.uvm.edu/~fgause/168read.htm|archive-date=6 October 2012|access-date=1 June 2012|publisher=uvm.edu|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=10 February 2000|title=Poll test for Iran reformists|work=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/623899.stm|access-date=1 June 2012}}</ref> and the ] of Iran.<ref>{{cite web|date=23 May 1997|title=Middle East Report Online: Iran's Conservatives Face the Electorate, by Arang Keshavarzian|url=http://www.merip.org/mero/mero020101.html|access-date=13 May 2010|publisher=Merip.org|archive-date=5 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305030242/http://merip.org/mero/mero020101.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>Anoushiravan Ehteshami and Mahjoob Zweiri, ''Iran and the rise of its neoconservatives: the politics of Tehran's silent revolution'', I.B. Tauris, 2007.</ref> | |||
=== Social stratification === | |||
] | |||
Right-wing politics involves, in varying degrees, the rejection of some ] objectives of ], claiming either that ] or ] is natural and inevitable or that it is beneficial to society.<ref name="autogenerated68" /> Right-wing ideologies and movements support ]. The original French right-wing was called "the party of order" and held that France needed a strong political leader to keep order.<ref name="Knapp" /> | |||
Conservative British scholar R. J. White, who rejects egalitarianism, wrote: "Men are equal before God and the laws, but unequal in all else; hierarchy is the order of nature, and privilege is the reward of honourable service".<ref name="autogenerated2003">Moyra Grant. ''Key Ideas in Politics''. Cheltenham, England, UK: Nelson Thornes, Ltd., 2003. p. 52.</ref> American conservative ] also rejected egalitarianism as imposing sameness, stating: "Men are created different; and a government that ignores this law becomes an unjust government for it sacrifices nobility to mediocrity".<ref name="autogenerated2003" /> Kirk took as one of the "canons" of conservatism the principle that "civilized society requires orders and classes".<ref name="heritage.org" /> Italian scholar ] argued that the right-wing is inegalitarian compared to the left-wing, as he argued that equality is a relative, not absolute, concept.<ref>Bobbio, Norberto. Left and right: The significance of a political distinction. University of Chicago Press, 1996, pp.60-62</ref> | |||
] reject collective or state-imposed equality as undermining reward for personal merit, initiative, and enterprise.<ref name="autogenerated2003" /> In their view, such imposed equality is unjust, limits personal freedom, and leads to social uniformity and mediocrity.<ref name="autogenerated2003" /> | |||
In the view of philosopher ] in '']'', the "politics of hierarchy" is one of the hallmarks of ], which refers to a "glorious past" in which members of the rightfully dominant group sat atop the hierarchy, and attempt to recreate this state of being.<ref>] (2018) ''How Fascism Works: The Politics of Us and Them''. New York: Random House. p.13. {{Isbn|978-0-52551183-0}}</ref> | |||
== History == | |||
According to '']'', the Right has gone through five distinct historical stages:<ref>Ball, T. and R. Bellamy, eds., ''The Cambridge History of Twentieth-Century Political Thought'', pp. 610–12.</ref> | |||
# The reactionary right sought a return to ] and ]. | |||
# The moderate right distrusted intellectuals and sought limited government. | |||
# The radical right favored a ] and aggressive form of ]. | |||
# The extreme right proposed ] policies and implicit ]. | |||
# The ] right sought to combine a market economy and economic deregulation with the traditional right-wing beliefs in ], elitism and law and order.<ref name="Clark"/>{{page needed|date=August 2018}} | |||
The political terms ] were first used in the 18th century, during the ], referencing the seating arrangement of the ]. Those who sat to the right of the chair of the presiding officer (''le président'') were generally supportive of the institutions of the ] ].<ref name="Parliaments 1988 pp. 287–302">Goodsell, Charles T., "The Architecture of Parliaments: Legislative Houses and Political Culture", British Journal of Political Science, Vol. 18, No. 3 (July 1988), pp. 287–302.</ref><ref>Linski, Gerhard, ''Current Issues and Research In Macrosociology'' (Brill Archive, 1984) p. 59</ref><ref>Clark, Barry ''Political Economy: A Comparative Approach'' (Praeger Paperback, 1998), pp. 33–34.</ref><ref name="Knapp"/> The original "Right" in France was formed in reaction to the "Left" and comprised those supporting hierarchy, tradition, and ].<ref name="Carlisle"/>{{rp|693}} The expression {{lang|fr|la droite}} ("the right") increased in use after the ], when it was applied to the ]s.<ref>Gauchet, Marcel, "Right and Left" in Nora, Pierre, ed., ''Realms of Memory: Conflicts and Divisions'' (1996) pp. 247–248.</ref> | |||
From the 1830s to the 1880s, the ]'s ] structure and economy shifted from ] and ] towards ].<ref>Alan S. Kahan. ''Mind Vs. Money: The War Between Intellectuals and Capitalism''. New Brunswick, New Jersey: ], 2010. p. 88.</ref> This shift affected ] movements such as the ], which responded supporting capitalism.<ref>Ian Adams. ''Political Ideology Today''. Manchester, England, UK; New York, New York, US: ], 2001. p. 57.</ref> | |||
The people of ] did not apply the terms ''right'' and ''left'' to their politics until the 20th century.<ref>''The English Ideology: Studies in the Language of Victorian Politics'', George Watson Allen Lane, London, 1973, p. 94.</ref> The term ''right-wing'' was originally applied to ], ], and reactionaries; a revision of this which occurred sometime between the 1920s and 1950s considers the ''] to'' denote ], ], and ].<ref>Iain McLean and Alistair McMillan, ''The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics'', ''Right (-wing)...and for extreme right parties racism and fascism.'', p. 465, Oxford, 2009, {{ISBN|978-0-19-920780-0}}.</ref> | |||
Rightist regimes were common in Europe in the ], 1919–1938.{{citation needed|date=September 2020}} | |||
=== China === | |||
==== Republic of China (1912–1949) ==== | |||
Among ] (KMT)'s conservatives during the ], ] supporters formed the ] in the ]. | |||
] initially claimed himself as a 'centrist' in the KMT left-right conflict, but became an anti-communist right-wing after ]. ] (or 'Chiang Kai-shek Thought') was related to ], ], ], and ]. | |||
==== People's Republic of China ==== | |||
The ] (CCP) describes itself as ], and has not officially abandoned leftist ideology, ], or ]. Christer Pursiainen has characterized the CCP as a right-wing political party,<ref name="Christer Pursiainen"/> pointing to an ideological change within the party under ]'s leadership during the 1990s.<ref name="Christer Pursiainen">{{cite book|author=Christer Pursiainen|title=At the Crossroads of Post-Communist Modernisation: Russia and China in Comparative Perspective|quote=Consequently, the CCP's transformation into a right-wing elitist party occurred during the 1990s under Jiang Zeming's reign.|date=September 10, 2012|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|pages=156}}</ref> | |||
] is a current of political thought that rose in China in the late 1980's and came into ascendancy after the death of ]; it advocates a powerful state to facilitate ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bramall |first=Chris |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A9Rr-M8MXAEC&pg=PA475 |title=Chinese Economic Development |date=2008 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-19051-5}}</ref> It has been described as right-wing, ] even though it incorporated some aspects of Marxist-Leninist and ] theories.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Yuezhi Zhao |title=Communication in China: Political Economy, Power, and Conflict |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RdNqAAAAQBAJ&dq=%22right+-+wing+ideology+of+neo-+authoritarianism%22&pg=PA170 |date=March 20, 2008 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |pages=170|isbn=978-0-7425-7428-1 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sautman|first=Barry|author-link=Barry Sautman|date=1992|title=Sirens of the Strongman: Neo-Authoritarianism in Recent Chinese Political Theory|journal=]|volume=129|issue=129|pages=72–102|doi=10.1017/S0305741000041230|issn=0305-7410|jstor=654598|s2cid=154374469}}</ref> | |||
=== France === | |||
{{See also|Left–right politics}} | {{See also|Left–right politics}} | ||
] | |||
The political term ''right-wing'' was first used during the ], when ] deputies of the ] generally sat to the left of the |
The political term ''right-wing'' was first used during the ], when ] deputies of the ] generally sat to the left of the presiding officer's chair, a custom that began in the ] of 1789. The nobility, members of the ], generally sat to the right. In the successive ], ] who supported the ] were commonly referred to as rightists because they sat on the right side. A major figure on the right was ], who argued for an ] form of ]. | ||
Throughout ], the main line dividing the left and right was between supporters of the republic and those of the monarchy, who were often secularist and Catholic respectively.<ref name="Knapp">{{cite book|author=Andrew Knapp and Vincent Wright|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=67ttjXHhT3wC&q=the+government+and+politics+of+france|title=The Government and Politics of France|year=2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-35732-6}}</ref> On the right, the ] and ]s held ] views, while the ]s hoped to create a ] under their preferred branch of the royal family, which briefly became a reality after the 1830 ]. | |||
In British politics, the terms 'right' and 'left' came into common use for the first time in the late 1930s in debates over the ].<ref>Charles Loch Mowat, ''Britain Between the Wars: 1918–1940'' (1955) p 577</ref> | |||
The centre-right Gaullists in post-World War II France advocated considerable social spending on education and infrastructure development as well as extensive economic regulation, but limited the wealth redistribution measures characteristic of ].{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} | |||
The Right has gone through five distinct historical stages: (i) the reactionary right sought a return to aristocracy and established religion; (ii) the moderate right distrusted intellectuals and sought limited government; (iii) the radical right favored a romantic and aggressive nationalism; (iv) the extreme right proposed anti-immigration policies and implicit racism; and (v) the ] right sought to combine a market economy and economic deregulation with the traditional Right-wing beliefs in patriotism, élitism, and law and order.<ref>Ball, T. and R. Bellamy, eds., ''The Cambridge History of Twentieth-Century Political Thought'' pp. 610–612</ref><ref>Clark, William. ''Capitalism, not Globalism'' (University of Michigan Press, 2003) ISBN 0-472-11293-7, ISBN 978-0-472-11293-7</ref> | |||
== |
=== Hungary === | ||
The dominance of the political right of ], after the collapse of a short-lived Communist regime, was described by historian ]: | |||
The meaning of right-wing "varies across societies, historical epochs, and political systems and ideologies."<ref>''The meaning of 'right-wing' and 'left-wing' varies across societies, historical epochs and political systems and ideologies.'' Martha Augoustinos, Iain Walker, Ngaire Donaghue; SAGE, 15 June 2006 – 364 pages, page 30</ref> According to ''The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics'', in liberal democracies, the political Right opposes socialism and social democracy. Right-wing parties include conservatives, Christian democrats, classical liberals, nationalists and, on the far Right, racists and fascists.<ref>McLean, Iain and Alistair McMillan, eds.,''Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics'' (Oxford University Press, 2009) ISBN 9780199205165</ref> | |||
:Between 1919 and 1944 Hungary was a rightist country. Forged out of a counter-revolutionary heritage, its governments advocated a "nationalist Christian" policy; they extolled heroism, faith, and unity; they despised the French Revolution, and they spurned the liberal and socialist ideologies of the 19th century. The governments saw Hungary as a bulwark against ] and bolshevism's instruments: ], ], and ]. They perpetrated the rule of a small clique of aristocrats, civil servants, and army officers, and surrounded with adulation the head of the state, the counterrevolutionary ].<ref>István Deák, "Hungary" in Hans Roger and Egon Weber, eds., ''The European right: A historical profile'' (1963) p 364-407 quoting p. 364.</ref> | |||
=== India === | |||
Roger Eatwell and Neal O'Sullivan divide the Right into five types: 'reactionary', 'moderate', 'radical', 'extreme', and 'new'.<ref>Davies, p. 13</ref> Chip Berlet argues that each of these "styles of thought" are "responses to the left", including liberalism and socialism, which have arisen since the 1789 French Revolution.<ref name="Berlet, p. 117">Berlet, p. 117</ref> The 'reactionary right' looks toward the past and is "aristocratic, religious and authoritarian".<ref name="Berlet, p. 117"/> The 'moderate right', typified by the writings of ], is tolerant of change, provided it is gradual, and accepts some aspects of liberalism, including the rule of law and capitalism, although it sees radical ''laissez-faire'' and individualism as harmful to society. Often the moderate right promotes nationalism and social welfare policies.<ref>Eatwell: 1999, p. 284</ref> 'Radical right' is a term developed after World War II to describe groups and ideologies such as ], the ], ], and the ]. Eatwell stresses that this use has "major typological problems" and that the term "has also been applied to clearly democratic developments." <ref>Eatwell: 2004, pp. 7–8</ref> The radical right includes ] and various other subtypes.<ref>Berlet, p.117</ref> Eatwell argues that the 'extreme right' has four traits: "1) anti-democracy; 2) nationalism; 3) racism; and 4) the strong state".<ref>Eatwell: 2004, p. 8, "Today four other traits feature most prominently in definitions: 1) anti-democracy; 2) nationalism; 3) racism; 4) the strong state..."</ref> The 'New Right' consists of the liberal conservatives, who stress small government, free markets, and individual initiative.<ref>Vincent, Andrew, ''Modern Political Ideologies'', 2nd ed., (Wiley-Blackwell, 2008) p. 66, ISBN 978-0-631-19507-8, "Who to include under the rubric of the New Right remains puzzling. It is usually seen as an amalgam of traditional liberal conservatism, Austrian liberal economic theory ... extreme libertarianism (anarch-capitalism) and crude populism."</ref> | |||
Although ] are favoured, the right-wing tendency to elect or appoint politicians and government officials based on aristocratic and religious ties is common to almost all the states of India.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://origins.osu.edu/article/right-wing-politics-india-Modi-Kashmir-election|title=Right wing politics in India, by Archana Venkatesh|publisher=osu.edu|date=1 October 2019|access-date=November 11, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/hindutva-enters-takes-centre-stage-andhra-pradesh-politics-134277|title=Hindutva enters, takes centre-stage in Andhra Pradesh politics, by Balakrishna Ganeshan|publisher=thenewsminute.com|date=1 October 2020|access-date=November 30, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newsclick.in/Global-Rise-of-Right-Wing-Populism-Modi-Cultural-Sociology|title=India Will Move Beyond Modi, his Party, and Right Wing Populism, by Ajay Gudavarthy|publisher=newsclick.in|date=11 July 2020|access-date=November 30, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Rao|first1=Jaithirth|title=The Indian Conservative : A History of Indian Right-Wing Thought|date=25 October 2019|publisher=Juggernaut Press|location= New Delhi|isbn=978-9353450625|page=280|edition=First}}</ref> Multiple political parties however identify with terms and beliefs which are, by political consensus, right or left wing. Certain political parties such as the ], identify with conservative<ref>{{Cite journal|last=IWANEK|first=Krzysztof|title=Is the BJP Conservative?|s2cid-access=free|date=2019|journal=Politeja|volume=16|issue=59|pages=55–72|doi=10.12797/Politeja.16.2019.59.04|jstor=26916353|s2cid=212822106|issn=1733-6716|doi-access=free}}</ref> and nationalist elements. Some, such as the ], take a liberal stance. The ], ], and others, identify with left-wing socialist and communist concepts. Other political parties take differing stands, and hence cannot be clearly grouped as the left- and the right-wing.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2013-04-24|title=Left-wing or Right-wing: Why labels simply don't capture India|url=https://www.firstpost.com/politics/left-wing-or-right-wing-why-labels-simply-dont-capture-india-721481.html|first1=Sagarika|last1=Ghose|access-date=2021-02-18|website=Firstpost}}</ref> | |||
=== United Kingdom === | |||
Other authors make a distinction between the centre-right and the far right.<ref>Betz & Immerfall 1998; Betz 1994; Durham 2000; Durham 2002; Hainsworth 2000; Mudde 2000; Berlet & Lyons, 2000.</ref> Parties of the centre-right generally support liberal democracy, capitalism, the market economy (though they may accept government regulation to control monopolies), private property rights, and a limited welfare state (for example government provision of education and medical care). They support conservatism and economic liberalism, and oppose socialism and communism. The phrase ''far right'', by contrast, is used to describe those who favor an absolutist government, which uses the power of the state to support the dominant ethnic group or religion and often to criminalize other ethnic groups or religions.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=YYdTvMmSYpEC&dq=%22far+right%22&printsec=frontcover |title=The Routledge companion to fascism ... – Google Books |publisher=Books.google.ca |date= |accessdate=13 May 2010|isbn=978-0-415-21495-7|year=2002}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=Ual1NR2WPasC&dq=%22far+right%22&printsec=frontcover#PPR7,M1 |title=The Christian right: the far right ... – Google Books |publisher=Books.google.ca |date= |accessdate=13 May 2010|isbn=978-0-7190-5486-0|year=2000}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=sVZ8EUvJjJ4C&dq=%22far+right%22&printsec=frontcover#PPR5,M1 |title=Right-wing extremism in the twenty ... – Google Books |publisher=Books.google.ca |date=30 June 2000 |accessdate=13 May 2010|isbn=978-0-7146-5182-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=JcJ5nr2MZfUC&dq=%22far+right%22&printsec=frontcover |title=Western democracies and the new ... – Google Books |publisher=Books.google.ca |date= |accessdate=13 May 2010|isbn=978-0-415-36971-8|year=2004}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/1857918.stm |title=Pim Fortuyn: The far-right Dutch maverick |publisher=BBC News |date=7 March 2002 |accessdate=1 June 2012}}</ref> Typical examples of leaders to whom the ''far right'' label is often applied are ] in ] and ] in ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=6069233|title=A Dictator's Legacy of Economic Growth|date=14 September 2006|accessdate=15 October 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Greenwald |first=Glenn |url=http://www.salon.com/opinion/greenwald/2007/05/04/politico_funding/ |title=Glenn Greenwald |publisher=Salon.com |date=31 May 2012 |accessdate=1 June 2012}}</ref><ref name="canovan">Canovan, Margaret. 1981. ''Populism.''</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Betz |first=Hans-Georg |title=Radical Right-Wing Populism in Western Europe |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year= 1994|isbn=978-0-312-08390-8}}</ref><ref>Michael E. Brown, Owen R. Cote Jr., ''Nationalism and Ethnic Conflict'', "Anti-immigrant and anti-refugee feeling is being exploited by extreme right-wing parties throughout Europe...", p. 442, MIT Press, 2001, ISBN 978-0-262-52315-8</ref> The US ] defines right-wing extremism as ] who target racial, ethnic or religious minorities and may be dedicated to a single issue.<ref>http://wnd.com/images/dhs-rightwing-extremism.pdf</ref> The phrase is also used to describe support for ]. | |||
] poster]] | |||
{{Expand section|date=December 2020}} | |||
In British politics, the terms ''right'' and ''left'' came into common use for the first time in the late 1930s during debates over the ].<ref>], ''Britain Between the Wars: 1918–1940'' (1955), p. 577.</ref> | |||
=== |
=== United States === | ||
] ] of the 1950s, specifically addressing the entertainment industry]] | |||
Right-wing politics involves in varying degrees the rejection of some ] objectives of ], claiming either that ] or ] is natural and inevitable or that it is beneficial to society.<ref name="autogenerated68">''Left and right: the significance of a political distinction'', Norberto Bobbio and Allan Cameron, pg. 68, ], 1997.</ref> | |||
{{Multiple issues|section=y| | |||
Right-wing ideologies and movements support ]. The original French right-wing was called "the party of order" and held that France needed a strong political leader to keep order.<ref name="Knapp"/> British conservative scholar R. J. White, who rejects egalitarianism, wrote: "Men are equal before God and the laws, but unequal in all else; hierarchy is the order of nature, and privilege is the reward of honourable service".<ref name="autogenerated2003">Moyra Grant. ''Key Ideas in Politics''. Cheltenham, England, UK: Nelson Thornes, Ltd., 2003. p. 52.</ref> American conservative ] also rejected egalitarianism as imposing sameness, stating: "Men are created different; and a government that ignores this law becomes an unjust government for it sacrifices nobility to mediocrity".<ref name="autogenerated2003"/> He took as one of the "canons" of conservatism the principle that "civilized society requires orders and classes".<ref name="heritage.org">{{cite web|last=John |first=David C. |url=http://www.heritage.org/Research/PoliticalPhilosophy/HL811.cfm |title=The Origins of the Modern American Conservative Movement|publisher=heritage.org |date=21 November 2003 |accessdate=13 May 2010}}</ref> | |||
{{Expand section|date=March 2021}} | |||
Right libertarians reject collective or state-imposed equality as undermining reward for personal merit, initiative, and enterprise.<ref name="autogenerated2003"/> In their view, it is unjust, limits personal freedom, and leads to social uniformity and mediocrity.<ref name="autogenerated2003"/> | |||
{{POV section|date=September 2021}} | |||
}}<!-- this needs to be about right wing politics in the US generally. Current version is just right wing extremism. --> | |||
In the United States, following the ], social conservatives joined with right-wing elements of the ] to gain support in traditionally ] voting populations like white southerners and ]. ] election to the presidency in 1980 cemented the alliance between the ] and social conservatives.<ref>{{cite book|last=Farney|first=James|date=2012|title= Social Conservatives and Party Politics in Canada and the United States|url=https://eds.p.ebscohost.com/eds/ebookviewer/ebook/bmxlYmtfXzY4Mjg4NF9fQU41?sid=bb8cd8b3-9f6c-43d7-948a-baba732e8bf0@redis&vid=5&format=EB|location=Toronto|publisher=University of Toronto Press|page=28|isbn=978-1-4426-1260-0}}</ref> | |||
===Anti-communism=== | |||
In 2019, the United States populace leaned ], with 37% of Americans self-identifying as ], compared to 35% moderate and 24% ]. This was continuing a decades long trend of the country leaning center-right.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/275792/remained-center-right-ideologically-2019.aspx|title=The U.S. Remained Center-Right, Ideologically, in 2019|date=9 January 2020|publisher=Gallup|access-date=9 November 2021}}</ref> | |||
The original use of "right-wing" in reference to communism had the conservatives on the Right, the liberals in the center, and the communists on the Left. Both the conservatives and the liberals were strongly anti-communist. As time went on, however, conservatives accused liberals of being "soft on communism" and of using freedom of speech and freedom of religion as a cover for their hidden communist sympathies. The history of the use of the term "right-wing" to mean anti-communist is a complicated one.<ref>Cynthia Hendershot, Anti-communism and Popular Culture in Mid-century America, "Communism aroused the hostility of people on the right, the center, and the left." (statement attributed to John Haynes), p. 162, McFarland, 2002, ISBN 978-0786414406</ref> | |||
The ] defines right-wing extremism in the United States as "broadly divided into those groups, movements, and adherents that are primarily hate-oriented (based on hatred of particular religious, racial or ethnic groups), and those that are mainly anti-government, rejecting federal authority in favor of state or local authority, or rejecting government authority entirely. It may include groups and individuals that are dedicated to a single issue, such as opposition to abortion or immigration."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/irp/eprint/rightwing.pdf|title=Rightwing Extremism: Current Economic and Political Climate Fueling Resurgence in Radicalization and Recruitment|publisher=United States Department of Homeland Security|access-date=16 October 2017}}</ref> | |||
Early Marxist movements were at odds with the traditional monarchies that ruled over much of the ]an continent at the time. Many European monarchies outlawed the public expression of communist views, and the ], which began "A spectre is haunting Europe," stated that monarchs feared for their thrones. Advocacy of communism was illegal in the ], the ] and ], the three most powerful monarchies in continental Europe prior to ]. Many Monarchists (except ]) viewed inequality in wealth and political power as resulting from a divine natural order. The struggle between monarchists and communists was often described as a struggle between the Right and the Left. | |||
== Types == | |||
By ] however, in most European monarchies, the Divine Right of Kings had become discredited and replaced by ] and ] movements. Most European monarchs became figureheads; elected governments held the real power. The most conservative European monarchy, the Russian Empire, was replaced by the communist Soviet Union. The Russian Revolution inspired a series of other communist revolutions across Europe in the years 1917–1922. Many of these, such as the ], were defeated by nationalist and monarchist military units. In this period, nationalism began to be considered right-wing, especially when it opposed the internationalism of the communists. | |||
The meaning of right-wing "varies across societies, historical epochs, and political systems and ideologies."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Augoustinos|first1=Martha|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CYjEwFRPEQgC&pg=PA230|title=Social Cognition: An Integrated Introduction|last2=Walker|first2=Iain|last3=Donaghue|first3=Ngaire|date=2006|publisher=Sage Publications|isbn=9780761942191|edition=2nd|location=London|page=320}}</ref> According to ''The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics'', in liberal democracies, the political right opposes ] and ]. Right-wing parties include ], ], ], and ], as well as ] on the ].<ref>{{cite book|last1=McLean|first1=Iain|title=The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics|last2=McMillan|first2=Alistair|date=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780199205165|edition=3rd|location=Oxford|page=465}}</ref> | |||
British academics ] and ] divide the right into five types: reactionary, moderate, radical, extreme, and new.<ref>Davies, p. 13.</ref> ] wrote that each of these "styles of thought" are "responses to the left", including liberalism and socialism, which have arisen since the 1789 French Revolution.<ref name="Berlet, p. 117">Berlet, p. 117.</ref> | |||
The 1920s and 1930s saw the fading of traditional right-wing politics. The mantle of conservative anti-communism was taken up by the rising ] movements on the one hand, and by ]-inspired ] on the other. When communist groups and political parties began appearing around the world, as in the ] in the 1920s, their opponents were usually ], and the term right-wing came to be applied to ]. | |||
# The reactionary right looks toward the past and is "aristocratic, religious and authoritarian".<ref name="Berlet, p. 117" /> | |||
After ], communism became a global phenomenon, and anti-communism became an integral part of the domestic and foreign policies of the ] and its ] allies. Conservatism in the post-war era abandoned its monarchist and aristocratic roots, focusing instead on patriotism, religion, and nationalism. Throughout the ], colonial governments in ], ], and ] turned to the United States for political and economic support. Communists were also enemies of capitalism, portraying ] as the oppressor of the masses. The United States made anti-communism the top priority of its foreign policy, and many American conservatives sought to combat what they saw as communist influence at home. This led to the adoption of a number of domestic policies that are collectively known under the term "]". While both liberals and conservatives were anti-communist, the followers of Senator McCarthy were called right-wing, and those on the Right called liberals who favored free speech, even for communists, leftist. | |||
# The moderate right, typified by the writings of ], is tolerant of change, provided it is gradual and accepts some aspects of liberalism, including the rule of law and capitalism, although it sees radical '']'' and individualism as harmful to society. The moderate right often promotes nationalism and social welfare policies.<ref>Eatwell: 1999, p. 284.</ref> | |||
# ] is a descriptive term that was developed after World War II and it was applied to groups and ideologies such as ], the ], ], and the ]. Eatwell stresses that this usage of the term has "major typological problems" because it "has also been applied to clearly democratic developments."<ref>Eatwell: 2004, pp. 7–8.</ref> The radical right includes ] and various other subtypes.<ref name="Berlet, p. 117" /> | |||
# The ] has four traits: "1) ], 2) ], 3) ], and 4) the strong state."<ref>Eatwell: 2004, p. 8, "Today four other traits feature most prominently in definitions: 1) anti-democracy; 2) nationalism; 3) racism; 4) the strong state".</ref> | |||
# The ] consists of the ], who stress ], ]s, and individual initiative.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Vincent|first1=Andrew|title=Modern Political Ideologies|date=1995|publisher=Blackwell|isbn=978-0-631-19507-8|edition=2nd|location=Oxford |quote=Who to include under the rubric of the New Right remains puzzling. It is usually seen as an amalgam of traditional liberal conservatism, Austrian liberal economic theory ... extreme libertarianism (anarch-capitalism) and crude populism.}}</ref> | |||
Other authors make a distinction between the centre-right and the far-right.<ref>Betz & Immerfall 1998; Betz 1994; Durham 2000; Durham 2002; Hainsworth 2000; Mudde 2000; Berlet & Lyons, 2000.</ref> | |||
===Economics=== | |||
* Parties of the centre-right generally support liberal democracy, capitalism, the market economy (though they may accept government regulation to control monopolies), private property rights, and a limited welfare state (for example, government provision of education and medical care). They support conservatism and economic liberalism and oppose socialism and communism. | |||
In France after the French Revolution, the Right fought against the rising power of those who had grown rich through commerce, and sought to preserve the rights of the hereditary nobility. They were uncomfortable with capitalism, with the Enlightenment, with individualism, and with industrialism and fought to retain traditional social hierarchies and institutions.<ref name="Parliaments 1988 pp. 287–302"/><ref>Martin E. Marty, R. Scott Appleby, American Academy of Arts and Sciences. ''Fundamentalisms observed'', "Reactionary right-wing themes emphasizing authority, social hierarchy, and obedience, as well as condemnations of liberalism, the democratic ethos, the "rights of man" associated with the legacy of the Enlightenment and the French Revolution, and the political and cultural ethos of modern liberal democracy are especially prominent in the writings and public statements of Archbishop Lefebere", p. 91, University of Chicago Press, 1994. P. 91. ISBN 0-226-50878-1, ISBN 978-0-226-50878-8.</ref> In Europe's history, there have been strong ] right-wing movements, such as in the ] Right that has exhibited hostility to all forms of ], including ], and has historically advocated for paternalist class harmony involving an organic-hierarchical society where workers are protected while hierarchy of classes remain.<ref>Modern Catholic Social Teaching: The Popes Confront the Industrial Age, 1740–1958. Paulist Press, 2003. P132</ref> | |||
* By contrast, the phrase "far-right" is used to describe those who favor an absolutist government, which uses the power of the state to support the dominant ethnic group or religion and criminalize other ethnic groups or religions.<ref name="Routledge">{{cite book|last1=Davies|first1=Peter|url=https://archive.org/details/routledgecompani00davi|title=The Routledge Companion to Fascism and the Far Right|last2=Davies|first2=Peter Jonathan|last3=Lynch|first3=Derek|publisher=Psychology Press|year=2002|isbn=978-0-415-21495-7|quote=far right.|access-date=13 May 2010|url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Durham|first1=Martin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ual1NR2WPasC&q=%22far+right%22|title=The Christian Right, the Far Right and the Boundaries of American Conservatism|year=2000|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=978-0-7190-5486-0|access-date=13 May 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Merkl|first1=Peter H.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sVZ8EUvJjJ4C&q=%22far+right%22|title=Right-wing Extremism in the Twenty-first Century|last2=Weinberg|first2=Leonard|last3=Leonard|first3=Weinberg|last4=Merkl|first4=Professor Peter|date=30 June 2000|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-7146-5182-8|access-date=13 May 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Eatwell|first1=Roger|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JcJ5nr2MZfUC&q=%22far+right%22|title=Western Democracies and the New Extreme Right Challenge|last2=Mudde|first2=Cas|year=2004|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-415-36971-8|access-date=13 May 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=7 March 2002|title=Pim Fortuyn: The far-right Dutch maverick|work=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/1857918.stm|access-date=1 June 2012}}</ref> Typical examples of leaders to whom the far-right label is often applied are: ] in ], ] in ], ] in ], ] in ], and ] in ].<ref>{{cite web|date=14 September 2006|title=A Dictator's Legacy of Economic Growth|website=]|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=6069233|access-date=15 October 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Greenwald|first=Glenn|date=31 May 2012|title=Glenn Greenwald|work=Salon.com|url=http://www.salon.com/opinion/greenwald/2007/05/04/politico_funding/|access-date=1 June 2012}}</ref><ref name="Canovan" />{{page needed|date=November 2016}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Betz|first=Hans-Georg|url=https://archive.org/details/radicalrightwing00betz|title=Radical Right-Wing Populism in Western Europe|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=1994|isbn=978-0-312-08390-8}}</ref><ref>Michael E. Brown, Owen R. Cote Jr., ''Nationalism and Ethnic Conflict'', "Anti-immigrant and anti-refugee feeling is being exploited by extreme right-wing parties throughout Europe...", p. 442, MIT Press, 2001, {{ISBN|978-0-262-52315-8}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GkVHAAAAYAAJ&q=%22extrema+derecha%22+%22Jorge+rafael+videla%22|title=La teoría social latinoamericana: La centralidad del Marxismo|date=1995|publisher=Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Facultad de Ciencias Políticas y Sociales, Coordinación de Estudios Latinoamericanos, Dirección General de Asuntos del Personal Académico|isbn=978-968-36-4710-8|language=es}}</ref> | |||
== See also == | |||
In the 19th century, the Right had shifted to support the newly rich in some European countries, particularly England, and instead of favouring the nobility over industrialists, favoured capitalists over the working class. Other right-wing currents on the Continent, such as ] in Spain and nationalist movements in France, Germany, and Russia, remained hostile to capitalism and industrialism. There are, however, still a few right-wing movements today, notably the French ], ], and American ], that are often in opposition to capitalist ethics and the effects they have on society as a whole, which they see as infringing upon or causing the decay of social traditions or hierarchies that they see as essential for social order.<ref name="Fascism pg 19">''Fascism, Comparison and Definition'', Stanley Payne, University of Wisconsin Press, ISBN 0-299-08064-1, ISBN 978-0-299-08064-8, pg 19: "Right radicals and conservative authoritarians almost without exception became corporatists in formal doctrines of political economy, but the fascists were less explicit and in general less schematic."</ref> | |||
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== References == | |||
In modern times, "right-wing" is sometimes used to describe ]. In Europe, capitalists formed alliances with the Right during their conflicts with workers after 1848. In France, the Right's support of capitalism can be traced to the late 19th century.<ref name="Knapp"/> The so-called ] Right, popularized by ] and ], combines support for ], ], and ] with traditional right-wing support for social conformity.<ref name=Lukes/> ] (sometimes known as ] or ]) supports a decentralized economy based on ], and holds ], ] and ] to be the most important kinds of freedom. Russell Kirk believed that freedom and property rights were interlinked.<ref name="heritage.org"/> Anthony Gregory has written that right-wing libertarianism, "can refer to any number of varying and at times mutually exclusive political orientations." He holds that the issue is not right or left but "whether a person sees the state as a major hazard or just another institution to be reformed and directed toward a political goal."<ref>Anthony Gregory, , ], 21 December 2006.</ref> | |||
{{Reflist |refs= <!-- alphabetical by last name --> | |||
<ref name="Bobbio-1996">{{cite book|last1=Bobbio|first1=Norberto|last2=Cameron|first2=Allan|title=]|date=1996|publisher=]|location=Chicago|isbn=978-0-226-06246-4|pages=51, 62}}</ref> | |||
Conservative authoritarians and those on the ] have supported ] and ].<ref name="Fascism pg 19"/> | |||
<ref name="Carlisle">{{cite book|last1=Carlisle|first1=Rodney P.|title=Encyclopedia of Politics: The Left and the Right|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofpo0000carl|url-access=registration|date=2005|publisher=]|location=Thousand Oaks |isbn=978-1-4129-0409-4}}</ref> | |||
===Nationalism=== | |||
In France, ] was originally a left-wing and Republican ideology.<ref>William Doyle, ''The Oxford History of the French Revolution'', Oxford University Press, 2003, ISBN 978-0-19-925298-5, "An exuberant, uncompromising nationalism lay behind France's revolutionary expansion in the 1790s...", "The message of the French Revolution was that the people are sovereign; and in the two centuries since it was first proclaimed it has conquered the world."</ref> After ] and the ], nationalism became a trait of the right-wing.<ref>] (dir.), ''Histoire de l'extrême droite en France'' (1993)</ref> Right-wing nationalists sought to define and defend a "true" national identity from elements deemed to be corrupting that identity.<ref name="Knapp"/> Some were ] who, in accordance with ], applied the concept of "]" to nations and races.<ref>Adams, Ian ''Political Ideology Today'' (2nd edition), Manchester University Press, 2002, pg. 68</ref> Right-wing nationalism was influenced by ], in which the state derives its political legitimacy from the organic unity of those it governs. This generally includes, the language, race, culture, religion and customs of the "nation", all of which were "born" within its culture. Linked with right-wing nationalism is ], which supports the preservation of the heritage of a nation or culture, and often sees deviations from cultural norms as an existential threat.<ref>Sabrina P. Ramet, ''The Radical Right in Central and Eastern Europe since 1989'', Pennsylvania State University Press, 1999, ISBN 978-0271018119</ref> | |||
<ref name="Allan Cameron pg. 37">''Left and right: the significance of a political distinction'', Norberto Bobbio and Allan Cameron, p. 37, ], 1997.</ref> | |||
===Natural law and traditionalism=== | |||
Right-wing politics typically justifies a hierarchical society on the basis of ] or ].<ref name="T. Alexander Smith 2003. p. 30"/><ref name="Allan Cameron pg. 37"/><ref name="Fuchs, D. 1990. p. 203"/><ref name="Lukes"/><ref name="Clark, William 2003"/><ref name="autogenerated68"/> | |||
<ref name="Clark">{{cite book|last1=Clark|first1=William Roberts|title=Capitalism, Not Globalism: Capital Mobility, Central Bank Independence, and the Political Control of the Economy|date=2003|publisher=]|location=Ann Arbor |isbn=978-0-472-11293-7|edition=.}}{{page needed|date=August 2018}}</ref> | |||
Traditionalism was advocated by a group of U.S. university professors (labeled the "New Conservatives" by the popular press) who rejected the concepts of ], ], ], and ], seeking instead to promote what they identified as cultural and educational renewal<ref>Frohnen, Bruce, Jeremy Beer, and Jeffrey O. Nelson, ed. (2006) ''American Conservatism: An Encyclopedia'' Wilmington, DE: ISI Books, p. 870.</ref> and a revived interest in what ] referred to as "the permanent things" (concepts perceived by traditionalists as truths that endure from age to age alongside basic institutions of western society such as the church, the family, the state, and business). | |||
<ref name="EB online">{{cite web|date=2009-04-15|title=Right|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/right|access-date=2022-05-22|website=]|language=en}}</ref> | |||
===Populism=== | |||
{{Main article|Right-wing populism}} | |||
] protest in Warsaw against ]'s right wing, populist government, 12 December 2015]] | |||
] is a combination of ] with ], using populist rhetoric to provide a radical critique of existing political institutions. According to Margaret Canovan, a right-wing populist is "...a charismatic leader, using the tactics of politicians’ populism to go past the politicians and intellectual elite and appeal to the reactionary sentiments of the populace, often buttressing his claim to speak for the people by the use of referendums."<ref>Margaret Canovan, ''Populism'', Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 1981, ISBN 978-0151730780</ref> | |||
<ref name="Fuchs, D. 1990. p. 203">], cited in Fuchs, D., and Klingemann, H. 1990. The left-right schema. pp. 203–34 in Continuities in Political Action: A Longitudinal Study of Political Orientations in Three Western Democracies, ed.M.Jennings et al. Berlin:de Gruyter</ref> | |||
In Europe, right-wing populism often takes the form of distrust of the European Union, and of politicians in general, combined with anti-immigrant rhetoric, and a call for a return to traditional, national values.<ref>Jack Hayward, editor, ''Elitism, Populism, and European Politics'', Oxford University Press, 1996, ISBN 978-0198280354</ref> In the United States, the ] states that the core beliefs for membership are an opposition to illegal immigration, a strong national military force, the right to individual gun ownership, cutting taxes, reducing government spending, and balancing the budget.<ref>http://www.teaparty.org/about-us/</ref> | |||
<ref name=Gidron-2019a>{{cite journal|author1=Gidron, N|author2=Ziblatt, D.|title=Center-right political parties in advanced democracies 2019|year=2019|journal=Annual Review of Political Science|volume=22|page=23|quotation=Defining the right by its adherence to the status quo is closely associated with a definition of the right as a defense of inequality (Bobbio 1996, Jost 2009, Luna & Kaltwasser 2014). As noted by Jost (2009), within the context of Western political development, opposition to change is often synonymous with support for inequality. Notwithstanding its prominence in the literature, we are hesitant to adopt this definition of the right since it requires the researcher to interpret ideological claims according to an abstract understanding of equality. For instance, Noel & Therien (2008) argue that right-wing opposition to affirmative action speaks in the name of equality and rejects positive discrimination based on demographic factors. From this perspective, the right is not inegalitarian but is "differently egalitarian" (Noel & Therien 2008, p. 18).|url=https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/dziblatt/files/gidron_and_ziblatt_2019.pdf|doi=10.1146/annurev-polisci-090717-092750|doi-access=free}}</ref> | |||
===Religion=== | |||
Government support for an established religion was associated with the original French "right wing."<ref name="Martin E. Marty 1994. P. 91">Martin E. Marty, R. Scott Appleby, American Academy of Arts and Sciences. ''Fundamentalisms observed''. University of Chicago Press, 1994. P. 91. ISBN 0-226-50878-1, ISBN 978-0-226-50878-8.</ref> ] argued for the indirect authority of the ] over temporal matters. According to Maistre, only governments founded upon a Christian constitution, implicit in the customs and institutions of all European societies but especially in ] ]an monarchies, could avoid the disorder and bloodshed that followed the implementation of ] political programs, as in the ]. The ] was established by ]. Some churchmen are given seats in the ] but are considered politically neutral, rather than right or left wing. | |||
<ref name="Gidron-2019b">{{cite journal|author1=Gidron, N|author2=Ziblatt, D.|title=Center-right political parties in advanced democracies 2019|year=2019|journal=Annual Review of Political Science|volume=22|page=24|quotation=...since different currents within the right are drawn to different visions of societal structures. For example, market liberals see social relations as stratified by natural economic inequalities.|url=https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/dziblatt/files/gidron_and_ziblatt_2019.pdf|doi=10.1146/annurev-polisci-090717-092750|s2cid=182421002}}</ref> | |||
Religious fundamentalists frequently feel that governments should enact laws supporting their religious tenets.<ref>Martin E. Marty, R. Scott Appleby, American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Fundamentalisms observed. University of Chicago Press, 1994. P. 91. ISBN 0-226-50878-1, ISBN 978-0-226-50878-8.</ref> The ] is a major force in North America. They generally support laws upholding what they consider religious values, such as ], contraception,<ref>http://mediamatters.org/blog/2014/03/26/this-conservative-myth-about-birth-control-coul/198623</ref> sex outside marriage,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adn.com/article/20110323/sex-outside-marriage-should-be-illegal-says-parnell-nominee|title=Sex outside marriage should be illegal, says Parnell nominee|work=Alaska Dispatch News}}</ref> and to same-sex marriage, and reject scientific positions on ] and other matters where science disagrees with the Bible.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Diana|last=DeGette|title=Sex, Science, and Stem Cells: Inside the Right Wing Assault on Reason|publisher=]|year=2008|isbn=978-1-59921-431-3}}</ref><ref>Chris Mooney, ''The Republican War on Science: Revised and Updated'', ASIN: B001OQOIPM</ref> Outside the West, other religious and ethnic groups are considered right-wing. In India, ] is sometimes considered a part of the Right. The Hindu nationalist movement has attracted privileged groups fearing encroachment on their dominant positions, and also "plebeian" and impoverished groups seeking recognition around a majoritarian rhetoric of cultural pride, order, and national strength.<ref>Thomas Blom Hansen, ''The Saffron Wave: Democracy and Hindu Nationalism in Modern India'', Princeton University Press, 2001, ISBN 1-4008-0342-X, 9781400803422</ref> Many ] groups have been called "right wing" including the ],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.turkishweekly.net/news/68827/rescue-teams-could-not-reach-turkish-party-leader-muhsin-yazicioglu-after-helicopter-crash.html|author=Demirtas, Burcu|title=Rescue Teams Could Not Reach Turkish Party Leader, Muhsin Yazicioglu after Helicopter Crash|publisher=Turkishweekly.net |date=27 March 2009 |accessdate=1 June 2012}}</ref> and the ]/Association of Militant Clergy<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uvm.edu/~fgause/168read.htm |title=Readings |publisher=uvm.edu |date=Fall 2007 |accessdate=1 June 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/623899.stm |title=Poll test for Iran reformists |publisher=BBC News |date=10 February 2000 |accessdate=1 June 2012}}</ref> and the ]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.merip.org/mero/mero020101.html |title=Middle East Report Online: Iran's Conservatives Face the Electorate, by Arang Keshavarzian |publisher=Merip.org |date=23 May 1997 |accessdate=13 May 2010}}</ref><ref>Anoushiravan Ehteshami and Mahjoob Zweiri, ''Iran and the rise of its neoconservatives: the politics of Tehran's silent revolution'', I.B. Tauris, 2007.</ref> of Iran. | |||
<ref name="Goldthorpe-1985a">{{cite book|last1=Goldthorpe|first1=J.E.|title=An Introduction to Sociology|date=1985|publisher=]|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-24545-6|page=156|edition=Third}}</ref> | |||
The term "]" has been used as a buzzword by right-wing parties such as the ] in the United States, the ] in Australia, the ] in the United Kingdom and the ] in India to describe support for traditional families, and opposition to the changes the modern world has made in how families live. Right-wing supporters of "family values" may oppose ], ], the normalizing of ], ], ] and ].<ref>{{cite web|title=2004 Republican Party Platform: A Safer World and a More Hopeful America|url=http://msnbcmedia.msn.com/i/msnbc/Sections/News/Politics/Conventions/RNC-2004platform.pdf|publisher=MSNBC|accessdate=23 July 2012|format=PDF}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="Goldthorpe-1985b">{{cite book|last1=Goldthorpe|first1=J.E.|title=An Introduction to Sociology|date=1985|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-24545-6|page=156|edition=3rd|quote="There are ... those who accept inequality as natural, normal, and even desirable. Two main lines of thought converge on the Right or conservative side...the truly Conservative view is that there is a natural hierarchy of skills and talents in which some people are born leaders, whether by heredity or family tradition. ... now ... the more usual right-wing view, which may be called 'liberal-conservative', is that unequal rewards are right and desirable so long as the competition for wealth and power is a fair one."}}</ref> | |||
==Right-wing terrorism== | |||
{{Main article|Right-wing terrorism}} | |||
] is ] motivated by a variety of ] ideologies and beliefs, including anti-communism, neo-fascism, neo-Nazism, racism, xenophobia and ]. This type of terrorism has been sporadic, with little or no international cooperation.<ref name="Aubrey, p. 45">Aubrey, Stefan M. ''The New Dimension of International Terrorism''. p. 45. Zurich: vdf Hochschulverlag AG, 2004. ISBN 3-7281-2949-6</ref> Modern right-wing terrorism first appeared in western Europe in the 1980s and in eastern Europe following the ].<ref name="Moghadam, pp. 57-58"/> | |||
<ref name="Johnson-2005">{{cite web|work=A Politics Glossary|url=http://www.auburn.edu/~johnspm/gloss/right-wing|publisher=Auburn University website|last=Johnson|first=Paul|title=Right-wing, rightist|year=2005|access-date=23 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819232535/http://www.auburn.edu/~johnspm/gloss/right-wing|archive-date=19 August 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> | |||
Right-wing terrorists aim to overthrow governments and replace them with nationalist or fascist-oriented governments.<ref name="Aubrey, p. 45"/> The core of this movement includes ], far right ], youth sympathisers and intellectual guides who believe that the state must rid itself of foreign elements in order to protect ''rightful'' citizens.<ref name="Moghadam, pp. 57-58"/> However, they usually lack a rigid ideology.<ref name="Moghadam, pp. 57-58">Moghadam, Assaf. ''''. pp. 57-58. New York: Infobase Publishing, 2006. ISBN 0-7910-8307-1</ref> | |||
<ref name="Lukes">{{cite book |last=Lukes |first=Steven |author-link=Steven Lukes |date=2003 |chapter=Epilogue: The Grand Dichotomy of the Twentieth Century |title=The Cambridge History of Twentieth-Century Political Thought |editor1-last=Ball |editor1-first=Terence |editor2-last=Bellamy |editor2-first=Richard |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=London |doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521563543.030 |isbn=9780521563543 |oclc=7334137654 <!--oclc-book=50737086--> |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-history-of-twentiethcentury-political-thought/DA22CCF70AD0B5A45671D7C6B82E3835 |chapter-url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-history-of-twentiethcentury-political-thought/epilogue-the-grand-dichotomy-of-the-twentieth-century/E83641F59518832F8A811962B443DBC3 |pages=610–612 <!--chapter=602–626-->}}</ref> | |||
==See also== | |||
* ] | |||
<ref name="Scruton-1996">Scruton, Roger "A Dictionary of Political Thought" "Defined by contrast to (or perhaps more accurately conflict with) the left the term ''right'' does not even have the respectability of a history. As now used it denotes several connected and also conflicting ideas (including) 1)conservative, and perhaps authoritarian, doctrines concerning the nature of civil society, with emphasis on custom, tradition, and allegiance as social bonds ... 8) belief in free enterprise free markets and a capitalist economy as the only mode of production compatible with human freedom and suited to the temporary nature of human aspirations ..." pp. 281–2, Macmillan, 1996</ref> | |||
== Notes == | |||
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}} | |||
<ref name="T. Alexander Smith 2003. p. 30">T. Alexander Smith, Raymond Tatalovich. ''Cultures at war: moral conflicts in western democracies''. Toronto, Canada: Broadview Press, Ltd, 2003. p. 30. "That viewpoint is held by contemporary sociologists, for whom 'right-wing movements' are conceptualized as 'social movements whose stated goals are to maintain structures of order, status, honor, or traditional social differences or values' as compared to left-wing movements which seek 'greater equality or political participation.' In other words, the sociological perspective sees preservationist politics as a right-wing attempt to defend privilege within the ''social hierarchy''."</ref> | |||
==References== | |||
* Berlet, Chip. "When Alienation turns Right". In Langman, Lauren and Kalekin-Fishman (Eds.) ''The Evolution of Alienation: Trauma, Promise, and the Millennium''. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2006 ISBN 0-7425-1835-3, ISBN 978-0-7425-1835-3 | |||
<ref name=Smith-2003b>Smith, T. Alexander and Raymond Tatalovich. ''Cultures at War: Moral Conflicts in Western Democracies'' (Toronto, Canada: Broadview Press, Ltd., 2003) p. 30. "That viewpoint is held by contemporary sociologists, for whom 'right-wing movements' are conceptualized as 'social movements whose stated goals are to maintain structures of order, status, honor, or traditional social differences or values' as compared to left-wing movements which seek 'greater equality or political participation.'</ref> | |||
* Davies, Peter. ''The Extreme Right in France, 1789 to the Present: From De Maistre to Le Pen''. New York, NY: Routledge, 2002 ISBN 0-415-23982-6, ISBN 978-0-415-23982-0 | |||
* Eatwell, Roger. "Introduction: the new extreme right challenge". In Eatwell, Roger and Muddle, Cas (Eds.) ''Western Democracies and the new Extreme Right Challenge.'' London, UK: Routledge, 2004 ISBN 0-415-36971-1, ISBN 978-0-415-36971-8 | |||
}} | |||
* Eatwell, Roger. "Conclusion: The 'End of Ideology'". In Eatwell, Roger and Wright, Anthony (Eds.) ''Contemporary Political Ideologies''. Continuum International Publishing Group, 1999 ISBN 0-8264-5173-X, 9780826451736 | |||
{{Reflist|30em}} | |||
*Paola Bacchetta and Margaret Power (eds). Right-Wing Women: From Conservatives to Extremists around the World. New York: Routledge, 2002. | |||
== Further reading == | |||
{{Refbegin|30em}} | |||
* Bacchetta, Paola, and Margaret Power, eds. 2002. ''Right-Wing Women: From Conservatives to Extremists around the World''. New York: Routledge. | |||
* Berlet, Chip. 2006. "When Alienation turns Right." In ''The Evolution of Alienation: Trauma, Promise, and the Millennium'', edited by Langman, Lauren, and Kalekin-Fishman. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. {{ISBN|0-7425-1835-3}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7425-1835-3}} | |||
* Davies, Peter. 2002. ''The Extreme Right in France, 1789 to the Present: From De Maistre to Le Pen''. New York, NY: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-23982-6}}, {{ISBN|978-0-415-23982-0}}. | |||
* Eatwell, Roger. 1999. "Conclusion: The 'End of Ideology'." In ''Contemporary Political Ideologies'', edited by R. Eatwell and A. Wright. Continuum International Publishing Group. {{ISBN|0-8264-5173-X}}, {{ISBN|9780826451736}}. | |||
* —— 2004. "Introduction: the new extreme right challenge." In ''Western Democracies and the new Extreme Right Challenge'', edited by ] and ]. London: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-36971-1}}, {{ISBN|978-0-415-36971-8}} | |||
* Fielitz, Maik, and Laura Lotte Laloire, eds. 2016. ''Trouble on the Far Right. Contemporary Right-Wing Strategies and Practices in Europe''. Bielefeld: transcript. {{ISBN|978-3-8376-3720-5}} | |||
* Gottlieb, Julie, and Clarisse Berethezéne, eds. 2017. ''Rethinking right-wing women: Gender and the Conservative Party, 1880s to the present''. | |||
* {{cite book|last1=Miles|first1=Michael W.|title=The Odyssey of the American Right|date=1980|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=9780195027747}} | |||
{{Refend}} | |||
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Latest revision as of 00:54, 20 December 2024
Political ideologies favoring social hierarchy "Right-wing", "Political right", and "The Right" redirect here. For the term used in sport, see Winger (sports). For political freedoms, see Civil and political rights. For other uses, see Right (disambiguation).
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Right-wing politics is the range of political ideologies that view certain social orders and hierarchies as inevitable, natural, normal, or desirable, typically supporting this position based on natural law, economics, authority, property, religion, or tradition. Hierarchy and inequality may be seen as natural results of traditional social differences or competition in market economies.
Right-wing politics are considered the counterpart to left-wing politics, and the left–right political spectrum is the most common political spectrum. The right includes social conservatives and fiscal conservatives, as well as right-libertarians. "Right" and "right-wing" have been variously used as compliments and pejoratives describing neoliberal, conservative, and fascist economic and social ideas.
Positions
The following positions are typically associated with right-wing politics.
Anti-communism
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Early communists used the term "right-wing" in reference to conservatives, placing the conservatives on the right, the liberals in the centre and the communists on the left. Both the conservatives and the liberals were strongly anti-communist, although conservatives' anti-communism is much stronger than liberals'. The history of the use of the term right-wing about anti-communism is a complicated one.
Early Marxist movements were at odds with the traditional monarchies that ruled over much of the European continent at the time. Many European monarchies outlawed the public expression of communist views and the Communist Manifesto, which began " spectre is haunting Europe", and stated that monarchs feared for their thrones. Advocacy of communism was illegal in the Russian Empire, the German Empire, and Austria-Hungary, the three most powerful monarchies in continental Europe before World War I. Many monarchists (except constitutional monarchists) viewed inequality in wealth and political power as resulting from a divine natural order. The struggle between monarchists and communists was often described as a struggle between the Right and the Left.
By World War I, in most European monarchies the divine right of kings had become discredited and was replaced by liberal and nationalist movements. Most European monarchs became figureheads, or they yielded some power to elected governments. The most conservative European monarchy, the Russian Empire, was replaced by the communist Soviet Union. The Russian Revolution inspired a series of other communist revolutions across Europe in the years 1917–1923. Many of these, such as the German Revolution, were defeated by nationalist and monarchist military units. During this period, nationalism began to be considered right-wing, especially when it opposed the internationalism of the communists.
The 1920s and 1930s saw the decline of traditional right-wing politics. The mantle of conservative anti-communism was taken up by the rising fascist movements on the one hand and by American-inspired liberal conservatives on the other. When communist groups and political parties began appearing around the world, their opponents were usually colonial authorities and the term right-wing came to be applied to colonialism.
After World War II, communism became a global phenomenon and anti-communism became an integral part of the domestic and foreign policies of the United States and its NATO allies. Conservatism in the post-war era abandoned its monarchist and aristocratic roots, focusing instead on patriotism, religious values, and nationalism. Throughout the Cold War, postcolonial governments in Asia, Africa, and Latin America turned to the United States for political and economic support. Communists were also enemies of capitalism, portraying Wall Street as the oppressor of the masses. The United States made anti-communism the top priority of its foreign policy, and many American conservatives sought to combat what they saw as communist influence at home. This led to the adoption of several domestic policies that are collectively known under the term McCarthyism. While both liberals and conservatives were anti-communist, the followers of Senator McCarthy were called right-wing and those on the right called liberals who favored free speech, even for communists, leftist.
Economics
Main articles: Capitalism and CorporatismEarly forms of corporatism would be developed in Classical Greece and used in Ancient Rome. Plato would develop the ideas of totalitarian and communitarian corporatist systems of natural based classes and social hierarchies that would be organized based on function, such that groups would cooperate to achieve social harmony by emphasizing collectives interests over individual interests. Corporatism as a political ideology advocates the organization of society by corporate groups—such as agricultural, labour, military, scientific, or guild associations—based on their common interests.
After the decline of the Western Roman Empire corporatism became limited to religious orders and to the idea of Christian brotherhood, especially in the context of economic transactions. From the High Middle Ages onwards corporatist organizations became increasingly common in Europe, including such groups as religious orders, monasteries, fraternities, military orders such as the Knights Templar and the Teutonic Order, educational organizations such as the emerging universities and learned societies, the chartered towns and cities, and most notably the guild system which dominated the economics of population centers in Europe.
In post-revolutionary France, the Right fought against the rising power of those who had grown rich through commerce, and sought to preserve the rights of the hereditary nobility. They were uncomfortable with capitalism, the Enlightenment, individualism, and industrialism, and fought to retain traditional social hierarchies and institutions. In Europe's history, there have been strong collectivist right-wing movements, such as in the social Catholic right, that have exhibited hostility to all forms of liberalism (including economic liberalism) and have historically advocated for paternalist class harmony involving an organic-hierarchical society where workers are protected while class hierarchy remains.
In the nineteenth century, the Right had shifted to support the newly rich in some European countries (particularly Britain) and instead of favouring the nobility over industrialists, favoured capitalists over the working class. Other right-wing movements—such as Carlism in Spain and nationalist movements in France, Germany, and Russia—remained hostile to capitalism and industrialism. Nevertheless, a few right-wing movements—notably the French Nouvelle Droite, CasaPound, and American paleoconservatism—are often in opposition to capitalist ethics and the effects they have on society. These forces see capitalism and industrialism as infringing upon or causing the decay of social traditions or hierarchies that are essential for social order.
In modern times, "right-wing" is sometimes used to describe laissez-faire capitalism. In Europe, capitalists formed alliances with the Right during their conflicts with workers after 1848. In France, the Right's support of capitalism can be traced to the late nineteenth century. The so-called neoliberal Right, popularised by US President Ronald Reagan and UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, combines support for free markets, privatisation, and deregulation with traditional right-wing support for social conformity. Right-wing libertarianism (sometimes known as libertarian conservatism or conservative libertarianism) supports a decentralised economy based on economic freedom and holds property rights, free markets, and free trade to be the most important kinds of freedom. Political theorist Russell Kirk believed that freedom and property rights were interlinked.
Nationalism
Main articles: Nationalism and Neo-nationalismIn France, nationalism was originally a left-wing and republican ideology. After the period of boulangisme and the Dreyfus affair, nationalism became a trait of the right-wing. Right-wing nationalists sought to define and defend a "true" national identity from elements which they believed were corrupting that identity. Some were supremacists, who in accordance with scientific racism and social Darwinism applied the concept of "survival of the fittest" to nations and races.
Right-wing nationalism was influenced by Romantic nationalism in which the state derives its political legitimacy from the organic unity of those who it governs. This generally includes the language, race, culture, religion, and customs of the nation, all of which were "born" within its culture. Linked with right-wing nationalism is cultural conservatism, which supports the preservation of the heritage of a nation or culture and often sees deviations from cultural norms as an existential threat.
In the 21st century, neo-nationalism came to prominence after the Cold War in the Western world. It is typically associated with cultural conservatism, populism, anti-globalization, and nativism and is opposed to immigration. The ideology takes historical association in determining membership in a nation, rather than racial concepts.
Natural law and traditionalism
Right-wing politics typically justifies a hierarchical society based on natural law or tradition.
Traditionalism was advocated by a group of United States university professors (labelled the "New Conservatives" by the popular press) who rejected the concepts of individualism, liberalism, modernity, and social progress, seeking instead to promote what they identified as cultural and educational renewal and a revived interest in concepts perceived by traditionalists as truths that endure from age to age alongside basic institutions of western society such as the church, the family, the state, and business.
Populism
Main article: Right-wing populismRight-wing populism is a combination of civic-nationalism, cultural-nationalism and sometimes ethno-nationalism, localism, along with anti-elitism, using populist rhetoric to provide a critique of existing political institutions. According to Margaret Canovan, a right-wing populist is "a charismatic leader, using the tactics of politicians' populism to go past the politicians and intellectual elite and appeal to the reactionary sentiments of the populace, often buttressing his claim to speak for the people by the use of referendums".
In Europe, right-wing populism often takes the form of distrust of the European Union, and of politicians in general, combined with anti-immigrant rhetoric and a call for a return to traditional, national values. Daniel Stockemer states, the radical right is, "Targeting immigrants as a threat to employment, security and cultural cohesion."
In the United States, the Tea Party movement stated that the core beliefs for membership were the primacy of individual liberties as defined by the Constitution of the United States, preference for a small federal government, and respect for the rule of law. Some policy positions included opposition to illegal immigration and support for a strong national military force, the right to individual gun ownership, cutting taxes, reducing government spending, and balancing the budget.
In Indonesia, Islamic populism has a significant impact on right-wing politics. This is largely due to the historical context which Islamic organizations had during the 1960s in destroying the Indonesian Communist Party. Whilst the party is adopting democratic processes with neo-liberal market economies, socially pluralist positions aren't necessarily adopted. The Islamic populism in Indonesia has boosted its influence in 1998 after the demise of the Suharto authoritarian regime. Islamic populism in Indonesia has similar properties with Islamic populist regimes like in the Middle East, Turkey and North Africa (MENA). The emphasis on social justice, pluralism, equality and progressive agendas could be potentially mobilized by Islamic cultural resources.
In India, Bharatiya Janata Party supporters have more authoritarian, nativist, and populist ideas than other Indian citizens. Under Narendra Modi, the BJP, populism is a core part of the party's ideology. The main populist idea is that the ordinary, "good" individuals are continuously under attack from the "bad" political forces, media, etc. Since Narendra Modi became the leader of the BJP, it has increasingly been associated as a populist radical right party (PRR), however, traditionally the party was viewed as a Hindu nationalist party.
Religion
Philosopher and diplomat Joseph de Maistre argued for the indirect authority of the Pope over temporal matters. According to Maistre, only governments which were founded upon Christian constitutions—which were implicit in the customs and institutions of all European societies, especially the Catholic European monarchies—could avoid the disorder and bloodshed that followed the implementation of rationalist political programs, such as the chaos which occurred during the French Revolution. Some prelates of the Church of England–established by Henry VIII and headed by the current sovereign—are given seats in the House of Lords (as Lords Spiritual), but they are considered politically neutral rather than specifically right- or left-wing.
American right-wing media outlets oppose sex outside marriage and same-sex marriage, and they sometimes reject scientific positions on evolution and other matters where science tends to disagree with the Bible.
The term family values has been used by right-wing parties—such as the Republican Party in the United States, the Family First Party in Australia, the Conservative Party in the United Kingdom, and the Bharatiya Janata Party in India—to signify support for traditional families and opposition to the changes the modern world has made in how families live. Supporters of "family values" may oppose abortion, euthanasia, and birth control.
Outside the West, the Hindu nationalist movement has attracted privileged groups which fear encroachment on their dominant positions, as well as "plebeian" and impoverished groups which seek recognition around a majoritarian rhetoric of cultural pride, order, and national strength.
In Israel, Meir Kahane advocated that Israel should be a theocratic state, where non-Jews have no voting rights, and the far-right Lehava strictly opposes Jewish assimilation and the Christian presence in Israel. The Jewish Defence League (JDL) in the United States was classified as "a right wing terrorist group" by the FBI in 2001.
Many Islamist groups have been called right-wing, including the Great Union Party, the Combatant Clergy Association/Association of Militant Clergy, and the Islamic Society of Engineers of Iran.
Social stratification
Right-wing politics involves, in varying degrees, the rejection of some egalitarian objectives of left-wing politics, claiming either that social or economic inequality is natural and inevitable or that it is beneficial to society. Right-wing ideologies and movements support social order. The original French right-wing was called "the party of order" and held that France needed a strong political leader to keep order.
Conservative British scholar R. J. White, who rejects egalitarianism, wrote: "Men are equal before God and the laws, but unequal in all else; hierarchy is the order of nature, and privilege is the reward of honourable service". American conservative Russell Kirk also rejected egalitarianism as imposing sameness, stating: "Men are created different; and a government that ignores this law becomes an unjust government for it sacrifices nobility to mediocrity". Kirk took as one of the "canons" of conservatism the principle that "civilized society requires orders and classes". Italian scholar Norberto Bobbio argued that the right-wing is inegalitarian compared to the left-wing, as he argued that equality is a relative, not absolute, concept.
Right libertarians reject collective or state-imposed equality as undermining reward for personal merit, initiative, and enterprise. In their view, such imposed equality is unjust, limits personal freedom, and leads to social uniformity and mediocrity.
In the view of philosopher Jason Stanley in How Fascism Works, the "politics of hierarchy" is one of the hallmarks of fascism, which refers to a "glorious past" in which members of the rightfully dominant group sat atop the hierarchy, and attempt to recreate this state of being.
History
According to The Cambridge History of Twentieth-Century Political Thought, the Right has gone through five distinct historical stages:
- The reactionary right sought a return to aristocracy and established religion.
- The moderate right distrusted intellectuals and sought limited government.
- The radical right favored a romantic and aggressive form of nationalism.
- The extreme right proposed anti-immigration policies and implicit racism.
- The neo-liberal right sought to combine a market economy and economic deregulation with the traditional right-wing beliefs in patriotism, elitism and law and order.
The political terms Left and Right were first used in the 18th century, during the French Revolution, referencing the seating arrangement of the French parliament. Those who sat to the right of the chair of the presiding officer (le président) were generally supportive of the institutions of the monarchist Old Regime. The original "Right" in France was formed in reaction to the "Left" and comprised those supporting hierarchy, tradition, and clericalism. The expression la droite ("the right") increased in use after the restoration of the monarchy in 1815, when it was applied to the ultra-royalists.
From the 1830s to the 1880s, the Western world's social class structure and economy shifted from nobility and aristocracy towards capitalism. This shift affected centre-right movements such as the British Conservative Party, which responded supporting capitalism.
The people of English-speaking countries did not apply the terms right and left to their politics until the 20th century. The term right-wing was originally applied to traditional conservatives, monarchists, and reactionaries; a revision of this which occurred sometime between the 1920s and 1950s considers the far-right to denote fascism, Nazism, and racial supremacy.
Rightist regimes were common in Europe in the Interwar period, 1919–1938.
China
Republic of China (1912–1949)
Among Kuomintang (KMT)'s conservatives during the Republic of China, Dai Jitao Thought supporters formed the Western Hills Group in the 1920s.
Chiang Kai-shek initially claimed himself as a 'centrist' in the KMT left-right conflict, but became an anti-communist right-wing after Shanghai massacre. Chiangism (or 'Chiang Kai-shek Thought') was related to Confucianism, party-state capitalism, paternalistic conservatism, and Chinese nationalism.
People's Republic of China
The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) describes itself as Marxist, and has not officially abandoned leftist ideology, Marxism–Leninism, or socialism with Chinese characteristics. Christer Pursiainen has characterized the CCP as a right-wing political party, pointing to an ideological change within the party under Jiang Zemin's leadership during the 1990s.
Neoauthoritarianism is a current of political thought that rose in China in the late 1980's and came into ascendancy after the death of Deng Xiaoping; it advocates a powerful state to facilitate market reforms. It has been described as right-wing, classically conservative even though it incorporated some aspects of Marxist-Leninist and Maoist theories.
France
See also: Left–right politicsThe political term right-wing was first used during the French Revolution, when liberal deputies of the Third Estate generally sat to the left of the presiding officer's chair, a custom that began in the Estates General of 1789. The nobility, members of the Second Estate, generally sat to the right. In the successive legislative assemblies, monarchists who supported the Old Regime were commonly referred to as rightists because they sat on the right side. A major figure on the right was Joseph de Maistre, who argued for an authoritarian form of conservatism.
Throughout France in the 19th century, the main line dividing the left and right was between supporters of the republic and those of the monarchy, who were often secularist and Catholic respectively. On the right, the Legitimists and Ultra-royalists held counter-revolutionary views, while the Orléanists hoped to create a constitutional monarchy under their preferred branch of the royal family, which briefly became a reality after the 1830 July Revolution.
The centre-right Gaullists in post-World War II France advocated considerable social spending on education and infrastructure development as well as extensive economic regulation, but limited the wealth redistribution measures characteristic of social democracy.
Hungary
The dominance of the political right of inter-war Hungary, after the collapse of a short-lived Communist regime, was described by historian István Deák:
- Between 1919 and 1944 Hungary was a rightist country. Forged out of a counter-revolutionary heritage, its governments advocated a "nationalist Christian" policy; they extolled heroism, faith, and unity; they despised the French Revolution, and they spurned the liberal and socialist ideologies of the 19th century. The governments saw Hungary as a bulwark against bolshevism and bolshevism's instruments: socialism, cosmopolitanism, and Freemasonry. They perpetrated the rule of a small clique of aristocrats, civil servants, and army officers, and surrounded with adulation the head of the state, the counterrevolutionary Admiral Horthy.
India
Although freedom fighters are favoured, the right-wing tendency to elect or appoint politicians and government officials based on aristocratic and religious ties is common to almost all the states of India. Multiple political parties however identify with terms and beliefs which are, by political consensus, right or left wing. Certain political parties such as the Bharatiya Janata Party, identify with conservative and nationalist elements. Some, such as the Indian National Congress, take a liberal stance. The Communist Party of India, Communist Party of India (Marxist), and others, identify with left-wing socialist and communist concepts. Other political parties take differing stands, and hence cannot be clearly grouped as the left- and the right-wing.
United Kingdom
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In British politics, the terms right and left came into common use for the first time in the late 1930s during debates over the Spanish Civil War.
United States
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In the United States, following the Second World War, social conservatives joined with right-wing elements of the Republican Party to gain support in traditionally Democratic voting populations like white southerners and Catholics. Ronald Reagan's election to the presidency in 1980 cemented the alliance between the religious right in the United States and social conservatives.
In 2019, the United States populace leaned center-right, with 37% of Americans self-identifying as conservative, compared to 35% moderate and 24% liberal. This was continuing a decades long trend of the country leaning center-right.
The United States Department of Homeland Security defines right-wing extremism in the United States as "broadly divided into those groups, movements, and adherents that are primarily hate-oriented (based on hatred of particular religious, racial or ethnic groups), and those that are mainly anti-government, rejecting federal authority in favor of state or local authority, or rejecting government authority entirely. It may include groups and individuals that are dedicated to a single issue, such as opposition to abortion or immigration."
Types
The meaning of right-wing "varies across societies, historical epochs, and political systems and ideologies." According to The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics, in liberal democracies, the political right opposes socialism and social democracy. Right-wing parties include conservatives, Christian democrats, classical liberals, and nationalists, as well as fascists on the far-right.
British academics Noël O'Sullivan and Roger Eatwell divide the right into five types: reactionary, moderate, radical, extreme, and new. Chip Berlet wrote that each of these "styles of thought" are "responses to the left", including liberalism and socialism, which have arisen since the 1789 French Revolution.
- The reactionary right looks toward the past and is "aristocratic, religious and authoritarian".
- The moderate right, typified by the writings of Edmund Burke, is tolerant of change, provided it is gradual and accepts some aspects of liberalism, including the rule of law and capitalism, although it sees radical laissez-faire and individualism as harmful to society. The moderate right often promotes nationalism and social welfare policies.
- Radical right is a descriptive term that was developed after World War II and it was applied to groups and ideologies such as McCarthyism, the John Birch Society, Thatcherism, and the Republikaner Party. Eatwell stresses that this usage of the term has "major typological problems" because it "has also been applied to clearly democratic developments." The radical right includes right-wing populism and various other subtypes.
- The extreme right has four traits: "1) anti-democracy, 2) ultranationalism, 3) racism, and 4) the strong state."
- The New Right consists of the liberal conservatives, who stress small government, free markets, and individual initiative.
Other authors make a distinction between the centre-right and the far-right.
- Parties of the centre-right generally support liberal democracy, capitalism, the market economy (though they may accept government regulation to control monopolies), private property rights, and a limited welfare state (for example, government provision of education and medical care). They support conservatism and economic liberalism and oppose socialism and communism.
- By contrast, the phrase "far-right" is used to describe those who favor an absolutist government, which uses the power of the state to support the dominant ethnic group or religion and criminalize other ethnic groups or religions. Typical examples of leaders to whom the far-right label is often applied are: Francisco Franco in Spain, Benito Mussolini in Italy, Adolf Hitler in Nazi Germany, Augusto Pinochet in Chile, and Jorge Rafael Videla in Argentina.
See also
- Alt-right
- Center right
- Christian right
- Far right
- List of right-wing political parties
- New Right
- Old Right
- Radical right (Europe)
- Radical right (United States)
- Right realism
- Right-wing authoritarianism
- Right-wing terrorism
References
- Johnson, Paul (2005). "Right-wing, rightist". A Politics Glossary. Auburn University website. Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 23 October 2014.
- Bobbio, Norberto; Cameron, Allan (1996). Left and Right: The Significance of a Political Distinction. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 51, 62. ISBN 978-0-226-06246-4.
- Goldthorpe, J.E. (1985). An Introduction to Sociology (Third ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 156. ISBN 978-0-521-24545-6.
- "Right". Encyclopædia Britannica. 15 April 2009. Retrieved 22 May 2022.
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- ^ T. Alexander Smith, Raymond Tatalovich. Cultures at war: moral conflicts in western democracies. Toronto, Canada: Broadview Press, Ltd, 2003. p. 30. "That viewpoint is held by contemporary sociologists, for whom 'right-wing movements' are conceptualized as 'social movements whose stated goals are to maintain structures of order, status, honor, or traditional social differences or values' as compared to left-wing movements which seek 'greater equality or political participation.' In other words, the sociological perspective sees preservationist politics as a right-wing attempt to defend privilege within the social hierarchy."
- ^ Left and right: the significance of a political distinction, Norberto Bobbio and Allan Cameron, p. 37, University of Chicago Press, 1997.
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Defining the right by its adherence to the status quo is closely associated with a definition of the right as a defense of inequality (Bobbio 1996, Jost 2009, Luna & Kaltwasser 2014). As noted by Jost (2009), within the context of Western political development, opposition to change is often synonymous with support for inequality. Notwithstanding its prominence in the literature, we are hesitant to adopt this definition of the right since it requires the researcher to interpret ideological claims according to an abstract understanding of equality. For instance, Noel & Therien (2008) argue that right-wing opposition to affirmative action speaks in the name of equality and rejects positive discrimination based on demographic factors. From this perspective, the right is not inegalitarian but is "differently egalitarian" (Noel & Therien 2008, p. 18).
- Scruton, Roger "A Dictionary of Political Thought" "Defined by contrast to (or perhaps more accurately conflict with) the left the term right does not even have the respectability of a history. As now used it denotes several connected and also conflicting ideas (including) 1)conservative, and perhaps authoritarian, doctrines concerning the nature of civil society, with emphasis on custom, tradition, and allegiance as social bonds ... 8) belief in free enterprise free markets and a capitalist economy as the only mode of production compatible with human freedom and suited to the temporary nature of human aspirations ..." pp. 281–2, Macmillan, 1996
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There are ... those who accept inequality as natural, normal, and even desirable. Two main lines of thought converge on the Right or conservative side...the truly Conservative view is that there is a natural hierarchy of skills and talents in which some people are born leaders, whether by heredity or family tradition. ... now ... the more usual right-wing view, which may be called 'liberal-conservative', is that unequal rewards are right and desirable so long as the competition for wealth and power is a fair one.
- Gidron, N; Ziblatt, D. (2019). "Center-right political parties in advanced democracies 2019" (PDF). Annual Review of Political Science. 22: 24. doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-090717-092750. S2CID 182421002.
...since different currents within the right are drawn to different visions of societal structures. For example, market liberals see social relations as stratified by natural economic inequalities.
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Reactionary right-wing themes emphasizing authority, social hierarchy, and obedience, as well as condemnations of liberalism, the democratic ethos, the "rights of man" associated with the legacy of the Enlightenment and the French Revolution, and the political and cultural ethos of modern liberal democracy are especially prominent in the writings and public statements of Archbishop Lefebvre.
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Right radicals and conservative authoritarians almost without exception became corporatists in formal doctrines of political economy, but the fascists were less explicit and in general less schematic.
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An exuberant, uncompromising nationalism lay behind France's revolutionary expansion in the 1790s...", "The message of the French Revolution was that the people are sovereign; and in the two centuries since it was first proclaimed it has conquered the world.
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Any non-Jew, including the Arabs, can have the status of a foreign resident in Israel if he accepts the law of the Halacha. I don't differentiate between Arabs and non-Arabs. The only difference I make is between Jews and non-Jews. If a non-Jew wants to live here, he must agree to be a foreign resident, be he Arab or not. He does not have and cannot have national rights in Israel. He can have civil rights, social rights, but he cannot be a citizen; he won't have the right to vote. Again, whether he's Arab or not.
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Consequently, the CCP's transformation into a right-wing elitist party occurred during the 1990s under Jiang Zeming's reign.
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Who to include under the rubric of the New Right remains puzzling. It is usually seen as an amalgam of traditional liberal conservatism, Austrian liberal economic theory ... extreme libertarianism (anarch-capitalism) and crude populism.
- Betz & Immerfall 1998; Betz 1994; Durham 2000; Durham 2002; Hainsworth 2000; Mudde 2000; Berlet & Lyons, 2000.
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far right.
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Further reading
- Bacchetta, Paola, and Margaret Power, eds. 2002. Right-Wing Women: From Conservatives to Extremists around the World. New York: Routledge.
- Berlet, Chip. 2006. "When Alienation turns Right." In The Evolution of Alienation: Trauma, Promise, and the Millennium, edited by Langman, Lauren, and Kalekin-Fishman. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-7425-1835-3, ISBN 978-0-7425-1835-3
- Davies, Peter. 2002. The Extreme Right in France, 1789 to the Present: From De Maistre to Le Pen. New York, NY: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-23982-6, ISBN 978-0-415-23982-0.
- Eatwell, Roger. 1999. "Conclusion: The 'End of Ideology'." In Contemporary Political Ideologies, edited by R. Eatwell and A. Wright. Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 0-8264-5173-X, ISBN 9780826451736.
- —— 2004. "Introduction: the new extreme right challenge." In Western Democracies and the new Extreme Right Challenge, edited by R. Eatwell and C. Muddle. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-36971-1, ISBN 978-0-415-36971-8
- Fielitz, Maik, and Laura Lotte Laloire, eds. 2016. Trouble on the Far Right. Contemporary Right-Wing Strategies and Practices in Europe. Bielefeld: transcript. ISBN 978-3-8376-3720-5
- Gottlieb, Julie, and Clarisse Berethezéne, eds. 2017. Rethinking right-wing women: Gender and the Conservative Party, 1880s to the present.
- Miles, Michael W. (1980). The Odyssey of the American Right. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195027747.
External links
- Media related to Right-wing politics at Wikimedia Commons
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