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{{short description|Finnic ethnic group native to Estonia}} {{Short description|Finnic ethnic group native to Estonia}}
{{Redirect|Estonian natives|the horse breed|Estonian Native horse}}
{{about-distinguish-text|the ] speaking people, a ] ethnic group|closely neighboring ] speaking ethnicities, the ]}}
<!-- This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in e.g., Finnish: {{Expand Finnish|Virolaiset|date=April 2022}} --> <!-- This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in e.g., Finnish: {{Expand Finnish|Virolaiset|date=April 2022}} -->
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}} {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
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| image_caption = | image_caption =
| pop = '''{{circa}} 1.1 million'''<ref></ref> | pop = '''{{circa}} 1.1 million'''<ref></ref>
| regions = {{EST}} 919,711 {{small|(2021)}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://andmebaas.stat.ee/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=RV0222U|title=Population by ethnic nationality|publisher=]|access-date=6 June 2021|date=June 2020}}</ref>{{center|{{small|Other significant population centers:}}}} | regions = {{EST}} 925,892 {{small|(2023)}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://andmebaas.stat.ee/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=RV0222U|title=Population by ethnic nationality|publisher=]|access-date=6 June 2021|date=June 2020}}</ref>{{center|{{small|Other significant population centers:}}}}
| region1 = {{FIN}} | region1 = {{FIN}}
| pop1 = 49,590–100,000{{efn|] does not record ethnicity and instead categorizes the population by their native language; in 2017, Estonian was spoken as a mother tongue by 49,590 people, not all of whom may be ethnic Estonians.<ref name=fi/>}}<ref name=fi>{{cite web|url=http://www.stat.fi/tup/suoluk/suoluk_vaesto_en.html|title=Population|publisher=Statistics Finland|date=4 April 2018|access-date=6 June 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://bnn-news.com/100-000-estonians-work-finland-12318|title=Up to 100 000 Estonians work in Finland|date=27 December 2010|publisher=]|access-date=4 October 2018}}</ref> | pop1 = 49,590–100,000{{efn|] does not record ethnicity and instead categorizes the population by their native language; in 2017, Estonian was spoken as a mother tongue by 49,590 people, not all of whom may be ethnic Estonians.<ref name=fi/>}}<ref name=fi>{{cite web|url=http://www.stat.fi/tup/suoluk/suoluk_vaesto_en.html|title=Population|publisher=Statistics Finland|date=4 April 2018|access-date=6 June 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://bnn-news.com/100-000-estonians-work-finland-12318|title=Up to 100 000 Estonians work in Finland|date=27 December 2010|publisher=]|access-date=4 October 2018}}</ref>
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| pop14 = 1,676<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data1.csb.gov.lv/pxweb/en/iedz/iedz__iedzrakst/IRG069.px/table/tableViewLayout1/?rxid=ca7828a2-23c8-437c-96e1-7ab86e21bbdd|title=Usually resident population by ethnicity at the beginning of the year – 2018|website=csb.gov.lv}}</ref> | pop14 = 1,676<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data1.csb.gov.lv/pxweb/en/iedz/iedz__iedzrakst/IRG069.px/table/tableViewLayout1/?rxid=ca7828a2-23c8-437c-96e1-7ab86e21bbdd|title=Usually resident population by ethnicity at the beginning of the year – 2018|website=csb.gov.lv}}</ref>
| region15 = {{DEN}} | region15 = {{DEN}}
| pop15 = 1,606<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statistikbanken.dk/FT|title=Statistikbanken|website=www.statistikbanken.dk}}</ref> | pop15 = 1,658<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.statistikbanken.dk/statbank5a/default.asp?w=1440|title=Statistikbanken|website=www.statistikbanken.dk}}
Population at the first day of the quarter by country of origin, region and time. Retrieved on 23 May 2024.</ref>
| region16 = {{NED}} | region16 = {{NED}}
| pop16 = 1,482<ref>. Cbs.nl. Retrieved on 4 July 2017.</ref> | pop16 = 1,482<ref>. Cbs.nl. Retrieved on 4 July 2017.</ref>
| langs = Primarily ]<br />also ] and ] | langs = Primarily ]<br />also ] and ]
| rels = Majority ]<br /> Historically Protestant Christian (])<ref name="IvkovićHaberfeld2015">{{cite book|last1= Ivković|first1= Sanja Kutnjak|last2= Haberfeld|first2= M.R.|title= Measuring Police Integrity Across the World: Studies from Established Democracies and Countries in Transition|date= 10 June 2015|publisher= Springer |language=en |isbn= 9781493922796|page= 131|quote= Estonia is considered Protestant when classified by its historically predominant major religion (Norris and Inglehart 2011) and thus some authors (e.g., Davie 2003) claim Estonia belongs to Western (Lutheran) Europe, while others (e.g., Norris and Inglehart 2011) see Estonia as a Protestant ex-Communist society.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title= Is Estonia really the least religious country in the world?|last= Ringvee|first= Ringo|date= 16 September 2011|work= ]|quote= For this situation there are several reasons, starting from the distant past (the close connection of the churches with the Swedish or German ruling classes) up to the Soviet-period atheist policy when the chain of religious traditions was broken in most families. In Estonia, religion has never played an important role on the political or ideological battlefield. The institutional religious life was dominated by foreigners until the early 20th century. The tendencies that prevailed in the late 1930s for closer relations between the state and Lutheran church ended with the Soviet occupation in 1940.}}</ref><br />{{small|Currently ] and regional ] (]) minority}} | rels = Majority ]<br /> Historically Protestant Christian (])<ref name="IvkovićHaberfeld2015">{{cite book|last1= Ivković|first1= Sanja Kutnjak|last2= Haberfeld|first2= M.R.|title= Measuring Police Integrity Across the World: Studies from Established Democracies and Countries in Transition|date= 10 June 2015|publisher= Springer |language=en |isbn= 9781493922796|page= 131|quote= Estonia is considered Protestant when classified by its historically predominant major religion (Norris and Inglehart 2011) and thus some authors (e.g., Davie 2003) claim Estonia belongs to Western (Lutheran) Europe, while others (e.g., Norris and Inglehart 2011) see Estonia as a Protestant ex-Communist society.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title= Is Estonia really the least religious country in the world?|last= Ringvee|first= Ringo|date= 16 September 2011|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/belief/2011/sep/16/estonia-least-religious-country-world|work= ]|quote= For this situation there are several reasons, starting from the distant past (the close connection of the churches with the Swedish or German ruling classes) up to the Soviet-period atheist policy when the chain of religious traditions was broken in most families. In Estonia, religion has never played an important role on the political or ideological battlefield. The institutional religious life was dominated by foreigners until the early 20th century. The tendencies that prevailed in the late 1930s for closer relations between the state and Lutheran church ended with the Soviet occupation in 1940.}}</ref><br />{{small|Currently ] and regional ] (]) minority}}
| related = Other ]<br/>Especially ], ], ], and ] | related = Other ]
}} }}
'''Estonians''' or '''Estonian people''' ({{lang-et|eestlased}}) are a ] ] who speak the ]. Their nation state is ]. '''Estonians''' or '''Estonian people''' ({{langx|et|eestlased}}) are a ] ] who speak the ]. Their nation state is ].


The Estonian language is spoken as the ] by the vast majority of Estonians; it is closely related to other ], e.g. ], ] and ]. The Finnic languages are a subgroup of the larger ], which also includes e.g. the ]<!-- and the distantly related ]-->. These languages are markedly different from most other native languages spoken in ], most of which have been assigned to the ]. Estonians can also be classified into subgroups according to ]s (e.g. ], ]), although such divisions have become less pronounced due to internal migration and rapid ] in Estonia in the 20th century. The Estonian language is spoken as the ] by the vast majority of Estonians; it is closely related to other ], e.g. ], ] and ]. The Finnic languages are a subgroup of the larger ], which also includes e.g. the ]<!-- and the distantly related ]-->. These languages are markedly different from most other native languages spoken in ], most of which have been assigned to the ]. Estonians can also be classified into subgroups according to ]s (e.g. ], ]), although such divisions have become less pronounced due to internal migration and rapid ] in Estonia in the 20th century.


There are approximately 1 million ethnic Estonians worldwide, with the vast majority of them residing in their native Estonia. Estonian diaspora communities formed primarily in Finland, the United States, Sweden, Canada, the United Kingdom and other ]. There are approximately 1 million ethnic Estonians worldwide, with the vast majority of them residing in their native Estonia. Estonian diaspora communities formed primarily in Finland, the United States, Sweden, Canada, and the United Kingdom.<!--note, as UK has Brexited EU, incorrect then to refer next to "other" ].-->


==History== ==History==


===Prehistoric roots=== ===Prehistoric roots===
Estonia was first inhabited about 10,000 years ago, soon after the ice from the ] had melted. Living in the same area for more than 5,000 years would put the ancestors of Estonians among the oldest permanent inhabitants in Europe.<ref> {{ISBN|978-90-411-0223-2}}</ref> On the other hand, some recent linguistic estimations suggest that ] language speakers arrived around the Baltic Sea considerably later, perhaps during the ] (ca. 1800 BCE).<ref>Petri Kallio 2006: Suomalais-ugrilaisen kantakielen absoluuttisesta kronologiasta. — ''Virittäjä'' 2006. (With English summary).</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Häkkinen, Jaakko|year= 2009|title=Kantauralin ajoitus ja paikannus: perustelut puntarissa. – Suomalais-Ugrilaisen Seuran Aikakauskirja |page=92|url=http://www.sgr.fi/susa/92/hakkinen.pdf}}</ref> It has also been argued that Western Uralic tribes reached ] first, leading into the development of ], and arrived to the Baltic region later during the Bronze Age<ref name=":4" /> or its transition to ] at the latest,<ref name=":2" /> which lead into the formation of ] population who would later become such groups as Estonians and ].<ref name=":4">Lang, Valter: ''Homo Fennicus – Itämerensuomalaisten etnohistoria'', pp. 335–336. Finnish Literature Society, 2020. <nowiki>ISBN 9789518581300</nowiki>.</ref> Estonia was first inhabited about 10,000 years ago, soon after the ice from the ] had melted. Living in the same area for more than 5,000 years would put Estonians' ancestors among Europe's oldest permanent inhabitants.<ref> {{ISBN|978-90-411-0223-2}}</ref> On the other hand, some recent linguistic estimations suggest that ] speakers arrived around the Baltic Sea considerably later, perhaps during the ] (ca. 1800 BCE).<ref>Petri Kallio 2006: Suomalais-ugrilaisen kantakielen absoluuttisesta kronologiasta. — ''Virittäjä'' 2006. (With English summary).</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Häkkinen, Jaakko|year= 2009|title=Kantauralin ajoitus ja paikannus: perustelut puntarissa. – Suomalais-Ugrilaisen Seuran Aikakauskirja |page=92|url=http://www.sgr.fi/susa/92/hakkinen.pdf}}</ref> It has also been argued that Western Uralic tribes reached ] first, leading into the development of the ], and arrived in the ] later in the Bronze Age<ref name=":4" /> or the transition to the ] at the latest.<ref name=":2" /> This lead into the formation of ], who would later become such groups as Estonians and ].<ref name=":4">Lang, Valter: ''Homo Fennicus – Itämerensuomalaisten etnohistoria'', pp. 335–336. Finnish Literature Society, 2020. {{ISBN|978-951-858-130-0}}</ref>


The oldest known ] of the Estonians is {{lang|et|maarahvas}},<ref name="ariste">{{cite journal | last1 = Ariste | first1 = Paul | year = 1956 | title = Maakeel ja eesti keel. ''Eesti NSV Teaduste Akadeemia Toimetised'' 5: 117–24; Beyer, Jürgen (2007). Ist ''maarahvas'' ('Landvolk'), die alte Selbstbezeichnung der Esten, eine Lehnübersetzung? Eine Studie zur Begriffsgeschichte des Ostseeraums | journal = ] | volume = 56 | pages = 566–593 }}</ref> literally meaning "land people" or "country folk". It was used until the mid-19th century, when it was gradually replaced by ''Eesti rahvas'' "Estonian people" during the ].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Beyer |first1=Jürgen |title=Are Folklorists Studying the Tales of the Folk? |journal=Folklore |date=April 2011 |volume=122 |issue=1 |pages=35–54 |doi=10.1080/0015587X.2011.537132 |s2cid=144633422 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Paatsi|first1=Vello|title="Terre, armas eesti rahwas!": Kuidas maarahvast ja maakeelest sai eesti rahvas, eestlased ja eesti keel |journal=Akadeemia |year=2012|volume=24|issue=2|pages=20–21|url=https://www.etis.ee/File/DownloadPublic/aa07f8ed-f66e-4e93-95be-c401698b6b61?name=Fail_Tere%2C%20armas%20eesti%20rahvas.pdf&type=application%2Fpdf |issn=0235-7771 |language=et |access-date=21 January 2020}}</ref> ''Eesti'', the modern endonym of Estonia, is thought to have similar origins to '']'', the name used by the ancient ] for the neighbouring people living northeast of the mouth of the river ]. The Roman historian ] in 98 CE was the first to mention the "''Aestii''" people in writing. In ] the land south of the ] was called ''Eistland'' and the people ''eistr''. <!-- ({{lang|is|Eistland}} is also the current word in ] for Estonia), and the people "''eistr''". Proto-Estonians (as well as other speakers of the Finnish language group) were also called '']s'' ({{lang|sla|чудь}}) in ] ]s. The oldest known ] of the Estonians is {{lang|et|maarahvas}},<ref name="ariste">{{cite journal | last1 = Ariste | first1 = Paul | year = 1956 | title = Maakeel ja eesti keel. ''Eesti NSV Teaduste Akadeemia Toimetised'' 5: 117–24; Beyer, Jürgen (2007). Ist ''maarahvas'' ('Landvolk'), die alte Selbstbezeichnung der Esten, eine Lehnübersetzung? Eine Studie zur Begriffsgeschichte des Ostseeraums | journal = ] | volume = 56 | pages = 566–593 }}</ref> literally meaning "land people" or "country folk". It was used until the mid-19th century, when it was gradually replaced by ''Eesti rahvas'' "Estonian people" during the ].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Beyer |first1=Jürgen |title=Are Folklorists Studying the Tales of the Folk? |journal=Folklore |date=April 2011 |volume=122 |issue=1 |pages=35–54 |doi=10.1080/0015587X.2011.537132 |s2cid=144633422 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Paatsi|first1=Vello|title="Terre, armas eesti rahwas!": Kuidas maarahvast ja maakeelest sai eesti rahvas, eestlased ja eesti keel |journal=Akadeemia |year=2012|volume=24|issue=2|pages=20–21|url=https://www.etis.ee/File/DownloadPublic/aa07f8ed-f66e-4e93-95be-c401698b6b61?name=Fail_Tere%2C%20armas%20eesti%20rahvas.pdf&type=application%2Fpdf |issn=0235-7771 |language=et |access-date=21 January 2020}}</ref> ''Eesti'', the modern endonym of Estonia, is thought to have similar origins to '']'', the name used by the ] for the neighbouring people living northeast of the mouth of the ]. The Roman historian ] in 98 CE was the first to mention the "''Aesti''" in writing. In ], the land south of the ] was called ''Eistland'' and the people ''eistr''. <!-- ({{lang|is|Eistland}} is also the current word in ] for Estonia), and the people "''eistr''". Proto-Estonians (as well as other speakers of the Finnish language group) were also called '']s'' ({{lang|sla|чудь}}) in ] ]s.


The Estonian language belongs to the ] branch of the ] family of languages, as does the ]. The branch is a little more than 1000 years old.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.phil.muni.cz/jazyk/files/uralic-migrations.pdf |title=Archived copy |website=www.phil.muni.cz |access-date=11 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190513003802/https://www.phil.muni.cz/jazyk/files/uralic-migrations.pdf |archive-date=13 May 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref>-->The ] was printed in 1525, while the oldest known examples of written Estonian originate in 13th-century chronicles. The Estonian language belongs to the ] branch of the ] family of languages, as does the ]. The branch is a little more than 1000 years old.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.phil.muni.cz/jazyk/files/uralic-migrations.pdf |title=Archived copy |website=www.phil.muni.cz |access-date=11 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190513003802/https://www.phil.muni.cz/jazyk/files/uralic-migrations.pdf |archive-date=13 May 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref>-->The '']'', the first known book in Estonian, was printed in 1525, while the oldest known examples of written Estonian originate in 13th-century chronicles.


===National consciousness=== ===National consciousness===
] (map of ] ] data)]]
⚫ {{multiple image |direction=vertical |align=left |width=220
], ca 1895)]]
⚫ {{multiple image |direction=vertical |align=right |width=220
|image1=Eesti rahvarõivad-EE 1.jpg |image1=Eesti rahvarõivad-EE 1.jpg
|image2=Eesti rahvarõivad-EE 2.jpg |image2=Eesti rahvarõivad-EE 2.jpg
|footer=Estonian ]s, from top, left to right: ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ]}} |footer=Selection of 19th century Estonian festive ]s (by region, from top, left to right: ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ])}}
Although Estonian national consciousness spread in the course of the 19th century during the ],<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Gellner | first1 = Ernest | year = 1996 | title = Do nations have navels? | journal = ] | volume = 2 | issue = 3| pages = 365–70 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-8219.1996.tb00003.x }}</ref> some degree of ethnic awareness preceded this development.<ref name="raun2003">{{cite journal | last1 = Raun | first1 = Toivo U | year = 2003 | title = Nineteenth- and early twentieth-century Estonian nationalism revisited | journal = ] | volume = 9 | issue = 1| pages = 129–147 | doi=10.1111/1469-8219.00078}}</ref> By the 18th century the self-denomination {{lang|et|eestlane}} spread among Estonians along with the older {{lang|et|maarahvas}}.<ref name="ariste"/> ]'s ] into Estonian appeared in 1739, and the number of books and brochures published in Estonian increased from 18 in the 1750s to 54 in the 1790s. By the end of the century more than a half of adult peasants could read. The first university-educated intellectuals identifying themselves as Estonians, including ] (1798–1850), ] (1801–1822) and ] (1803–1882), appeared in the 1820s. The ruling elites had remained predominantly ] in language and culture since the conquest of the early 13th century. ] (1769–1850), a Baltic-German ], became the first author to treat the Estonians as a nationality equal to others; he became a source of inspiration for the Estonian national movement, modelled on Baltic German cultural world before the middle of the 19th century. However, in the middle of the century, the Estonians became more ambitious and started leaning toward the ] as a ] and, to some extent, toward the neighbouring ]. By the end of 1860 the Estonians became unwilling to reconcile with German cultural and political hegemony. Before the attempts at ] in the 1880s, their view of ] remained positive.<ref name="raun2003"/> Although Estonian national consciousness spread in the course of the 19th century during the ],<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Gellner | first1 = Ernest | year = 1996 | title = Do nations have navels? | journal = ] | volume = 2 | issue = 3| pages = 365–70 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-8219.1996.tb00003.x }}</ref> some degree of ethnic awareness preceded this development.<ref name="raun2003">{{cite journal | last1 = Raun | first1 = Toivo U | year = 2003 | title = Nineteenth- and early twentieth-century Estonian nationalism revisited | journal = ] | volume = 9 | issue = 1| pages = 129–147 | doi=10.1111/1469-8219.00078}}</ref> By the 18th century the self-denomination {{lang|et|eestlane}} spread among Estonians along with the older {{lang|et|maarahvas}}.<ref name="ariste"/> ]'s ] into Estonian appeared in 1739, and the number of books and brochures published in Estonian increased from 18 in the 1750s to 54 in the 1790s. By the end of the century more than a half of adult peasants could read. The first university-educated intellectuals identifying themselves as Estonians, including ] (1798–1850), ] (1801–1822) and ] (1803–1882), appeared in the 1820s. The ruling elites had remained predominantly ] in language and culture since the conquest of the early 13th century. ] (1769–1850), a Baltic-German ], became the first author to treat the Estonians as a nationality equal to others; he became a source of inspiration for the Estonian national movement, modelled on Baltic German cultural world before the middle of the 19th century. However, in the middle of the century, the Estonians became more ambitious and started leaning toward the ] as a ] and, to some extent, toward the neighbouring ]. By the end of 1860 the Estonians became unwilling to reconcile with German cultural and political hegemony. Before the attempts at ] in the 1880s, their view of ] remained positive.<ref name="raun2003"/>


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==Emigration== ==Emigration==
After the occupation of Estonian lands by Tsarist Russia, some Estonians either were deported or moved to various places within the ], including the annexed lands of other nations. According to the 1897 census, 6,852 native Estonian-speakers lived in the ] of the former ], now divided between ], ], ], ], ] with small portions in ] and Russia, of which over 4,360 lived in territories of today's Poland.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_lan_97.php?reg=2|title=Привислинские губернии|website=Demoscope Weekly|access-date=9 January 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|title=Первая Всеобщая перепись населения Российской империи, 1897 г.|volume=XI|year=1904|language=ru|page=104}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|title=Первая Всеобщая перепись населения Российской империи, 1897 г.|volume=V|year=1903|language=ru|page=78}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|title=Первая Всеобщая перепись населения Российской империи, 1897 г.|volume=XXIII|year=1903|language=ru|page=98}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|title=Первая Всеобщая перепись населения Российской империи, 1897 г.|volume=XIX|year=1905|language=ru|page=80}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|title=Первая Всеобщая перепись населения Российской империи, 1897 г.|volume=XVII|year=1903|language=ru|page=82}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|title=Первая Всеобщая перепись населения Российской империи, 1897 г.|volume=XXII|year=1904|language=ru|page=82}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|title=Первая Всеобщая перепись населения Российской империи, 1897 г.|volume=VIII|year=1904|language=ru|page=88}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|title=Первая Всеобщая перепись населения Российской империи, 1897 г.|volume=XXXII|year=1904|language=ru|page=100}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|title=Первая Всеобщая перепись населения Российской империи, 1897 г.|volume=XVI|year=1903|language=ru|page=90}}</ref> During the period of Tsarist rule of Estonia (1710-1917), over 100,000 Estonians migrated to the neighbouring areas of the ], especially to the then capital city ]. According to the 1897 census, 6,852 native Estonian-speakers also lived in the ] of the former ], in what is now ], ], ], ] and western ], of which over 4,360 lived in territories of today's Poland.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_lan_97.php?reg=2|title=Привислинские губернии|website=Demoscope Weekly|access-date=9 January 2024}}</ref>
<!-- <ref>{{cite book|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.|title=Первая Всеобщая перепись населения Российской империи, 1897 г.|volume=XI|year=1904|language=ru|page=104}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--|title=Первая Всеобщая перепись населения Российской империи, 1897 г.|volume=V|year=1903|language=ru|page=78}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--|title=Первая Всеобщая перепись населения Российской империи, 1897 г.|volume=XXIII|year=1903|language=ru|page=98}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--|title=Первая Всеобщая перепись населения Российской империи, 1897 г.|volume=XIX|year=1905|language=ru|page=80}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--|title=Первая Всеобщая перепись населения Российской империи, 1897 г.|volume=XVII|year=1903|language=ru|page=82}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--|title=Первая Всеобщая перепись населения Российской империи, 1897 г.|volume=XXII|year=1904|language=ru|page=82}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--|title=Первая Всеобщая перепись населения Российской империи, 1897 г.|volume=VIII|year=1904|language=ru|page=88}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--|title=Первая Всеобщая перепись населения Российской империи, 1897 г.|volume=XXXII|year=1904|language=ru|page=100}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--|title=Первая Всеобщая перепись населения Российской империи, 1897 г.|volume=XVI|year=1903|language=ru|page=90}}</ref> At that time, 4,281 native Estonian-speakers lived in the ] region in territories of modern-day ], ], ] and southern Russia,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_lan_97.php?reg=3|title=Кавказ|website=Demoscope Weekly|access-date=9 January 2024}}</ref> 4,202 lived in ],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_lan_97.php?reg=4|title=Сибирь|website=Demoscope Weekly|access-date=9 January 2024}}</ref> and 440 lived in Central Asia<!-- in territories of modern-day ], ], ], ] and ]--><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_lan_97.php?reg=5|title=Средняя Азия|website=Demoscope Weekly|access-date=9 January 2024}}</ref>

At that time, 4,281 native Estonian-speakers lived in the ] region in territories of modern-day ], ], ] and southern Russia,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_lan_97.php?reg=3|title=Кавказ|website=Demoscope Weekly|access-date=9 January 2024}}</ref> 4,202 lived in ],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_lan_97.php?reg=4|title=Сибирь|website=Demoscope Weekly|access-date=9 January 2024}}</ref> and 440 lived in Central Asia in territories of modern-day ], ], ], ] and ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_lan_97.php?reg=5|title=Средняя Азия|website=Demoscope Weekly|access-date=9 January 2024}}</ref>

Within reborn Poland in the interwar period, the largest Estonian populations of 31 and 19, were based in ] and ], respectively, with few in other locations, according to the 1921 Polish census.<ref>{{cite book|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|title=Skorowidz miejscowości Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej|volume=I|year=1925|language=pl|location=Warszawa|publisher=Główny Urząd Statystyczny|pages=4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|title=Skorowidz miejscowości Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej|volume=II|year=1925|language=pl|location=Warszawa|publisher=Główny Urząd Statystyczny|page=61}}</ref>


During ], when Estonia was ] in 1944, large numbers of Estonians fled their homeland on ships or smaller boats over the ]. Many refugees who survived the risky sea voyage to ] or ] later moved from there to ], the ], the ] or ].<ref>Past, Evald, ''By Land and By Sea'', Booklocker, 2015, {{ISBN|978-0-9867510-0-4}}</ref> Some of these refugees and their descendants returned to Estonia after the nation regained its independence in 1991. During ], when Estonia was ] in 1944, large numbers of Estonians fled their homeland on ships or smaller boats over the ]. Many refugees who survived the risky sea voyage to ] or ] later moved from there to ], the ], the ] or ].<ref>Past, Evald, ''By Land and By Sea'', Booklocker, 2015, {{ISBN|978-0-9867510-0-4}}</ref> Some of these refugees and their descendants returned to Estonia after the nation regained its independence in 1991.


Over the years of independence, increasing numbers of Estonians have chosen to work abroad, primarily in ], but also in other ] (mostly in the UK, ], ], and ]), making Estonia the country with the highest emigration rate in Europe.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2112rank.html|title=The CIA World Factbook Country Comparison of net migration rate|website=cia.gov|access-date=8 November 2011|archive-date=26 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226005157/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2112rank.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> This is at least partly due to the easy access to oscillating migration to Finland. Over the years of independence, many Estonians have chosen to work abroad, primarily in ], but also in the UK, ], ], and ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2112rank.html|title=The CIA World Factbook Country Comparison of net migration rate|website=cia.gov|access-date=8 November 2011|archive-date=26 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226005157/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2112rank.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>


Recognising the problems arising from both low birth rate and high emigration, the country has launched various measures both to increase the birth rate and to lure migrant Estonians back to Estonia. Former president ] has lent his support to the campaign ''Talendid koju!'' ("Bringing talents home!")<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.talendidkoju.ee/|title=Toome talendid Eestimaale tagasi – Talendid Koju!|work=talendidkoju.ee|access-date=8 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171220214705/http://www.talendidkoju.ee/|archive-date=20 December 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> which aims to coordinate and promote the return of Estonians who have particular skills needed in Estonia. Recognising the problems arising from low birth rate and emigration, the Estonian government has launched various measures to increase the birth rate and to lure migrant Estonians back to Estonia. For example, a campaign ''Talendid koju!'' ("Bringing talents home!")<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.talendidkoju.ee/|title=Toome talendid Eestimaale tagasi – Talendid Koju!|work=talendidkoju.ee|access-date=8 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171220214705/http://www.talendidkoju.ee/|archive-date=20 December 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> has aimed to coordinate and promote the return of Estonians who have particular skills needed in Estonia.


===Estonians in Canada=== ===Estonians in Canada===
One of the largest permanent Estonian communities outside Estonia is in Canada, with about 24,000 people<ref name="canadainternational.gc.ca"/> (according to some sources up to 50,000 people).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.estemb.ca/estonia_and_canada|title=Estonian Embassy in Ottawa|access-date=17 March 2015|archive-date=5 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150705032311/http://www.estemb.ca/estonia_and_canada|url-status=dead}}</ref> In the late 1940s and early 1950s, about 17,000 arrived in Canada, initially in ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tgmag.ca/magic/mt51.html|title=The Estonian Presence in Toronto|access-date=17 March 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312043108/http://www.tgmag.ca/magic/mt51.html|archive-date=12 March 2012|df=dmy-all}}</ref> ] is currently the city with the largest population of Estonians outside of Estonia. The first Estonian World Festival was held in Toronto in 1972. Some notable Estonian Canadians are ], ], ], ], ], and ]. One of the largest permanent Estonian communities outside Estonia is in Canada, with about 24,000 people<ref name="canadainternational.gc.ca"/> (according to some sources up to 50,000 people).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.estemb.ca/estonia_and_canada|title=Estonian Embassy in Ottawa|access-date=17 March 2015|archive-date=5 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150705032311/http://www.estemb.ca/estonia_and_canada|url-status=dead}}</ref> In the late 1940s and early 1950s, about 17,000 arrived in Canada, initially in ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tgmag.ca/magic/mt51.html|title=The Estonian Presence in Toronto|access-date=17 March 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312043108/http://www.tgmag.ca/magic/mt51.html|archive-date=12 March 2012|df=dmy-all}}</ref> ] is currently the city with the largest population of Estonians outside of Estonia. The first Estonian World Festival was held in Toronto in 1972. <!--Some notable Estonian Canadians are ], ], ], ], ], and ].-->


== Genetics == == Genetics ==


=== Haplogroups === === Uniparental haplogroups ===
] among Estonians include ] (35.7%),<ref name=":0">Lang, Valter: ''Homo Fennicus – Itämerensuomalaisten etnohistoria'', pp. 93–95. Finnish Literature Society, 2020. <nowiki>ISBN 9789518581300</nowiki>.</ref> ] (33.5%)<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tambets |first1=Kristiina |last2=Rootsi |first2=Siiri |last3=Kivisild |first3=Toomas |last4=Help |first4=Hela |last5=Serk |first5=Piia |last6=Loogväli |first6=Eva-Liis |last7=Tolk |first7=Helle-Viivi |last8=Reidla |first8=Maere |last9=Metspalu |first9=Ene |last10=Pliss |first10=Liana |last11=Balanovsky |first11=Oleg |last12=Pshenichnov |first12=Andrey |last13=Balanovska |first13=Elena |last14=Gubina |first14=Marina |last15=Zhadanov |first15=Sergey |date=2004 |title=The Western and Eastern Roots of the Saami—the Story of Genetic "Outliers" Told by Mitochondrial DNA and Y Chromosomes |journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics |language=en |volume=74 |issue=4 |pages=661–682 |doi=10.1086/383203 |pmc=1181943 |pmid=15024688}}</ref> and ] (15%).<ref name=":0" /> R1a, common in Eastern Europe,<ref>{{Cite web |last= |title=Haplogroup R1a |url=http://www.eupedia.com/europe/Haplogroup_R1a_Y-DNA.shtml |access-date=2023-10-12 |website=Eupedia |language=en}}</ref> was the dominant Y-DNA haplogroup among the pre-Uralic inhabitants of Estonia, as it is the only one found in the local samples from the time of the ] and Bronze Age. Appearance of N1c is linked to the arrival of Uralic-speakers.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal |last1=Saag |first1=Lehti |last2=Laneman |first2=Margot |last3=Varul |first3=Liivi |last4=Malve |first4=Martin |last5=Valk |first5=Heiki |last6=Razzak |first6=Maria A. |last7=Shirobokov |first7=Ivan G. |last8=Khartanovich |first8=Valeri I. |last9=Mikhaylova |first9=Elena R. |last10=Kushniarevich |first10=Alena |last11=Scheib |first11=Christiana Lyn |last12=Solnik |first12=Anu |last13=Reisberg |first13=Tuuli |last14=Parik |first14=Jüri |last15=Saag |first15=Lauri |date=May 2019 |title=The Arrival of Siberian Ancestry Connecting the Eastern Baltic to Uralic Speakers further East |journal=Current Biology |volume=29 |issue=10 |pages=1701–1711.e16 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2019.04.026 |pmc=6544527 |pmid=31080083 |last16=Metspalu |first16=Ene |last17=Rootsi |first17=Siiri |last18=Montinaro |first18=Francesco |last19=Remm |first19=Maido |last20=Mägi |first20=Reedik |last21=D’Atanasio |first21=Eugenia |last22=Crema |first22=Enrico Ryunosuke |last23=Díez-del-Molino |first23=David |last24=Thomas |first24=Mark G. |last25=Kriiska |first25=Aivar |last26=Kivisild |first26=Toomas |last27=Villems |first27=Richard |last28=Lang |first28=Valter |last29=Metspalu |first29=Mait |last30=Tambets |first30=Kristiina}}</ref> It originated in East Eurasia<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Tambets |first1=Kristiina |last2=Yunusbayev |first2=Bayazit |last3=Hudjashov |first3=Georgi |last4=Ilumäe |first4=Anne-Mai |last5=Rootsi |first5=Siiri |last6=Honkola |first6=Terhi |last7=Vesakoski |first7=Outi |last8=Atkinson |first8=Quentin |last9=Skoglund |first9=Pontus |last10=Kushniarevich |first10=Alena |last11=Litvinov |first11=Sergey |last12=Reidla |first12=Maere |last13=Metspalu |first13=Ene |last14=Saag |first14=Lehti |last15=Rantanen |first15=Timo |date=2018 |title=Genes reveal traces of common recent demographic history for most of the Uralic-speaking populations |journal=Genome Biology |language=en |volume=19 |issue=1 |page=139 |doi=10.1186/s13059-018-1522-1 |issn=1474-760X |pmc=6151024 |pmid=30241495 |doi-access=free }}</ref> and is commonly carried by modern Uralic-speaking groups but also other North Eurasians, including Estonians' Baltic-speaking neighbors ] and ].<ref name=":0" /> Compared to the Balts, Estonians have been noticed to have differences in allelic variances of N1c haplotypes, showing more similarity with other Finno-Ugric-speakers.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Krūmiņa |first=Astrīda |last2=Pliss |first2=Liāna |last3=Zariņa |first3=Gunita |last4=Puzuka |first4=Agrita |last5=Zariņa |first5=Agnese |last6=Lāce |first6=Baiba |last7=Elferts |first7=Didzis |last8=Khrunin |first8=Andrey |last9=Limborska |first9=Svetlana |last10=Kloviņš |first10=Jānis |last11=Gailīte Piekuse |first11=Linda |date=2018-06-01 |title=Population Genetics of Latvians in the Context of Admixture between North-Eastern European Ethnic Groups |url=https://www.sciendo.com/article/10.2478/prolas-2018-0025 |journal=Proceedings of the Latvian Academy of Sciences. Section B. Natural, Exact, and Applied Sciences. |language=en |volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=131–151 |doi=10.2478/prolas-2018-0025 |issn=1407-009X|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>Lappalainen, Tuuli: ''Human genetic variation in the Baltic Sea region: features of population history and natural selection''. PhD thesis. Helsinki University Print, Helsinki. 2009. http://hdl.handle.net/10138/22129</ref> ] among Estonians include ] (35.7%),<ref name=":0">Lang, Valter: ''Homo Fennicus – Itämerensuomalaisten etnohistoria'', pp. 93–95. Finnish Literature Society, 2020. {{ISBN|978-951-858-130-0}}.</ref> ] (33.5%)<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tambets |first1=Kristiina |last2=Rootsi |first2=Siiri |last3=Kivisild |first3=Toomas |last4=Help |first4=Hela |last5=Serk |first5=Piia |last6=Loogväli |first6=Eva-Liis |last7=Tolk |first7=Helle-Viivi |last8=Reidla |first8=Maere |last9=Metspalu |first9=Ene |last10=Pliss |first10=Liana |last11=Balanovsky |first11=Oleg |last12=Pshenichnov |first12=Andrey |last13=Balanovska |first13=Elena |last14=Gubina |first14=Marina |last15=Zhadanov |first15=Sergey |date=2004 |title=The Western and Eastern Roots of the Saami—the Story of Genetic "Outliers" Told by Mitochondrial DNA and Y Chromosomes |journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics |language=en |volume=74 |issue=4 |pages=661–682 |doi=10.1086/383203 |pmc=1181943 |pmid=15024688}}</ref> and ] (15%).<ref name=":0" /> R1a, common in Eastern Europe,<ref name=":9" /> was the dominant Y-DNA haplogroup among the pre-Uralic inhabitants of Estonia, as it is the only one found in the local samples from the time of the ] and Bronze Age. Appearance of N1c is linked to the arrival of Uralic-speakers.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal |last1=Saag |first1=Lehti |last2=Laneman |first2=Margot |last3=Varul |first3=Liivi |last4=Malve |first4=Martin |last5=Valk |first5=Heiki |last6=Razzak |first6=Maria A. |last7=Shirobokov |first7=Ivan G. |last8=Khartanovich |first8=Valeri I. |last9=Mikhaylova |first9=Elena R. |last10=Kushniarevich |first10=Alena |last11=Scheib |first11=Christiana Lyn |last12=Solnik |first12=Anu |last13=Reisberg |first13=Tuuli |last14=Parik |first14=Jüri |last15=Saag |first15=Lauri |date=May 2019 |title=The Arrival of Siberian Ancestry Connecting the Eastern Baltic to Uralic Speakers further East |journal=Current Biology |volume=29 |issue=10 |pages=1701–1711.e16 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2019.04.026 |pmc=6544527 |pmid=31080083 |last16=Metspalu |first16=Ene |last17=Rootsi |first17=Siiri |last18=Montinaro |first18=Francesco |last19=Remm |first19=Maido |last20=Mägi |first20=Reedik |last21=D’Atanasio |first21=Eugenia |last22=Crema |first22=Enrico Ryunosuke |last23=Díez-del-Molino |first23=David |last24=Thomas |first24=Mark G. |last25=Kriiska |first25=Aivar |last26=Kivisild |first26=Toomas |last27=Villems |first27=Richard |last28=Lang |first28=Valter |last29=Metspalu |first29=Mait |last30=Tambets |first30=Kristiina|bibcode=2019CBio...29E1701S }}</ref> It originated in East Eurasia<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Tambets |first1=Kristiina |last2=Yunusbayev |first2=Bayazit |last3=Hudjashov |first3=Georgi |last4=Ilumäe |first4=Anne-Mai |last5=Rootsi |first5=Siiri |last6=Honkola |first6=Terhi |last7=Vesakoski |first7=Outi |last8=Atkinson |first8=Quentin |last9=Skoglund |first9=Pontus |last10=Kushniarevich |first10=Alena |last11=Litvinov |first11=Sergey |last12=Reidla |first12=Maere |last13=Metspalu |first13=Ene |last14=Saag |first14=Lehti |last15=Rantanen |first15=Timo |date=2018 |title=Genes reveal traces of common recent demographic history for most of the Uralic-speaking populations |journal=Genome Biology |language=en |volume=19 |issue=1 |page=139 |doi=10.1186/s13059-018-1522-1 |issn=1474-760X |pmc=6151024 |pmid=30241495 |doi-access=free }}</ref> and is commonly carried by modern Uralic-speaking groups but also other North Eurasians, including Estonians' Baltic-speaking neighbors ] and ].<ref name=":0" /> Compared to the Balts, Estonians have been noticed to have differences in allelic variances of N1c haplotypes, showing more similarity with other Finno-Ugric-speakers.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Krūmiņa |first1=Astrīda |last2=Pliss |first2=Liāna |last3=Zariņa |first3=Gunita |last4=Puzuka |first4=Agrita |last5=Zariņa |first5=Agnese |last6=Lāce |first6=Baiba |last7=Elferts |first7=Didzis |last8=Khrunin |first8=Andrey |last9=Limborska |first9=Svetlana |last10=Kloviņš |first10=Jānis |last11=Gailīte Piekuse |first11=Linda |date=2018-06-01 |title=Population Genetics of Latvians in the Context of Admixture between North-Eastern European Ethnic Groups |journal=Proceedings of the Latvian Academy of Sciences. Section B. Natural, Exact, and Applied Sciences. |language=en |volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=131–151 |doi=10.2478/prolas-2018-0025 |issn=1407-009X|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":9">Lappalainen, Tuuli: ''Human genetic variation in the Baltic Sea region: features of population history and natural selection''. PhD thesis. Helsinki University Print, Helsinki. 2009. http://hdl.handle.net/10138/22129</ref>


When looking at ], nearly half (45.8%) of the Estonians have the haplogroup ] . About one in four (24.3%) carry the haplogroup ], and the majority of them belong to its subclade ].<ref>{{Cite web |last= |title=Distribution of European mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroups by region in percentage |url=http://www.eupedia.com/europe/european_mtdna_haplogroups_frequency.shtml |access-date=2023-10-13 |website=Eupedia |language=en}}</ref> When looking at ], nearly half (45 %) of the Estonians have the haplogroup ] . About one in four (24.2 %) carry the haplogroup ], and the majority of them belong to its subclade ].<ref name=":7" />


=== Autosomal DNA === === Autosomal DNA ===
] ]
] ]
Autosomally Estonians are close with Latvians and Lithuanians.<ref name=":02">Lang, Valter: ''Homo Fennicus – Itämerensuomalaisten etnohistoria'', pp. 93–95. Finnish Literature Society, 2020. <nowiki>ISBN 9789518581300</nowiki>.</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Tambets |first1=Kristiina |last2=Yunusbayev |first2=Bayazit |last3=Hudjashov |first3=Georgi |last4=Ilumäe |first4=Anne-Mai |last5=Rootsi |first5=Siiri |last6=Honkola |first6=Terhi |last7=Vesakoski |first7=Outi |last8=Atkinson |first8=Quentin |last9=Skoglund |first9=Pontus |last10=Kushniarevich |first10=Alena |last11=Litvinov |first11=Sergey |last12=Reidla |first12=Maere |last13=Metspalu |first13=Ene |last14=Saag |first14=Lehti |last15=Rantanen |first15=Timo |date=2018 |title=Genes reveal traces of common recent demographic history for most of the Uralic-speaking populations |journal=Genome Biology |language=en |volume=19 |issue=1 |page=139 |doi=10.1186/s13059-018-1522-1 |issn=1474-760X |pmc=6151024 |pmid=30241495 |doi-access=free}}</ref> However, they are shifted towards the ], who are isolated from most European populations.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Nelis |first1=Mari |last2=Esko |first2=Tõnu |last3=Mägi |first3=Reedik |last4=Zimprich |first4=Fritz |last5=Zimprich |first5=Alexander |last6=Toncheva |first6=Draga |last7=Karachanak |first7=Sena |last8=Piskáčková |first8=Tereza |last9=Balaščák |first9=Ivan |last10=Peltonen |first10=Leena |last11=Jakkula |first11=Eveliina |last12=Rehnström |first12=Karola |last13=Lathrop |first13=Mark |last14=Heath |first14=Simon |last15=Galan |first15=Pilar |date=2009-05-08 |title=Genetic Structure of Europeans: A View from the North–East |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=4 |issue=5 |pages=e5472 |bibcode=2009PLoSO...4.5472N |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0005472 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=2675054 |pmid=19424496 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kushniarevich |first1=Alena |last2=Utevska |first2=Olga |last3=Chuhryaeva |first3=Marina |last4=Agdzhoyan |first4=Anastasia |last5=Dibirova |first5=Khadizhat |last6=Uktveryte |first6=Ingrida |last7=Möls |first7=Märt |last8=Mulahasanovic |first8=Lejla |last9=Pshenichnov |first9=Andrey |last10=Frolova |first10=Svetlana |last11=Shanko |first11=Andrey |last12=Metspalu |first12=Ene |last13=Reidla |first13=Maere |last14=Tambets |first14=Kristiina |last15=Tamm |first15=Erika |date=2015-09-02 |editor-last=Calafell |editor-first=Francesc |title=Genetic Heritage of the Balto-Slavic Speaking Populations: A Synthesis of Autosomal, Mitochondrial and Y-Chromosomal Data |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=10 |issue=9 |pages=e0135820 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1035820K |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0135820 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=4558026 |pmid=26332464 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Khrunin |first1=Andrey V. |last2=Khokhrin |first2=Denis V. |last3=Filippova |first3=Irina N. |last4=Esko |first4=Tõnu |last5=Nelis |first5=Mari |last6=Bebyakova |first6=Natalia A. |last7=Bolotova |first7=Natalia L. |last8=Klovins |first8=Janis |last9=Nikitina-Zake |first9=Liene |last10=Rehnström |first10=Karola |last11=Ripatti |first11=Samuli |last12=Schreiber |first12=Stefan |last13=Franke |first13=Andre |last14=Macek |first14=Milan |last15=Krulišová |first15=Veronika |date=2013-03-07 |title=A Genome-Wide Analysis of Populations from European Russia Reveals a New Pole of Genetic Diversity in Northern Europe |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=e58552 |bibcode=2013PLoSO...858552K |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0058552 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=3591355 |pmid=23505534 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Northeastern Estonians are particularly close to Finns, while Southeastern Estonians are close to the Balts; other Estonians plot between these two extremes.<ref name=":8" /> Autosomally Estonians are close with Latvians and Lithuanians.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Tambets |first1=Kristiina |last2=Yunusbayev |first2=Bayazit |last3=Hudjashov |first3=Georgi |last4=Ilumäe |first4=Anne-Mai |last5=Rootsi |first5=Siiri |last6=Honkola |first6=Terhi |last7=Vesakoski |first7=Outi |last8=Atkinson |first8=Quentin |last9=Skoglund |first9=Pontus |last10=Kushniarevich |first10=Alena |last11=Litvinov |first11=Sergey |last12=Reidla |first12=Maere |last13=Metspalu |first13=Ene |last14=Saag |first14=Lehti |last15=Rantanen |first15=Timo |date=2018 |title=Genes reveal traces of common recent demographic history for most of the Uralic-speaking populations |journal=Genome Biology |language=en |volume=19 |issue=1 |page=139 |doi=10.1186/s13059-018-1522-1 |issn=1474-760X |pmc=6151024 |pmid=30241495 |doi-access=free}}</ref> However, they are shifted towards the ], who are isolated from most European populations.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Nelis |first1=Mari |last2=Esko |first2=Tõnu |last3=Mägi |first3=Reedik |last4=Zimprich |first4=Fritz |last5=Zimprich |first5=Alexander |last6=Toncheva |first6=Draga |last7=Karachanak |first7=Sena |last8=Piskáčková |first8=Tereza |last9=Balaščák |first9=Ivan |last10=Peltonen |first10=Leena |last11=Jakkula |first11=Eveliina |last12=Rehnström |first12=Karola |last13=Lathrop |first13=Mark |last14=Heath |first14=Simon |last15=Galan |first15=Pilar |date=2009-05-08 |title=Genetic Structure of Europeans: A View from the North–East |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=4 |issue=5 |pages=e5472 |bibcode=2009PLoSO...4.5472N |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0005472 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=2675054 |pmid=19424496 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kushniarevich |first1=Alena |last2=Utevska |first2=Olga |last3=Chuhryaeva |first3=Marina |last4=Agdzhoyan |first4=Anastasia |last5=Dibirova |first5=Khadizhat |last6=Uktveryte |first6=Ingrida |last7=Möls |first7=Märt |last8=Mulahasanovic |first8=Lejla |last9=Pshenichnov |first9=Andrey |last10=Frolova |first10=Svetlana |last11=Shanko |first11=Andrey |last12=Metspalu |first12=Ene |last13=Reidla |first13=Maere |last14=Tambets |first14=Kristiina |last15=Tamm |first15=Erika |date=2015-09-02 |editor-last=Calafell |editor-first=Francesc |title=Genetic Heritage of the Balto-Slavic Speaking Populations: A Synthesis of Autosomal, Mitochondrial and Y-Chromosomal Data |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=10 |issue=9 |pages=e0135820 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1035820K |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0135820 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=4558026 |pmid=26332464 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Khrunin |first1=Andrey V. |last2=Khokhrin |first2=Denis V. |last3=Filippova |first3=Irina N. |last4=Esko |first4=Tõnu |last5=Nelis |first5=Mari |last6=Bebyakova |first6=Natalia A. |last7=Bolotova |first7=Natalia L. |last8=Klovins |first8=Janis |last9=Nikitina-Zake |first9=Liene |last10=Rehnström |first10=Karola |last11=Ripatti |first11=Samuli |last12=Schreiber |first12=Stefan |last13=Franke |first13=Andre |last14=Macek |first14=Milan |last15=Krulišová |first15=Veronika |date=2013-03-07 |title=A Genome-Wide Analysis of Populations from European Russia Reveals a New Pole of Genetic Diversity in Northern Europe |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=e58552 |bibcode=2013PLoSO...858552K |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0058552 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=3591355 |pmid=23505534 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Northeastern Estonians are particularly close to Finns, while Southeastern Estonians are close to the Balts; other Estonians plot between these two extremes.<ref name=":8" />


Estonians have high ]-like admixture, and less ]-related and more ]-related admixture than Western and Central Europeans. The same pattern is found also in the Balts, Finns and ], for example.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Salmela |first=Elina |date=2023 |title=Mistä suomalaisten perimä on peräisin? |url=https://researchportal.helsinki.fi/en/publications/mist%C3%A4-suomalaisten-perim%C3%A4-on-per%C3%A4isin |journal=Duodecim |volume=139 |issue=16 |pages=1247–1255 |issn=0012-7183}}</ref> Uralic peoples typically carry a ]-related component, which is also present in Estonians and makes up about 5 percent of their ancestry on average. Although they have a smaller share of it than other Uralic-speakers except ], it is one factor that distinguishes them from the Balts.<ref name=":7" /> Estonians can also be modelled to have considerably more Finnish-like ancestry than Baltic-speakers.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":5" /> Estonians have high ]-like admixture, and less ]-related and more ]-related admixture than Western and Central Europeans. The same pattern is found also in the Balts, Finns and ], for example.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Salmela |first=Elina |date=2023 |title=Mistä suomalaisten perimä on peräisin? |url=https://researchportal.helsinki.fi/en/publications/mist%C3%A4-suomalaisten-perim%C3%A4-on-per%C3%A4isin |journal=Duodecim |volume=139 |issue=16 |pages=1247–1255 |issn=0012-7183}}</ref> Uralic peoples typically carry a ]-related component, which is also present in Estonians and makes up about five percent of their ancestry on average. Although they have a smaller share of it than other Balto-Finns, it is one factor that distinguishes them from the Balts.<ref name=":7" /> Estonians can also be modelled to have considerably more Finnish-like ancestry than Baltic-speakers.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":5" />


Estonians have a high sharing of IBD (]) segments with other studied Balto-Finnic groups (Finns, ] and ]) and the ] people, as well as with the ] people.<ref name=":1" /> Estonians have a high sharing of IBD (]) segments with other studied Balto-Finnic groups (Finns, ] and ]) and the ] people, as well as with the ] people.<ref name=":1" />

Latest revision as of 04:10, 20 December 2024

Finnic ethnic group native to Estonia "Estonian natives" redirects here. For the horse breed, see Estonian Native horse. This article is about the Uralic language speaking people, a Baltic-Finnic ethnic group. Not to be confused with closely neighboring Baltic languages speaking ethnicities, the Balts.

Ethnic group
Estonians
eestlased
Countries with significant Estonian population and descendants.
Total population
c. 1.1 million
Regions with significant populations
 Estonia 925,892 (2023)Other significant population centers:
 Finland49,590–100,000
 United States29,128
 Sweden25,509
 Canada24,000
 United Kingdom10,000–15,000
 Russia7,778
 Australia7,543
 Germany6,286
 Norway5,092
 Ukraine2,868
 Ireland2,560
 Belgium2,000
 Latvia1,676
 Denmark1,658
 Netherlands1,482
Languages
Primarily Estonian
also Võro and Seto
Religion
Majority irreligious
Historically Protestant Christian (Lutheranism)
Currently Lutheran and regional Eastern Orthodox (Estonian Apostolic Orthodox) minority
Related ethnic groups
Other Baltic Finns

Estonians or Estonian people (Estonian: eestlased) are a Baltic Finnic ethnic group who speak the Estonian language. Their nation state is Estonia.

The Estonian language is spoken as the first language by the vast majority of Estonians; it is closely related to other Finnic languages, e.g. Finnish, Karelian and Livonian. The Finnic languages are a subgroup of the larger Uralic family of languages, which also includes e.g. the Sami languages. These languages are markedly different from most other native languages spoken in Europe, most of which have been assigned to the Indo-European family of languages. Estonians can also be classified into subgroups according to dialects (e.g. Võros, Setos), although such divisions have become less pronounced due to internal migration and rapid urbanisation in Estonia in the 20th century.

There are approximately 1 million ethnic Estonians worldwide, with the vast majority of them residing in their native Estonia. Estonian diaspora communities formed primarily in Finland, the United States, Sweden, Canada, and the United Kingdom.

History

Prehistoric roots

Estonia was first inhabited about 10,000 years ago, soon after the ice from the Baltic Ice Lake had melted. Living in the same area for more than 5,000 years would put Estonians' ancestors among Europe's oldest permanent inhabitants. On the other hand, some recent linguistic estimations suggest that Finno-Ugric speakers arrived around the Baltic Sea considerably later, perhaps during the Early Bronze Age (ca. 1800 BCE). It has also been argued that Western Uralic tribes reached Fennoscandia first, leading into the development of the Sámi peoples, and arrived in the Baltic region later in the Bronze Age or the transition to the Iron Age at the latest. This lead into the formation of Baltic Finnic peoples, who would later become such groups as Estonians and Finns.

The oldest known endonym of the Estonians is maarahvas, literally meaning "land people" or "country folk". It was used until the mid-19th century, when it was gradually replaced by Eesti rahvas "Estonian people" during the Estonian national awakening. Eesti, the modern endonym of Estonia, is thought to have similar origins to Aesti, the name used by the Germanic peoples for the neighbouring people living northeast of the mouth of the Vistula. The Roman historian Tacitus in 98 CE was the first to mention the "Aesti" in writing. In Old Norse, the land south of the Gulf of Finland was called Eistland and the people eistr. The Wanradt–Koell Catechism, the first known book in Estonian, was printed in 1525, while the oldest known examples of written Estonian originate in 13th-century chronicles.

National consciousness

Public education systems founded during prior Swedish rule turned Estonia and Finland into the two most literate areas of Russian Empire (map of 1897 census literacy data)
Estonian farmers playing cards (by Oskar Hoffmann, ca 1895)
Selection of 19th century Estonian festive folk costumes (by region, from top, left to right: Kadrina, Mihkli, Seto, Paistu, Muhu, Karja, Tõstamaa, Pärnu-Jaagupi)

Although Estonian national consciousness spread in the course of the 19th century during the Estonian national awakening, some degree of ethnic awareness preceded this development. By the 18th century the self-denomination eestlane spread among Estonians along with the older maarahvas. Anton thor Helle's translation of the Bible into Estonian appeared in 1739, and the number of books and brochures published in Estonian increased from 18 in the 1750s to 54 in the 1790s. By the end of the century more than a half of adult peasants could read. The first university-educated intellectuals identifying themselves as Estonians, including Friedrich Robert Faehlmann (1798–1850), Kristjan Jaak Peterson (1801–1822) and Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald (1803–1882), appeared in the 1820s. The ruling elites had remained predominantly German in language and culture since the conquest of the early 13th century. Garlieb Merkel (1769–1850), a Baltic-German Estophile, became the first author to treat the Estonians as a nationality equal to others; he became a source of inspiration for the Estonian national movement, modelled on Baltic German cultural world before the middle of the 19th century. However, in the middle of the century, the Estonians became more ambitious and started leaning toward the Finns as a successful model of national movement and, to some extent, toward the neighbouring Latvian national movement. By the end of 1860 the Estonians became unwilling to reconcile with German cultural and political hegemony. Before the attempts at Russification in the 1880s, their view of Imperial Russia remained positive.

Estonians have strong ties to the Nordic countries stemming from important cultural and religious influences gained over centuries during Scandinavian and German rule and settlement. According to a poll done in 2013, about half of the young Estonians considered themselves Nordic, and about the same number viewed Baltic identity as important. The Nordic identity among Estonians can ovelap with other identities, as it is associated with being Finno-Ugric and their close relationship with the Finnish people and does not exclude being Baltic. In Estonian foreign ministry reports from the early 2000s Nordic identity was preferred over Baltic one.

After the Treaty of Tartu (1920) recognised Estonia's 1918 independence from Russia, ethnic Estonians residing in Russia gained the option of opting for Estonian citizenship (those who opted were called optandid – 'optants') and returning to their fatherland. An estimated 40,000 Estonians lived in Russia in 1920. In sum, 37,578 people moved from Soviet Russia to Estonia (1920–1923).

Emigration

During the period of Tsarist rule of Estonia (1710-1917), over 100,000 Estonians migrated to the neighbouring areas of the Russian Empire, especially to the then capital city Saint Petersburg. According to the 1897 census, 6,852 native Estonian-speakers also lived in the Russian Partition of the former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, in what is now Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, Latvia and western Ukraine, of which over 4,360 lived in territories of today's Poland.

During World War II, when Estonia was invaded by the Soviet Army in 1944, large numbers of Estonians fled their homeland on ships or smaller boats over the Baltic Sea. Many refugees who survived the risky sea voyage to Sweden or Germany later moved from there to Canada, the United Kingdom, the United States or Australia. Some of these refugees and their descendants returned to Estonia after the nation regained its independence in 1991.

Over the years of independence, many Estonians have chosen to work abroad, primarily in Finland, but also in the UK, Benelux, Sweden, and Germany.

Recognising the problems arising from low birth rate and emigration, the Estonian government has launched various measures to increase the birth rate and to lure migrant Estonians back to Estonia. For example, a campaign Talendid koju! ("Bringing talents home!") has aimed to coordinate and promote the return of Estonians who have particular skills needed in Estonia.

Estonians in Canada

One of the largest permanent Estonian communities outside Estonia is in Canada, with about 24,000 people (according to some sources up to 50,000 people). In the late 1940s and early 1950s, about 17,000 arrived in Canada, initially in Montreal. Toronto is currently the city with the largest population of Estonians outside of Estonia. The first Estonian World Festival was held in Toronto in 1972.

Genetics

Uniparental haplogroups

Y-chromosome haplogroups among Estonians include N1c (35.7%), R1a (33.5%) and I1 (15%). R1a, common in Eastern Europe, was the dominant Y-DNA haplogroup among the pre-Uralic inhabitants of Estonia, as it is the only one found in the local samples from the time of the Corded Ware culture and Bronze Age. Appearance of N1c is linked to the arrival of Uralic-speakers. It originated in East Eurasia and is commonly carried by modern Uralic-speaking groups but also other North Eurasians, including Estonians' Baltic-speaking neighbors Latvians and Lithuanians. Compared to the Balts, Estonians have been noticed to have differences in allelic variances of N1c haplotypes, showing more similarity with other Finno-Ugric-speakers.

When looking at maternal lineages, nearly half (45 %) of the Estonians have the haplogroup H . About one in four (24.2 %) carry the haplogroup U, and the majority of them belong to its subclade U5.

Autosomal DNA

A PCA of Estonians and several other European populations.
Regional population structure of Estonians.

Autosomally Estonians are close with Latvians and Lithuanians. However, they are shifted towards the Finns, who are isolated from most European populations. Northeastern Estonians are particularly close to Finns, while Southeastern Estonians are close to the Balts; other Estonians plot between these two extremes.

Estonians have high steppe-like admixture, and less farmer-related and more hunter-gatherer-related admixture than Western and Central Europeans. The same pattern is found also in the Balts, Finns and Mordvins, for example. Uralic peoples typically carry a Siberian-related component, which is also present in Estonians and makes up about five percent of their ancestry on average. Although they have a smaller share of it than other Balto-Finns, it is one factor that distinguishes them from the Balts. Estonians can also be modelled to have considerably more Finnish-like ancestry than Baltic-speakers.

Estonians have a high sharing of IBD (identity-by-descent) segments with other studied Balto-Finnic groups (Finns, Karelians and Vepsians) and the Sami people, as well as with the Polish people.

See also

Notes

  1. Statistics Finland does not record ethnicity and instead categorizes the population by their native language; in 2017, Estonian was spoken as a mother tongue by 49,590 people, not all of whom may be ethnic Estonians.

References

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