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{{Short description|Substance consumed for nutrition}} | |||
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{{about|food for all organisms|food for humans|Human food|other uses}} | |||
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'''Food''' is any substance consumed by an ] for ] support. Food is usually of plant, animal, or ] origin and contains essential nutrients such as ]s, ]s, ], ]s, or ]. The substance is ] by an organism and assimilated by the organism's ] to provide energy, maintain life, or stimulate growth. Different species of animals have different ] that satisfy the needs of their ]s and have evolved to fill a specific ] within specific geographical contexts. | |||
'''Food''' is any substance, usually composed primarily of ]s, ]s, water and/or ]s, that can be ] or ] by an animal or ] for ] or pleasure. Items considered food may be sourced from plants, animals or other categories such as ] or fermented products like ]. Although many human cultures sought food items through ], today most cultures use ], ], and ], with ], ] and other methods of a local nature included but playing a minor role. | |||
] humans are highly adaptable and have adapted to obtain food in many different ecosystems. Humans generally use ] to prepare food for consumption. The majority of the ] required is supplied by the industrial ], which produces food through ] and distributes it through complex ] and ] systems. This system of conventional agriculture relies heavily on ]s, which means that the food and agricultural systems are one of the ], accounting for as much as 37% of total ].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.sapea.info/wp-content/uploads/sustainable-food-system-report.pdf |title=A sustainable food system for the European Union |publisher=Science Advice for Policy by European Academies |year=2020 |isbn=978-3-9820301-7-3 |location=Berlin |page=39 |doi=10.26356/sustainablefood |access-date=14 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418105107/https://www.sapea.info/wp-content/uploads/sustainable-food-system-report.pdf |archive-date=18 April 2020 |doi-access=free|author1=SAPEA }}</ref> | |||
Most ] have a recognizable ], a specific set of cooking traditions, preferences, and practices, the study of which is known as ]. Many cultures have diversified their foods by means of preparation, cooking methods and manufacturing. This also includes a complex food trade which helps the cultures to economically survive by-way-of food, not just by consumption. | |||
The food system has significant impacts on a wide range of other social and political issues, including ], ], ], ], ], and ]. ] and security are monitored by international agencies like the ], the ], the ], the ], and the ]. | |||
Many cultures study the dietary analysis of food ]. While humans are ]s, religion and social constructs such as morality often affect which foods they will consume. Food safety is also a concern with ] claiming many lives each year. In many languages, food is often used ]ically or figuratively, as in "food for thought". | |||
==Definition and classification== | |||
==Food sources== | |||
Food is any substance consumed to provide ] support and energy to an ].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Food definition and meaning |url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/food |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501034215/https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/food |archive-date=1 May 2021 |access-date=21 August 2021 |website=Collins English Dictionary |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":6" /> It can be raw, processed, or formulated and is consumed orally by animals for growth, health, or pleasure. Food is mainly composed of water, ]s, ]s, and ]s. Minerals (e.g., salts) and organic substances (e.g., ]s) can also be found in food.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rahman |first1=M. Shafiur |last2=McCarthy |first2=Owen J. |date=July 1999 |title=A classification of food properties |journal=International Journal of Food Properties |language=en |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=93–99 |doi=10.1080/10942919909524593 |issn=1094-2912|doi-access=free }}</ref> Plants, ], and some microorganisms use ] to make some of their own nutrients.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 April 2017 |title=What is Photosynthesis |url=https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/what-photosynthesis |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211203164642/https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/what-photosynthesis |archive-date=3 December 2021 |access-date=3 December 2021 |website=Smithsonian Science Education Center |language=en}}</ref> Water is found in many foods and has been defined as a food by itself.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 February 2020 |title=CPG Sec 555.875 Water in Food Products (Ingredient or Adulterant) |url=https://www.fda.gov/regulatory-information/search-fda-guidance-documents/cpg-sec-555875-water-food-products-ingredient-or-adulterant |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211203164643/https://www.fda.gov/regulatory-information/search-fda-guidance-documents/cpg-sec-555875-water-food-products-ingredient-or-adulterant |archive-date=3 December 2021 |access-date=3 December 2021 |website=U.S. Food and Drug Administration |language=en}}</ref> Water and ] have low energy densities, or ]s, while fat is the most energy-dense component.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=Low-Energy-Dense Foods and Weight Management: Cutting Calories While Controlling Hunger |url=https://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/nutrition/pdf/r2p_energy_density.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211118001657/https://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/nutrition/pdf/r2p_energy_density.pdf |archive-date=18 November 2021 |access-date=3 December 2021 |website=]}}</ref> Some inorganic (non-food) elements are also essential for plant and animal functioning.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zoroddu |first1=Maria Antonietta |last2=Aaseth |first2=Jan |last3=Crisponi |first3=Guido |last4=Medici |first4=Serenella |last5=Peana |first5=Massimiliano |last6=Nurchi |first6=Valeria Marina |date=1 June 2019 |title=The essential metals for humans: a brief overview |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0162013418306846 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry |language=en |volume=195 |pages=120–129 |doi=10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2019.03.013 |issn=0162-0134 |pmid=30939379 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220411181017/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0162013418306846 |archive-date=11 April 2022 |access-date=11 April 2022 |s2cid=92997696}}</ref> | |||
Almost all foods are of plant or ] origin, although there are some exceptions. Foods not coming from animal or ] sources include various edible ], including ]s. ] and ambient ] are used in the preparation of ] and ] such as leavened ], ], ], ], ], and ]. Many cultures eat ], which is a ], or ] such as ].<ref>McGee, 333-334.</ref> Additionally, ] is often eaten as a flavoring or preservative, and ] is used in food preparation. Both of these are ] substances, as is ], an important part of human diet. | |||
Human food can be classified in various ways, either by related content or by how it is processed.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sadler |first1=Christina R. |last2=Grassby |first2=Terri |last3=Hart |first3=Kathryn |last4=Raats |first4=Monique |last5=Sokolović |first5=Milka |last6=Timotijevic |first6=Lada |date=1 June 2021 |title=Processed food classification: Conceptualisation and challenges |journal=Trends in Food Science & Technology |language=en |volume=112 |pages=149–162 |doi=10.1016/j.tifs.2021.02.059 |issn=0924-2244 |doi-access=free |s2cid=233647428}}</ref> The number and composition of ]s can vary. Most systems include four basic groups that describe their origin and relative nutritional function: Vegetables and Fruit, Cereals and Bread, Dairy, and Meat.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nestle |first=Marion |title=Food Politics: How the Food Industry Influences Nutrition and Health |publisher=University of California Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-520-27596-6 |pages=36–37 |author-link=Marion Nestle |orig-date=2002}}</ref> Studies that look into diet quality group food into whole grains/cereals, refined grains/cereals, vegetables, fruits, nuts, legumes, eggs, dairy products, fish, red meat, processed meat, and sugar-sweetened beverages.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schwingshackl |first1=Lukas |last2=Schwedhelm |first2=Carolina |last3=Hoffmann |first3=Georg |last4=Lampousi |first4=Anna-Maria |last5=Knüppel |first5=Sven |last6=Iqbal |first6=Khalid |last7=Bechthold |first7=Angela |last8=Schlesinger |first8=Sabrina |last9=Boeing |first9=Heiner |year=2017 |title=Food groups and risk of all-cause mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=105 |issue=6 |pages=1462–1473 |doi=10.3945/ajcn.117.153148 |issn=0002-9165 |pmid=28446499 |doi-access=free |s2cid=22494319}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schwingshackl |first1=Lukas |last2=Schwedhelm |first2=Carolina |last3=Hoffmann |first3=Georg |last4=Knüppel |first4=Sven |last5=Preterre |first5=Anne Laure |last6=Iqbal |first6=Khalid |last7=Bechthold |first7=Angela |last8=Henauw |first8=Stefaan De |last9=Michels |first9=Nathalie |last10=Devleesschauwer |first10=Brecht |last11=Boeing |first11=Heiner |year=2018 |title=Food groups and risk of colorectal cancer |journal=International Journal of Cancer |language=en |volume=142 |issue=9 |pages=1748–1758 |doi=10.1002/ijc.31198 |issn=1097-0215 |pmid=29210053 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schwingshackl |first1=Lukas |last2=Hoffmann |first2=Georg |last3=Lampousi |first3=Anna-Maria |last4=Knüppel |first4=Sven |last5=Iqbal |first5=Khalid |last6=Schwedhelm |first6=Carolina |last7=Bechthold |first7=Angela |last8=Schlesinger |first8=Sabrina |last9=Boeing |first9=Heiner |date=May 2017 |title=Food groups and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies |journal=European Journal of Epidemiology |language=en |volume=32 |issue=5 |pages=363–375 |doi=10.1007/s10654-017-0246-y |issn=0393-2990 |pmc=5506108 |pmid=28397016}}</ref> The ] and ] use a system with nineteen food classifications: cereals, roots, pulses and nuts, milk, eggs, fish and shellfish, meat, insects, vegetables, fruits, fats and oils, sweets and sugars, spices and condiments, beverages, foods for nutritional uses, food additives, composite dishes and savoury snacks.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Food groups and sub-groups |url=http://www.fao.org/gift-individual-food-consumption/methodology/food-groups-and-sub-groups/en/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210829000613/http://www.fao.org/gift-individual-food-consumption/methodology/food-groups-and-sub-groups/en/ |archive-date=29 August 2021 |access-date=29 August 2021 |website=FAO}}</ref> | |||
===Plants=== | |||
] | |||
Many ]s or plant parts are eaten as food. There are around 2,000 plant species which are cultivated for food, and many have several distinct ]s.<ref>McGee ,253.</ref> | |||
==Food sources== | |||
Seeds of plants contain nutrients necessary for the plant's initial growth, and because of this, seeds are a good source of food for animals, including humans. In fact, the majority of food consumed by human beings are seed-based foods. These seeds include ]s (such as maize, ], and ]), ]s (such as ]s, ]s, and ]s), and ]s. ]s are often pressed to produce rich oils, such as ], ] (including ]), and ].<ref name=McGee9>McGee, Chapter 9.</ref> One of the earliest food ] made from ground chickpeas is called ], which can be traced back to ] times. | |||
] | |||
In a given ecosystem, food forms a ] of interlocking ] with ] at the bottom and ]s at the top.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Food Web: Concept and Applications {{!}} Learn Science at Scitable |url=https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/food-web-concept-and-applications-84077181/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209020322/https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/food-web-concept-and-applications-84077181/ |archive-date=9 February 2022 |access-date=15 December 2021 |website=Nature |language=en}}</ref> Other aspects of the web include ] (that eat ]) and ]s (that break down dead organisms).<ref name=":1" /> Primary producers include algae, plants, bacteria and protists that acquire their energy from sunlight.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Allan |first1=J. David |last2=Castillo |first2=Marí M. |title=Stream Ecology |date=2007 |publisher=Springer Netherlands |isbn=978-1-4020-5583-6 |location=Dordrecht |pages=105–134 |language=en |chapter=Primary producers |doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-5583-6_6}}</ref> Primary consumers are the ]s that consume the plants, and secondary consumers are the ]s that consume those herbivores. Some organisms, including most mammals and birds, diet consists of both animals and plants, and they are considered omnivores.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Society |first=National Geographic |date=21 January 2011 |title=omnivore |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/omnivore/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211215080444/https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/omnivore/ |archive-date=15 December 2021 |access-date=15 December 2021 |website=National Geographic Society |language=en}}</ref> The chain ends with the apex predators, the animals that have no known predators in its ecosystem.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wallach |first1=Arian D. |last2=Izhaki |first2=Ido |last3=Toms |first3=Judith D. |last4=Ripple |first4=William J. |last5=Shanas |first5=Uri |year=2015 |title=What is an apex predator? |journal=Oikos |language=en |volume=124 |issue=11 |pages=1453–1461 |doi=10.1111/oik.01977 |bibcode=2015Oikos.124.1453W |doi-access=free |issn = 0030-1299 }}</ref> Humans are considered apex predators.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Roopnarine |first=Peter D. |date=4 March 2014 |title=Humans are apex predators |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=111 |issue=9 |pages=E796 |bibcode=2014PNAS..111E.796R |doi=10.1073/pnas.1323645111 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=3948303 |pmid=24497513 |doi-access=free}}</ref> | |||
] are the ripened extensions of plants, including the seeds within. Many plants have evolved fruits that are attractive as a food source to animals, so that animals will eat the fruits and excrete the seeds some distance away. Fruits, therefore, make up a significant part of the diets of most cultures. Some botanical fruits, such as tomato, pumpkin and eggplant, are eaten as vegetables.<ref>McGee, Chapter 7.</ref> (For more information, see ].) | |||
Humans are omnivores, finding sustenance in vegetables, fruits, cooked meat, milk, eggs, mushrooms and seaweed.<ref name=":2" /> Cereal grain is a ] that provides more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop.<ref>{{Cite news |date=1 March 2011 |title=food |language=en |work=National Geographic Society |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/food/ |url-status=live |access-date=25 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170322145917/http://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/food/ |archive-date=22 March 2017}}</ref> ], wheat, and rice account for 87% of all grain production worldwide.<ref name="prodstat">{{Cite web |title=ProdSTAT |url=http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210214103/http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx |archive-date=10 February 2012 |website=FAOSTAT}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Favour |first=Eboh |title=Design and Fabrication of a Mill Pulverizer |url=https://www.academia.edu/27186173 |url-status=live |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171226191619/http://www.academia.edu/27186173/DESIGN_AND_FABRICATION_OF_A_MILL_PULVERIZER |archive-date=26 December 2017 |website=Academia}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=039ZCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA846 |title=The Complete Book on Spices & Condiments (with Cultivation, Processing & Uses) 2nd Revised Edition: With Cultivation, Processing & Uses |date=2006 |publisher=Asia Pacific Business Press Inc. |isbn=978-81-7833-038-9 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171226191618/https://books.google.com/books?id=039ZCwAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&pg=PA846 |archive-date=26 December 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> Just over half of the world's crops are used to feed humans (55 percent), with 36 percent grown as animal feed and 9 percent for ].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Plumer |first=Brad |date=21 August 2014 |title=How much of the world's cropland is actually used to grow food? |url=https://www.vox.com/2014/8/21/6053187/cropland-map-food-fuel-animal-feed |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412003009/https://www.vox.com/2014/8/21/6053187/cropland-map-food-fuel-animal-feed |archive-date=12 April 2022 |access-date=11 April 2022 |website=Vox |language=en}}</ref> Fungi and bacteria are also used in the preparation of ] foods like ], ], ] and ].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Palombo |first=Enzo |title=Kitchen Science: bacteria and fungi are your foody friends |url=http://theconversation.com/kitchen-science-bacteria-and-fungi-are-your-foody-friends-57279 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220411181018/https://theconversation.com/kitchen-science-bacteria-and-fungi-are-your-foody-friends-57279 |archive-date=11 April 2022 |access-date=11 April 2022 |website=The Conversation |date=21 April 2016 |language=en}}</ref> | |||
]s are a second type of plant matter that is commonly eaten as food. These include ]s (such as ]es and ]s), ]s (such as ] and ]), ] (such as ] shoots and ]), and ] (such as ]s and ]). Many ]s and spices are highly-flavorful vegetables.<ref>McGee, Chapter 6.</ref> | |||
=== |
===Photosynthesis=== | ||
During ], energy from the sun is absorbed and used to transform water and carbon dioxide in the air or soil into oxygen and glucose. The oxygen is then released, and the glucose stored as an energy reserve.<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 October 2019 |title=Photosynthesis |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/photosynthesis/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412205929/https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/photosynthesis/ |archive-date=12 April 2022 |access-date=11 April 2022 |website=National Geographic Society |language=en}}</ref> Photosynthetic plants, algae and certain bacteria often represent the lowest point of the food chains,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Oceanic Bacteria Trap Vast Amounts of Light Without Chlorophyll |url=https://www.the-scientist.com/news-opinion/oceanic-bacteria-trap-vast-amounts-of-light-without-chlorophyll-66244 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220406153936/https://www.the-scientist.com/news-opinion/oceanic-bacteria-trap-vast-amounts-of-light-without-chlorophyll-66244 |archive-date=6 April 2022 |access-date=11 April 2022 |website=The Scientist Magazine |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Leslie |first=Mitch |date=6 March 2009 |title=On the Origin of Photosynthesis |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.323.5919.1286 |url-status=live |journal=Science |language=en |volume=323 |issue=5919 |pages=1286–1287 |doi=10.1126/science.323.5919.1286 |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=19264999 |s2cid=206584539 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220411181017/https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.323.5919.1286 |archive-date=11 April 2022 |access-date=11 April 2022}}</ref> making photosynthesis the primary source of energy and food for nearly all life on earth.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Messinger |first1=Johannes |last2=Ishitani |first2=Osamu |last3=Wang |first3=Dunwei |year=2018 |title=Artificial photosynthesis – from sunlight to fuels and valuable products for a sustainable future |url=http://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=C8SE90049C |url-status=live |journal=Sustainable Energy & Fuels |language=en |volume=2 |issue=9 |pages=1891–1892 |doi=10.1039/C8SE90049C |issn=2398-4902 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730073225/https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2018/SE/C8SE90049C |archive-date=30 July 2022 |access-date=11 April 2022}}</ref> | |||
] | |||
{{Main|Animal source foods}} | |||
Animals can be used as food either directly, or indirectly by the products they produce. ] is an example of a direct product taken from an ], which comes from either ] systems or from ]. Food products produced by animals include ] produced by ]s, which in many cultures is drunk or processed into ]s such as ] or ]. In addition birds and other animals lay ], which are often eaten, and ]s produce ], a popular sweetener in many cultures. Some cultures ], some in the form of ], as a thickener for sauces, a ] salted form for times of food scarcity, and others use ] in stews such as ].<ref>Davidson, 81-82.</ref> | |||
{{-}} | |||
] and minerals from the air, natural waters, and soil.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kathpalia |first1=Renu |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-2023-1_2 |title=Plant Physiology, Development and Metabolism |last2=Bhatla |first2=Satish C. |publisher=Springer |year=2018 |isbn=978-981-13-2023-1 |editor-last=Bhatla |editor-first=Satish C |location=Singapore |pages=37–81 |language=en |chapter=Plant Mineral Nutrition |doi=10.1007/978-981-13-2023-1_2 |access-date=20 January 2023 |editor-last2=A. Lal |editor-first2=Manju}}</ref> Carbon, oxygen and hydrogen are absorbed from the air or water and are the basic nutrients needed for plant survival.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last1=Morgan |first1=J B |last2=Connolly |first2=E L |year=2013 |title=Plant-Soil Interactions: Nutrient Uptake |url=https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/plant-soil-interactions-nutrient-uptake-105289112/ |journal=Nature Education Knowledge |volume=4 |issue=8}}</ref> The three main nutrients absorbed from the soil for plant growth are nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, with other important nutrients including calcium, sulfur, magnesium, iron boron, chlorine, manganese, zinc, copper molybdenum and nickel.<ref name=":13" /> | |||
==Production== | |||
] and ]]] | |||
{{main|Agriculture}} | |||
Food is traditionally obtained through ], ], and ], with ], ] and other ] locally important. More recently, there has been a growing trend towards more ] practices. This approach, which is partly fueled by ] ], encourages ], local self-reliance and ] methods.<ref>Mason</ref> Major influences on food production are international organizations, (e.g. the ] and ]), national government policy (or ]), and ].<ref name="Messer">Messer, 53-91.</ref> | |||
===Microorganisms=== | |||
==Preparation== | |||
Bacteria and other microorganisms also form the lower rungs of the food chain. They obtain their energy from photosynthesis or by breaking down dead organisms, waste or chemical compounds. Some form symbiotic relationships with other organisms to obtain their nutrients.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Gupta |first1=Ankit |title=Microbes and Environment |date=2017 |work=Principles and Applications of Environmental Biotechnology for a Sustainable Future |pages=43–84 |editor-last=Singh |editor-first=Ram Lakhan |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-1866-4_3 |access-date=2024-05-01 |place=Singapore |publisher=Springer |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-981-10-1866-4_3 |isbn=978-981-10-1866-4 |pmc=7189961 |last2=Gupta |first2=Rasna |last3=Singh |first3=Ram Lakhan}}</ref> Bacteria provide a source of food for protozoa,<ref>{{Citation |last=Foissner |first=W. |title=PROTOZOA |date=2005-01-01 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Soils in the Environment |pages=336–347 |editor-last=Hillel |editor-first=Daniel |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0123485304001624 |access-date=2024-05-01 |place=Oxford |publisher=Elsevier |doi=10.1016/b0-12-348530-4/00162-4 |isbn=978-0-12-348530-4}}</ref> who in turn provide a source of food for other organisms such as small invertebrates.<ref>{{Citation |last=Foissner |first=W. |title=Protozoa☆ |date=2014-01-01 |work=Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780124095489091302 |access-date=2024-05-01 |publisher=Elsevier |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-409548-9.09130-2 |isbn=978-0-12-409548-9}}</ref> Other organisms that feed on bacteria include nematodes, fan worms, shellfish and a species of snail. | |||
While some food can be eaten raw, many foods undergo some form of preparation for reasons of safety, palatability, or ]. At the simplest level this may involve ], ], trimming or adding other foods or ingredients, such as ]s. It may also involve mixing, heating or cooling, ], fermentation, or combination with other food. In a home, most food preparation takes place in a ]. Some preparation is done to enhance the ] or ] appeal; other preparation may help to ] the food; and others may be involved in cultural identity. A ] is made up of food which is prepared to be eaten at a specific time and place.<ref>Mead, 11-19</ref> | |||
In the marine environment, plankton (which includes ], ], ], ] and microscopic ])<ref name="Lawton-2024-02-10">{{cite journal |last1=Lawton |first1=Graham |date=10 February 2024 |title=Fungi ahoy! |journal=New Scientist |volume=261 |issue=3477 |pages=37–39 |doi=10.1016/S0262-4079(24)00274-4|bibcode=2024NewSc.261b..37L }}</ref> provide a crucial source of food to many small and large aquatic organisms. | |||
===Animal slaughter and butchering=== | |||
] | |||
The preparation of animal-based food will usually involve ], ], hanging, portioning and ]. In developed countries, this is usually done outside the home in ] which are used to process animals en mass for meat production. Many countries regulate their slaughterhouses by law. For example the ] has established the Humane Slaughter Act of 1958, which requires that an animal be stunned before killing. This act, like those in many countries, exempts slaughter in accordance to religious law, such as ] ] and dhabiĥa halal. Strict interpretations of ] require the animal to be fully aware when its carotid artery is cut.<ref>McGee, 142-143.</ref> | |||
Without bacteria, life would scarcely exist because bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into nutritious ]. Ammonia is the precursor to proteins, nucleic acids, and most vitamins. Since the advent of industrial process for nitrogen fixation, the ], the majority of ammonia in the world is human-made.<ref>{{cite book |year=2004|title=Enriching the Earth Fritz Haber, Carl Bosch, and the Transformation of World Food Production|author=Vaclav Smil|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=9780262693134}}</ref> | |||
On the local level a butcher may commonly break down larger animal meat into smaller manageable cuts and pre-wrapped for commercial sale or wrapped to order in ]. In addition fish and ] may be fabricated into smaller cuts by a ] at the local level. However fish butchery may be done on board a fishing vessel and quick-frozen for preservation of quality.<ref>McGee, 202-206</ref> | |||
{{-}} | |||
=== |
===Plants=== | ||
] | |||
{{main|Cooking}} | |||
] in China]] | |||
The term "cooking" encompasses a vast range of methods, tools and combinations of ]s to improve the flavor or ]. Cooking technique, known as ], generally requires the selection, measurement and combining of ingredients in an ordered procedure in an effort to achieve the desired result. Constraints on success include the variability of ingredients, ambient conditions, ]s, and the skill of the individual cooking.<ref>McGee Chapter 14.</ref> The diversity of cooking worldwide is a reflection of the myriad nutritional, aesthetic, agricultural, economic, cultural and religious considerations that impact upon it.<ref name = "silhnc">Mead, 11-19.</ref> | |||
] are divided into seeds, fruits, vegetables, legumes, grains and nuts.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Fardet |first=Anthony |chapter-url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780128039687000162 |chapter=New Concepts and Paradigms for the Protective Effects of Plant-Based Food Components in Relation to Food Complexity |title=Vegetarian and Plant-Based Diets in Health and Disease Prevention |publisher=Elsevier |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-12-803968-7 |pages=293–312 |language=en |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-803968-7.00016-2 |access-date=12 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220615171216/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780128039687000162 |archive-date=15 June 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> Where plants fall within these categories can vary, with botanically described fruits such as the tomato, squash, pepper and eggplant or seeds like peas commonly considered vegetables.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FAQs |url=https://vric.ucdavis.edu/main/faqs.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210321204323/https://vric.ucdavis.edu/main/faqs.htm |archive-date=21 March 2021 |access-date=12 April 2022 |website=vric.ucdavis.edu}}</ref> Food is a fruit if the part eaten is derived from the ], so seeds, nuts and grains are technically fruit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nuts |url=https://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/ethnobotany/food/nuts.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220227192329/https://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/ethnobotany/food/nuts.shtml |archive-date=27 February 2022 |access-date=17 April 2022 |website=fs.fed.us}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite web |last=Chodosh |first=Sara |date=8 July 2021 |title=The bizarre botany that makes corn a fruit, a grain, and also (kind of) a vegetable |url=https://www.popsci.com/is-corn-fruit-vegetable-or-grain/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409102623/https://www.popsci.com/is-corn-fruit-vegetable-or-grain/ |archive-date=9 April 2022 |access-date=17 April 2022 |website=Popular Science |language=en-US}}</ref> From a culinary perspective, fruits are generally considered the remains of botanically described fruits after grains, nuts, seeds and fruits used as vegetables are removed.<ref name=":8" /> Grains can be defined as seeds that humans eat or harvest, with cereal grains (oats, wheat, rice, corn, barley, rye, sorghum and millet) belonging to the ] (grass) family<ref>{{Cite web |last=Thomson |first=Julie |date=13 June 2017 |title=Quinoa's 'Seed Or Grain' Debate Ends Right Here |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/quinoa-is-not-a-grain_n_59380558e4b0aba888ba7b44 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220415223356/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/quinoa-is-not-a-grain_n_59380558e4b0aba888ba7b44 |archive-date=15 April 2022 |access-date=15 April 2022 |website=HuffPost |language=en}}</ref> and pulses coming from the ] (legume) family.<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 October 2019 |title=Legumes and Pulses |url=https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/legumes-pulses/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220421110226/https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/legumes-pulses/ |archive-date=21 April 2022 |access-date=15 April 2022 |website=The Nutrition Source |language=en-us}}</ref> ]s are foods that contain all the elements of the original seed (bran, germ, and ]).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of a Whole Grain {{!}} The Whole Grains Council |url=https://wholegrainscouncil.org/definition-whole-grain |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220131090217/https://wholegrainscouncil.org/definition-whole-grain |archive-date=31 January 2022 |access-date=15 April 2022 |website=wholegrainscouncil.org}}</ref> Nuts are dry fruits, distinguishable by their woody shell.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Rejman |first1=Krystyna |last2=Górska-Warsewicz |first2=Hanna |last3=Kaczorowska |first3=Joanna |last4=Laskowski |first4=Wacław |date=17 June 2021 |title=Nutritional Significance of Fruit and Fruit Products in the Average Polish Diet |journal=Nutrients |language=en |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=2079 |doi=10.3390/nu13062079 |issn=2072-6643 |pmc=8235518 |pmid=34204541 |doi-access=free}}</ref> | |||
Cooking requires applying heat to a food which usually, though not always, ] transforms it, thus changing its flavor, ], appearance, and nutritional properties.<ref>McGee</ref> Cooking proper, as opposed to roasting, requires the boiling of water in a container, and was practiced at least since the 10th millennium BC with the introduction of ].<ref>McGee, 784.</ref> There is archaeological evidence of roasted foodstuffs at ] campsites dating from 420,000 years ago.<ref>Campbell, 312.</ref> | |||
Fleshy fruits (distinguishable from dry fruits like grain, seeds and nuts) can be further classified as ] (cherries and peaches), ] (apples, pears), ] (blackberry, strawberry), ] (oranges, lemon), ]s (watermelon, cantaloupe), Mediterranean fruits (grapes, fig), ] (banana, pineapple).<ref name=":8" /> Vegetables refer to any other part of the plant that can be eaten, including roots, stems, leaves, flowers, bark or the entire plant itself.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=Vegetables: Foods from Roots, Stems, Bark, and Leaves |url=https://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/ethnobotany/food/vegetables.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220417035414/https://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/ethnobotany/food/vegetables.shtml |archive-date=17 April 2022 |access-date=12 April 2022 |website=U.S. Forest Service}}</ref> These include ]s (potatoes and carrots), bulbs (onion family), flowers (cauliflower and broccoli), ]s (] and lettuce) and ] (celery and ]).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vegetable Classifications |url=https://www.vegetables.co.nz/tips-and-advice/vegetable-classifications/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220204223932/https://www.vegetables.co.nz/tips-and-advice/vegetable-classifications/ |archive-date=4 February 2022 |access-date=12 April 2022 |website=Vegetables |language=en-NZ}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> | |||
====Cooking equipment and methods==== | |||
There are many types of cooking equipment used for cooking. ]s are one type of cooking equipment which can be used for baking or roasting and offer a dry-heat cooking method. Different cuisines will use different types of ]s, for example Indian culture uses a ] oven is a cylindrical clay oven which operates at a single high temperature,<ref>Davidson, 782-783</ref> while western ]s will use variable temperature ]s, conventional ovens, ]s in addition to non-radiant heat ovens like the ]. Ovens may be wood-fired, coal-fired, gas, electric, or oil-fired.<ref>McGee, 539,784.</ref> | |||
The carbohydrate, protein and lipid content of plants is highly variable. Carbohydrates are mainly in the form of starch, fructose, glucose and other sugars.<ref name=":0" /> Most vitamins are found from plant sources, with exceptions of ] and ]. ] can also be plentiful or not. Fruit can consist of up to 90% water, contain high levels of ] that contribute to their sweet taste, and have a high ] content.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":8" /> Compared to fleshy fruit (excepting Bananas) vegetables are high in starch,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Slavin |first1=Joanne L. |last2=Lloyd |first2=Beate |date=1 July 2012 |title=Health Benefits of Fruits and Vegetables |journal=Advances in Nutrition |language=en |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=506–516 |doi=10.3945/an.112.002154 |issn=2156-5376 |pmc=3649719 |pmid=22797986}}</ref> ], dietary fiber, ] and vitamins and low in fat and calories.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vegetables |url=https://www.myplate.gov/eat-healthy/vegetables |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220417195851/https://www.myplate.gov/eat-healthy/vegetables |archive-date=17 April 2022 |access-date=17 April 2022 |website=myplate.gov |publisher=U.S. Department of Agriculture}}</ref> Grains are more starch based<ref name=":0" /> and nuts have a high protein, fibre, vitamin E and B content.<ref name=":8" /> Seeds are a good source of food for animals because they are abundant and contain fibre and healthful fats, such as ].<ref name=":5" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=The nutrition powerhouse we should eat more of |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/food/articles/seeds |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412185742/https://www.bbc.co.uk/food/articles/seeds |archive-date=12 April 2022 |access-date=12 April 2022 |website=BBC Food |language=en}}</ref> Complicated chemical interactions can enhance or depress bioavailability of certain nutrients. ] can prevent the release of some sugars and vitamins.<ref name=":0" /> | |||
] | |||
Various types of cook-tops are used as well. They carry the same variations of fuel types as the ovens mentioned above. cook-tops are used to heat vessels placed on top of the heat source, such as a ], sauce pot, ], ], etc. These pieces of equipment can use either a moist or dry cooking method and include methods such as ]ing, ]ing, ]ing, and ] for moist methods; while the dry methods include ]ing, ]ing, or ]ing.<ref>McGee, 771-791</ref> | |||
Animals that only eat plants are called ]s, with those that mostly just eat fruits known as ]s,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kanchwala |first=Hussain |date=21 March 2019 |title=What Are Frugivores? |url=https://www.scienceabc.com/nature/animals/what-are-frugivores.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516032821/https://www.scienceabc.com/nature/animals/what-are-frugivores.html |archive-date=16 May 2022 |access-date=17 April 2022 |website=Science ABC |language=en-US}}</ref> leaves, while shoot eaters are ]s (pandas) and wood eaters termed ] (termites).<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 January 2011 |title=Herbivore |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/herbivore/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408191803/https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/herbivore/ |archive-date=8 April 2022 |access-date=17 April 2022 |website=National Geographic Society |language=en}}</ref> ]s include a diverse range of species from annelids to elephants, chimpanzees and many birds.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hagen |first1=Melanie |last2=Kissling |first2=W. Daniel |last3=Rasmussen |first3=Claus |last4=De Aguiar |first4=Marcus A.M. |last5=Brown |first5=Lee E. |last6=Carstensen |first6=Daniel W. |last7=Alves-Dos-Santos |first7=Isabel |last8=Dupont |first8=Yoko L. |last9=Edwards |first9=Francois K. |year=2012 |title=Biodiversity, Species Interactions and Ecological Networks in a Fragmented World |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780123969927000022 |url-status=live |journal=Advances in Ecological Research |language=en |publisher=Elsevier |volume=46 |pages=89–210 |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-396992-7.00002-2 |isbn=978-0-12-396992-7 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220504154918/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780123969927000022 |archive-date=4 May 2022 |access-date=17 April 2022|hdl=10261/64172 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Scanes |first=Colin G. |chapter-url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780128052471000058 |chapter=Animals and Hominid Development |title=Animals and Human Society |publisher=Elsevier |year=2018 |isbn=978-0-12-805247-1 |pages=83–102 |language=en |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-805247-1.00005-8 |access-date=17 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180609185730/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780128052471000058 |archive-date=9 June 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Fleming |first=Theodore H. |chapter-url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780080918815500153 |chapter=How Do Fruit- and Nectar-Feeding Birds and Mammals Track Their Food Resources? |title=Effects of Resource Distribution on Animal–Plant Interactions |publisher=Elsevier |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-12-361955-6 |pages=355–391 |language=en |doi=10.1016/b978-0-08-091881-5.50015-3 |access-date=17 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210525180952/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780080918815500153 |archive-date=25 May 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> About 182 fish consume seeds or fruit.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Correa |first1=Sandra Bibiana |last2=Winemiller |first2=Kirk O. |last3=LóPez-Fernández |first3=Hernán |last4=Galetti |first4=Mauro |date=1 October 2007 |title=Evolutionary Perspectives on Seed Consumption and Dispersal by Fishes |journal=BioScience |volume=57 |issue=9 |pages=748–756 |doi=10.1641/B570907 |issn=0006-3568 |doi-access=free |s2cid=13869429}}</ref> Animals (domesticated and wild) use as many types of grasses that have adapted to different locations as their main source of nutrients.<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 May 2009 |title=Describe the utilization of grass in forage-livestock systems. |url=https://forages.oregonstate.edu/nfgc/eo/onlineforagecurriculum/instructormaterials/availabletopics/grasses/utilization |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220123212853/https://forages.oregonstate.edu/nfgc/eo/onlineforagecurriculum/instructormaterials/availabletopics/grasses/utilization |archive-date=23 January 2022 |access-date=12 April 2022 |website=Forage Information System |language=en}}</ref> | |||
] | |||
In addition, many cultures use grills for ]. A ] operates with a radiant heat source from below, usually covered with a metal grid and sometimes a cover. An open bit barbecue in the American south is one example along with the American style outdoor grill fueled by ], liquid ] or ] along with soaked wood chips for smoking.<ref>Davidson, 356.</ref> A ] style of barbecue is called ], which involves the cooking of meats and whole sheep over open fire. In ], ] is prepared on a grill held over an open pit or fire made upon the ground, on which a whole animal is grilled or in other cases smaller cuts of the animal.<ref>Asado Argentina</ref> | |||
Humans eat thousands of plant species; there may be as many as 75,000 edible species of ]s, of which perhaps 7,000 are often eaten.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Şerban |first1=Procheş |last2=Wilson |first2=John R. U. |last3=Vamosi |first3=Jana C. |last4=Richardson |first4=David M. |title=Plant Diversity in the Human Diet: Weak Phylogenetic Signal Indicates Breadth |journal=BioScience |date=1 February 2008 |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=151–159 |doi=10.1641/B580209 |s2cid=86483332 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Plants can be processed into breads, pasta, cereals, juices and jams or raw ingredients such as sugar, herbs, spices and oils can be extracted.<ref name=":0" /> ]s are pressed to produce rich oils{{snd}}], ], ] (including ]) and ].<ref name="McGee9">McGee, Chapter 9.</ref> | |||
====Raw food==== | |||
] | |||
Certain cultures highlight animal and vegetable foods in their raw state. ] in ] is one such ] that features raw sliced ], either in ], nigiri, or maki styles.<ref>Davidson, 772.</ref> ] and salmon tartare are dishes made from diced or ground raw beef or salmon respectively, mixed with various ingredients and served with ], ] or ].<ref>Davidson, 786-787.</ref> In Italy, ] is a dish of very thin sliced raw ], drizzled with a ] made with olive oil.<ref>Robuchon, 224.</ref> A popular health food movement known as ] promotes a mostly ] diet of raw ]s, ]s and ]s prepared in various ways, including juicing, food dehydration, not passing the 118 degree mark, and sprouting.<ref>Davidson, 656</ref> | |||
Many plants and animals have ] in such a way that the fruit is a good source of nutrition to the animal who then excretes the seeds some distance away, allowing greater dispersal.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Eriksson |first=Ove |date=20 December 2014 |title=Evolution of angiosperm seed disperser mutualisms: the timing of origins and their consequences for coevolutionary interactions between angiosperms and frugivores |journal=Biological Reviews |volume=91 |issue=1 |pages=168–186 |doi=10.1111/brv.12164 |pmid=25530412 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Even ] can be mutually beneficial, as some seeds can survive the digestion process.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Heleno |first1=Ruben H. |last2=Ross |first2=Georgina |last3=Everard |first3=Amy |last4=Memmott |first4=Jane |last5=Ramos |first5=Jaime A. |year=2011 |title=The role of avian 'seed predators' as seed dispersers: Seed predators as seed dispersers |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1474-919X.2010.01088.x |url-status=live |journal=Ibis |language=en |volume=153 |issue=1 |pages=199–203 |doi=10.1111/j.1474-919X.2010.01088.x |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220415211542/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1474-919X.2010.01088.x |archive-date=15 April 2022 |access-date=15 April 2022 |hdl-access=free |hdl=10316/41308}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Spengler |first=Robert N. |date=1 April 2020 |title=Anthropogenic Seed Dispersal: Rethinking the Origins of Plant Domestication |journal=Trends in Plant Science |language=English |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=340–348 |doi=10.1016/j.tplants.2020.01.005 |issn=1360-1385 |pmid=32191870 |doi-access=free |s2cid=213192873|hdl=21.11116/0000-0005-C7E0-D |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Insects are major eaters of seeds,<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Lundgren |first1=Jonathan G. |last2=Rosentrater |first2=Kurt A. |date=13 September 2007 |title=The strength of seeds and their destruction by granivorous insects |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11829-007-9008-1 |url-status=live |journal=Arthropod-Plant Interactions |language=en |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=93–99 |doi=10.1007/s11829-007-9008-1 |bibcode=2007APInt...1...93L |issn=1872-8855 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730073225/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11829-007-9008-1 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |access-date=15 April 2022 |s2cid=6410974}}</ref> with ants being the only real seed dispersers.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Simms |first=Ellen L. |chapter-url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0122268652003400 |chapter=Plant-Animal Interactions |date=1 January 2001 |title=Encyclopedia of Biodiversity |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-12-226865-6 |editor-last=Levin |editor-first=Simon Asher |location=New York |pages=601–619 |language=en |doi=10.1016/b0-12-226865-2/00340-0 |access-date=15 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220415002125/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0122268652003400 |archive-date=15 April 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> Birds, although being major dispersers,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Godínez-Alvarez |first1=Héctor |last2=Ríos-Casanova |first2=Leticia |last3=Peco |first3=Begoña |year=2020 |title=Are large frugivorous birds better seed dispersers than medium- and small-sized ones? Effect of body mass on seed dispersal effectiveness |journal=Ecology and Evolution |language=en |volume=10 |issue=12 |pages=6136–6143 |doi=10.1002/ece3.6285 |issn=2045-7758 |pmc=7319144 |pmid=32607219|bibcode=2020EcoEv..10.6136G }}</ref> only rarely eat seeds as a source of food and can be identified by their thick beak that is used to crack open the seed coat.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jennings |first=Elizabeth |date=15 November 2019 |title=How Much Seed Do Birds Eat In a Day? |url=https://sciencing.com/much-do-birds-eat-day-7435152.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220112012432/https://sciencing.com/much-do-birds-eat-day-7435152.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |access-date=14 April 2022 |website=Sciencing |language=en}}</ref> Mammals eat a more diverse range of seeds, as they are able to crush harder and larger seeds with their teeth.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Carpenter |first1=Joanna K. |last2=Wilmshurst |first2=Janet M. |last3=McConkey |first3=Kim R. |last4=Hume |first4=Julian P. |last5=Wotton |first5=Debra M. |last6=Shiels |first6=Aaron B. |last7=Burge |first7=Olivia R. |last8=Drake |first8=Donald R. |year=2020 |editor-last=Barton |editor-first=Kasey |title=The forgotten fauna: Native vertebrate seed predators on islands |journal=Functional Ecology |language=en |volume=34 |issue=9 |pages=1802–1813 |doi=10.1111/1365-2435.13629 |bibcode=2020FuEco..34.1802C |issn=0269-8463 |s2cid=225292938|doi-access=free }}</ref> | |||
===Restaurants=== | |||
], a restaurant in New York]] | |||
Many cultures produce food for sale in restaurants for paying customers. These restaurants often have trained ]s who prepare the food, while trained waitstaff serve the customers. The term ] is credited to the ] from the 19th century, as it relates to the restorative nature of the ]s that were once served in them. However, the concept pre-dates the naming of these establishments, as evidence suggests commercial food preparation may have existed during the age of the city of ], as well as an urban sales of prepared foods in ] during the ]. The ]s or ]s of 17th century ] may also be considered an early version of the restaurant.<ref>Davidson, 660-661.</ref> In 2005 the United States spent $496 billion annually for out-of-home dining. Expenditures by type of out-of-home dining was as follows, 40% in full-service restaurants, 37.2% in limited service restaurants (]), 6.6% in ]s or ]s, 5.4% in bars and ]s, 4.7% in ]s and ]s, 4.0% in recreational places, and 2.2% in other which includes ]s.<ref>United States Department of Agriculture</ref> | |||
<br /> | |||
=== |
===Animals=== | ||
] | ] | ||
{{main|Food manufacture}} | |||
Packaged foods are manufactured outside the home for purchase. This can be as simple as a ] preparing meat, or as complex as a modern international ]. Early food processing techniques were limited by available food preservation, packaging and ]ation. This mainly involved ], ], curdling, ], ], ] and ].<ref>Aguilera, 1-3.</ref> During the ] in the 19th century, food manufacturing arose.<ref>Miguel, 3.</ref> This development took advantage of new ] and emerging new technology, such as ], preservation, ] and ] and transportation. It brought the advantages of pre-prepared time saving food to the bulk of ordinary people who did not employ ]s.<ref name=Jango>Jango-Cohen</ref> | |||
] either directly or indirectly. This includes meat, eggs, shellfish and dairy products like milk and cheese.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Animal Products |url=https://www.ksre.k-state.edu/foodsafety/topics/animal.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220320115339/https://www.ksre.k-state.edu/foodsafety/topics/animal.html |archive-date=20 March 2022 |access-date=12 May 2022 |website=ksre.k-state.edu}}</ref> They are an important source of protein and are considered complete proteins for human consumption as they contain all the essential amino acids that the human body needs.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |last=Marcus |first=Jacqueline B. |chapter=Protein Basics: Animal and Vegetable Proteins in Food and Health |chapter-url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780123918826000054 |title=Culinary Nutrition |pages=189–230 |year=2013 |access-date=13 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180626042414/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780123918826000054 |url-status=live |publisher=Elsevier |language=en |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-391882-6.00005-4 |isbn=978-0-12-391882-6 |archive-date=26 June 2018}}</ref> One {{Convert|4|oz|g|adj=on}} steak, chicken breast or pork chop contains about 30 grams of protein. One large egg has 7 grams of protein. A {{Convert|4|oz|g|adj=on}} serving of cheese has about 15 grams of protein. And 1 cup of milk has about 8 grams of protein.<ref name=":9" /> Other nutrients found in animal products include calories, fat, essential vitamins (including B12) and minerals (including zinc, iron, calcium, magnesium).<ref name=":9" /> | |||
At the start of the 21st century, a two-tier structure has arisen, with a few international food processing giants controlling a wide range of well-known food ]s. There also exists a wide array of small local or national food processing companies.<ref>Hannaford</ref> Advanced ] have also come to change food manufacture. ]-based ], sophisticated ] and ] methods, and ] and ] advances, can enhance product ], improve ], and reduce costs.<ref name=Jango /> | |||
Food products produced by animals include milk produced by ], which in many cultures is drunk or processed into ]s (cheese, butter, etc.). ] laid by birds and other animals are eaten and ]s produce ], a reduced ] from flowers that is used as a popular sweetener in many cultures. Some cultures ], such as in ], as a thickener for sauces, or in a ], ] form for times of food scarcity, and others use blood in stews such as ].<ref>Davidson, 81–82.</ref> | |||
==Commercial trade== | |||
===International exports and imports=== | |||
] | |||
] reported that the EU was the top food importer in 2005 followed at a distance by the USA and Japan. Food is now ]d and marketed on a global basis. The variety and availability of food is no longer restricted by the diversity of locally grown food or the limitations of the local growing ].<ref>The Economic Research Service of the ]</ref> Between 1961 and 1999 there has been a 400% increase in worldwide food ]s.<ref>Regmi</ref> Some countries are now economically dependent on food exports, which in some cases account for over 80% of all exports.<ref>]</ref> | |||
==Taste== | |||
In 1994 over 100 countries became signatories to the ] of the ] in a dramatic increase in ]. This included an agreement to reduce subsidies paid to farmers, underpinned by the ] enforcement of ], ], import ]s and settlement of trade disputes that cannot be bilaterally resolved.<ref>World Trade Organization, The Uruguay Round</ref> Where trade barriers are raised on the disputed grounds of public health and safety, the WTO refer the dispute to the ] Commission, which was founded in 1962 by the ] ] and the World Health Organization. Trade liberalization has greatly affected world food trade.<ref>Van den Bossche</ref> | |||
{{Main|Taste}} | |||
Animals, specifically humans, typically have five different types of tastes: ], ], ], ], and ]. The differing tastes are important for distinguishing between foods that are nutritionally beneficial and those which may contain harmful toxins.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal |last1=Yarmolinsky |first1=David A. |last2=Zuker |first2=Charles S. |last3=Ryba |first3=Nicholas J.P. |date=16 October 2009 |title=Common Sense about Taste: From Mammals to Insects |journal=Cell |volume=139 |issue=2 |pages=234–244 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2009.10.001 |issn=0092-8674 |pmc=3936514 |pmid=19837029}}</ref> As animals have ], the tastes that provide the most energy are the most pleasant to eat while others are not enjoyable,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Evolution of taste receptor may have shaped human sensitivity to toxic compounds |url=http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/28063.php |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100927120914/http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/28063.php |archive-date=27 September 2010 |access-date=29 May 2015 |website=Medical News Today}}</ref> although humans in particular can acquire a preference for some substances which are initially unenjoyable.<ref name=":10" /> Water, while important for survival, has no taste.<ref>{{Cite news |date=3 April 2004 |title=Why does pure water have no taste or colour? |work=The Times of India |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/598799.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151230042140/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/598799.cms |archive-date=30 December 2015}}</ref> | |||
===Marketing and retailing=== | |||
]]] | |||
Sweetness is almost always caused by a type of simple sugar such as ] or ], or ] such as ], a molecule combining glucose and fructose.<ref name="New Oxford American Dictionary">New Oxford American Dictionary</ref> Sourness is caused by ]s, such as vinegar in alcoholic beverages. Sour foods include citrus, specifically lemons and ]. Sour is evolutionarily significant as it can signal a food that may have gone ] due to bacteria.<ref>States "having an acid taste like lemon or vinegar: she sampled the wine and found it was sour. (of food, esp. milk) spoiled because of fermentation." New Oxford American Dictionary</ref> Saltiness is the taste of ] ] such as ] and potassium. It is found in almost every food in low to moderate proportions to enhance flavor. Bitter taste is a sensation considered unpleasant characterised by having a sharp, pungent taste. Unsweetened dark chocolate, ], lemon rind, and some types of fruit are known to be bitter. Umami, commonly described as savory, is a marker of proteins and characteristic of broths and cooked meats.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Fleming |first=Amy |date=9 April 2013 |title=Umami: why the fifth taste is so important |url=http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2013/apr/09/umami-fifth-taste |access-date=5 January 2023 |website=The Guardian |language=en}}</ref> Foods that have a strong umami flavor include cheese, meat and mushrooms.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilson |first=Kimberley |date=9 December 2022 |title=Food aversion: A psychologist reveals why you hate some foods, but could learn to love them |url=https://www.sciencefocus.com/news/food-aversions/ |access-date=5 January 2023 |website=BBC Science Focus Magazine |language=en}}</ref> | |||
] brings together the producer and the consumer. It is the chain of activities that brings food from "farm gate to plate."<ref>Wansink, ''],'' 501-3.</ref> The marketing of even a single food product can be a complicated process involving many producers and companies. For example, fifty-six companies are involved in making one ] of chicken noodle soup. These businesses include not only chicken and vegetable processors but also the companies that transport the ingredients and those who print labels and manufacture cans.<ref>Smith, 501-3.</ref> The food marketing system is the largest direct and indirect non-government employer in the United States. | |||
] | |||
In the pre-modern era, the sale of surplus food took place once a week when farmers took their wares on market day, into the local ] ]. Here food was sold to ]s for sale in their local shops for purchase by local consumers.<ref name = "silhnc"/><ref name=Jango /> With the onset of industrialization, and the development of the food processing industry, a wider range of food could be sold and distributed in distant locations. Typically early grocery shops would be ]-based shops, in which purchasers told the shop-keeper what they wanted, so that the shop-keeper could get it for them.<ref name = "silhnc"/><ref>Benson</ref> | |||
While most animals taste buds are located in their mouth, some insects taste receptors are located on their legs and some fish have taste buds along their entire body.<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 September 2018 |title=Some Insects Taste With Their Feet and Hear With Their Wings |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/insects-butterflies-anatomy-senses-animals |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303123540/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/insects-butterflies-anatomy-senses-animals |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 March 2021 |access-date=5 January 2023 |website=National Geographic |first1=Liz |last1=Langley |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{Cite journal |last=Kasumyan |first=Alexander O. |date=10 April 2019 |title=The taste system in fishes and the effects of environmental variables |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |language=en |volume=95 |issue=1 |pages=155–178 |doi=10.1111/jfb.13940 |issn=0022-1112 |pmid=30793305 |bibcode=2019JFBio..95..155K |s2cid=73470487|doi-access=free |s2cid-access=free }}</ref> Dogs, cats and birds have relatively few taste buds (chickens have about 30),<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |last=Gary |first=Stuart |date=12 August 2010 |title=Do animals taste the same things as humans? |url=https://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2010/08/12/2980854.htm |access-date=5 January 2023 |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation Science |language=en-AU}}</ref> adult humans have between 2000 and 4000,<ref>{{Cite book |chapter-url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279408/ |chapter=How does our sense of taste work? |date=17 August 2016 |publisher=Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care |title=InformedHealth.org |language=en |via=NCBI |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240110232958/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279408/ |archive-date= Jan 10, 2024 }}</ref> while ] can have more than a million.<ref name=":11" /> Herbivores generally have more than carnivores as they need to tell which plants may be poisonous.<ref name=":12" /> Not all ]s share the same tastes: some ]s can taste ], cats cannot taste sweetness, and several ] (including ]s, dolphins, and sea lions) have lost the ability to sense up to four of the five taste modalities found in humans.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Scully |first=Simone M. |date=9 June 2014 |title=The Animals That Taste Only Saltiness |url=http://nautil.us/blog/the-animals-that-taste-only-saltiness |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140614013146/http://nautil.us/blog/the-animals-that-taste-only-saltiness |archive-date=14 June 2014 |access-date=8 August 2014 |website=Nautilus}}</ref> | |||
In the 20th century ]s were born. Supermarkets brought with them a ] approach to shopping using ]s, and were able to offer quality food at lower cost through ] and reduced staffing costs. In the latter part of the 20th century, this has been further revolutionized by the development of vast ]-sized out-of-town supermarkets, selling a wide range of food from around the world.<ref>Humphery</ref> | |||
==Digestion== | |||
Unlike food processors, food retailing is a two-tier market in which a small number of very large ] control a large proportion of supermarkets. The supermarket giants wield great purchasing power over farmers and processors, and strong influence over consumers. Nevertheless, less than ten percent of consumer spending on food goes to farmers, with larger percentages going to ], ], and intermediate corporations.<ref>Magdoff, Fred (Ed.) "he farmer's share of the food dollar (after paying for input costs) has steadily declined from about 40 percent in 1910 to less than 10 percent in 1990."</ref> | |||
{{Main|Digestion}} | |||
Food is broken into nutrient components through digestive process.<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 June 2022 |title=Digestion: Anatomy, physiology, and chemistry |url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/320014 |access-date=6 January 2023 |website=Medical News Today |language=en}}</ref> Proper digestion consists of mechanical processes (], ]) and chemical processes (]s and ]).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Patricia |first1=Justin J. |last2=Dhamoon |first2=Amit S. |year=2022 |title=Physiology, Digestion |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK544242/ |access-date=6 January 2023 |website=StatPearls |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |place=Treasure Island (FL) |pmid=31334962}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Inman |first=Mason |date=20 December 2011 |title=How Bacteria Turn Fiber into Food |journal=PLOS Biology |volume=9 |issue=12 |pages=e1001227 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001227 |issn=1544-9173 |pmc=3243711 |pmid=22205880 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The digestive systems of herbivores and carnivores are very different as plant matter is harder to digest. Carnivores mouths are designed for tearing and biting compared to the grinding action found in herbivores.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Herbivore {{!}} National Geographic Society |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/herbivore/ |access-date=6 January 2023 |website=education.nationalgeographic.org}}</ref> Herbivores however have comparatively longer digestive tracts and larger stomachs to aid in digesting the cellulose in plants.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=De Cuyper |first1=Annelies |last2=Meloro |first2=Carlo |last3=Abraham |first3=Andrew J. |last4=Müller |first4=Dennis W. H. |last5=Codron |first5=Daryl |last6=Janssens |first6=Geert P. J. |last7=Clauss |first7=Marcus |date=1 May 2020 |title=The uneven weight distribution between predators and prey: Comparing gut fill between terrestrial herbivores and carnivores |journal=Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology |language=en |volume=243 |pages=110683 |doi=10.1016/j.cbpa.2020.110683 |issn=1095-6433 |pmid=32097716 |doi-access=free|hdl=1854/LU-8656684 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fujimori |first=Shunji |date=7 December 2021 |title=Humans have intestinal bacteria that degrade the plant cell walls in herbivores |journal=World Journal of Gastroenterology |volume=27 |issue=45 |pages=7784–7791 |doi=10.3748/wjg.v27.i45.7784 |issn=1007-9327 |pmc=8661373 |pmid=34963741 |doi-access=free }}</ref> | |||
===Prices=== | |||
Consumers worldwide faced rising food prices, it was reported on ] ]. Reasons for this development are freak weather, dramatic changes in the ], including higher ]s, lower food reserves and growing consumer demand in ] and ]. In the long term, prices are expected to stabilize. Farmers will grow more ] for both ] and food and eventually bring prices down. Already this is happening with ], with more ] to be planted in the ], ] and ] in ]. However, the ] projects that consumers still face at least until ] more expensive food. It is rare that the spikes are hitting all major foods in most countries at once. Food prices rose 4 percent in the United States ], the highest rise since ], and are expected to climb as much again ]. As of ], 37 countries faced food crises, and 20 had imposed some sort of food-price controls. In China, the price of ] has jumped 58 percent in ]. In the ]s and ]s, farm subsidies and support programs allowed major grain exporting countries to hold large surpluses, which could be tapped during food shortages to keep prices down. But new trade policies have made agricultural production much more responsive to market demands -- putting global food reserves at their lowest since ].<ref>CNN "[Food prices rising across the world" 24 March 2008</ref> | |||
==Food safety== | |||
Food prices are rising, wealthier Asian consumers are westernizing their diets, and farmers and nations of the third world are struggling to keep up the pace. The past five years have seen rapid growth in the contribution of Asian nations to the Global Fluid and Powdered Milk Manufacturing industry, which in 2008 accounts for more than 30% of production, while China alone accounts for more than 10% of both production and consumption in the Global Fruit and Vegetable Processing and Preserving industry. The trend is similarly evident in industries such as Soft Drink and Bottled Water Manufacturing, as well as Global Cocoa, Chocolate and sugar Confectionery Manufacturing, forecast to grow by 5.7% and 10.0% respectively during 2008 in response to soaring demand in China and Southeast Asian markets <ref>, ''IBISWorld''</ref>. | |||
==Famine and hunger== | |||
] ] of 2004 celebrating the World Food Programme]] | |||
Food deprivation leads to malnutrition and ultimately ]. This is often connected with ], which involves the absence of food in entire communities. This can have a devastating and widespread effect on human health and mortality. ] is sometimes used to distribute food in times of shortage, most notably during times of war.<ref name="Messer" /> | |||
Starvation is a significant international problem. Approximately 815 million people are undernourished, and over 16,000 children die per day from hunger-related causes.<ref>]</ref> Food deprivation is regarded as a deficit need in ] and is measured using ].<ref>Howe, 353-372</ref> | |||
===Food aid=== | |||
] can benefit people suffering from a shortage of food. It can be used to improve peoples' lives in the short term, so that a society can increase its standard of living to the point that food aid is no longer required.<ref>World Food Programme</ref> Conversely, badly managed food aid can create problems by disrupting local markets, depressing crop prices, and discouraging food production. Sometimes a cycle of food aid dependence can develop.<ref>Shah</ref> Its provision, or threatened withdrawal, is sometimes used as a political tool to influence the policies of the destination country, a strategy known as ]. Sometimes, food aid provisions will require certain types of food be purchased from certain sellers, and food aid can be misused to enhance the markets of donor countries.<ref>Kripke</ref> International efforts to distribute food to the neediest countries are often co-ordinated by the ].<ref>United Nations World Food program</ref> | |||
==Safety== | |||
{{Main|Food safety}} | {{Main|Food safety}} | ||
] | |||
], commonly called "food poisoning," is caused by ], ]s, ]es, ]s, and ]s. Roughly 7 million people die of food poisoning each year, with about 10 times as many suffering from a non-fatal version.<ref name=MedlinePlus>], MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia</ref> The two most common factors leading to cases of bacterial foodborne illness are cross-contamination of ready-to-eat food from other uncooked foods and improper temperature control. Less commonly, acute adverse reactions can also occur if chemical contamination of food occurs, for example from improper storage, or use of non-food grade soaps and disinfectants. Food can also be adulterated by a very wide range of articles (known as 'foreign bodies') during farming, manufacture, cooking, packaging, distribution or sale. These foreign bodies can include pests or their droppings, hairs, cigarette butts, wood chips, and all manner of other contaminants. It is possible for certain types of food to become contaminated if stored or presented in an unsafe container, such as a ceramic pot with lead-based glaze.<ref name=MedlinePlus /> | |||
] | |||
According to the ] (WHO), about 600 million people worldwide get sick and 420,000 die each year from eating contaminated food.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hơn 600 triệu người mắc bệnh do ăn phải các thực phẩm ô nhiễm - Chương trình mục tiêu quốc gia - Cổng thông tin Bộ Y tế |url=https://moh.gov.vn/chuong-trinh-muc-tieu-quoc-gia/-/asset_publisher/7ng11fEWgASC/content/hon-600-trieu-nguoi-mac-benh-do-an-phai-cac-thuc-pham-o-nhiem?inheritRedirect=false |access-date=2023-12-26 |website=moh.gov.vn}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=An toàn Thực phẩm |url=https://www.who.int/vietnam/vi/health-topics/food-safety |access-date=2023-12-26 |website=www.who.int |language=vi}}</ref> ] is the most common illness caused by consuming contaminated food, with about 550 million cases and 230,000 deaths from diarrhea each year. Children under five years of age account for 40% of the burden of foodborne illness, with 125,000 deaths each year.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=WHO: Các bệnh do thực phẩm ở trẻ em dưới 5 tuổi chiếm gần một phần ba số ca tử vong - Chương trình mục tiêu quốc gia - Cổng thông tin Bộ Y tế |url=https://moh.gov.vn/chuong-trinh-muc-tieu-quoc-gia/-/asset_publisher/7ng11fEWgASC/content/who-cac-benh-do-thuc-pham-o-tre-em-duoi-5-tuoi-chiem-gan-mot-phan-ba-so-ca-tu-vong?inheritRedirect=false |access-date=2023-12-26 |website=moh.gov.vn}}</ref> | |||
] has been recognized as a disease of man since as early as Hippocrates.<ref>], ].</ref> The sale of ], contaminated or adulterated food was commonplace until introduction of ], refrigeration, and ] controls in the 19th century. Discovery of techniques for killing ] using ] and other ] studies by scientists such as ] contributed to the modern sanitation standards that are ubiquitous in developed nations today. This was further underpinned by the work of ], which led to the development of modern ] and ] methods.<ref>Magner, 243-498</ref> In more recent years, a greater understanding of the causes of food-borne illnesses has led to the development of more systematic approaches such as the ] (]), which can identify and eliminate many risks.<ref>USDA</ref> | |||
A 2003 ] (WHO) report concluded that about 30% of reported ] outbreaks in the WHO European Region occur in private homes.<ref>{{cite web |date=2003-12-16 |title=Several foodborne diseases are increasing in Europe |url=http://www.euro.who.int/eprise/main/who/mediacentre/PR/2003/20031212_2 |publisher=World Health Organization |access-date=26 December 2023 |archive-date=16 April 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050416103540/http://www.euro.who.int/eprise/main/who/mediacentre/PR/2003/20031212_2 |url-status=dead }}</ref> According to the WHO and ], in the USA alone, annually, there are 76 million cases of foodborne illness leading to 325,000 hospitalizations and 5,000 deaths.<ref>{{cite web |title=Food safety and foodborne illness |url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs237/en/ |access-date=2010-12-10 |publisher=World Health Organization |archive-date=27 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127074439/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs237/en/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> | |||
===Allergies=== | |||
{{main|food allergy}} | |||
From 2011 to 2016, on average, there were 668,673 cases of foodborne illness and 21 deaths each year.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-06-05 |title=Hơn 5.000 người bị ngộ độc thực phẩm mỗi năm |url=https://nhandan.vn/post-294510.html |access-date=2023-12-26 |website=Báo Nhân Dân điện tử |language=vi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-06-06 |title=Chỉ 10% số người dân tin vào thực phẩm an toàn |url=https://laodong.vn/chinh-tri/chi-10-so-nguoi-dan-tin-vao-thuc-pham-an-toan-514268.ldo |access-date=2023-12-26 |website=laodong.vn |language=vi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Tran |first=Lanh |title=Dịch vụ nhận đặc tiệc tại nhà 24h |url=https://dattiectainha24h.vn/ |access-date=2023-12-26 |website=yte.nghean.gov.vn |language=vi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Cảnh giác ngộ độc thực phẩm từ bếp ăn tập thể - Hoạt động của địa phương - Cổng thông tin Bộ Y tế |url=https://moh.gov.vn/hoat-dong-cua-dia-phuong/-/asset_publisher/gHbla8vOQDuS/content/canh-giac-ngo-oc-thuc-pham-tu-bep-an-tap-the?inheritRedirect=false |access-date=2023-12-26 |website=moh.gov.vn}}</ref> In addition, during this period, 1,007 food poisoning outbreaks with 30,395 cases of food poisoning were reported.<ref name=":3" /> | |||
Some people have ] or sensitivities to foods which are not problematic to most people. This occurs when a person's ] mistakes a certain food protein for a harmful foreign agent and attacks it. About 2% of adults and 8% of children have a food allergy.<ref name=allergy>]</ref> The amount of the food substance required to provoke a reaction in a particularly susceptible individual can be quite small. In some instances, traces of food in the air, too minute to be perceived through smell, have been known to provoke lethal reactions in extremely sensitive individuals. Common food allergens are ], ], ] (mollusks), ]s, and ].<ref name=allergy /> Allergens frequently produce symptoms such as ], ]es, bloating, ]ing, and ]. The digestive complaints usually develop within half an hour of ingesting the ].<ref name=allergy /> | |||
Rarely, food allergies can lead to a ], such as ], ] (low blood pressure), and loss of consciousness. An allergen associated with this type of reaction is ], although ] products can induce similar reactions.<ref name=allergy /> Initial treatment is with ] (adrenaline), often carried by known patients in the form of an ].<ref>, Epipen.com</ref> | |||
==Diet== | |||
]) from ] province, China]] | |||
{{main|Diet (nutrition)}} | |||
===Cultural and religious diets=== | |||
Dietary habits are the habitual decisions a person or culture makes when choosing what foods to eat.<ref name=Wansink>Wansink, '']''</ref> Although humans are omnivores, many cultures hold some food preferences and some food ]s. Dietary choices can also define cultures and play a role in religion. For example, only ] are permitted by ], and ]/] by ], in the diet of believers.<ref>Simoons</ref> In addition, the dietary choices of different countries or regions have different characteristics. This is highly related to a culture's ]. | |||
] | |||
===Diet deficiencies === | |||
Dietary habits play a significant role in the ] and ] of all humans. Imbalances between the consumed fuels and expended energy results in either starvation or excessive reserves of ] tissue, known as body fat.<ref>Nicklas</ref> Poor intake of various vitamins and minerals can lead to ] which can have far-reaching effects on health. For instance, 30% of the world's population either has, or is at risk for developing, ].<ref>Merson, 245</ref> It is estimated that at least 3 million children are blind due to ] deficiency.<ref>Merson, 231.</ref> ] deficiency results in ].<ref>Merson, 464.</ref> ], ] and ] are inter-related; the consumption of each may affect the absorption of the others. ] and ] are childhood disorders caused by lack of dietary protein.<ref>Merson, 224.</ref> | |||
===Moral, ethical, and health conscious diet=== | |||
Many individuals limit what foods they eat for reasons of morality, or other habit. For instance ]s choose to forgo food from animal sources to varying degrees. Others choose a healthier diet, avoiding sugars or animal fats and increasing consumption of dietary fiber and ]s.<ref>Carpenter</ref> ], a serious problem in the western world, leads to higher chances of developing ], ], and many other diseases.<ref>Merson, 266-268.</ref> More recently, dietary habits have been influenced by the concerns that some people have about possible impacts on health or the environment from ].<ref>Parekh,187-206.</ref> Further concerns about the impact of industrial farming (]) on ], human health and the ] are also having an effect on contemporary human dietary habits. This has led to the emergence of a ] with a preference for ] and ].<ref>Schor</ref> | |||
== Nutrition == | |||
] ]]] | |||
Between the extremes of optimal health and death from ] or ], there is an array of disease states that can be caused or alleviated by changes in diet. Deficiencies, excesses and imbalances in diet can produce negative impacts on health, which may lead to diseases such as ], ] or ], as well as psychological and behavioral problems. The science of nutrition attempts to understand how and why specific dietary aspects influence health. | |||
Nutrients in food are grouped into several categories. Macronutrients means fat, protein, and carbohydrates. Micronutrients are the ] and ]. Additionally food contains water and ]. | |||
==Legal definition== | |||
Some countries list a legal definition of food. These countries list food as any item that is to be processed, partially processed or unprocessed for consumption. The listing of items included as foodstuffs include any substance, intended to be, or reasonably expected to be, ingested by ]s. In addition to these foodstuffs ], ], ] or other items processed into said food items are part of the legal definition of food. Items not included in the legal definition of food include ], live animals unless being prepared for sale in a ], plants prior to ], medicinal products, ], ] and tobacco products, ] or ]s, and residues and ]s.<ref>] ]</ref> | |||
==See also== | ==See also== | ||
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==References== | ||
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===Further reading=== | |||
{{col-2}} | |||
* Collingham, E. M. (2011). ''The Taste of War: World War Two and the Battle for Food'' | |||
{{commons|food}} | |||
* Katz, Solomon (2003). ''The Encyclopedia of Food and Culture'', Scribner | |||
{{wikibooks|Cookbook}} | |||
* Mobbs, Michael (2012). ''Sustainable Food'' Sydney: NewSouth Publishing, {{ISBN|978-1-920705-54-1}} | |||
{{col-end}} | |||
* Nestle, Marion (2007). ''Food Politics: How the Food Industry Influences Nutrition and Health'', University Presses of California, revised and expanded edition, {{ISBN|0-520-25403-1}} | |||
* (2015). A panel discussion at the 2015 ''] (DLD)'' Annual Conference. "How can we grow and enjoy food, closer to home, further into the future? '']'s'' Kevin Slavin hosts a conversation with food artist, educator, and entrepreneur Emilie Baltz, professor Caleb Harper from ''MIT Media Lab's'' CityFarm project, the Barbarian Group's Benjamin Palmer, and Andras Forgacs, the co-founder and CEO of ''Modern Meadow'', who is growing 'victimless' meat in a lab. The discussion addresses issues of sustainable ], ecosystems, technology, food supply chains and their broad environmental and humanitarian implications, and how these changes in food production may change what people may find delicious ... and the other way around." Posted on the official YouTube Channel of '']'' | |||
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==External links== | ||
{{Wikibooks|Cookbook}} | |||
<div class="references-small"> | |||
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*Aguilera, Jose Miguel and David W. Stanley. ''Microstructural Principles of Food Processing and Engineering''. Springer, 1999. ISBN 0-8342-1256-0. | |||
* {{Commons-inline|food}} | |||
*Asado Argentina. ''About Asado Argentina''. Retrieved from http://www.asadoargentina.com/about-asado-argentina/ on 2007-05-28. | |||
*{{Wikivoyage-inline}} | |||
*Campbell, Bernard Grant. ''Human Evolution: An Introduction to Man's Adaptations''. Aldine Transaction: 1998. ISBN 0-202-02042-8. | |||
*{{Wikisource-inline|search=Food}} | |||
*Carpenter, Ruth Ann; Finley, Carrie E. ''Healthy Eating Every Day''. Human Kinetics, 2005. ISBN 0-7360-5186-4. | |||
* {{Wiktionary-inline}} | |||
*Davidson, Alan. ''The Oxford Companion to Food''. 2nd ed. UK: Oxford University Press, 2006. | |||
* {{official website|http://www.foodtimeline.org/}} of Food Timeline | |||
*Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. ''The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2005''. . Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/a0200e/a0200e00.htm on 2006-09-29. | |||
* , BBC Radio 4 discussion with Rebecca Spang, Ivan Day and Felipe Fernandez-Armesto ('']'', 27 December 2001) | |||
*Hannaford, Steve. ''Oligopoly Watch: Top 20 world food companies''. Retrieved from http://www.oligopolywatch.com/2005/10/06.html on 2006-09-23. | |||
*Howe, P. and S. Devereux. ''Famine Intensity and Magnitude Scales: A Proposal for an Instrumental Definition of Famine''. 2004. | |||
*Humphery, Kim. ''Shelf Life: Supermarkets and the Changing Cultures of Consumption''. Cambridge University Press, 1998. ISBN 0-521-62630-7. | |||
*Jango-Cohen, Judith. ''The History Of Food''. Twenty-First Century Books, 2005. ISBN 0-8225-2484-8. | |||
*Jurgens, Marshall H. ''Animal Feeding and Nutrition''. Kendall Hunt, 2001. ISBN 0-7872-7839-4. | |||
*Kripke, Gawain. ''Food aid or hidden dumping?''. Oxfam International,March 2005. Retrieved from http://www.oxfam.org/en/policy/briefingpapers/bp71_food_aid_240305 on 2007-05-26. | |||
*Lawrie, Stephen; R A Lawrie. Lawrie's Meat Science. Woodhead Publishing: 1998. ISBN 1-85573-395-1. | |||
*Magdoff, Fred; Foster, John Bellamy; and Buttel, Frederick H. ''Hungry for Profit: The Agribusiness Threat to Farmers, Food, and the Environment''. September 2000. ISBN 1-58367-016-5. | |||
*Mason, John. ''Sustainable Agriculture''. Landlinks Press: 2003. ISBN 0-643-06876-7. | |||
*Merson, Michael H.; Black, Robert E.; Mills, Anne J. ''International Public Health: Disease, Programs, Systems, and Policies''. Jones and Bartlett Publishers, 2005. | |||
*McGee, Harold. ''On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen''. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2004. ISBN 0-684-80001-2. | |||
*Mead, Margaret.'' The Changing Significance of Food''. In Carole Counihan and Penny Van Esterik (Ed.), Food and Culture: A Reader. UK: Routledge, 1997. ISBN 0-415-91710-7. | |||
*Messer, Ellen; Derose, Laurie Fields and Sara Millman. ''Who's Hungry? and How Do We Know?: Food Shortage, Poverty, and Deprivation''. United Nations University Press, 1998. ISBN 92-808-0985-7. | |||
*National Institute of Health. ''Food poisoning''. MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia F. ], ]. Retrieved from http://www.niaid.nih.gov/publications/pdf/foodallergy.pdf on 2006-09-29. | |||
*Nicklas, Barbara J. ''Endurance Exercise and Adipose Tissue''. CRC Press, 2002. ISBN 0-8493-0460-1. | |||
*Parekh, Sarad R. ''The Gmo Handbook: Genetically Modified Animals, Microbes, and Plants in Biotechnology''. Humana Press,2004. ISBN 1-58829-307-6. | |||
*Regmi, Anita (editor).''Changing Structure of Global Food Consumption and Trade''. Market and Trade Economics Division, Economic Research Service, USDA, ], ]. stock #ERSWRS01-1. | |||
*Schor, Juliet; Taylor, Betsy (editors). ''Sustainable Planet: Roadmaps for the Twenty-First Century''. Beacon Press, 2003. ISBN 0-8070-0455-3. | |||
*Shah, Anup. ''Food Dumping (Aid) Maintains Poverty. Causes of Poverty''. Retrieved from http://www.globalissues.org/TradeRelated/Poverty/FoodDumping.asp on 2006-09-29. | |||
*Simoons, Frederick J. ''Eat Not This Flesh: Food Avoidances from Prehistory to the Present''. ISBN 0-299-14250-7. | |||
*Smith, Andrew (Editor). “Food Marketing,” in Oxford Encyclopedia of American Food and Drink, , New York: Oxford University Press, 2007. | |||
*The Economic Research Service of the USDA. ''Global Food Markets: Briefing Rooms''. Retrieved from http://www.ers.usda.gov/Briefing/ on 2006-09-29. | |||
*United Kingdom Office of Public Sector Information. ''Food Safety Act 1990 (c. 16)''. Retrieved from http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts1990/Ukpga_19900016_en_2.htm#mdiv1 on 2006-11-08. | |||
*United States Department of Agriculture, USDA Economic Research Service: The Economics of Food, Farming, Natural Resources, and Rural America. ''"Briefing Rooms, Food CPI, Prices and Expenditures: Food Expenditure Tables"''. Retrieved from http://www.ers.usda.gov/briefing/CPIFoodAndExpenditures/Data/ on 2007-06-06. | |||
*Van den Bossche, Peter. ''The Law and Policy of the bosanac Trade Organization: Text, Cases and Materials''. UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-521-82290-4. | |||
*World Food Programme. ''Breaking out of the Poverty Trap: How We Use Food Aid''. Retrieved from http://www.wfp.org/food_aid/introduction/index.asp?section=12&sub_section=1 on 2006-09-29. | |||
*World Health Organization. ''WHO Global Database on Child Growth and Malnutrition''. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/nutgrowthdb/en/ on 2006-09-29. | |||
*World Trade Organization. ''The Uruguay Round''. Retrieved from http://www.wto.org/trade_resources/history/wto/urug_round.htm on 2006-09-29. | |||
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Latest revision as of 21:32, 20 December 2024
Substance consumed for nutrition This article is about food for all organisms. For food for humans, see Human food. For other uses, see Food (disambiguation). "Foodstuffs" redirects here. For the New Zealand grocery company, see Foodstuffs (company).
Food is any substance consumed by an organism for nutritional support. Food is usually of plant, animal, or fungal origin and contains essential nutrients such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals. The substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the organism's cells to provide energy, maintain life, or stimulate growth. Different species of animals have different feeding behaviours that satisfy the needs of their metabolisms and have evolved to fill a specific ecological niche within specific geographical contexts.
Omnivorous humans are highly adaptable and have adapted to obtain food in many different ecosystems. Humans generally use cooking to prepare food for consumption. The majority of the food energy required is supplied by the industrial food industry, which produces food through intensive agriculture and distributes it through complex food processing and food distribution systems. This system of conventional agriculture relies heavily on fossil fuels, which means that the food and agricultural systems are one of the major contributors to climate change, accounting for as much as 37% of total greenhouse gas emissions.
The food system has significant impacts on a wide range of other social and political issues, including sustainability, biological diversity, economics, population growth, water supply, and food security. Food safety and security are monitored by international agencies like the International Association for Food Protection, the World Resources Institute, the World Food Programme, the Food and Agriculture Organization, and the International Food Information Council.
Definition and classification
Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support and energy to an organism. It can be raw, processed, or formulated and is consumed orally by animals for growth, health, or pleasure. Food is mainly composed of water, lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates. Minerals (e.g., salts) and organic substances (e.g., vitamins) can also be found in food. Plants, algae, and some microorganisms use photosynthesis to make some of their own nutrients. Water is found in many foods and has been defined as a food by itself. Water and fiber have low energy densities, or calories, while fat is the most energy-dense component. Some inorganic (non-food) elements are also essential for plant and animal functioning.
Human food can be classified in various ways, either by related content or by how it is processed. The number and composition of food groups can vary. Most systems include four basic groups that describe their origin and relative nutritional function: Vegetables and Fruit, Cereals and Bread, Dairy, and Meat. Studies that look into diet quality group food into whole grains/cereals, refined grains/cereals, vegetables, fruits, nuts, legumes, eggs, dairy products, fish, red meat, processed meat, and sugar-sweetened beverages. The Food and Agriculture Organization and World Health Organization use a system with nineteen food classifications: cereals, roots, pulses and nuts, milk, eggs, fish and shellfish, meat, insects, vegetables, fruits, fats and oils, sweets and sugars, spices and condiments, beverages, foods for nutritional uses, food additives, composite dishes and savoury snacks.
Food sources
In a given ecosystem, food forms a web of interlocking chains with primary producers at the bottom and apex predators at the top. Other aspects of the web include detrovores (that eat detritis) and decomposers (that break down dead organisms). Primary producers include algae, plants, bacteria and protists that acquire their energy from sunlight. Primary consumers are the herbivores that consume the plants, and secondary consumers are the carnivores that consume those herbivores. Some organisms, including most mammals and birds, diet consists of both animals and plants, and they are considered omnivores. The chain ends with the apex predators, the animals that have no known predators in its ecosystem. Humans are considered apex predators.
Humans are omnivores, finding sustenance in vegetables, fruits, cooked meat, milk, eggs, mushrooms and seaweed. Cereal grain is a staple food that provides more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop. Corn (maize), wheat, and rice account for 87% of all grain production worldwide. Just over half of the world's crops are used to feed humans (55 percent), with 36 percent grown as animal feed and 9 percent for biofuels. Fungi and bacteria are also used in the preparation of fermented foods like bread, wine, cheese and yogurt.
Photosynthesis
During photosynthesis, energy from the sun is absorbed and used to transform water and carbon dioxide in the air or soil into oxygen and glucose. The oxygen is then released, and the glucose stored as an energy reserve. Photosynthetic plants, algae and certain bacteria often represent the lowest point of the food chains, making photosynthesis the primary source of energy and food for nearly all life on earth.
Plants also absorb important nutrients and minerals from the air, natural waters, and soil. Carbon, oxygen and hydrogen are absorbed from the air or water and are the basic nutrients needed for plant survival. The three main nutrients absorbed from the soil for plant growth are nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, with other important nutrients including calcium, sulfur, magnesium, iron boron, chlorine, manganese, zinc, copper molybdenum and nickel.
Microorganisms
Bacteria and other microorganisms also form the lower rungs of the food chain. They obtain their energy from photosynthesis or by breaking down dead organisms, waste or chemical compounds. Some form symbiotic relationships with other organisms to obtain their nutrients. Bacteria provide a source of food for protozoa, who in turn provide a source of food for other organisms such as small invertebrates. Other organisms that feed on bacteria include nematodes, fan worms, shellfish and a species of snail.
In the marine environment, plankton (which includes bacteria, archaea, algae, protozoa and microscopic fungi) provide a crucial source of food to many small and large aquatic organisms.
Without bacteria, life would scarcely exist because bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into nutritious ammonia. Ammonia is the precursor to proteins, nucleic acids, and most vitamins. Since the advent of industrial process for nitrogen fixation, the Haber-Bosch Process, the majority of ammonia in the world is human-made.
Plants
Plants as a food source are divided into seeds, fruits, vegetables, legumes, grains and nuts. Where plants fall within these categories can vary, with botanically described fruits such as the tomato, squash, pepper and eggplant or seeds like peas commonly considered vegetables. Food is a fruit if the part eaten is derived from the reproductive tissue, so seeds, nuts and grains are technically fruit. From a culinary perspective, fruits are generally considered the remains of botanically described fruits after grains, nuts, seeds and fruits used as vegetables are removed. Grains can be defined as seeds that humans eat or harvest, with cereal grains (oats, wheat, rice, corn, barley, rye, sorghum and millet) belonging to the Poaceae (grass) family and pulses coming from the Fabaceae (legume) family. Whole grains are foods that contain all the elements of the original seed (bran, germ, and endosperm). Nuts are dry fruits, distinguishable by their woody shell.
Fleshy fruits (distinguishable from dry fruits like grain, seeds and nuts) can be further classified as stone fruits (cherries and peaches), pome fruits (apples, pears), berries (blackberry, strawberry), citrus (oranges, lemon), melons (watermelon, cantaloupe), Mediterranean fruits (grapes, fig), tropical fruits (banana, pineapple). Vegetables refer to any other part of the plant that can be eaten, including roots, stems, leaves, flowers, bark or the entire plant itself. These include root vegetables (potatoes and carrots), bulbs (onion family), flowers (cauliflower and broccoli), leaf vegetables (spinach and lettuce) and stem vegetables (celery and asparagus).
The carbohydrate, protein and lipid content of plants is highly variable. Carbohydrates are mainly in the form of starch, fructose, glucose and other sugars. Most vitamins are found from plant sources, with exceptions of vitamin D and vitamin B12. Minerals can also be plentiful or not. Fruit can consist of up to 90% water, contain high levels of simple sugars that contribute to their sweet taste, and have a high vitamin C content. Compared to fleshy fruit (excepting Bananas) vegetables are high in starch, potassium, dietary fiber, folate and vitamins and low in fat and calories. Grains are more starch based and nuts have a high protein, fibre, vitamin E and B content. Seeds are a good source of food for animals because they are abundant and contain fibre and healthful fats, such as omega-3 fats. Complicated chemical interactions can enhance or depress bioavailability of certain nutrients. Phytates can prevent the release of some sugars and vitamins.
Animals that only eat plants are called herbivores, with those that mostly just eat fruits known as frugivores, leaves, while shoot eaters are folivores (pandas) and wood eaters termed xylophages (termites). Frugivores include a diverse range of species from annelids to elephants, chimpanzees and many birds. About 182 fish consume seeds or fruit. Animals (domesticated and wild) use as many types of grasses that have adapted to different locations as their main source of nutrients.
Humans eat thousands of plant species; there may be as many as 75,000 edible species of angiosperms, of which perhaps 7,000 are often eaten. Plants can be processed into breads, pasta, cereals, juices and jams or raw ingredients such as sugar, herbs, spices and oils can be extracted. Oilseeds are pressed to produce rich oils – sunflower, flaxseed, rapeseed (including canola oil) and sesame.
Many plants and animals have coevolved in such a way that the fruit is a good source of nutrition to the animal who then excretes the seeds some distance away, allowing greater dispersal. Even seed predation can be mutually beneficial, as some seeds can survive the digestion process. Insects are major eaters of seeds, with ants being the only real seed dispersers. Birds, although being major dispersers, only rarely eat seeds as a source of food and can be identified by their thick beak that is used to crack open the seed coat. Mammals eat a more diverse range of seeds, as they are able to crush harder and larger seeds with their teeth.
Animals
Animals are used as food either directly or indirectly. This includes meat, eggs, shellfish and dairy products like milk and cheese. They are an important source of protein and are considered complete proteins for human consumption as they contain all the essential amino acids that the human body needs. One 4-ounce (110 g) steak, chicken breast or pork chop contains about 30 grams of protein. One large egg has 7 grams of protein. A 4-ounce (110 g) serving of cheese has about 15 grams of protein. And 1 cup of milk has about 8 grams of protein. Other nutrients found in animal products include calories, fat, essential vitamins (including B12) and minerals (including zinc, iron, calcium, magnesium).
Food products produced by animals include milk produced by mammary glands, which in many cultures is drunk or processed into dairy products (cheese, butter, etc.). Eggs laid by birds and other animals are eaten and bees produce honey, a reduced nectar from flowers that is used as a popular sweetener in many cultures. Some cultures consume blood, such as in blood sausage, as a thickener for sauces, or in a cured, salted form for times of food scarcity, and others use blood in stews such as jugged hare.
Taste
Main article: TasteAnimals, specifically humans, typically have five different types of tastes: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami. The differing tastes are important for distinguishing between foods that are nutritionally beneficial and those which may contain harmful toxins. As animals have evolved, the tastes that provide the most energy are the most pleasant to eat while others are not enjoyable, although humans in particular can acquire a preference for some substances which are initially unenjoyable. Water, while important for survival, has no taste.
Sweetness is almost always caused by a type of simple sugar such as glucose or fructose, or disaccharides such as sucrose, a molecule combining glucose and fructose. Sourness is caused by acids, such as vinegar in alcoholic beverages. Sour foods include citrus, specifically lemons and limes. Sour is evolutionarily significant as it can signal a food that may have gone rancid due to bacteria. Saltiness is the taste of alkali metal ions such as sodium and potassium. It is found in almost every food in low to moderate proportions to enhance flavor. Bitter taste is a sensation considered unpleasant characterised by having a sharp, pungent taste. Unsweetened dark chocolate, caffeine, lemon rind, and some types of fruit are known to be bitter. Umami, commonly described as savory, is a marker of proteins and characteristic of broths and cooked meats. Foods that have a strong umami flavor include cheese, meat and mushrooms.
While most animals taste buds are located in their mouth, some insects taste receptors are located on their legs and some fish have taste buds along their entire body. Dogs, cats and birds have relatively few taste buds (chickens have about 30), adult humans have between 2000 and 4000, while catfish can have more than a million. Herbivores generally have more than carnivores as they need to tell which plants may be poisonous. Not all mammals share the same tastes: some rodents can taste starch, cats cannot taste sweetness, and several carnivores (including hyenas, dolphins, and sea lions) have lost the ability to sense up to four of the five taste modalities found in humans.
Digestion
Main article: DigestionFood is broken into nutrient components through digestive process. Proper digestion consists of mechanical processes (chewing, peristalsis) and chemical processes (digestive enzymes and microorganisms). The digestive systems of herbivores and carnivores are very different as plant matter is harder to digest. Carnivores mouths are designed for tearing and biting compared to the grinding action found in herbivores. Herbivores however have comparatively longer digestive tracts and larger stomachs to aid in digesting the cellulose in plants.
Food safety
Main article: Food safetyAccording to the World Health Organization (WHO), about 600 million people worldwide get sick and 420,000 die each year from eating contaminated food. Diarrhea is the most common illness caused by consuming contaminated food, with about 550 million cases and 230,000 deaths from diarrhea each year. Children under five years of age account for 40% of the burden of foodborne illness, with 125,000 deaths each year.
A 2003 World Health Organization (WHO) report concluded that about 30% of reported food poisoning outbreaks in the WHO European Region occur in private homes. According to the WHO and CDC, in the USA alone, annually, there are 76 million cases of foodborne illness leading to 325,000 hospitalizations and 5,000 deaths.
From 2011 to 2016, on average, there were 668,673 cases of foodborne illness and 21 deaths each year. In addition, during this period, 1,007 food poisoning outbreaks with 30,395 cases of food poisoning were reported.
See also
References
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Further reading
- Collingham, E. M. (2011). The Taste of War: World War Two and the Battle for Food
- Katz, Solomon (2003). The Encyclopedia of Food and Culture, Scribner
- Mobbs, Michael (2012). Sustainable Food Sydney: NewSouth Publishing, ISBN 978-1-920705-54-1
- Nestle, Marion (2007). Food Politics: How the Food Industry Influences Nutrition and Health, University Presses of California, revised and expanded edition, ISBN 0-520-25403-1
- The Future of Food (2015). A panel discussion at the 2015 Digital Life Design (DLD) Annual Conference. "How can we grow and enjoy food, closer to home, further into the future? MIT Media Lab's Kevin Slavin hosts a conversation with food artist, educator, and entrepreneur Emilie Baltz, professor Caleb Harper from MIT Media Lab's CityFarm project, the Barbarian Group's Benjamin Palmer, and Andras Forgacs, the co-founder and CEO of Modern Meadow, who is growing 'victimless' meat in a lab. The discussion addresses issues of sustainable urban farming, ecosystems, technology, food supply chains and their broad environmental and humanitarian implications, and how these changes in food production may change what people may find delicious ... and the other way around." Posted on the official YouTube Channel of DLD
External links
- Media related to food at Wikimedia Commons
- Food travel guide from Wikivoyage
- Works related to Food at Wikisource
- The dictionary definition of food at Wiktionary
- Official website of Food Timeline
- Food, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Rebecca Spang, Ivan Day and Felipe Fernandez-Armesto (In Our Time, 27 December 2001)