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{{Short description|Substance consumed for nutrition}}
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{{about|food for all organisms|food for humans|Human food|other uses}}
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'''Food''' is any substance that can be consumed for nutritional value and to provide extra energy. Food is the main source of ] and of ] for ]s, and is usually of animal or ] origin. Many ] have a recognizable ], a specific set of ] traditions and practices.
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'''Food''' is any substance consumed by an ] for ] support. Food is usually of plant, animal, or ] origin and contains essential nutrients such as ]s, ]s, ], ]s, or ]. The substance is ] by an organism and assimilated by the organism's ] to provide energy, maintain life, or stimulate growth. Different species of animals have different ] that satisfy the needs of their ]s and have evolved to fill a specific ] within specific geographical contexts.
The study of food is called ]. In ], the term ''food'' is often used ]ically or figuratively, as in ''food for thought''.


] humans are highly adaptable and have adapted to obtain food in many different ecosystems. Humans generally use ] to prepare food for consumption. The majority of the ] required is supplied by the industrial ], which produces food through ] and distributes it through complex ] and ] systems. This system of conventional agriculture relies heavily on ]s, which means that the food and agricultural systems are one of the ], accounting for as much as 37% of total ].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.sapea.info/wp-content/uploads/sustainable-food-system-report.pdf |title=A sustainable food system for the European Union |publisher=Science Advice for Policy by European Academies |year=2020 |isbn=978-3-9820301-7-3 |location=Berlin |page=39 |doi=10.26356/sustainablefood |access-date=14 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418105107/https://www.sapea.info/wp-content/uploads/sustainable-food-system-report.pdf |archive-date=18 April 2020 |doi-access=free|author1=SAPEA }}</ref>
In a broader sense, "food" can refer to anything ]ed that provides ] or ].


The food system has significant impacts on a wide range of other social and political issues, including ], ], ], ], ], and ]. ] and security are monitored by international agencies like the ], the ], the ], the ], and the ].
==Legal definition==
] food law defines four categories of object as food:
*any substance or product, whether processed, partially processed or unprocessed, intended to be, or reasonably expected to be ingested by humans whether of nutritional value or not;
*] and other ]s;
*];
*articles and substances used as an ] in the preparation of food.


==Definition and classification==
Links to official legal definitions of food:
Food is any substance consumed to provide ] support and energy to an ].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Food definition and meaning |url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/food |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501034215/https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/food |archive-date=1 May 2021 |access-date=21 August 2021 |website=Collins English Dictionary |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":6" /> It can be raw, processed, or formulated and is consumed orally by animals for growth, health, or pleasure. Food is mainly composed of water, ]s, ]s, and ]s. Minerals (e.g., salts) and organic substances (e.g., ]s) can also be found in food.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rahman |first1=M. Shafiur |last2=McCarthy |first2=Owen J. |date=July 1999 |title=A classification of food properties |journal=International Journal of Food Properties |language=en |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=93–99 |doi=10.1080/10942919909524593 |issn=1094-2912|doi-access=free }}</ref> Plants, ], and some microorganisms use ] to make some of their own nutrients.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 April 2017 |title=What is Photosynthesis |url=https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/what-photosynthesis |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211203164642/https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/what-photosynthesis |archive-date=3 December 2021 |access-date=3 December 2021 |website=Smithsonian Science Education Center |language=en}}</ref> Water is found in many foods and has been defined as a food by itself.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 February 2020 |title=CPG Sec 555.875 Water in Food Products (Ingredient or Adulterant) |url=https://www.fda.gov/regulatory-information/search-fda-guidance-documents/cpg-sec-555875-water-food-products-ingredient-or-adulterant |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211203164643/https://www.fda.gov/regulatory-information/search-fda-guidance-documents/cpg-sec-555875-water-food-products-ingredient-or-adulterant |archive-date=3 December 2021 |access-date=3 December 2021 |website=U.S. Food and Drug Administration |language=en}}</ref> Water and ] have low energy densities, or ]s, while fat is the most energy-dense component.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=Low-Energy-Dense Foods and Weight Management: Cutting Calories While Controlling Hunger |url=https://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/nutrition/pdf/r2p_energy_density.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211118001657/https://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/nutrition/pdf/r2p_energy_density.pdf |archive-date=18 November 2021 |access-date=3 December 2021 |website=]}}</ref> Some inorganic (non-food) elements are also essential for plant and animal functioning.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zoroddu |first1=Maria Antonietta |last2=Aaseth |first2=Jan |last3=Crisponi |first3=Guido |last4=Medici |first4=Serenella |last5=Peana |first5=Massimiliano |last6=Nurchi |first6=Valeria Marina |date=1 June 2019 |title=The essential metals for humans: a brief overview |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0162013418306846 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry |language=en |volume=195 |pages=120–129 |doi=10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2019.03.013 |issn=0162-0134 |pmid=30939379 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220411181017/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0162013418306846 |archive-date=11 April 2022 |access-date=11 April 2022 |s2cid=92997696}}</ref>
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Human food can be classified in various ways, either by related content or by how it is processed.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sadler |first1=Christina R. |last2=Grassby |first2=Terri |last3=Hart |first3=Kathryn |last4=Raats |first4=Monique |last5=Sokolović |first5=Milka |last6=Timotijevic |first6=Lada |date=1 June 2021 |title=Processed food classification: Conceptualisation and challenges |journal=Trends in Food Science & Technology |language=en |volume=112 |pages=149–162 |doi=10.1016/j.tifs.2021.02.059 |issn=0924-2244 |doi-access=free |s2cid=233647428}}</ref> The number and composition of ]s can vary. Most systems include four basic groups that describe their origin and relative nutritional function: Vegetables and Fruit, Cereals and Bread, Dairy, and Meat.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nestle |first=Marion |title=Food Politics: How the Food Industry Influences Nutrition and Health |publisher=University of California Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-520-27596-6 |pages=36–37 |author-link=Marion Nestle |orig-date=2002}}</ref> Studies that look into diet quality group food into whole grains/cereals, refined grains/cereals, vegetables, fruits, nuts, legumes, eggs, dairy products, fish, red meat, processed meat, and sugar-sweetened beverages.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schwingshackl |first1=Lukas |last2=Schwedhelm |first2=Carolina |last3=Hoffmann |first3=Georg |last4=Lampousi |first4=Anna-Maria |last5=Knüppel |first5=Sven |last6=Iqbal |first6=Khalid |last7=Bechthold |first7=Angela |last8=Schlesinger |first8=Sabrina |last9=Boeing |first9=Heiner |year=2017 |title=Food groups and risk of all-cause mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=105 |issue=6 |pages=1462–1473 |doi=10.3945/ajcn.117.153148 |issn=0002-9165 |pmid=28446499 |doi-access=free |s2cid=22494319}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schwingshackl |first1=Lukas |last2=Schwedhelm |first2=Carolina |last3=Hoffmann |first3=Georg |last4=Knüppel |first4=Sven |last5=Preterre |first5=Anne Laure |last6=Iqbal |first6=Khalid |last7=Bechthold |first7=Angela |last8=Henauw |first8=Stefaan De |last9=Michels |first9=Nathalie |last10=Devleesschauwer |first10=Brecht |last11=Boeing |first11=Heiner |year=2018 |title=Food groups and risk of colorectal cancer |journal=International Journal of Cancer |language=en |volume=142 |issue=9 |pages=1748–1758 |doi=10.1002/ijc.31198 |issn=1097-0215 |pmid=29210053 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schwingshackl |first1=Lukas |last2=Hoffmann |first2=Georg |last3=Lampousi |first3=Anna-Maria |last4=Knüppel |first4=Sven |last5=Iqbal |first5=Khalid |last6=Schwedhelm |first6=Carolina |last7=Bechthold |first7=Angela |last8=Schlesinger |first8=Sabrina |last9=Boeing |first9=Heiner |date=May 2017 |title=Food groups and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies |journal=European Journal of Epidemiology |language=en |volume=32 |issue=5 |pages=363–375 |doi=10.1007/s10654-017-0246-y |issn=0393-2990 |pmc=5506108 |pmid=28397016}}</ref> The ] and ] use a system with nineteen food classifications: cereals, roots, pulses and nuts, milk, eggs, fish and shellfish, meat, insects, vegetables, fruits, fats and oils, sweets and sugars, spices and condiments, beverages, foods for nutritional uses, food additives, composite dishes and savoury snacks.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Food groups and sub-groups |url=http://www.fao.org/gift-individual-food-consumption/methodology/food-groups-and-sub-groups/en/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210829000613/http://www.fao.org/gift-individual-food-consumption/methodology/food-groups-and-sub-groups/en/ |archive-date=29 August 2021 |access-date=29 August 2021 |website=FAO}}</ref>
== Human eating habits ==
===Historical development===
]s are ] animals that can consume both plant and animal products. Evidence suggests that early ]s employed ] techniques as their primary method of food collection. This involves combining stationary plant and fungal food sources (such as fruits, grains, roots, and mushrooms) with mobile animals which must be hunted and killed in order to be consumed. Additionally, it is believed that humans have used fire to prepare food prior to eating since their divergence from ], possibly even earlier.


==Food sources==
At least ten thousand years ago, humans developed ], which has ]. This led to a variety of important historical consequences, such as increased ], the development of ], and the wider spread of ]s. The types of food consumed, and the way in which they are prepared, have varied widely by time, location, and culture.
]


In a given ecosystem, food forms a ] of interlocking ] with ] at the bottom and ]s at the top.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Food Web: Concept and Applications {{!}} Learn Science at Scitable |url=https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/food-web-concept-and-applications-84077181/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209020322/https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/food-web-concept-and-applications-84077181/ |archive-date=9 February 2022 |access-date=15 December 2021 |website=Nature |language=en}}</ref> Other aspects of the web include ] (that eat ]) and ]s (that break down dead organisms).<ref name=":1" /> Primary producers include algae, plants, bacteria and protists that acquire their energy from sunlight.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Allan |first1=J. David |last2=Castillo |first2=Marí M. |title=Stream Ecology |date=2007 |publisher=Springer Netherlands |isbn=978-1-4020-5583-6 |location=Dordrecht |pages=105–134 |language=en |chapter=Primary producers |doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-5583-6_6}}</ref> Primary consumers are the ]s that consume the plants, and secondary consumers are the ]s that consume those herbivores. Some organisms, including most mammals and birds, diet consists of both animals and plants, and they are considered omnivores.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Society |first=National Geographic |date=21 January 2011 |title=omnivore |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/omnivore/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211215080444/https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/omnivore/ |archive-date=15 December 2021 |access-date=15 December 2021 |website=National Geographic Society |language=en}}</ref> The chain ends with the apex predators, the animals that have no known predators in its ecosystem.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wallach |first1=Arian D. |last2=Izhaki |first2=Ido |last3=Toms |first3=Judith D. |last4=Ripple |first4=William J. |last5=Shanas |first5=Uri |year=2015 |title=What is an apex predator? |journal=Oikos |language=en |volume=124 |issue=11 |pages=1453–1461 |doi=10.1111/oik.01977 |bibcode=2015Oikos.124.1453W |doi-access=free |issn = 0030-1299 }}</ref> Humans are considered apex predators.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Roopnarine |first=Peter D. |date=4 March 2014 |title=Humans are apex predators |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=111 |issue=9 |pages=E796 |bibcode=2014PNAS..111E.796R |doi=10.1073/pnas.1323645111 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=3948303 |pmid=24497513 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
===Meals===
A portion of food or the act of eating a portion of food is considered a ].


Humans are omnivores, finding sustenance in vegetables, fruits, cooked meat, milk, eggs, mushrooms and seaweed.<ref name=":2" /> Cereal grain is a ] that provides more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop.<ref>{{Cite news |date=1 March 2011 |title=food |language=en |work=National Geographic Society |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/food/ |url-status=live |access-date=25 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170322145917/http://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/food/ |archive-date=22 March 2017}}</ref> ], wheat, and rice account for 87% of all grain production worldwide.<ref name="prodstat">{{Cite web |title=ProdSTAT |url=http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210214103/http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx |archive-date=10 February 2012 |website=FAOSTAT}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Favour |first=Eboh |title=Design and Fabrication of a Mill Pulverizer |url=https://www.academia.edu/27186173 |url-status=live |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171226191619/http://www.academia.edu/27186173/DESIGN_AND_FABRICATION_OF_A_MILL_PULVERIZER |archive-date=26 December 2017 |website=Academia}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=039ZCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA846 |title=The Complete Book on Spices & Condiments (with Cultivation, Processing & Uses) 2nd Revised Edition: With Cultivation, Processing & Uses |date=2006 |publisher=Asia Pacific Business Press Inc. |isbn=978-81-7833-038-9 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171226191618/https://books.google.com/books?id=039ZCwAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&pg=PA846 |archive-date=26 December 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> Just over half of the world's crops are used to feed humans (55 percent), with 36 percent grown as animal feed and 9 percent for ].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Plumer |first=Brad |date=21 August 2014 |title=How much of the world's cropland is actually used to grow food? |url=https://www.vox.com/2014/8/21/6053187/cropland-map-food-fuel-animal-feed |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412003009/https://www.vox.com/2014/8/21/6053187/cropland-map-food-fuel-animal-feed |archive-date=12 April 2022 |access-date=11 April 2022 |website=Vox |language=en}}</ref> Fungi and bacteria are also used in the preparation of ] foods like ], ], ] and ].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Palombo |first=Enzo |title=Kitchen Science: bacteria and fungi are your foody friends |url=http://theconversation.com/kitchen-science-bacteria-and-fungi-are-your-foody-friends-57279 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220411181018/https://theconversation.com/kitchen-science-bacteria-and-fungi-are-your-foody-friends-57279 |archive-date=11 April 2022 |access-date=11 April 2022 |website=The Conversation |date=21 April 2016 |language=en}}</ref>
Often named and patterned, meals play a role in an important social occasion, such as the celebration of many key ] and ] ]s.


===Photosynthesis===
A meal can be used as means for feeding a single individual or shared and eaten simultaneously by two or more people.
During ], energy from the sun is absorbed and used to transform water and carbon dioxide in the air or soil into oxygen and glucose. The oxygen is then released, and the glucose stored as an energy reserve.<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 October 2019 |title=Photosynthesis |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/photosynthesis/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412205929/https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/photosynthesis/ |archive-date=12 April 2022 |access-date=11 April 2022 |website=National Geographic Society |language=en}}</ref> Photosynthetic plants, algae and certain bacteria often represent the lowest point of the food chains,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Oceanic Bacteria Trap Vast Amounts of Light Without Chlorophyll |url=https://www.the-scientist.com/news-opinion/oceanic-bacteria-trap-vast-amounts-of-light-without-chlorophyll-66244 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220406153936/https://www.the-scientist.com/news-opinion/oceanic-bacteria-trap-vast-amounts-of-light-without-chlorophyll-66244 |archive-date=6 April 2022 |access-date=11 April 2022 |website=The Scientist Magazine |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Leslie |first=Mitch |date=6 March 2009 |title=On the Origin of Photosynthesis |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.323.5919.1286 |url-status=live |journal=Science |language=en |volume=323 |issue=5919 |pages=1286–1287 |doi=10.1126/science.323.5919.1286 |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=19264999 |s2cid=206584539 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220411181017/https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.323.5919.1286 |archive-date=11 April 2022 |access-date=11 April 2022}}</ref> making photosynthesis the primary source of energy and food for nearly all life on earth.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Messinger |first1=Johannes |last2=Ishitani |first2=Osamu |last3=Wang |first3=Dunwei |year=2018 |title=Artificial photosynthesis – from sunlight to fuels and valuable products for a sustainable future |url=http://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=C8SE90049C |url-status=live |journal=Sustainable Energy & Fuels |language=en |volume=2 |issue=9 |pages=1891–1892 |doi=10.1039/C8SE90049C |issn=2398-4902 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730073225/https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2018/SE/C8SE90049C |archive-date=30 July 2022 |access-date=11 April 2022}}</ref>


] and minerals from the air, natural waters, and soil.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kathpalia |first1=Renu |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-2023-1_2 |title=Plant Physiology, Development and Metabolism |last2=Bhatla |first2=Satish C. |publisher=Springer |year=2018 |isbn=978-981-13-2023-1 |editor-last=Bhatla |editor-first=Satish C |location=Singapore |pages=37–81 |language=en |chapter=Plant Mineral Nutrition |doi=10.1007/978-981-13-2023-1_2 |access-date=20 January 2023 |editor-last2=A. Lal |editor-first2=Manju}}</ref> Carbon, oxygen and hydrogen are absorbed from the air or water and are the basic nutrients needed for plant survival.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last1=Morgan |first1=J B |last2=Connolly |first2=E L |year=2013 |title=Plant-Soil Interactions: Nutrient Uptake |url=https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/plant-soil-interactions-nutrient-uptake-105289112/ |journal=Nature Education Knowledge |volume=4 |issue=8}}</ref> The three main nutrients absorbed from the soil for plant growth are nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, with other important nutrients including calcium, sulfur, magnesium, iron boron, chlorine, manganese, zinc, copper molybdenum and nickel.<ref name=":13" />
The number of meals consumed by individuals in a ], their ], ], when and how they are prepared and eaten varies greatly around the world. This diversity can be attributed to a number of local factors, including ], ], ], ] ]s and ].


===Microorganisms===
In societies where the availability of food has risen above ] levels and beyond ]s, meals are also ] pre-prepared for immediate consumption in ]s and other similar ] premises.
Bacteria and other microorganisms also form the lower rungs of the food chain. They obtain their energy from photosynthesis or by breaking down dead organisms, waste or chemical compounds. Some form symbiotic relationships with other organisms to obtain their nutrients.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Gupta |first1=Ankit |title=Microbes and Environment |date=2017 |work=Principles and Applications of Environmental Biotechnology for a Sustainable Future |pages=43–84 |editor-last=Singh |editor-first=Ram Lakhan |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-1866-4_3 |access-date=2024-05-01 |place=Singapore |publisher=Springer |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-981-10-1866-4_3 |isbn=978-981-10-1866-4 |pmc=7189961 |last2=Gupta |first2=Rasna |last3=Singh |first3=Ram Lakhan}}</ref> Bacteria provide a source of food for protozoa,<ref>{{Citation |last=Foissner |first=W. |title=PROTOZOA |date=2005-01-01 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Soils in the Environment |pages=336–347 |editor-last=Hillel |editor-first=Daniel |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0123485304001624 |access-date=2024-05-01 |place=Oxford |publisher=Elsevier |doi=10.1016/b0-12-348530-4/00162-4 |isbn=978-0-12-348530-4}}</ref> who in turn provide a source of food for other organisms such as small invertebrates.<ref>{{Citation |last=Foissner |first=W. |title=Protozoa☆ |date=2014-01-01 |work=Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780124095489091302 |access-date=2024-05-01 |publisher=Elsevier |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-409548-9.09130-2 |isbn=978-0-12-409548-9}}</ref> Other organisms that feed on bacteria include nematodes, fan worms, shellfish and a species of snail.


In the marine environment, plankton (which includes ], ], ], ] and microscopic ])<ref name="Lawton-2024-02-10">{{cite journal |last1=Lawton |first1=Graham |date=10 February 2024 |title=Fungi ahoy! |journal=New Scientist |volume=261 |issue=3477 |pages=37–39 |doi=10.1016/S0262-4079(24)00274-4|bibcode=2024NewSc.261b..37L }}</ref> provide a crucial source of food to many small and large aquatic organisms.
Food eaten in smaller quantities between the culturally normative meals is regarded as ].


Without bacteria, life would scarcely exist because bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into nutritious ]. Ammonia is the precursor to proteins, nucleic acids, and most vitamins. Since the advent of industrial process for nitrogen fixation, the ], the majority of ammonia in the world is human-made.<ref>{{cite book |year=2004|title=Enriching the Earth Fritz Haber, Carl Bosch, and the Transformation of World Food Production|author=Vaclav Smil|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=9780262693134}}</ref>
:''See also: ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ]''.


===Plants===
==Food production or acquisition==
]
Food is traditionally obtained through ], ], and ], with ], ] and other ] locally important for some populations, but minor for others.


] are divided into seeds, fruits, vegetables, legumes, grains and nuts.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Fardet |first=Anthony |chapter-url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780128039687000162 |chapter=New Concepts and Paradigms for the Protective Effects of Plant-Based Food Components in Relation to Food Complexity |title=Vegetarian and Plant-Based Diets in Health and Disease Prevention |publisher=Elsevier |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-12-803968-7 |pages=293–312 |language=en |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-803968-7.00016-2 |access-date=12 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220615171216/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780128039687000162 |archive-date=15 June 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> Where plants fall within these categories can vary, with botanically described fruits such as the tomato, squash, pepper and eggplant or seeds like peas commonly considered vegetables.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FAQs |url=https://vric.ucdavis.edu/main/faqs.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210321204323/https://vric.ucdavis.edu/main/faqs.htm |archive-date=21 March 2021 |access-date=12 April 2022 |website=vric.ucdavis.edu}}</ref> Food is a fruit if the part eaten is derived from the ], so seeds, nuts and grains are technically fruit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nuts |url=https://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/ethnobotany/food/nuts.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220227192329/https://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/ethnobotany/food/nuts.shtml |archive-date=27 February 2022 |access-date=17 April 2022 |website=fs.fed.us}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite web |last=Chodosh |first=Sara |date=8 July 2021 |title=The bizarre botany that makes corn a fruit, a grain, and also (kind of) a vegetable |url=https://www.popsci.com/is-corn-fruit-vegetable-or-grain/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409102623/https://www.popsci.com/is-corn-fruit-vegetable-or-grain/ |archive-date=9 April 2022 |access-date=17 April 2022 |website=Popular Science |language=en-US}}</ref> From a culinary perspective, fruits are generally considered the remains of botanically described fruits after grains, nuts, seeds and fruits used as vegetables are removed.<ref name=":8" /> Grains can be defined as seeds that humans eat or harvest, with cereal grains (oats, wheat, rice, corn, barley, rye, sorghum and millet) belonging to the ] (grass) family<ref>{{Cite web |last=Thomson |first=Julie |date=13 June 2017 |title=Quinoa's 'Seed Or Grain' Debate Ends Right Here |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/quinoa-is-not-a-grain_n_59380558e4b0aba888ba7b44 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220415223356/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/quinoa-is-not-a-grain_n_59380558e4b0aba888ba7b44 |archive-date=15 April 2022 |access-date=15 April 2022 |website=HuffPost |language=en}}</ref> and pulses coming from the ] (legume) family.<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 October 2019 |title=Legumes and Pulses |url=https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/legumes-pulses/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220421110226/https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/legumes-pulses/ |archive-date=21 April 2022 |access-date=15 April 2022 |website=The Nutrition Source |language=en-us}}</ref> ]s are foods that contain all the elements of the original seed (bran, germ, and ]).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of a Whole Grain {{!}} The Whole Grains Council |url=https://wholegrainscouncil.org/definition-whole-grain |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220131090217/https://wholegrainscouncil.org/definition-whole-grain |archive-date=31 January 2022 |access-date=15 April 2022 |website=wholegrainscouncil.org}}</ref> Nuts are dry fruits, distinguishable by their woody shell.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Rejman |first1=Krystyna |last2=Górska-Warsewicz |first2=Hanna |last3=Kaczorowska |first3=Joanna |last4=Laskowski |first4=Wacław |date=17 June 2021 |title=Nutritional Significance of Fruit and Fruit Products in the Average Polish Diet |journal=Nutrients |language=en |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=2079 |doi=10.3390/nu13062079 |issn=2072-6643 |pmc=8235518 |pmid=34204541 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
In the modern era in ], food supply is increasingly dependent upon ], ], ] and ] techniques. These techniques aim to maximize the amount of food produced while minimizing the ]. The techniques include a reliance on mechanized tools, from the ] and ], to the ] and ]. Developed tools have been combined with the use of ]s to promote high ] ]s and to combat ]s or mammals which reduce yield.


Fleshy fruits (distinguishable from dry fruits like grain, seeds and nuts) can be further classified as ] (cherries and peaches), ] (apples, pears), ] (blackberry, strawberry), ] (oranges, lemon), ]s (watermelon, cantaloupe), Mediterranean fruits (grapes, fig), ] (banana, pineapple).<ref name=":8" /> Vegetables refer to any other part of the plant that can be eaten, including roots, stems, leaves, flowers, bark or the entire plant itself.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=Vegetables: Foods from Roots, Stems, Bark, and Leaves |url=https://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/ethnobotany/food/vegetables.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220417035414/https://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/ethnobotany/food/vegetables.shtml |archive-date=17 April 2022 |access-date=12 April 2022 |website=U.S. Forest Service}}</ref> These include ]s (potatoes and carrots), bulbs (onion family), flowers (cauliflower and broccoli), ]s (] and lettuce) and ] (celery and ]).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vegetable Classifications |url=https://www.vegetables.co.nz/tips-and-advice/vegetable-classifications/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220204223932/https://www.vegetables.co.nz/tips-and-advice/vegetable-classifications/ |archive-date=4 February 2022 |access-date=12 April 2022 |website=Vegetables |language=en-NZ}}</ref><ref name=":4" />
More recently, there has been a growing trend towards more ] practices. This approach - which is partly fuelled by ] ] - encourages ], local self-reliance and ] methods.


The carbohydrate, protein and lipid content of plants is highly variable. Carbohydrates are mainly in the form of starch, fructose, glucose and other sugars.<ref name=":0" /> Most vitamins are found from plant sources, with exceptions of ] and ]. ] can also be plentiful or not. Fruit can consist of up to 90% water, contain high levels of ] that contribute to their sweet taste, and have a high ] content.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":8" /> Compared to fleshy fruit (excepting Bananas) vegetables are high in starch,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Slavin |first1=Joanne L. |last2=Lloyd |first2=Beate |date=1 July 2012 |title=Health Benefits of Fruits and Vegetables |journal=Advances in Nutrition |language=en |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=506–516 |doi=10.3945/an.112.002154 |issn=2156-5376 |pmc=3649719 |pmid=22797986}}</ref> ], dietary fiber, ] and vitamins and low in fat and calories.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vegetables |url=https://www.myplate.gov/eat-healthy/vegetables |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220417195851/https://www.myplate.gov/eat-healthy/vegetables |archive-date=17 April 2022 |access-date=17 April 2022 |website=myplate.gov |publisher=U.S. Department of Agriculture}}</ref> Grains are more starch based<ref name=":0" /> and nuts have a high protein, fibre, vitamin E and B content.<ref name=":8" /> Seeds are a good source of food for animals because they are abundant and contain fibre and healthful fats, such as ].<ref name=":5" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=The nutrition powerhouse we should eat more of |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/food/articles/seeds |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412185742/https://www.bbc.co.uk/food/articles/seeds |archive-date=12 April 2022 |access-date=12 April 2022 |website=BBC Food |language=en}}</ref> Complicated chemical interactions can enhance or depress bioavailability of certain nutrients. ] can prevent the release of some sugars and vitamins.<ref name=":0" />
Major influences on food production are international policy, ''e.g. the ] and ]'', national government policy or ] and ].


Animals that only eat plants are called ]s, with those that mostly just eat fruits known as ]s,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kanchwala |first=Hussain |date=21 March 2019 |title=What Are Frugivores? |url=https://www.scienceabc.com/nature/animals/what-are-frugivores.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516032821/https://www.scienceabc.com/nature/animals/what-are-frugivores.html |archive-date=16 May 2022 |access-date=17 April 2022 |website=Science ABC |language=en-US}}</ref> leaves, while shoot eaters are ]s (pandas) and wood eaters termed ] (termites).<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 January 2011 |title=Herbivore |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/herbivore/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408191803/https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/herbivore/ |archive-date=8 April 2022 |access-date=17 April 2022 |website=National Geographic Society |language=en}}</ref> ]s include a diverse range of species from annelids to elephants, chimpanzees and many birds.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hagen |first1=Melanie |last2=Kissling |first2=W. Daniel |last3=Rasmussen |first3=Claus |last4=De Aguiar |first4=Marcus A.M. |last5=Brown |first5=Lee E. |last6=Carstensen |first6=Daniel W. |last7=Alves-Dos-Santos |first7=Isabel |last8=Dupont |first8=Yoko L. |last9=Edwards |first9=Francois K. |year=2012 |title=Biodiversity, Species Interactions and Ecological Networks in a Fragmented World |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780123969927000022 |url-status=live |journal=Advances in Ecological Research |language=en |publisher=Elsevier |volume=46 |pages=89–210 |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-396992-7.00002-2 |isbn=978-0-12-396992-7 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220504154918/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780123969927000022 |archive-date=4 May 2022 |access-date=17 April 2022|hdl=10261/64172 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Scanes |first=Colin G. |chapter-url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780128052471000058 |chapter=Animals and Hominid Development |title=Animals and Human Society |publisher=Elsevier |year=2018 |isbn=978-0-12-805247-1 |pages=83–102 |language=en |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-805247-1.00005-8 |access-date=17 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180609185730/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780128052471000058 |archive-date=9 June 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Fleming |first=Theodore H. |chapter-url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780080918815500153 |chapter=How Do Fruit- and Nectar-Feeding Birds and Mammals Track Their Food Resources? |title=Effects of Resource Distribution on Animal–Plant Interactions |publisher=Elsevier |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-12-361955-6 |pages=355–391 |language=en |doi=10.1016/b978-0-08-091881-5.50015-3 |access-date=17 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210525180952/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780080918815500153 |archive-date=25 May 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> About 182 fish consume seeds or fruit.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Correa |first1=Sandra Bibiana |last2=Winemiller |first2=Kirk O. |last3=LóPez-Fernández |first3=Hernán |last4=Galetti |first4=Mauro |date=1 October 2007 |title=Evolutionary Perspectives on Seed Consumption and Dispersal by Fishes |journal=BioScience |volume=57 |issue=9 |pages=748–756 |doi=10.1641/B570907 |issn=0006-3568 |doi-access=free |s2cid=13869429}}</ref> Animals (domesticated and wild) use as many types of grasses that have adapted to different locations as their main source of nutrients.<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 May 2009 |title=Describe the utilization of grass in forage-livestock systems. |url=https://forages.oregonstate.edu/nfgc/eo/onlineforagecurriculum/instructormaterials/availabletopics/grasses/utilization |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220123212853/https://forages.oregonstate.edu/nfgc/eo/onlineforagecurriculum/instructormaterials/availabletopics/grasses/utilization |archive-date=23 January 2022 |access-date=12 April 2022 |website=Forage Information System |language=en}}</ref>
Food for ] is ] and traditionally comprises ] or ].


Humans eat thousands of plant species; there may be as many as 75,000 edible species of ]s, of which perhaps 7,000 are often eaten.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Şerban |first1=Procheş |last2=Wilson |first2=John R. U. |last3=Vamosi |first3=Jana C. |last4=Richardson |first4=David M. |title=Plant Diversity in the Human Diet: Weak Phylogenetic Signal Indicates Breadth |journal=BioScience |date=1 February 2008 |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=151–159 |doi=10.1641/B580209 |s2cid=86483332 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Plants can be processed into breads, pasta, cereals, juices and jams or raw ingredients such as sugar, herbs, spices and oils can be extracted.<ref name=":0" /> ]s are pressed to produce rich oils{{snd}}⁣], ], ] (including ]) and ].<ref name="McGee9">McGee, Chapter 9.</ref>
:''See also: ], ], ], ].''


Many plants and animals have ] in such a way that the fruit is a good source of nutrition to the animal who then excretes the seeds some distance away, allowing greater dispersal.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Eriksson |first=Ove |date=20 December 2014 |title=Evolution of angiosperm seed disperser mutualisms: the timing of origins and their consequences for coevolutionary interactions between angiosperms and frugivores |journal=Biological Reviews |volume=91 |issue=1 |pages=168–186 |doi=10.1111/brv.12164 |pmid=25530412 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Even ] can be mutually beneficial, as some seeds can survive the digestion process.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Heleno |first1=Ruben H. |last2=Ross |first2=Georgina |last3=Everard |first3=Amy |last4=Memmott |first4=Jane |last5=Ramos |first5=Jaime A. |year=2011 |title=The role of avian 'seed predators' as seed dispersers: Seed predators as seed dispersers |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1474-919X.2010.01088.x |url-status=live |journal=Ibis |language=en |volume=153 |issue=1 |pages=199–203 |doi=10.1111/j.1474-919X.2010.01088.x |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220415211542/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1474-919X.2010.01088.x |archive-date=15 April 2022 |access-date=15 April 2022 |hdl-access=free |hdl=10316/41308}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Spengler |first=Robert N. |date=1 April 2020 |title=Anthropogenic Seed Dispersal: Rethinking the Origins of Plant Domestication |journal=Trends in Plant Science |language=English |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=340–348 |doi=10.1016/j.tplants.2020.01.005 |issn=1360-1385 |pmid=32191870 |doi-access=free |s2cid=213192873|hdl=21.11116/0000-0005-C7E0-D |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Insects are major eaters of seeds,<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Lundgren |first1=Jonathan G. |last2=Rosentrater |first2=Kurt A. |date=13 September 2007 |title=The strength of seeds and their destruction by granivorous insects |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11829-007-9008-1 |url-status=live |journal=Arthropod-Plant Interactions |language=en |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=93–99 |doi=10.1007/s11829-007-9008-1 |bibcode=2007APInt...1...93L |issn=1872-8855 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730073225/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11829-007-9008-1 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |access-date=15 April 2022 |s2cid=6410974}}</ref> with ants being the only real seed dispersers.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Simms |first=Ellen L. |chapter-url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0122268652003400 |chapter=Plant-Animal Interactions |date=1 January 2001 |title=Encyclopedia of Biodiversity |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-12-226865-6 |editor-last=Levin |editor-first=Simon Asher |location=New York |pages=601–619 |language=en |doi=10.1016/b0-12-226865-2/00340-0 |access-date=15 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220415002125/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0122268652003400 |archive-date=15 April 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> Birds, although being major dispersers,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Godínez-Alvarez |first1=Héctor |last2=Ríos-Casanova |first2=Leticia |last3=Peco |first3=Begoña |year=2020 |title=Are large frugivorous birds better seed dispersers than medium- and small-sized ones? Effect of body mass on seed dispersal effectiveness |journal=Ecology and Evolution |language=en |volume=10 |issue=12 |pages=6136–6143 |doi=10.1002/ece3.6285 |issn=2045-7758 |pmc=7319144 |pmid=32607219|bibcode=2020EcoEv..10.6136G }}</ref> only rarely eat seeds as a source of food and can be identified by their thick beak that is used to crack open the seed coat.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jennings |first=Elizabeth |date=15 November 2019 |title=How Much Seed Do Birds Eat In a Day? |url=https://sciencing.com/much-do-birds-eat-day-7435152.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220112012432/https://sciencing.com/much-do-birds-eat-day-7435152.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |access-date=14 April 2022 |website=Sciencing |language=en}}</ref> Mammals eat a more diverse range of seeds, as they are able to crush harder and larger seeds with their teeth.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Carpenter |first1=Joanna K. |last2=Wilmshurst |first2=Janet M. |last3=McConkey |first3=Kim R. |last4=Hume |first4=Julian P. |last5=Wotton |first5=Debra M. |last6=Shiels |first6=Aaron B. |last7=Burge |first7=Olivia R. |last8=Drake |first8=Donald R. |year=2020 |editor-last=Barton |editor-first=Kasey |title=The forgotten fauna: Native vertebrate seed predators on islands |journal=Functional Ecology |language=en |volume=34 |issue=9 |pages=1802–1813 |doi=10.1111/1365-2435.13629 |bibcode=2020FuEco..34.1802C |issn=0269-8463 |s2cid=225292938|doi-access=free }}</ref>
]


===From ]s=== ===Animals===
]
* ]s
** ]s from ]es, including ], ], ]s, ], ], and ]
** Cereals from non-grasses, including ], ], and ]
** ]s, including ]s, ]s, and ]s
** ]s, including ]s, ]s and ]s
** ]s, including ], ], and ]
* ]s (see also ])
** ]s, including ]es, ], and ]s
** ]s, including ], ], and ]
** ]s, including ], ], and ]
** ], including ] shoots, ]es, and ]
** ], including ]s, ], and ]
** ], including ], ], and ]
* ]s (see also ])
* ]s and ]s (see also ])


] either directly or indirectly. This includes meat, eggs, shellfish and dairy products like milk and cheese.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Animal Products |url=https://www.ksre.k-state.edu/foodsafety/topics/animal.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220320115339/https://www.ksre.k-state.edu/foodsafety/topics/animal.html |archive-date=20 March 2022 |access-date=12 May 2022 |website=ksre.k-state.edu}}</ref> They are an important source of protein and are considered complete proteins for human consumption as they contain all the essential amino acids that the human body needs.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |last=Marcus |first=Jacqueline B. |chapter=Protein Basics: Animal and Vegetable Proteins in Food and Health |chapter-url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780123918826000054 |title=Culinary Nutrition |pages=189–230 |year=2013 |access-date=13 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180626042414/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780123918826000054 |url-status=live |publisher=Elsevier |language=en |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-391882-6.00005-4 |isbn=978-0-12-391882-6 |archive-date=26 June 2018}}</ref> One {{Convert|4|oz|g|adj=on}} steak, chicken breast or pork chop contains about 30 grams of protein. One large egg has 7 grams of protein. A {{Convert|4|oz|g|adj=on}} serving of cheese has about 15 grams of protein. And 1 cup of milk has about 8 grams of protein.<ref name=":9" /> Other nutrients found in animal products include calories, fat, essential vitamins (including B12) and minerals (including zinc, iron, calcium, magnesium).<ref name=":9" />
]


Food products produced by animals include milk produced by ], which in many cultures is drunk or processed into ]s (cheese, butter, etc.). ] laid by birds and other animals are eaten and ]s produce ], a reduced ] from flowers that is used as a popular sweetener in many cultures. Some cultures ], such as in ], as a thickener for sauces, or in a ], ] form for times of food scarcity, and others use blood in stews such as ].<ref>Davidson, 81–82.</ref>
===From ]s===
* ]s, made from the ] of ]s, ]s, ]s, ]s, ]s, ]s, ], ] and ]
* ], including ], ] and ]
* ]s, including ], ]s and ]
* ], including ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ]
* ], including ]
* ], including ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ]
* ], including ] such as ] and ], and ] such as ]s and ]ns
* ]s
* ], this includes all animals hunted for food.


===From others=== ==Taste==
{{Main|Taste}}
* ]
* ], which is a type of ] (and an essential ingredient in ] and ])
* ]s and ]s, which are ]
* ], which is a ]
* ], including ] and ]
* ] (cyanobacteria)


Animals, specifically humans, typically have five different types of tastes: ], ], ], ], and ]. The differing tastes are important for distinguishing between foods that are nutritionally beneficial and those which may contain harmful toxins.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal |last1=Yarmolinsky |first1=David A. |last2=Zuker |first2=Charles S. |last3=Ryba |first3=Nicholas J.P. |date=16 October 2009 |title=Common Sense about Taste: From Mammals to Insects |journal=Cell |volume=139 |issue=2 |pages=234–244 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2009.10.001 |issn=0092-8674 |pmc=3936514 |pmid=19837029}}</ref> As animals have ], the tastes that provide the most energy are the most pleasant to eat while others are not enjoyable,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Evolution of taste receptor may have shaped human sensitivity to toxic compounds |url=http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/28063.php |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100927120914/http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/28063.php |archive-date=27 September 2010 |access-date=29 May 2015 |website=Medical News Today}}</ref> although humans in particular can acquire a preference for some substances which are initially unenjoyable.<ref name=":10" /> Water, while important for survival, has no taste.<ref>{{Cite news |date=3 April 2004 |title=Why does pure water have no taste or colour? |work=The Times of India |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/598799.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151230042140/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/598799.cms |archive-date=30 December 2015}}</ref>
==Food preparation==
]
{{main|Cooking}}
While some food can be eaten without preparation, many foods undergo some form of preparation for reasons of safety, palatability, or ]. At the simplest level this may involve ], ], trimming or adding other foods or ingredients, such as ]s. It may also involve mixing, heating or cooling, ], ], or combination with other food. Most food preparation takes place in a ].


Sweetness is almost always caused by a type of simple sugar such as ] or ], or ] such as ], a molecule combining glucose and fructose.<ref name="New Oxford American Dictionary">New Oxford American Dictionary</ref> Sourness is caused by ]s, such as vinegar in alcoholic beverages. Sour foods include citrus, specifically lemons and ]. Sour is evolutionarily significant as it can signal a food that may have gone ] due to bacteria.<ref>States "having an acid taste like lemon or vinegar: she sampled the wine and found it was sour. (of food, esp. milk) spoiled because of fermentation." New Oxford American Dictionary</ref> Saltiness is the taste of ] ] such as ] and potassium. It is found in almost every food in low to moderate proportions to enhance flavor. Bitter taste is a sensation considered unpleasant characterised by having a sharp, pungent taste. Unsweetened dark chocolate, ], lemon rind, and some types of fruit are known to be bitter. Umami, commonly described as savory, is a marker of proteins and characteristic of broths and cooked meats.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Fleming |first=Amy |date=9 April 2013 |title=Umami: why the fifth taste is so important |url=http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2013/apr/09/umami-fifth-taste |access-date=5 January 2023 |website=The Guardian |language=en}}</ref> Foods that have a strong umami flavor include cheese, meat and mushrooms.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilson |first=Kimberley |date=9 December 2022 |title=Food aversion: A psychologist reveals why you hate some foods, but could learn to love them |url=https://www.sciencefocus.com/news/food-aversions/ |access-date=5 January 2023 |website=BBC Science Focus Magazine |language=en}}</ref>
The preparation of animal-based food will usually involve ], ], hanging, portioning and ].


]
:''See also:'' ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ].


While most animals taste buds are located in their mouth, some insects taste receptors are located on their legs and some fish have taste buds along their entire body.<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 September 2018 |title=Some Insects Taste With Their Feet and Hear With Their Wings |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/insects-butterflies-anatomy-senses-animals |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303123540/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/insects-butterflies-anatomy-senses-animals |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 March 2021 |access-date=5 January 2023 |website=National Geographic |first1=Liz |last1=Langley |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{Cite journal |last=Kasumyan |first=Alexander O. |date=10 April 2019 |title=The taste system in fishes and the effects of environmental variables |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |language=en |volume=95 |issue=1 |pages=155–178 |doi=10.1111/jfb.13940 |issn=0022-1112 |pmid=30793305 |bibcode=2019JFBio..95..155K |s2cid=73470487|doi-access=free |s2cid-access=free }}</ref> Dogs, cats and birds have relatively few taste buds (chickens have about 30),<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |last=Gary |first=Stuart |date=12 August 2010 |title=Do animals taste the same things as humans? |url=https://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2010/08/12/2980854.htm |access-date=5 January 2023 |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation Science |language=en-AU}}</ref> adult humans have between 2000 and 4000,<ref>{{Cite book |chapter-url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279408/ |chapter=How does our sense of taste work? |date=17 August 2016 |publisher=Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care |title=InformedHealth.org |language=en |via=NCBI |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240110232958/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279408/ |archive-date= Jan 10, 2024 }}</ref> while ] can have more than a million.<ref name=":11" /> Herbivores generally have more than carnivores as they need to tell which plants may be poisonous.<ref name=":12" /> Not all ]s share the same tastes: some ]s can taste ], cats cannot taste sweetness, and several ] (including ]s, dolphins, and sea lions) have lost the ability to sense up to four of the five taste modalities found in humans.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Scully |first=Simone M. |date=9 June 2014 |title=The Animals That Taste Only Saltiness |url=http://nautil.us/blog/the-animals-that-taste-only-saltiness |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140614013146/http://nautil.us/blog/the-animals-that-taste-only-saltiness |archive-date=14 June 2014 |access-date=8 August 2014 |website=Nautilus}}</ref>
===Food manufacture===
Early food processing techniques were limited by the available ], packaging and ]. Early food processing mainly involved ], ], curdling, ], ] and ]. An early processed food product was ].


==Digestion==
During the ] in the ], food manufacturing arose. This development took advantage of new ] and emerging new technology, such as ], preservation, ] and transportation. It brought the advantages of pre-prepared time saving food to the bulk of ordinary people who did not employ ]s.
{{Main|Digestion}}


Food is broken into nutrient components through digestive process.<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 June 2022 |title=Digestion: Anatomy, physiology, and chemistry |url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/320014 |access-date=6 January 2023 |website=Medical News Today |language=en}}</ref> Proper digestion consists of mechanical processes (], ]) and chemical processes (]s and ]).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Patricia |first1=Justin J. |last2=Dhamoon |first2=Amit S. |year=2022 |title=Physiology, Digestion |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK544242/ |access-date=6 January 2023 |website=StatPearls |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |place=Treasure Island (FL) |pmid=31334962}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Inman |first=Mason |date=20 December 2011 |title=How Bacteria Turn Fiber into Food |journal=PLOS Biology |volume=9 |issue=12 |pages=e1001227 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001227 |issn=1544-9173 |pmc=3243711 |pmid=22205880 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The digestive systems of herbivores and carnivores are very different as plant matter is harder to digest. Carnivores mouths are designed for tearing and biting compared to the grinding action found in herbivores.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Herbivore {{!}} National Geographic Society |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/herbivore/ |access-date=6 January 2023 |website=education.nationalgeographic.org}}</ref> Herbivores however have comparatively longer digestive tracts and larger stomachs to aid in digesting the cellulose in plants.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=De Cuyper |first1=Annelies |last2=Meloro |first2=Carlo |last3=Abraham |first3=Andrew J. |last4=Müller |first4=Dennis W. H. |last5=Codron |first5=Daryl |last6=Janssens |first6=Geert P. J. |last7=Clauss |first7=Marcus |date=1 May 2020 |title=The uneven weight distribution between predators and prey: Comparing gut fill between terrestrial herbivores and carnivores |journal=Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology |language=en |volume=243 |pages=110683 |doi=10.1016/j.cbpa.2020.110683 |issn=1095-6433 |pmid=32097716 |doi-access=free|hdl=1854/LU-8656684 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fujimori |first=Shunji |date=7 December 2021 |title=Humans have intestinal bacteria that degrade the plant cell walls in herbivores |journal=World Journal of Gastroenterology |volume=27 |issue=45 |pages=7784–7791 |doi=10.3748/wjg.v27.i45.7784 |issn=1007-9327 |pmc=8661373 |pmid=34963741 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
At the start of the ], a two-tier structure has arisen, with a few international food processing giants controlling a wide range of well known food ]s; with a populous number of small local or national food processing companies.


==Food safety==
:''See also: ], ], ], ], ], ]s, ], ]s, ], ], ], ].''
{{Main|Food safety}}


According to the ] (WHO), about 600 million people worldwide get sick and 420,000 die each year from eating contaminated food.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hơn 600 triệu người mắc bệnh do ăn phải các thực phẩm ô nhiễm - Chương trình mục tiêu quốc gia - Cổng thông tin Bộ Y tế |url=https://moh.gov.vn/chuong-trinh-muc-tieu-quoc-gia/-/asset_publisher/7ng11fEWgASC/content/hon-600-trieu-nguoi-mac-benh-do-an-phai-cac-thuc-pham-o-nhiem?inheritRedirect=false |access-date=2023-12-26 |website=moh.gov.vn}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=An toàn Thực phẩm |url=https://www.who.int/vietnam/vi/health-topics/food-safety |access-date=2023-12-26 |website=www.who.int |language=vi}}</ref> ] is the most common illness caused by consuming contaminated food, with about 550 million cases and 230,000 deaths from diarrhea each year. Children under five years of age account for 40% of the burden of foodborne illness, with 125,000 deaths each year.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=WHO: Các bệnh do thực phẩm ở trẻ em dưới 5 tuổi chiếm gần một phần ba số ca tử vong - Chương trình mục tiêu quốc gia - Cổng thông tin Bộ Y tế |url=https://moh.gov.vn/chuong-trinh-muc-tieu-quoc-gia/-/asset_publisher/7ng11fEWgASC/content/who-cac-benh-do-thuc-pham-o-tre-em-duoi-5-tuoi-chiem-gan-mot-phan-ba-so-ca-tu-vong?inheritRedirect=false |access-date=2023-12-26 |website=moh.gov.vn}}</ref>
====Types of manufactured food====
* ]s: ], ], ], ], ].
* ] is a staple food for many nations, being made of risen dough of ] or other cereals.
* ]s and ]s
* ] is a curdled milk product, of which many varieties exist.
* ] is a course, usually sweet, and generally served after the main course, e.g. ].
* ], ]
* ]
* ] and ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* Processed ]s
* ]es
* ]
* ]
* ]
==Food Technology==
The food-processing industry benefits from a wide a range of new advanced technologies. Technological advances include ] and ], as well as sophisticated ] and ] methods that enhance ], improve ] and reduce costs.
There are a lot of ] used in food industry such as ], for processing raw materials in finished products, for ], for ] as well as for ] of industry ] (knowledge management tools, e-learning).
Technologies used:


A 2003 ] (WHO) report concluded that about 30% of reported ] outbreaks in the WHO European Region occur in private homes.<ref>{{cite web |date=2003-12-16 |title=Several foodborne diseases are increasing in Europe |url=http://www.euro.who.int/eprise/main/who/mediacentre/PR/2003/20031212_2 |publisher=World Health Organization |access-date=26 December 2023 |archive-date=16 April 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050416103540/http://www.euro.who.int/eprise/main/who/mediacentre/PR/2003/20031212_2 |url-status=dead }}</ref> According to the WHO and ], in the USA alone, annually, there are 76 million cases of foodborne illness leading to 325,000 hospitalizations and 5,000 deaths.<ref>{{cite web |title=Food safety and foodborne illness |url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs237/en/ |access-date=2010-12-10 |publisher=World Health Organization |archive-date=27 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127074439/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs237/en/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
==Food trade==
]
]
Food is now ]d on a global basis. The variety and availability of food is no longer restricted by the diversity of locally grown food or the limitations of the local growing ]. Between ] and ] there has been a 400% increase in worldwide food ]s. Some countries are now economically dependent on food exports, which in some cases account for over 80% of all exports.


From 2011 to 2016, on average, there were 668,673 cases of foodborne illness and 21 deaths each year.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-06-05 |title=Hơn 5.000 người bị ngộ độc thực phẩm mỗi năm |url=https://nhandan.vn/post-294510.html |access-date=2023-12-26 |website=Báo Nhân Dân điện tử |language=vi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-06-06 |title=Chỉ 10% số người dân tin vào thực phẩm an toàn |url=https://laodong.vn/chinh-tri/chi-10-so-nguoi-dan-tin-vao-thuc-pham-an-toan-514268.ldo |access-date=2023-12-26 |website=laodong.vn |language=vi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Tran |first=Lanh |title=Dịch vụ nhận đặc tiệc tại nhà 24h |url=https://dattiectainha24h.vn/ |access-date=2023-12-26 |website=yte.nghean.gov.vn |language=vi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Cảnh giác ngộ độc thực phẩm từ bếp ăn tập thể - Hoạt động của địa phương - Cổng thông tin Bộ Y tế |url=https://moh.gov.vn/hoat-dong-cua-dia-phuong/-/asset_publisher/gHbla8vOQDuS/content/canh-giac-ngo-oc-thuc-pham-tu-bep-an-tap-the?inheritRedirect=false |access-date=2023-12-26 |website=moh.gov.vn}}</ref> In addition, during this period, 1,007 food poisoning outbreaks with 30,395 cases of food poisoning were reported.<ref name=":3" />
In ] ] began when over 100 countries became signatories to the ] of the ] which included an agreement to reduce subsidies paid to farmers. This is underpinned by the ] enforcement of ], ], import ]s and settlement of trade disputes that cannot be bilaterally resolved. Where trade barriers are raised on the disputed grounds of public health and safety, the WTO refer the dispute to the ] Commission, which was founded in ] by the ] ] and the ].
===Food retailing===


==See also==
]
{{Portal|Food}}
The sale of surplus food traditionally took place once a week when farmers took their wares on market day, into the local ] ]. Here food was sold to ]s for sale in their local shops for purchase by local people.
* ]
* ]


==References==
With the onset of industrialisation, and the development of the food processing industry, a wider range of food could be sold and distributed in distant locations. Typically early grocery shops would be ]-based shops, in which purchasers told the shop-keeper what they wanted, so that the shop-keeper could get it for them.
{{reflist}}


===Further reading===
In the ] ]s were born. Supermarkets brought with them a ] approach to shopping using ]s/trolleys and were able to offer quality food at lower cost, through ] and reduced staffing costs. This was sometimes known as ']' In the latter part of the ], this has been further revolutionised by the development of vast ] sized out-of-town supermarkets, selling an extraordinarily wide range of food from around the world.
* Collingham, E. M. (2011). ''The Taste of War: World War Two and the Battle for Food''
* Katz, Solomon (2003). ''The Encyclopedia of Food and Culture'', Scribner
* Mobbs, Michael (2012). ''Sustainable Food'' Sydney: NewSouth Publishing, {{ISBN|978-1-920705-54-1}}
* Nestle, Marion (2007). ''Food Politics: How the Food Industry Influences Nutrition and Health'', University Presses of California, revised and expanded edition, {{ISBN|0-520-25403-1}}
* (2015). A panel discussion at the 2015 ''] (DLD)'' Annual Conference. "How can we grow and enjoy food, closer to home, further into the future? '']'s'' Kevin Slavin hosts a conversation with food artist, educator, and entrepreneur Emilie Baltz, professor Caleb Harper from ''MIT Media Lab's'' CityFarm project, the Barbarian Group's Benjamin Palmer, and Andras Forgacs, the co-founder and CEO of ''Modern Meadow'', who is growing 'victimless' meat in a lab. The discussion addresses issues of sustainable ], ecosystems, technology, food supply chains and their broad environmental and humanitarian implications, and how these changes in food production may change what people may find delicious ... and the other way around." Posted on the official YouTube Channel of '']''


==External links==
Unlike food processors, food retailing is a two-tier market in which a small number of very large ] control a large proportion of supermarkets. The supermarket giants wield great purchasing power over farmers and processors, and strong influence over consumers. Nevertheless, in ] only 19% of all US consumer expenditure spent on food went to farmers.
{{Wikibooks|Cookbook}}

{{Wikiquote}}
Recent technological innovations such as ] technology - ]s. This allows ordering of goods and food to be driven by actual sales.
* {{Commons-inline|food}}

*{{Wikivoyage-inline}}
===Food sufficiency===
*{{Wikisource-inline|search=Food}}
Food deprivation leads to ] and ultimately ]. This is often connected with ], which involves the absence of food in entire communities. This can have a devastating and widespread effect on human health and mortality. In ] it was estimated that each ], 40 million people die of ] worldwide. ] is sometimes used to distribute food in times of shortage, most notably during times of war.
* {{Wiktionary-inline}}

* {{official website|http://www.foodtimeline.org/}} of Food Timeline
Food deprivation is regarded as a deficit need in ] and is measured using ].
* , BBC Radio 4 discussion with Rebecca Spang, Ivan Day and Felipe Fernandez-Armesto ('']'', 27 December 2001)

====Food aid====
] can benefit people suffering from a shortage of food. Conversely, badly managed food aid can create problems by disrupting local markets, depressing crop prices and discouraging food production. Its provision, or threatened withdrawal, is sometimes used as a political tool to influence the ] of the destination country. International efforts to distribute food to the neediest countries are co-ordinated by the ].

:''See also: ], ]''.

===Food safety===
], commonly called "food poisoning," is caused by ], ]s, ]es and ]s. ] has been recognised as a disease of man since as early as ]. Murder by food poisoning was used during the ]. In the ] all ]s had food tasters.

The sale of ], contaminated or adulterated food was commonplace until introduction of ], ], and ] controls in the ]. Discovery of techniques for killing ] using ] and other ] studies by scientists such as ] contributed to the modern sanitation standards that we enjoy today. This was further underpinned by the work of ] whose work led to the development of modern ] and ] methods.

The two most common factors leading to cases of bacterial foodborne illness are cross-contamination of ready-to-eat food from other uncooked foods and improper temperature control.

Less commonly, acute adverse reactions can also occur if chemical contamination of food occurs, for example from improper storage, or use of non-food grade soaps and disinfectants. Food can also be adulterated by a very wide range of articles (known as 'foreign bodies') during farming, manufacture, cooking, packaging, distribution or sale. For example, pests (or their feces), hairs, cigarette butts, wood chips, metal shards, plasters etc. It is possible for certain types of food to become contaminated if stored or presented in an unsafe container, such as a ceramic pot with lead-based glaze.

Understanding of the causes of food-borne-illnesses and more systematic techniques for their elimination has led to the development of commercial systems such as ] which can, if properly implemented, identify and eliminate many, but not all, possible risks. HACCP is well suited to identifying and controlling these potential food safety risks.

====Food allergies====
Some people have ] or sensitivities to foods which are otherwise wholesome to the majority of people.

The amount of the food substance required to provoke a reaction in a susceptible individual can be ]. For instance, tiny amounts of food in the air, too minute to be smelled, have been known to provoke lethal reactions in sufficiently sensitive individuals. In theory, any food may provoke a reaction, however, this most commonly involves ], corn, shellfish (mollusks), ]s, and ].

Most patients present with ] after ingesting certain ]stuffs, skin symptoms (]es), bloating, ]ing and ]. The digestive complaints usually develop within half an hour of ingesting the ].

Rarely, food allergy can lead to ]: ] (low blood pressure) and loss of consciousness. This is a ]. An allergen associated with this type of reaction is ], although ] products can induce similar reactions. Initial treatment is with ] (adrenaline), often carried by known patients in the form of an ].

Food allergy is thought to develop easier in patients with the ], a very common combination of diseases: ] and ], ] and ]. The syndrome has a strong inherited component; a family history of these diseases can be indicative of the atopic syndrome.

===Dietary habits===
] play a significant role in the ] and ] of all humans. For example:

*]s are a group of mental disorders that interfere with normal food consumption. They often affect people with a negative ];
*13] of the world's population suffer from ] deficiency;
*In 2003 it was estimated that ] deficiency causes ] in up to 500,000 children each year;
*] deficiency results in ];
*], ] and ] are inter-related. The consumption of each may affect the absorption of the others.
*] and ] are childhood disorders caused by lack of dietary ].
*], a serious problem in the western world, leads to higher chances of developing ], ], and many other diseases.

Concerns about foodborne illness have long influenced diet. Traditionally humans have learned to avoid foods that induce ] illness. Some believe that this is the underlying rationale behind some traditional religious dietary requirements. Additionally, many people choose to forgo food from animal sources to varying degrees; see ], ], ], ], and ].

The nutrient content of diets in industrialised countries contain more ], ], ], ] and less ], ]s and ]s. Contemporary changes to ], ] and ] patterns, together with concerns about the effect of ] and overeating on human ] and mortality are all having an effect on traditional eating habits. ]s and ] practitioners may recommend changes to diet as part of their recommendations for treatment.

More recently, dietary habits have been influenced by the concerns that some people have about the ] impact on health that arise through the consumption of ]. Further concerns about the impact of industrial farming on ], human health and the ] are also having an effect on contemporary human dietary habits. This has led to the emergence of a ] with a preference for ] and ].

:''See also: ], ], ], ].''

===] in food===
Nutrients in food are grouped into several categories. Macronutrients means ], ], and ]s. Micronutrients are the ] and ]. Additionally food contains ] and ]. See the appropriate section for further details.
Diets are to reduce weight

{{cookbook}}

==See also==
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ], study of relationship between culture and food
* ]


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Latest revision as of 21:32, 20 December 2024

Substance consumed for nutrition This article is about food for all organisms. For food for humans, see Human food. For other uses, see Food (disambiguation). "Foodstuffs" redirects here. For the New Zealand grocery company, see Foodstuffs (company).

Table set with red meat, bread, pasta, vegetables, fruit, fish, and beans
Display of various foods

Food is any substance consumed by an organism for nutritional support. Food is usually of plant, animal, or fungal origin and contains essential nutrients such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals. The substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the organism's cells to provide energy, maintain life, or stimulate growth. Different species of animals have different feeding behaviours that satisfy the needs of their metabolisms and have evolved to fill a specific ecological niche within specific geographical contexts.

Omnivorous humans are highly adaptable and have adapted to obtain food in many different ecosystems. Humans generally use cooking to prepare food for consumption. The majority of the food energy required is supplied by the industrial food industry, which produces food through intensive agriculture and distributes it through complex food processing and food distribution systems. This system of conventional agriculture relies heavily on fossil fuels, which means that the food and agricultural systems are one of the major contributors to climate change, accounting for as much as 37% of total greenhouse gas emissions.

The food system has significant impacts on a wide range of other social and political issues, including sustainability, biological diversity, economics, population growth, water supply, and food security. Food safety and security are monitored by international agencies like the International Association for Food Protection, the World Resources Institute, the World Food Programme, the Food and Agriculture Organization, and the International Food Information Council.

Definition and classification

Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support and energy to an organism. It can be raw, processed, or formulated and is consumed orally by animals for growth, health, or pleasure. Food is mainly composed of water, lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates. Minerals (e.g., salts) and organic substances (e.g., vitamins) can also be found in food. Plants, algae, and some microorganisms use photosynthesis to make some of their own nutrients. Water is found in many foods and has been defined as a food by itself. Water and fiber have low energy densities, or calories, while fat is the most energy-dense component. Some inorganic (non-food) elements are also essential for plant and animal functioning.

Human food can be classified in various ways, either by related content or by how it is processed. The number and composition of food groups can vary. Most systems include four basic groups that describe their origin and relative nutritional function: Vegetables and Fruit, Cereals and Bread, Dairy, and Meat. Studies that look into diet quality group food into whole grains/cereals, refined grains/cereals, vegetables, fruits, nuts, legumes, eggs, dairy products, fish, red meat, processed meat, and sugar-sweetened beverages. The Food and Agriculture Organization and World Health Organization use a system with nineteen food classifications: cereals, roots, pulses and nuts, milk, eggs, fish and shellfish, meat, insects, vegetables, fruits, fats and oils, sweets and sugars, spices and condiments, beverages, foods for nutritional uses, food additives, composite dishes and savoury snacks.

Food sources

A typical aquatic food web

In a given ecosystem, food forms a web of interlocking chains with primary producers at the bottom and apex predators at the top. Other aspects of the web include detrovores (that eat detritis) and decomposers (that break down dead organisms). Primary producers include algae, plants, bacteria and protists that acquire their energy from sunlight. Primary consumers are the herbivores that consume the plants, and secondary consumers are the carnivores that consume those herbivores. Some organisms, including most mammals and birds, diet consists of both animals and plants, and they are considered omnivores. The chain ends with the apex predators, the animals that have no known predators in its ecosystem. Humans are considered apex predators.

Humans are omnivores, finding sustenance in vegetables, fruits, cooked meat, milk, eggs, mushrooms and seaweed. Cereal grain is a staple food that provides more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop. Corn (maize), wheat, and rice account for 87% of all grain production worldwide. Just over half of the world's crops are used to feed humans (55 percent), with 36 percent grown as animal feed and 9 percent for biofuels. Fungi and bacteria are also used in the preparation of fermented foods like bread, wine, cheese and yogurt.

Photosynthesis

During photosynthesis, energy from the sun is absorbed and used to transform water and carbon dioxide in the air or soil into oxygen and glucose. The oxygen is then released, and the glucose stored as an energy reserve. Photosynthetic plants, algae and certain bacteria often represent the lowest point of the food chains, making photosynthesis the primary source of energy and food for nearly all life on earth.

Plants also absorb important nutrients and minerals from the air, natural waters, and soil. Carbon, oxygen and hydrogen are absorbed from the air or water and are the basic nutrients needed for plant survival. The three main nutrients absorbed from the soil for plant growth are nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, with other important nutrients including calcium, sulfur, magnesium, iron boron, chlorine, manganese, zinc, copper molybdenum and nickel.

Microorganisms

Bacteria and other microorganisms also form the lower rungs of the food chain. They obtain their energy from photosynthesis or by breaking down dead organisms, waste or chemical compounds. Some form symbiotic relationships with other organisms to obtain their nutrients. Bacteria provide a source of food for protozoa, who in turn provide a source of food for other organisms such as small invertebrates. Other organisms that feed on bacteria include nematodes, fan worms, shellfish and a species of snail.

In the marine environment, plankton (which includes bacteria, archaea, algae, protozoa and microscopic fungi) provide a crucial source of food to many small and large aquatic organisms.

Without bacteria, life would scarcely exist because bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into nutritious ammonia. Ammonia is the precursor to proteins, nucleic acids, and most vitamins. Since the advent of industrial process for nitrogen fixation, the Haber-Bosch Process, the majority of ammonia in the world is human-made.

Plants

Foods from plant sources

Plants as a food source are divided into seeds, fruits, vegetables, legumes, grains and nuts. Where plants fall within these categories can vary, with botanically described fruits such as the tomato, squash, pepper and eggplant or seeds like peas commonly considered vegetables. Food is a fruit if the part eaten is derived from the reproductive tissue, so seeds, nuts and grains are technically fruit. From a culinary perspective, fruits are generally considered the remains of botanically described fruits after grains, nuts, seeds and fruits used as vegetables are removed. Grains can be defined as seeds that humans eat or harvest, with cereal grains (oats, wheat, rice, corn, barley, rye, sorghum and millet) belonging to the Poaceae (grass) family and pulses coming from the Fabaceae (legume) family. Whole grains are foods that contain all the elements of the original seed (bran, germ, and endosperm). Nuts are dry fruits, distinguishable by their woody shell.

Fleshy fruits (distinguishable from dry fruits like grain, seeds and nuts) can be further classified as stone fruits (cherries and peaches), pome fruits (apples, pears), berries (blackberry, strawberry), citrus (oranges, lemon), melons (watermelon, cantaloupe), Mediterranean fruits (grapes, fig), tropical fruits (banana, pineapple). Vegetables refer to any other part of the plant that can be eaten, including roots, stems, leaves, flowers, bark or the entire plant itself. These include root vegetables (potatoes and carrots), bulbs (onion family), flowers (cauliflower and broccoli), leaf vegetables (spinach and lettuce) and stem vegetables (celery and asparagus).

The carbohydrate, protein and lipid content of plants is highly variable. Carbohydrates are mainly in the form of starch, fructose, glucose and other sugars. Most vitamins are found from plant sources, with exceptions of vitamin D and vitamin B12. Minerals can also be plentiful or not. Fruit can consist of up to 90% water, contain high levels of simple sugars that contribute to their sweet taste, and have a high vitamin C content. Compared to fleshy fruit (excepting Bananas) vegetables are high in starch, potassium, dietary fiber, folate and vitamins and low in fat and calories. Grains are more starch based and nuts have a high protein, fibre, vitamin E and B content. Seeds are a good source of food for animals because they are abundant and contain fibre and healthful fats, such as omega-3 fats. Complicated chemical interactions can enhance or depress bioavailability of certain nutrients. Phytates can prevent the release of some sugars and vitamins.

Animals that only eat plants are called herbivores, with those that mostly just eat fruits known as frugivores, leaves, while shoot eaters are folivores (pandas) and wood eaters termed xylophages (termites). Frugivores include a diverse range of species from annelids to elephants, chimpanzees and many birds. About 182 fish consume seeds or fruit. Animals (domesticated and wild) use as many types of grasses that have adapted to different locations as their main source of nutrients.

Humans eat thousands of plant species; there may be as many as 75,000 edible species of angiosperms, of which perhaps 7,000 are often eaten. Plants can be processed into breads, pasta, cereals, juices and jams or raw ingredients such as sugar, herbs, spices and oils can be extracted. Oilseeds are pressed to produce rich oils – ⁣sunflower, flaxseed, rapeseed (including canola oil) and sesame.

Many plants and animals have coevolved in such a way that the fruit is a good source of nutrition to the animal who then excretes the seeds some distance away, allowing greater dispersal. Even seed predation can be mutually beneficial, as some seeds can survive the digestion process. Insects are major eaters of seeds, with ants being the only real seed dispersers. Birds, although being major dispersers, only rarely eat seeds as a source of food and can be identified by their thick beak that is used to crack open the seed coat. Mammals eat a more diverse range of seeds, as they are able to crush harder and larger seeds with their teeth.

Animals

Various raw meats

Animals are used as food either directly or indirectly. This includes meat, eggs, shellfish and dairy products like milk and cheese. They are an important source of protein and are considered complete proteins for human consumption as they contain all the essential amino acids that the human body needs. One 4-ounce (110 g) steak, chicken breast or pork chop contains about 30 grams of protein. One large egg has 7 grams of protein. A 4-ounce (110 g) serving of cheese has about 15 grams of protein. And 1 cup of milk has about 8 grams of protein. Other nutrients found in animal products include calories, fat, essential vitamins (including B12) and minerals (including zinc, iron, calcium, magnesium).

Food products produced by animals include milk produced by mammary glands, which in many cultures is drunk or processed into dairy products (cheese, butter, etc.). Eggs laid by birds and other animals are eaten and bees produce honey, a reduced nectar from flowers that is used as a popular sweetener in many cultures. Some cultures consume blood, such as in blood sausage, as a thickener for sauces, or in a cured, salted form for times of food scarcity, and others use blood in stews such as jugged hare.

Taste

Main article: Taste

Animals, specifically humans, typically have five different types of tastes: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami. The differing tastes are important for distinguishing between foods that are nutritionally beneficial and those which may contain harmful toxins. As animals have evolved, the tastes that provide the most energy are the most pleasant to eat while others are not enjoyable, although humans in particular can acquire a preference for some substances which are initially unenjoyable. Water, while important for survival, has no taste.

Sweetness is almost always caused by a type of simple sugar such as glucose or fructose, or disaccharides such as sucrose, a molecule combining glucose and fructose. Sourness is caused by acids, such as vinegar in alcoholic beverages. Sour foods include citrus, specifically lemons and limes. Sour is evolutionarily significant as it can signal a food that may have gone rancid due to bacteria. Saltiness is the taste of alkali metal ions such as sodium and potassium. It is found in almost every food in low to moderate proportions to enhance flavor. Bitter taste is a sensation considered unpleasant characterised by having a sharp, pungent taste. Unsweetened dark chocolate, caffeine, lemon rind, and some types of fruit are known to be bitter. Umami, commonly described as savory, is a marker of proteins and characteristic of broths and cooked meats. Foods that have a strong umami flavor include cheese, meat and mushrooms.

Catfish have millions of taste buds covering their entire body.

While most animals taste buds are located in their mouth, some insects taste receptors are located on their legs and some fish have taste buds along their entire body. Dogs, cats and birds have relatively few taste buds (chickens have about 30), adult humans have between 2000 and 4000, while catfish can have more than a million. Herbivores generally have more than carnivores as they need to tell which plants may be poisonous. Not all mammals share the same tastes: some rodents can taste starch, cats cannot taste sweetness, and several carnivores (including hyenas, dolphins, and sea lions) have lost the ability to sense up to four of the five taste modalities found in humans.

Digestion

Main article: Digestion

Food is broken into nutrient components through digestive process. Proper digestion consists of mechanical processes (chewing, peristalsis) and chemical processes (digestive enzymes and microorganisms). The digestive systems of herbivores and carnivores are very different as plant matter is harder to digest. Carnivores mouths are designed for tearing and biting compared to the grinding action found in herbivores. Herbivores however have comparatively longer digestive tracts and larger stomachs to aid in digesting the cellulose in plants.

Food safety

Main article: Food safety

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), about 600 million people worldwide get sick and 420,000 die each year from eating contaminated food. Diarrhea is the most common illness caused by consuming contaminated food, with about 550 million cases and 230,000 deaths from diarrhea each year. Children under five years of age account for 40% of the burden of foodborne illness, with 125,000 deaths each year.

A 2003 World Health Organization (WHO) report concluded that about 30% of reported food poisoning outbreaks in the WHO European Region occur in private homes. According to the WHO and CDC, in the USA alone, annually, there are 76 million cases of foodborne illness leading to 325,000 hospitalizations and 5,000 deaths.

From 2011 to 2016, on average, there were 668,673 cases of foodborne illness and 21 deaths each year. In addition, during this period, 1,007 food poisoning outbreaks with 30,395 cases of food poisoning were reported.

See also

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Further reading

  • Collingham, E. M. (2011). The Taste of War: World War Two and the Battle for Food
  • Katz, Solomon (2003). The Encyclopedia of Food and Culture, Scribner
  • Mobbs, Michael (2012). Sustainable Food Sydney: NewSouth Publishing, ISBN 978-1-920705-54-1
  • Nestle, Marion (2007). Food Politics: How the Food Industry Influences Nutrition and Health, University Presses of California, revised and expanded edition, ISBN 0-520-25403-1
  • The Future of Food (2015). A panel discussion at the 2015 Digital Life Design (DLD) Annual Conference. "How can we grow and enjoy food, closer to home, further into the future? MIT Media Lab's Kevin Slavin hosts a conversation with food artist, educator, and entrepreneur Emilie Baltz, professor Caleb Harper from MIT Media Lab's CityFarm project, the Barbarian Group's Benjamin Palmer, and Andras Forgacs, the co-founder and CEO of Modern Meadow, who is growing 'victimless' meat in a lab. The discussion addresses issues of sustainable urban farming, ecosystems, technology, food supply chains and their broad environmental and humanitarian implications, and how these changes in food production may change what people may find delicious ... and the other way around." Posted on the official YouTube Channel of DLD

External links

  • Media related to food at Wikimedia Commons
  • Food travel guide from Wikivoyage
  • Works related to Food at Wikisource
  • The dictionary definition of food at Wiktionary
  • Official website of Food Timeline
  • Food, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Rebecca Spang, Ivan Day and Felipe Fernandez-Armesto (In Our Time, 27 December 2001)
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