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{{Short description|Racialized classification of people}}
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{{redirect|Blacks|the color|Black|other uses}}{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{Use American English|date=April 2020}}
{{Black people sidebar}}


'''Black''' is a ] classification of people, usually a ] and ]-based category for specific populations with a mid- to dark brown ]. Not all people considered "black" have ]; in certain countries, often in socially based systems of ] in the ], the term "black" is used to describe persons who are perceived as dark-skinned compared to other populations. It is most commonly used for people of ]n ancestry, ] and ], though it has been applied in many contexts to other groups, and is no indicator of any close ancestral relationship whatsoever. Indigenous African societies do not use the term ''black'' as a racial identity outside of influences brought by Western cultures.
'''Black''', also referred to as '''Negro''' or '''Colored''' (which is generally considered offensive) (noun, black or blacks; adjective, black people), is a color-defined term used as a form of ethno-racial classification. Though literally implying dark-skinned, "black" has been used in different ways at different times and places.
In the colonial era, this term was then applied in European discourse to multiple peoples around the world, who would subsequently be called black as well. The Spanish word Negro comes from the Latin word Nigris, which eventually came to denote the color black.


Contemporary ]s and other scientists, while recognizing the reality of biological variation between different human populations, regard the concept of a unified, distinguishable "Black race" as ]. Different societies apply different criteria regarding who is classified "black", and these social constructs have changed over time. In a number of countries, societal variables affect classification as much as skin color, and the social criteria for "blackness" vary. In the United Kingdom, "black" was historically equivalent with "]", a general term for non-European peoples. While the term "person of color" is commonly used and accepted in the ],<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Starr|first1=Paul|last2=Freeland|first2=Edward P.|title='People of Color' as a category and identity in the United States|journal=Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies|year=2023|volume=50 |pages=47–67 |doi=10.1080/1369183x.2023.2183929|doi-access=free |issn = 1369-183X}}</ref> the near-sounding term "]" is considered highly offensive, except in South Africa, where it is a descriptor for a person of ]. In other regions such as ], settlers applied the adjective "black" to the indigenous population. It was universally regarded as highly offensive in Australia until the 1960s and 70s. "Black" was generally not used as a noun, but rather as an adjective qualifying some other descriptor (e.g. "black ****"). As desegregation progressed after the 1967 referendum, some Aboriginals adopted the term, following the American fashion, but it remains problematic.<ref>{{Cite news |date= 30 August 2021 |title= Blak, Black, Blackfulla: Language is important, but it can be tricky|work=] |url= https://www.smh.com.au/national/blak-black-blackfulla-language-is-important-but-it-can-be-tricky-20210826-p58lzg.html}}</ref>
The ] word was spawned by the European colonization and conquest of non-Europeans. It solidified into popular culture during the ] as one of the ] into which European philosophers tried to organize the newly discovered human diversity. The categories were based upon skin tone as perceived by Europeans of the time: Red (]), Yellow (]), White (]), and Black (]). Today, the term's usage differs slightly among former European colonies. ], former members of the ], and ] (USA) all use the term differently. The term is most often applied today in three ways. First, it denotes people who are seen as part of the ]. Second, it is also applied to native non-European people lacking African ancestry but who were labeled as "Black" by their colonizers. Third, it has been internalized as an ethno-political rallying label by leaders of oppressed and marginalized populations in several regions around the world. A fourth criterion (who "looks black") is less useful because it is subjective.
Several American style guides,<ref name="APBlack">{{Cite news |date=20 June 2020 |title=AP changes writing style to capitalize "b" in Black |work=] |url=https://apnews.com/71386b46dbff8190e71493a763e8f45a |access-date=21 June 2020}}</ref><ref name="BlackVoice">{{cite web |last=Henry |first=Tanyu |date=17 June 2020 |title=Black with a Capital "B": Mainstream Media Join Black Press in Upper-casing Race |url=https://www.blackvoicenews.com/2020/06/17/black-with-a-capital-b-mainstream-media-join-black-press-in-upper-casing-race/ |website=www.blackvoicenews.com}}</ref> including the '']'', changed their guides to capitalize the 'b' in 'black', following the 2020 ], an ].<ref name="APBlack" /><ref name="BlackVoice" /> The '']'' says that the 'b' should not be capitalized.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lab |first=Purdue Writing |title=Manuscript Writing Style // Purdue Writing Lab |url=https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/asa_style/manuscript_writing_style.html |access-date=2020-09-06 |website=Purdue Writing Lab |language=en}}</ref> Some perceive the term 'black' as a derogatory, outdated, reductive or otherwise unrepresentative label, and as a result neither use nor define it, especially in African countries with little to no history of colonial ].<ref>{{cite book |author=Levinson, Meira |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LztBPNsDLBYC&pg=PA70 |title=No Citizen Left Behind |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-674-06529-1 |page=70}}</ref>


==Africa==
==Usage differs among former European colonies==
{{main|Indigenous peoples of Africa|List of ethnic groups of Africa}}
There are subtle differences among former colonial cultures in how the term is used. Once-colonial cultures, such as the Spanish and Portuguese, that lacked an ] barrier between the descendants of Europeans and the descendants of Africans seldom use the term as an ethno-racial label. Those with weak or three-caste endogamous barriers, such as the French, Dutch, and British distinguish between Black and ]. The only land with a single two-caste color line, the United States, uses the term to denote a semi-voluntary ethnic self-identity. (Semi-voluntary because if you "look White" to the average American you have a choice; if you "look Black" to the average American you do not have a choice.)
<!-- Organized alphabetically and geographically. On the concept per region, which varies widely both between and within global societies and depends significantly on context. In many places around the world, the concept has no currency at all. -->


===Northern Africa===
===Former Iberian colonies do not use the label to denote groups===
] and ] during the ].]]
Latin American societies, including those of the ], have always lacked endogamous color lines. Every ] resides on an Afro-Amerind-European continuum where status depends on wealth, breeding, education, and political power as well as ]. Latin American countries typically have three economic classes: A lower class of agricultural peasants and urban poor; a middle class of landowning farmers and urban craftsmen; and an upper class of wealthy professionals, educators, or the politically powerful. The structure has a strong hereditary component. It is rigid, offers little social mobility, and is often harsh or unjust. Nevertheless, despite significant class/skin-tone correlation, it has no color line in the sense of endogamy. Enforced Black/White endogamy is impossible in Latin America because nearly every Hispanic has immediate blood relatives who are more African-looking and others who are more European-looking than himself. Spanish contains about a dozen words to denote various blends of Afro-European appearance: ''prieto, criollo, blanquito, mulato, moreno, trigueño, mestizo, jabao, marrano'', etc. ] has an equivalent set of terms. Yet, none of these terms has the denotation that "black" has in ], ], or ]. In fact, the word ''negro/a'' in many Latin American countries is seldom used to denote appearance. It is simply a common term of endearment, like the English ''honey''. It is used by affectionate couples, even those who look entirely European.
Numerous communities of dark-skinned peoples are present in ], some dating from prehistoric communities. Others descend from migrants via the historical ] or, after the Arab invasions of North Africa in the 7th century, from slaves from the ] in North Africa.<ref>Frigi et al. 2010, , ''Human Biology'', Volume 82, Number 4, August 2010.</ref><ref name="biomedcentral.com">{{cite journal|author=Harich et .al|year=2010|title=The trans-Saharan slave trade – clues from interpolation analyses and high-resolution characterization of mitochondrial DNA lineages|journal=]|volume=10|issue=138|pages=138|doi=10.1186/1471-2148-10-138|pmid=20459715|pmc=2875235 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2010BMCEE..10..138H }}</ref>] women, a community of recent Sub-Saharan African origin residing in the ] (Northwest Africa).]]
In the 18th century, the Moroccan Sultan ] "the Warrior King" (1672–1727) raised a corps of 150,000 black soldiers, called his ].<ref>Lewis, , Oxford University Press, 1994.</ref><ref>. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''.</ref>


According to ], resident scholar at Brazil's University of the State of Bahia, in the 21st century Afro-multiracials in the ], including Arabs in North Africa, self-identify in ways that resemble multi-racials in ]. He claims that darker-toned Arabs, much like darker-toned ], consider themselves ] because they have some distant white ancestry.<ref>{{cite web|author=Musselman, Anson|title=The Subtle Racism of Latin America|publisher=UCLA International Institute|url=http://www.international.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=4125|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030604165848/http://international.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=4125|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 June 2003}}</ref>
===Former British colonies apply the label to people darker than Europeans===
In South Africa, ''Coloured'' denotes both an intermediate group between White and Black ("Mixed-race" people, in ] terminology), and the ''']''' who are lighter skinned indigenous southern Africans. During the ]-era, for example, segregation and endogamy were enforced between each of its four groups: Black, White, Coloured and Asian. This often confused ] visitors, who tried to associate with locals who were members of South Africa's Coloured group. The problem was that the Black group in the United States includes what South Africans consider two distinct groups: Black plus Coloured. In apartheid South Africa, association between members of the Black and Coloured endogamous groups was forbidden. Even today, after the ending of apartheid, South Africa's four endogamous groups, whose segregation was formerly enforced by criminal law, still maintain largely separate political allegiances, cultures, languages and customs. Nevertheless, South Africa's social barriers are more permeable than in the United States. During apartheid, South Africans routinely switched group membership by requesting it from their local Race Classification Boards. Although the bureaucracy was cumbersome and inconsistent, it enabled change. Individuals were often classified differently from their siblings and parents, and some people changed more than once. South Africans could appeal local reclassification decisions to the national Population Registration Board, thence to the Supreme Court. Like U.S. draft boards of the 1970s, South Africa’s local Race Classification Boards reflected local public opinion and often found it helpful to cooperate with those wanting to upgrade from Black to Coloured or Coloured to White. School principals of schools for children of the White endogamous group could keep up enrollments (and funding) by getting some Coloured children reclassified as White members, but if they pushed too hard, they risked having the whole school reclassified as a school for members of the Coloured endogamous group.<ref>Graham Watson, ''Passing for White: A Study of Racial Assimilation in a South African School'' (London, 1970), 10-24, chap. 4. Incidentally, none of the above is meant to suggest that South Africans' four-group system is in any way more logical or beneficial than America's two-group system. All appearance-based systems tend to crumble around the edges. U.S. courts have still not resolved whether East Indians are members of the U.S. White endogamous group. Similarly, in South Africa, Japanese were ruled to be White whereas Chinese were officially Coloured (The Asian category was intended for South Africa's Indian community). One final remark about South Africa: Due to recent Black political supremacy, their society may be changing. It may now be in transition, from seeing hybrids as intermediate in social rank, to relegating them to inferior status, as in Uganda. A Coloured South African recently complained to a newspaper reporter, "In the old system, we weren't White enough; now we aren't Black enough." See Lydia Polgreen, "For Mixed-Race South Africans, Equity is Elusive," The New York Times International, July 27 2003, 3.</ref>


Egyptian President ] had a mother who was a dark-skinned ] Sudanese (]) woman and a father who was a lighter-skinned ]. In response to an advertisement for an acting position, as a young man he said, "I am not white but I am not exactly black either. My blackness is tending to reddish".<ref>, pp. 5–7, 31. {{ISBN|0-7146-3487-5}}.</ref>
Coloured people in the ] also form an intermediate group between Europeans and those of strong African appearance. Neither status within the group nor movement between groups was ever as institutionalized as in South Africa. Nevertheless, their membership criteria differ both from the United States and from South Africa. Europeans in the British West Indies often marry locals who physically appear to be European but have known partial African ancestry. Similarly, White clubs were closed to members of the Coloured group in the early colonial period, and members of this middle group were not allowed to vote, hold public office, hold military commissions, marry members of the White group, or inherit significant property from a member of the White group, but by the year ], these restrictions had been lifted for the intermediate group in ], ], and ]. The restrictions continued in effect for Blacks until the twentieth century.


Due to the ] nature of Arab society, Arab men, including during the slave trade in North Africa, enslaved more African women than men. The female slaves were often put to work in domestic service and agriculture. The men interpreted the ] to permit sexual relations between a male master and his enslaved females outside of marriage (see ]),<ref>See ] by ], Vol. 2, pp. 112–113, footnote 44. See also commentary on verses {{Quranverse|23|1-6|s=y|b=yl|t=tq}}: Vol. 3, notes 7–1, p. 241; 2000, Islamic Publications.</ref><ref>] 4:24.</ref> leading to many ] children. When an enslaved woman became pregnant with her Arab master's child, she was considered as '']'' or "mother of a child", a status that granted her privileged rights. The child was given rights of inheritance to the father's property, so mixed-race children could share in any wealth of the father.<ref name=hunwick/> Because the society was ], the children inherited their fathers' social status at birth and were born free.
Legislation, court decisions, and social custom in Jamaica, Trinidad, and Barbados treated members of the Coloured group as distinct from members of the Black group. According to one scholar, "The English… encountered the problem of race mixture in very different contexts in their several colonies; they answered it in one fashion in their West Indian islands, and in quite another in their colonies on the continent," and, "The contrast offered by the West Indies is striking." In post-emancipation Jamaica, the beleaguered White population allied with the Coloured elite (the descendants of the famous ]) to keep down the free Blacks. A Barbadian historian wrote, "In August 1838, some 83,000 blacks, 12,000 coloureds, and 15,000 whites, embarked on a social course which the ruling elite hoped to charter." A historian of Trinidad wrote, "The people of colour were marginal to Caribbean society: neither black nor white, neither African nor European…." Today, West Indian immigrants to England assimilate into mainstream society within a generation or two.


Some mixed-race children succeeded their respective fathers as rulers, such as Sultan ], who ruled ] from 1578 to 1608. He was not technically considered as a mixed-race child of a slave; his mother was ] and a ] of his father.<ref name=hunwick>{{cite web|author=Hunwick, John|title=Arab Views of Black Africans and Slavery|url=https://glc.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/events/race/Hunwick.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://glc.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/events/race/Hunwick.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref>
Another way that terminology in the former British Empire differs from, say, Iberian or U.S. customs, is in applying the term to populations that were not part of the African Diaspora of 1500-1900. Most former colonial cultures apply Black only to descendants of the African Diaspora of 1500-1900, but former British colonials, in contrast, apply the label to all colonial subjects of distinctly darker complexion than Europeans. Australian society labels ] as Black. There is some evidence that the ] of the Philippines have come to be known as "Black" since U.S. domination. The European name for the ] inhabitants of Asian locations such as the ] and ] as ], implies their perception of them as Black, largely due to their ] phenotypes. It should be noted, however, that these populations are as long-separated from ] as are the people of the ], ], or farther north in ]. This was not known, however, before ] science of very recent times. (More about these cultures momentarily.)


In early 1991, non-Arabs of the ] of Sudan attested that they were victims of an intensifying Arab ] campaign, segregating Arabs and non-Arabs (specifically, people of ] ancestry).<ref name="Johnson2011">{{cite book|first=Hilde F. |last=Johnson|title=Waging Peace in Sudan: The Inside Story of the Negotiations that Ended Africa's Longest Civil War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WhlarBGyoQQC|year=2011|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|isbn=978-1-84519-453-6|page=38}}</ref> Sudanese Arabs, who controlled the government, were widely referred to as practicing apartheid against Sudan's non-Arab citizens. The government was accused of "deftly manipulating Arab solidarity" to carry out policies of apartheid and ].<ref name="Lasaga">Vukoni Lupa Lasaga, "The slow, violent death of apartheid in Sudan," 19 September 2006, Norwegian Council for Africa.</ref>
===U.S. society equates the label with African-American ethnicity===
{{AfricanAmerican|right}}
An ''']''' (also '''Afro-American''', '''Black American''', or '''black'''), ] is a member of an ] in the ] whose ancestors, usually in predominant part, were indigenous to ]. Many African Americans also have ] and/or ] ancestry as well. The term tends to refer to West African ancestries; not,pens for example], to white or Arab African ancestry, such as Moroccan or white South African ancestry. This is so even though there is huge genetic variation among the various inhabitants of sub-Saharan Africa, as much if not more so as among the afforementioned groups. It is not clear if an American descendant of a ], ], or ] immigrant to America would be considered part of this community, as their ancestors were not brought as slaves to the Americas from Western ], like the majority of Americans of African ancestry, and they have distinct phenotypic characteristics from West Africans. Members of the African Diaspora from non-African countries such as ], ], ] (although they are logically African Americans, since they are located in the Americas and are descendants of Africans, with some admixture from Europeans and native Americans as well) or the ] are theoretically referred to by their nation of origin and not African American (even when they come from a Latin American country) unless they immigrate to the United States, but once a person of the African Diaspora becomes a permanent U.S. resident, then it is generally assumed that they (and especially their U.S.-born children) are "African American."


] are also black people in that they are culturally and linguistically ] indigenous peoples of ] of mostly ], ],<ref name=":02">Richard A. Lobban Jr. (2004): "Historical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval Nubia". The Scarecrow Press, p. 37.</ref> and ]<ref name=":12">Jakobsson, Mattias; Hassan, Hisham Y.; Babiker, Hiba; Günther, Torsten; Schlebusch, Carina M.; Hollfelder, Nina (24 August 2017). "Northeast African genomic variation shaped by the continuity of indigenous groups and Eurasian migrations". ''PLOS Genetics''. '''13'''(8): e1006976. ]:10.1371/journal.pgen.1006976. ] 1553-7404. ] 5587336. ] 28837655.</ref> ancestry; their skin tone and appearance resembles that of other black people.
The U.S. usage of ''Black'' is unique, in that it evolved as a preferred racial term in antithesis to the former term "Negro." Membership has been only partly voluntary because Americans of European appearance have often been identified as Mulatto, and/or White and/or Negro and/or Black by US Census officials, sometimes within the span of three decades. Persons like ] and Gregory Howard Williams, who were virtually as fair as any European, self-identified as "Negro" despite being of overwhelming European genetic admixture, like millions of so-called White Americans. Today the term "Black" and "African-American" are often used interchangeably by both Black and White. The 2000 federal census offered the option of choosing more than one preconcieved designated ethno-racial identity. Also, U.S. traditions follow a ] that rhetorically claims that anyone with even the slightest trace of distant African ancestry is Black&mdash;a tradition found nowhere else on earth; but a tradition that African-Americans helped create in the 1830s North and have consistently embraced. (See ].)


] economist ] accused the Arab government of Sudan of practicing acts of racism against black citizens.<ref>George Ayittey, "Africa and China," ''],'' 19 February 2010.</ref> According to Ayittey, "In Sudan... the Arabs monopolized power and excluded blacks – Arab apartheid."<ref>{{cite journal|author=Ayittey, George B.N.|title=How the Multilateral Institutions Compounded Africa's Economic Crisis|journal=Law and Policy in International Business|volume=30|year=1999}}</ref> Many African commentators joined Ayittey in accusing Sudan of practicing Arab apartheid.<ref>{{cite book|author=Koigi wa Wamwere|title=Negative Ethnicity: From Bias to Genocide|url=https://archive.org/details/negativeethnicit0000koig|url-access=registration|year=2003|publisher=Seven Stories Press|isbn=978-1-58322-576-9|page= }}<br />{{cite book|author=George B.N. Ayittey|title=Africa in Chaos: A Comparative History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5HtUn_dUmSYC|date=15 January 1999|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-312-21787-7|page=50}}<br />{{cite book|author=George B. N. Ayittey|title=Indigenous African Institutions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ltMjAQAAIAAJ|year=2006|publisher=Transnational Publishers|isbn=978-1-57105-337-4}}<br />{{cite journal|author=Diallo, Garba|title=Mauritania, the other apartheid?|url=http://www.artsrn.ualberta.ca/amcdouga/Hist247/winter_2011/resources/mauritania_other_apartheid.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.artsrn.ualberta.ca/amcdouga/Hist247/winter_2011/resources/mauritania_other_apartheid.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|issue=16|journal=Current African Issues|publisher=Nordiska Afrikainstitutet|year=1993}}</ref>
Many within the U.S. accept only people of recent sub-Saharan ancestry as Black. Even though the term Black does not strictly encompass sub-Saharan Africans (historically the word "black" relates more to dark skin than to regional affiliation), many do not consider people outside of the recent African diaspora as Black. For various reasons, Americans dispute the self-identity of Asians, Pacific Islanders, and others who claim to see themselves as Black.


==Who is Black?== ===Sahara===
] (Bella) woman]]
Because it is a social classification label that cannot be objectively tested, much less replicated, there is no scientific way to identify a "Black" person. Nevertheless, according to their explanations, those who use the label tend to employ three criteria: ancestry, self-identity, and appearance.
In the ], the native ] ] populations kept "]" slaves. Most of these captives were of ] extraction, and were either purchased by the Tuareg nobles from slave markets in the ] or taken during raids. Their origin is denoted via the ] word '']'' (sing. ''Ébenher''), which alludes to slaves that only spoke a ] language. These slaves were also sometimes known by the borrowed ] term ''Bella''.<ref>{{cite book|author=Nicolaisen, Johannes|title=Ecology and Culture of the Pastoral Tuareg: With Particular Reference to the Tuareg of Ahaggar and Ayr|year=1963|publisher=National Museum of Copenhagen|page=16|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hLUbAAAAIAAJ}}</ref>


Similarly, the ] indigenous peoples of the ] observed a class system consisting of high ]s and low castes. Outside of these traditional tribal boundaries were "Negro" slaves, who were drawn from the surrounding areas.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Alcobé, Santiago|title=The Physical Anthropology of the West Saharan Nomads|journal=Man|date=November 1947|volume=47|issue=160–168 |pages=141–143|doi=10.2307/2791649|jstor=2791649|pmid=18895492 }}</ref>
===Who is a descendant of the African Diaspora?===
Most societies that apply the Black label on the basis of a person's ancestry justify it as applying to the descendants of the ]. Between 1500 and 1900, approximately four million African slaves were transported to island plantations in the ], about eight million were shipped to Mediterranean-area countries, and about eleven million were taken to the ].<ref>Pier M. Larson, , ''William and Mary Quarterly'' 56, no. 2 (1999): 335-62.</ref> Their descendants are now found around the globe. Due to intermarriage and genetic assimilation, just who is "a descendant" of the African Diaspora is not entirely self-evident.


===North-Eastern Africa===
At one extreme, in the United States it is relatively easy to tell who has such ancestry. British North America imported only about 500,000 Africans out of the eleven million shipped across the Atlantic.<ref>Hugh Thomas, ''The Slave Trade: The Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade: 1440-1870'' (New York, 1997), 793, 804-5.</ref> Nevertheless, the United States has been astonishingly successful at preserving two distinct genetic populations: one of mostly African ancestry, the other overwhelmingly European.<ref>Heather E. Collins-Schramm and others, "Markers that Discriminate Be-tween European and African Ancestry Show Limited Variation Within Africa," ''Human Genetics'', 111 (September 2002), 566-99.</ref> All other New World states (except Canada) that imported African slaves have unimodal Afro-European genetic admixture scatter diagrams. Indeed, two thirds of White Americans have no detectable African ancestry at all (other than the ancient African ancestry shared by all members of our species, of course). Only one-third of White Americans have detectable African ] (averaging 2.3 percent) from ancestors who passed through the endogamous color line from Black to White.<ref>Mark D. Shriver and others, "Skin Pigmentation, Biogeographical Ancestry, and Admixture Mapping," ''Human Genetics'', 112 (2003), 387-99.</ref> Furthermore, U.S. government's surveys continue to categorize on a strict color-line. The federal census has no provision for a "multiracial" or "biracial" self-identity and, until 2000, forbade checking off more than one box. The ] has strict regulations defining who is Black or White and implicitly denies the existence of mixed people.


In ] and ], the slave classes mainly consisted of captured peoples from the Sudanese-Ethiopian and Kenyan-Somali international borders<ref>{{Cite book|last=Division|first=American University (Washington, D. C. ) Foreign Areas Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YVAsAAAAYAAJ&q=%22A+number+of+Negro+peoples+live+along+the+Sudanese-Ethiopian+border%22&pg=PA73|title=Area Handbook for Ethiopia|date=1964|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|language=en}}</ref> or other surrounding areas of ] and ] peoples who were collectively known as '']''<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bMnJDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT306|title=Dynamics of Religion: Past and Present. Proceedings of the XXI World Congress of the International Association for the History of Religions|date=2017|publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG|isbn=978-3-11-045110-8|page=PT306|quote=Gorgoryos had already named another concept in Ge'ez (shanqella), which means something like 'negro' in a pejorative sense.}}</ref> and ''Adone'' (both analogues to "negro" in an English-speaking context).<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UfrcAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA221|title=Islam in Ethiopia|last1=Trimingham|first1=James|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-97022-1|page=221|quote=These negroes are the remnants of the original inhabitants of the fluvial region of Somaliland who were overwhelmed by the wave of Somali conquest. The Dube and Shabeli are often referred to as the Adone}}</ref> Some of these slaves were captured during territorial conflicts in the Horn of Africa and then sold off to slave merchants.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Division|first=American University (Washington, D. C. ) Foreign Areas Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YVAsAAAAYAAJ&q=Area+Handbook+for+Ethiopia&pg=PP7|title=Area Handbook for Ethiopia|date=1964|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|language=en}}</ref> The earliest representation of this tradition dates from a seventh or eighth century BC inscription belonging to the ].<ref>{{cite news|author=Hoyland, Robert|url=http://isaw.nyu.edu/news/n-in-ainitial-prospectioncient-axum-ethiopia|title=Sabbatical Notes|access-date=6 May 2018|publisher=ISAW}}</ref>
At an intermediate level, in Latin America and in the former plantations in and around the Indian Ocean, descendants of slaves are a bit harder to define because virtually everyone is mixed in demographic proportion to the original slave population. In places that imported relatively few slaves (like the ] or ]), few if any are considered Black today.<ref>Harry Hoetink, ''Caribbean Race Relations: A Study of Two Variants'' (Lon-don, 1971), xii.</ref> In places that imported many slaves (like ] or ]), the number is larger, but all are still of mixed ancestry.<ref>Clara E. Rodriguez, "Challenging Racial Hegemony: Puerto Ricans in the United States," in ''Race'', ed. Steven Gregory and Roger Sanjek (New Brunswick NJ, 1994), 131-45, 137. See also Frederick P. Bowser, "Colonial Spanish America," in ''Neither Slave Nor Free: The Freedmen of African Descent in the Slave Societies of the New World'', ed. David W. Cohen and Jack P. Greene (Baltimore, 1972), 19-58, 38.</ref>


These captives and others of analogous morphology were distinguished as ''tsalim barya'' (dark-skinned slave) in contrast with the Afroasiatic-speaking nobles or ''saba qayh'' ("red men") or light-skinned slave; while on the other hand, western racial category standards do not differentiate between ''saba qayh'' ("red men"—light-skinned) or ''saba tiqur'' ("black men"—dark-skinned) Horn Africans (of either Afroasiatic-speaking, Nilotic-speaking or Bantu origin) thus considering all of them as "black people" (and in some case "negro") according to Western society's notion of race.<ref name="Tibe">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DeD4gruvuNEC|title=The Making of Modern Ethiopia: 1896–1974|author=Tibebu, Teshale|date=1995|publisher=The Red Sea Press|isbn=978-1-56902-001-2|pages=60–61}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/topics/population/race/about.html|title=About Race|website=The United States Census Bureau|language=EN-US|access-date=2020-04-07}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chacko|first=Elizabeth|date=2003|title=Identity and Assimilation among Young Ethiopian Immigrants in Metropolitan Washington|journal=Geographical Review|volume=93|issue=4|pages=491–506|doi=10.1111/j.1931-0846.2003.tb00044.x|jstor=30033939|bibcode=2003GeoRv..93..491C |s2cid=145226876|issn=0016-7428}}</ref>
At the other extreme, the African slaves shipped across the Mediterranean to Europe promptly assimilated. Sub-Saharan DNA is scattered throughout the European population. Not every nation has been studied yet, but enough studies have been done that a picture is starting to emerge. The percentage of sub-Saharan DNA in Europe today ranges from a few percent (in southern Portugal) to nil (in Scandinavia). It decreases as you go northwards from the Mediterranean. It apparently decreases as you go eastwards from the Atlantic. For details, see ].


===Southern Africa===
Although African DNA is present everywhere in Europe, it is too thinly scattered, even along the Mediterranean coast, to affect physical features. Hence, despite this easily detected but diluted African ancestry, virtually no one considers today's Europeans to be descendants of the African slave Diaspora.
{{further|Bantu peoples of South Africa|Khoisan|Coloureds}}


In ], the period of colonisation resulted in many unions and marriages between ] and Africans (] and ]s) from various tribes, resulting in mixed-race children. As the European ] acquired control of territory, they generally pushed the mixed-race and African populations into second-class status. During the first half of the 20th century, the white-dominated government classified the population according to four main racial groups: ''Black'', ''White'', '']'' (mostly ]), and '']''.<!--These terms are capitalized to denote their legal definitions in South African law.--> The Coloured group included people of mixed Bantu, Khoisan, and European ancestry (with some ] ancestry, especially in the ]). The Coloured definition occupied an intermediary political position between the Black and White definitions in South Africa. It imposed a system of legal racial segregation, a complex of laws known as ].
A few examples of populations who are seen as Black or who see themselves as Black because they descend from native Africans are: African Americans, some Latin Americans, and most residents of the Republic of South Africa.


The ] bureaucracy devised complex (and often arbitrary) criteria in the ] of 1945 to determine who belonged in which group. Minor officials administered tests to enforce the classifications. When it was unclear from a person's physical appearance whether the individual should be considered Coloured or Black, the "]" was used. A pencil was inserted into a person's hair to determine if the hair was kinky enough to hold the pencil, rather than having it pass through, as it would with smoother hair. If so, the person was classified as Black.<ref>{{cite news|author=Nullis, Clare|title=Township tourism booming in South Africa|agency=Associated Press|url=https://www.denverpost.com/2007/01/08/township-tourism-booming-in-south-africa/|date=8 January 2007|access-date=6 May 2018}}</ref> Such classifications sometimes divided families.
'''African Americans''' &mdash; (see description above) or visit ].


] is a South African woman who was classified as Coloured by authorities during the apartheid era, due to her ] and ], although her parents could prove at least three generations of European ancestors. At age 10, she was expelled from her all-white school. The officials' decisions based on her anomalous appearance disrupted her family and adult life. She was the subject of the 2008 biographical dramatic film '']'', which won numerous awards. During the apartheid era, those classed as "Coloured" were oppressed and discriminated against. But, they had limited rights and overall had slightly better socioeconomic conditions than those classed as "Black". The government required that Blacks and Coloureds live in areas separate from Whites, creating large townships located away from the cities as areas for Blacks.
'''Afro-Latin Americans''' &mdash; Among the * ] populations in South and Central America there are populations that identify as ''negros''. Some with high levels of admixture as well. The difference is that, contrary to the USA, membership in the Black ethnicity is usually by upbringing and not by an imposed concept of one-droppism.


In the post-apartheid era, the Constitution of South Africa has declared the country to be a "Non-racial democracy". In an effort to redress past injustices, the ANC government has introduced laws in support of ] policies for Blacks; under these they define "Black" people to include "Africans", "Coloureds" and "Asians". Some ] policies favor "Africans" over "Coloureds" in terms of qualifying for certain benefits. Some South Africans categorized as "African Black" say that "Coloureds" did not suffer as much as they did during apartheid. "Coloured" South Africans are known to discuss their dilemma by saying, "we were not white enough under apartheid, and we are not black enough under the ANC (])".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://latitude.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/02/15/in-south-africa-after-apartheid-colored-community-is-the-big-loser/|title=Not White Enough, Not Black Enough|author=Eusebius McKaiser|work=]|date=15 February 2012|access-date=6 May 2018}}</ref><ref>Hatred for Black People; by Shehu Sani; Xlibris Corporation, 2013; {{ISBN|978-1-4931-2076-5}}; page 43.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://open.uct.ac.za/bitstream/handle/11427/21228/Adhikari_article_2004.pdf?sequence=1|title='Not Black Enough': Changing Expressions of Coloured Identity in Post-Apartheid South Africa|author=Mohamed Adhikari|journal=South African Historical Journal|volume=51|year=2004|page=168}}</ref>
===Who self-identifies as Black outside of the recent African diaspora?===
Some groups have also embraced a "Black" self-designation despite their lack of African ancestry (that is, despite having no more detectable sub-Saharan African genetic admixture than, say, southwestern Europeans). Due to the perceived success of the ] of 1955-1975 some oppressed and marginalized populations around the world, even without African ancestry, have chosen to label themselves as "Black." This is disputed by those who equate "Blackness" only with African Equatorial (Sub-Saharan) ancestry and argue that non-Africans cannot be legitimately Black.


In 2008, the High Court in South Africa ruled that ] who were residents during the apartheid era (and their descendants) are to be reclassified as "Black people," solely for the purposes of accessing affirmative action benefits, because they were also "disadvantaged" by racial discrimination. Chinese people who arrived in the country after the end of apartheid do not qualify for such benefits.<ref>, ''The Times''.</ref>
'''Dalits''', &mdash; In ], the group that has suffered the most oppression has been the ] "untouchable" caste, and many have looked to the American civil-rights movement for inspiration. Some Afrocentrists have been very pro-active in creating a mutual bond with these populations, considering them Blacks as well. ], who has been to India three times, was contrite about the way he represented Dalits in the U.S. "I feel bad about it. I oversimplified to make it palatable to a Black constituency. I've given the impression that Dalits are Black people. Dalits, I now find, are a social and economic group, more than a racial group." Nevertheless, Rashidi holds that "large sections of the Dalits would be seen as Black people if they lived anywhere else" and that the connections between Africans and Dalits "go beyond phenotype." Many have adopted the Afrocentric beliefs that they are African, and have formed organizations like the ] emulating the ] of the USA. Dalit leaders like V.T. Rajshekar have taken a less superficial approach in supporting an interpretation of Blackness that includes their own people. It should be noted that aside from similar cultural experiences, some of these people would generally be viewed as Black if they moved to the ], simply because of their ] appearances. This however, does not apply to all Dalits, as only some have significant ] ] ancestry.


Other than by appearance, "Coloureds" can usually be distinguished from "Blacks" by language. Most speak ] or English as a ], as opposed to ] such as ] or ]. They also tend to have more European-sounding names than ] names.<ref>{{cite news|author=du Preez, Max|title=Coloureds&nbsp;– the most authentic SA citizens|work=The Star|date=13 April 2006|url=http://www.thestar.co.za/index.php?fArticleId=3201857|access-date=6 May 2018}}</ref><!-- Expand – why the differences in languages and names? -->
'''Aeta''' &mdash; The '']'' from the ] are, more or less, known as black in the Anglicized Philippines. Like the term Negrito, the term "Aeta" was an imposed term by later migrations. Two major branches apparently made their appearance in the archipelago 30,000 to 20,000 years ago: one traveling up the eastern flank of the islands to end up on the Pacific side of the ] and comprising the Alta, Arta and Agta groups; the second branch appears to have moved up the western side, with some groups similarly ending up in northern ]; this branch includes the Pinatubo Negrito, Dumagat, Ata, Ati, Atta, Sinauna and Batak. At least 25 groups are known, many sharing the same name (Ita, Aeta, Ata, Atta, Agta, etc. are thought to come from the general filipino word "Itom," meaning "black"). Many find this term to be offensive because it ignores their own tribal identification.
{{clear}}


==Asia==
'''Australian Aborigines''' &mdash; ''']''' are the first inhabitants of the ]n continent and its nearby islands, continuing their presence during ]an settlement. The term includes the various ] commonly known as '''Aborigines''', whose traditional lands extend throughout mainland Australia, ] and numerous offshore islands, and also the ''']s''' whose lands are centred on the ] which run between northernmost Australia and the island of ]. Since colonialism, the English have referred to them as Black (not related to African 'Blacks') due to their darker complexion, and they have adopted the name as an ethnic term, much like Afro-Americans:
===Afro-Asians===
* Wimbledon champion ], of the Wiradjuri people of New South Wales, is described as "the first black woman sporting hero in Australian folklore" and included in lists of "black" athletes, as in the book "Black Gold."
{{Main|Afro-Asians}}
* ] has been nicknamed "the black superman."
* ]/Kath Walker , of the Noonuccal people of Moreton Bay, east of Brisbane, referred to herself and other aboriginals as "black." She quoted her father as calling her "black."
* Half-aboriginal ] was subjected to discrimination against black aboriginals and subsequently has involved himself in black politics. .
* ], of the Gumbaynggir people of New South Wales is described as "a black politician."


"]" or "African-Asians" are persons of mixed sub-Saharan African and ] ancestry. In the United States, they are also called "black Asians" or "Blasians".<ref>{{cite book |last=Bird |first=Stephanie Rose |url=https://archive.org/details/lightbrightdamne0000bird |title=Light, bright, and damned near white : biracial and triracial culture in America |work=...he is also Blasian (Black-Asian)... |publisher=Praeger |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-275-98954-5 |location=Westport, Conn. |page= |quote=blasian definition. |url-access=registration}}</ref> Historically, Afro-Asian populations have been marginalized as a result of human migration and social conflict.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Reicheneker |first=Sierra |date=January 2011 |title=The Marginalization of Afro-Asians in East Asia: Globalization and the Creation of Subculture and Hybrid Identity |url=http://digitalcommons.pepperdine.edu/globaltides/vol5/iss1/6/ |journal=Global Tides |volume=5 |issue=1 |access-date=4 July 2012 |quote=There are several models for analyzing the marginalization of ethnic minorities. The Afro-Asian population exemplifies Park's definition of marginalization, in that they are the "product of human migrations and socio-cultural conflict." Born into relatively new territory in the area of biracial relations, there entrance into the culture of these Asian states often causes quite a stir. They also fit into Green and Goldberg's definition of psychological marginalization, which constitutes multiple attempts at assimilation with the dominant culture followed by continued rejection. The magazine ''Ebony'', from 1967, outlines a number of Afro-Asians in Japan who find themselves as outcasts, most of which try to find acceptance within the American military bubble, but with varying degrees of success.}}</ref>
Not all non-Europeans feel this way. As one researcher put it, "The Fourth National Survey of Ethnic Minorities (Modood et al., 1997) decided to survey South Asian and Chinese opinion on this issue by asking respondents ‘Do you ever think of yourself as being black?’. Only about a fifth of over 1500 persons in the South Asian groups answered ‘yes’ (with only slight variation between the groups) and just one Chinese person out of 118. Such findings question the sustainability of such usage and may hasten the demise of political blackness."<ref>P.J. Aspinall, "Collective Terminology to Describe the Minority Ethnic Population: The Persistence of Confusion and Ambiguity in Usage," ''Sociology'', Volume 36(4): 805.</ref>
===Western Asia===


====Arab world====
The phrase, "people of color," is sometimes used as a euphemism for "Black" in exhortations of global non-White solidarity in the face of global Whiteness, but this specific usage is apparently not widespread. According to one researcher, "The use of this term appears to depend strongly on context and location, being largely confined to the USA (alongside the term ‘black’) and increasingly in a radical political context."<ref>P.J. Aspinall, "Collective Terminology to Describe the Minority Ethnic Population: The Persistence of Confusion and Ambiguity in Usage," ''Sociology'', Volume 36(4): 807.</ref>
{{Main|Afro-Arab}}
{{See also|Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Red Sea slave trade}}
] (''pictured'' atop the ], Mecca) was a former Ethiopian slave and the first ], ca. 630.]]
In the medieval Arab world, the ethnic designation of "Black" encompassed not only ], or Africans, but also communities like ], Sindis and Indians from the ].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JQqtEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA222 |title=Islam on the Margins: Studies in Memory of Michael Bonner |date=2023-02-06 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-52783-6 |pages=222 |language=en}}</ref> Historians estimate that between the advent of ] in 650 CE and the abolition of slavery in the ] in the mid-20th century, 10 to 18 million black Africans (known as the Zanj) were enslaved by ]rs and transported to the Arabian Peninsula and neighboring countries.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24156|title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> This number far exceeded the number of slaves who were taken to the Americas.<ref>, BBC.</ref> ] and ] was abolished in 1962, ] in 1963, and ] in 1970.<ref>A. Klein (2002), ''Historical Dictionary of Slavery and Abolition'', Page xxii, {{ISBN|0-8108-4102-9}}</ref>


Several factors affected the visibility of descendants of this diaspora in 21st-century Arab societies: The traders shipped more female slaves than males, as there was a demand for them to serve as ] in harems in the Arabian Peninsula and neighboring countries. Male slaves were castrated in order to serve as ] guards. The death toll of black African slaves from forced labor was high. The mixed-race children of female slaves and Arab owners were assimilated into the Arab owners' families under the ] ]. As a result, few distinctive Afro-Arab communities have survived in the Arabian Peninsula and neighboring countries.<ref name="hidden">{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&contentId=A6645-2004Jan10|newspaper=The Washington Post|title=A Legacy Hidden in Plain Sight|author=Labb, Theola|date=11 January 2004|access-date=6 May 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://members.tripod.com/~yajaffar/african.html|title=Dr Susan|access-date=6 May 2018}}</ref>
Virtually every student of the emergence of a global Black identity agrees that it is crafted politically to unite diverse groups by racializing the experience of discrimination. "When the empirical referent of many of these umbrella terms is explored, both theoretical and methodological problems become apparent, as exemplified by the generic use of the term ‘black’ to delineate a common experience of discrimination based on physical appearance. This is a meaning not shared by a substantial proportion of the people so described in such usage, amounts to third party imputation of meaning and strengthens the perception of highly diverse groups in racial terms."<ref>P.J. Aspinall, "Collective Terminology to Describe the Minority Ethnic Population: The Persistence of Confusion and Ambiguity in Usage," ''Sociology'', Volume 36(4): 812.</ref>


Distinctive and self-identified black communities have been reported in countries such as Iraq, with a reported 1.2 million black people (]), and they attest to a history of discrimination. These descendants of the Zanj have sought minority status from the government, which would reserve some seats in Parliament for representatives of their population.<ref>Timothy Williams, , ''The New York Times'', 2 December 2009: "But on the packed dirt streets of Zubayr, Iraq's scaled-down version of Harlem, African-Iraqis talk of discrimination so steeped in Iraqi culture that they are commonly referred to as "abd" – slave in Arabic – prohibited from interracial marriage and denied even menial jobs...Historians say that most African-Iraqis arrived as slaves from East Africa as part of the Arab slave trade starting about 1,400 years ago. They worked in southern Iraq's salt marshes and sugarcane fields. Though slavery – which in Iraq included Arabs as well as Africans – was banned in the 1920s, it continued until the 1950s, African-Iraqis say. Recently, they have begun to campaign for recognition as a minority population, which would grant them the same benefits as Christians, including reserved seats in Parliament..."Black people here are living in fear," said Jalal Dhiyab Thijeel, an advocate for the country's estimated 1.2 million African-Iraqis. "We want to end that.""</ref> According to Alamin M. Mazrui et al., generally in the Arabian Peninsula and neighboring countries, most of these communities identify as both black and Arab.<ref>Alamin M. Mazrui et al., ''Debating the African Condition'' (2004), {{ISBN|1-59221-145-3}}, p. 324: "But many Arabs were themselves Black. To the present day there are Arab princes in Saudi Arabia who, in the Western world, would be regarded as 'black'. One of the main reasons why the African Diaspora in the Arab world is so small is that people with African blood are much more readily accepted as Arabs than they would be accepted as 'whites' in the Americas."</ref>
The converse is also true. Some peoples today who are clearly genetic descendants of the African Diaspora do not see themselves as "Black" in any ethno-political sense, and instead adopt self-identities aligned with religion or language. Among these are the people of the Mascarene Islands in the Indian Ocean and the inhabitants of highland ].<ref>Pier M. Larson, "," ''William and Mary Quarterly'' 56, no. 2 (1999): 335-62].</ref>


====Iran====
==Who looks Black?==
{{Main|Afro-Iranians}}
Probably the most controversial answer to the question "who is Black?" is "whoever looks Black." This is because, although most who use the label rationalize it in terms of physical appearance, there is little objective consistency in this regard. That different cultures can assign the same individual to opposite "races" may be hard to grasp. And yet North Americans, Haitians, Dominicans, Puerto Ricans, Barbadians, Jamaicans, and Trinidadians all have different subconscious and automatic perceptions of just what features define who belongs to which "racial" label.<ref>This section was adapted from Chapter 3 of Frank W. Sweet, ''Legal History of the Color Line: The Rise and Triumph of the One-Drop Rule'' (Palm Coast FL: Backintyme, 2005) ISBN 0939479230, which contains the citations and references. An abridged version, with endnotes is available online at .</ref>


Afro-Iranians are people of black African ancestry residing in Iran. During the ], many wealthy households imported black African women and children as slaves to perform domestic work. This slave labor was drawn exclusively from the Zanj, who were ]-speaking peoples that lived along the ], in an area roughly comprising modern-day ], ] and ].<ref name="Bagley">F.R.C. Bagley et al., ''The Last Great Muslim Empires'', (Brill: 1997), p.174.</ref><ref name="Ogot">Bethwell A. Ogot, ''Zamani: A Survey of East African History'', (East African Publishing House: 1974), p.104.</ref>
According to ], one can predict where each New World culture draws the color-line based upon its own colonial history. He suggests that three similar socioeconomic classes formed in most settlements during the New World colonial period. Once the importation of African labor became widespread, Western Hemisphere colonies that lacked significant numbers of Native Americans tended to fall into a three-tiered social structure. The top layer comprised a small number of European land-owning planters who produced agricultural products for export using large numbers of African slaves. The slaves themselves made up the bottom layer. Finally, in most European colonies (Barbados being the exception), an intermediate group arose, composed of free subsistence farmers, who were allowed to opt out of the plantation economy in return for serving as militia in the event of slave insurrection. In each colony, the color line came to be defined by the appearance of typical members of the intermediate class. Anyone more European-looking was seen as White; anyone darker was considered Black. Historical contingency decreed that this intermediate group would have a large admixture of African appearance in ], less so in ] and ], even less in ] and ], and be completely European-looking in ] and ]. Hoetink demonstrated that, "One and the same person may be considered white in the ] or Puerto Rico, and 'coloured' in ], ], or ]; this difference must be explained in terms of socially determined somatic norms. The same person may be called a 'Negro' in ]; this must be explained by the historical evolution of social structure in the ]."


====Israel====
In addition, researchers in the cognitive sciences have shown that cultures do not ostracize out-groups because they look different; they look different because they are out-groups. Children of each culture can "correctly" (for their own society) categorize strangers by age three. They can reliably match each "racial" category with its social term or word by about age five. Most American children (about 70 percent) internalize the ] rule by about age ten. And they can confabulate a rationalization for ] by early adulthood.<ref>The term ''hypodescent'' was coined by the late University of Florida anthropologist, Marvin Harris in ''Patterns of Race in the Americas'' (Westport CT, 1964), page 37. It means that, to the extent that blood fraction influences perceived U.S. endogamous group membership, the dividing line is not 50-50. Even a slight fraction of known Black ancestry usually consigns an English-speaking American to the Black group. This contrasts with other New World countries where one is categorized by preponderance of appearance&mdash;you are White if you look mostly White. The original experiments on childhood internalization of the "race" notion are reported in Lawrence A. Hirschfeld, ''Child Development'', 66 (no. 5, October 1995), 1418-37.</ref> Although the number and meaning of "racial" categories and of the traits that delineate them vary dramatically among cultures, children learn their own culture's rules and categories shortly after learning to walk. Clearly, the cognitive system employed is as adaptable to culture, and yet is as hard-wired in the brain, as is language itself.
{{Main|Beta Israel}}
{{Main|African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem}}


] child in ]|279x279px]]
A series of experiments conducted by ], subsequently confirmed by ] and ] show why this is. Sex, age, and "otherness" are the three fundamental attributes that the mind encodes in an automatic and mandatory manner. For example, long after all memory has been lost of the occupation, name, clothing, or hair of a stranger to which one was briefly exposed, one can recall that the individual was "a White woman" or a "Black male child." But age and sex are independent of culture. "Otherness" is not. Kurzban and later investigators demonstrated that the ability to recall a stranger's "otherness" actually detects a culture's social coalitions or alliances. Over the past hundred millennia or so, humans have become adept at detecting competing social groups. The discrimination of facial features enables a child to identify whether a stranger is genetically related (a member of the child's extended family). This ability is strongly selected because one is less likely to be killed and devoured by a relative than by a member of an opposing group. Recall that we (genus ''Homo'') evolved as hunting apes for two million years before our brains expanded five-fold in the past 120 millennia (species ''sapiens''). One must take the long view when studying adaptive cognition.
] (] Ethiopian Jew) ]i ] |left|278x278px]]
About 150,000 East African and black people live in ], amounting to just over 2% of the nation's population. The vast majority of these, some 120,000, are ],<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113172224/http://www1.cbs.gov.il/hodaot2009n/11_09_252b.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www1.cbs.gov.il/hodaot2009n/11_09_252b.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |date=13 November 2010 }}, ]. 16 July 2009. Retrieved 6 May 2018.</ref> most of whom are recent immigrants who came during the 1980s and 1990s from ].<ref>Mitnick, Joshua. ", '']'', 1 September 2009. Retrieved 6 May 2018.</ref> In addition, Israel is home to more than 5,000 members of the ] movement that are ancestry of ] who emigrated to Israel in the 20th century, and who reside mainly in a distinct neighborhood in the ] town of ]. Unknown numbers of black converts to Judaism reside in Israel, most of them converts from the United Kingdom, Canada, and the United States.


Additionally, there are around 60,000 non-Jewish African immigrants in Israel, some of whom have sought asylum. Most of the migrants are from communities in ] and ], particularly the ]-speaking ] groups of the southern ]; some are illegal immigrants.<ref>{{cite web|author=Collins, Toby|url=http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article43625|title=Israel deports Sudanese asylum seekers as S. Sudanese nationals|work=Sudan Tribune|date=18 August 2012|access-date=6 May 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=Sherwood, Harriet|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/may/20/israel-netanyahu-african-immigrants-jewish|title=Israel PM: Illegal African immigrants threaten identity of Jewish state|work=]|date=20 May 2012|access-date=6 May 2018}}</ref>
Skin tone, hair kinkiness, and the like are the clues with which Americans (and, to a lesser extent other Europeans, especially British) identify a stranger's "otherness" and so determine whether a stranger "looks black" to them, but other cultures use clues that are unrelated to the U.S. endogamous color line: height, hair-length, clothing, facial features (such as hooked nose versus straight nose or the shape of the eye), even a person's smell (which relates to diet). This point is easily misunderstood and has even been reported as suggesting that humans are hard-wired to recognize "race." The fact is that in no culture does the need/ability to recall a stranger's "otherness" correlate with Americans' unique perception of "race," unless you stretch the meaning of "race" to denote simply "otherness." In the United States, for example, where the term "race" is applied to differentiate those of Asian ancestry, subjects quickly forget whether the stranger was ], ], ], ], ], or ], but Americans (only) do not forget on which side of the U.S. endogamous color line he seemed to be. In short, it is easily demonstrated within minutes that subjects notice and subconsciously remember even the most apparently insignificant differences in facial features if they happen to correlate with "otherness." On the other hand, even glaring facial differences, such as skin-tone darkness, are quickly forgotten if they are irrelevant to "otherness." In short, "who looks black" is answered differently by different people.


==Footnotes== ====Turkey====
{{Main|Africans in Turkey|Afro-Turks}}
<references/>


] of the ], painting by ], 1869|280x280px]]
==See also==
Beginning several centuries ago, during the period of the ], tens of thousands of ] captives were brought by slave traders to plantations and agricultural areas situated between ] and ], which gave rise to the ] population in present-day ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.afro-turk.org/index.php/ayvalikin-renkli-dernegi|title=Ayvalık'ın renkli derneği|access-date=28 August 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090131011922/http://www.afro-turk.org/index.php/ayvalikin-renkli-dernegi/|archive-date=31 January 2009}}</ref> Some of their ancestry remained ''in situ'', and many migrated to larger cities and towns. Other black slaves were transported to ], from where they or their descendants later reached the ] area through the ] in 1923, or indirectly from ] in pursuit of work.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Walz, Terence|author2=Cuno, Kenneth M.|title=Race and Slavery in the Middle East: Histories of Trans-Saharan Africans in Nineteenth-century Egypt, Sudan, and the Ottoman Mediterranean|year=2010|publisher=American University in Cairo Press|isbn=978-977-416-398-2|page=190}}</ref>
*]
*] and ]
*] people in the ]
*] people of ]
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Apart from the historical Afro-Turk presence Turkey also hosts a sizeable immigrant black population since the end of the 1990s. The community is composed mostly of modern immigrants from Ghana, Ethiopia, DRC, Sudan, Nigeria, Kenya, Eritrea, Somalia and Senegal. According to official figures 1.5 million Africans live in Turkey and around 25% of them are located in ].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Africans in Turkey leave lasting impression on locals|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/africa/africans-in-turkey-leave-lasting-impression-on-locals/1001490|access-date=2021-08-13|website=www.aa.com.tr}}</ref> Other studies state the majority of Africans in Turkey lives in Istanbul and report ], ], ], ] and ] as having a strong African presence.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Şimşek|first=Doğuş|date=2019-07-25|title=İSTANBUL'DAKİ AFRİKALI GÖÇMENLERİN ULUSÖTESİ SOSYAL ALANLARININ ENTEGRASYON SÜREÇLERİNE ETKİSİ|journal=Öneri Dergisi|volume=14|issue=52|pages=216–235|doi=10.14783/maruoneri.594943|issn=1300-0845|doi-access=free}}</ref>
==External links==
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* BBC News of African oriented people in east India and Pakistan
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Most of the African immigrants in Turkey come to Turkey to further migrate to Europe. Immigrants from Eastern Africa are usually refugees, meanwhile Western and Central African immigration is reported to be economically driven.<ref name=":1" /> It is reported that African immigrants in Turkey regularly face economic and social challenges, notably ] and ] by locals.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-09-18|title=Türkiye'de Afrikalı göçmenler: Bize insan değilmişiz gibi bakılıyor|url=https://tr.euronews.com/2020/09/18/turkiye-de-siyahiler-yasad-g-m-z-haks-zl-klar-n-nedeni-hala-kole-olarak-gorulmemiz|access-date=2021-08-13|website=euronews|language=tr}}</ref>

===Southern Asia===
{{Main|Afro-Asians in South Asia|Siddi}}

] in ] district, Karnataka, India.]]
The ] are an ethnic group inhabiting ] and ]. Members are descended from the ] of ]. Some were merchants, sailors, ], slaves or mercenaries. The Siddi population is currently estimated at 270,000–350,000 individuals, living mostly in ], ], and ] in India and ] and ] in Pakistan.<ref name="Shah">{{cite journal|last=Shah|first=Anish M.|title=Indian Siddis: African ancestry with Indian Admixture|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|date=15 July 2011|volume=89|issue=1|pages=154–161|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.05.030|display-authors=etal|pmid=21741027|pmc=3135801}}</ref> In the ] strip of the ] and ] provinces in southwestern ], these Bantu descendants are known as the Makrani.<ref>John B. Edlefsen, Khalida Shah, Mohsin Farooq, " {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104150132/http://www.scribd.com/doc/17031732/Makranis-the-Negroes-of-West-Pakistan |date=4 November 2012 }}", ''Phylon'' (1960–), Vol. 21, No. 2 (2nd Qtr 1960), pp. 124–130. Published by: Clark Atlanta University.</ref> There was a brief "Black Power" movement in Sindh in the 1960s and many Siddi are proud of and celebrate their African ancestry.<ref name=":0">{{cite book|title = Empires of the Indus: The Story of a River|last = Albinia|first = Alice|author-link = Alice Albinia|publisher=Hachette|year=2012|isbn=978-0-393-06322-6|location=UK|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VRSbjdPQirYC&q=sheedi}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Services of Sheedis for Sindh recalled|date=16 December 2013|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1074229/services-of-sheedis-for-sindh-recalled|newspaper=]|access-date=6 May 2018}}</ref>

===Southeastern Asia===
{{Main|Negritos|Africans in Malaysia}}
]] woman, Philippines{{spaced ndash}}the Negritos are an indigenous people of Southeast Asia.]]
]s, are a collection of various, often unrelated peoples, who were once considered a single distinct population of closely related groups, but genetic studies showed that they descended from the same ancient ] meta-population which gave rise to modern ], and consist of several separate groups, as well as displaying genetic heterogeneity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yang |first=Melinda A. |date=2022-01-06 |title=A genetic history of migration, diversification, and admixture in Asia |url=http://www.pivotscipub.com/hpgg/2/1/0001/html |journal=Human Population Genetics and Genomics |language=en |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=1–32 |doi=10.47248/hpgg2202010001 |issn=2770-5005|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Larena |first1=Maximilian |last2=Sanchez-Quinto |first2=Federico |last3=Sjödin |first3=Per |last4=McKenna |first4=James |last5=Ebeo |first5=Carlo |last6=Reyes |first6=Rebecca |last7=Casel |first7=Ophelia |last8=Huang |first8=Jin-Yuan |last9=Hagada |first9=Kim Pullupul |last10=Guilay |first10=Dennis |last11=Reyes |first11=Jennelyn |last12=Allian |first12=Fatima Pir |last13=Mori |first13=Virgilio |last14=Azarcon |first14=Lahaina Sue |last15=Manera |first15=Alma |date=2021-03-30 |title=Multiple migrations to the Philippines during the last 50,000 years |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=118 |issue=13 |pages=e2026132118 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2026132118 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=8020671 |pmid=33753512|bibcode=2021PNAS..11826132L |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Göllner, Larena, Kutanan, Lukas, Fieder, Schaschl |date=10 February 2022 |title=Unveiling the Genetic History of the Maniq, a Primary Hunter-Gatherer Society |journal= Genome Biology and Evolution|volume= 14|issue= 4|doi=10.1093/gbe/evac021 |pmc=9005329 |pmid=35143674}}</ref> They inhabit isolated parts of ], and are now confined primarily to Southern Thailand,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.andaman.org/BOOK/chapter36/text36.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130520173144/http://www.andaman.org/BOOK/chapter36/text36.htm|title=35. The Negrito of Thailand|archive-date=20 May 2013}}</ref> the Malay Peninsula, and the Andaman Islands of India.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Houghton Mifflin Dictionary of Geography|year=1997|location=Wisconsin|isbn=978-0-395-86448-7|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company|url=https://archive.org/details/houghtonmifflind00houg}}</ref>

Negrito means "little black people" in ] (negrito is the Spanish diminutive of negro, i.e., "little black person"); it is what the Spaniards called the aborigines that they encountered in the ].<ref name="William Marsden 1834 4">{{cite book|author=William Marsden|chapter=On the Polynesian, or East-Insular Languages|title =Miscellaneous Works of William Marsden|publisher=Parbury, Allen|year=1834|page=4|isbn=978-0-342-28944-8|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O78NAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA4}}</ref> The term ''Negrito'' itself has come under criticism in countries like Malaysia, where it is now interchangeable with the more acceptable ],<ref name="Hajek">{{cite journal|author=Hajek, John|title=Unraveling Lowland Semang|journal=Oceanic Linguistics|volume=35|issue=1|pages=138–141|date=June 1996|doi=10.2307/3623034|jstor=3623034}}</ref> although this term actually refers to a specific group.

They have dark skin, often curly-hair and Asiatic facial characteristics, and are stockily built.<ref>Marta Mirazón Lahr (1996). "R. A. Foley; Nina Jablonski; Michael Little; C. G. Nicholas Mascie-Taylor; Karen Strier; Kenneth M. Weiss". ''The Evolution of Modern Human Diversity: A Study of Cranial Variation''. Cambridge University Press, p. 303. {{ISBN|0-521-47393-4}}.</ref><ref>''The Encyclopedia Americana, Volume 20''. Grolier Incorporated. 1990. p. 76. {{ISBN|0-7172-0121-X}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bulbeck |first=David |date=2013-11-27 |title=Craniodental Affinities of Southeast Asia's "Negritos" and the Concordance with Their Genetic Affinities |url=https://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/humbiol/vol85/iss1/5 |journal=Human Biology |volume=85 |issue=1 |pages=95–133 |doi=10.3378/027.085.0305 |pmid=24297222 |s2cid=19981437 |issn=0018-7143}}</ref>

Negritos in the Philippines frequently face discrimination. Because of their traditional hunter-gatherer lifestyle, they are marginalized and live in poverty, unable to find employment.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/lifestyle/artandculture/313920/beyond-the-beach-the-untold-story-of-boracay-s-ati-tribe/story/|title=Beyond the beach: The untold story of Boracay's Ati tribe|work=GMA News Online|access-date=6 May 2018|language=en-US}}</ref>

==Europe==

===Western Europe===
{{Main|Afro-Portuguese|Black people in Ireland}}

====France====
{{Main|Black people in France}}
], ca. 1697.]]
While census collection of ethnic background is illegal in ], it is estimated that there are about 2.5&nbsp;– 5 million black people residing there.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A12396-2005Apr23.html|title=Europe's Minority Politicians in Short Supply|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=24 April 2005|access-date=6 May 2018|author=Richburg, Keith B.}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0112/p01s04-woeu.html|author=Sachs, Susan|title=In officially colorblind France, blacks have a dream&nbsp;– and now a lobby|work=The Christian Science Monitor|date=12 January 2007|access-date=6 May 2018}}</ref>

====Germany====
{{Main|Afro-Germans}}
{{See also|Persecution of black people in Nazi Germany}}
As of 2020, there are approximately one million black people living in Germany.<ref>{{cite web|title=Zu Besuch in Neger und Mohrenkirch: Können Ortsnamen rassistisch sein?|url=https://www.focus.de/wissen/mensch/sprache/es-gibt-einige-die-entsetzt-waren-zu-besuch-in-neger-und-mohrenkirch-koennen-ortsnamen-rassistisch-sein_id_12824108.html|quote=Rund eine Million schwarzer Menschen leben laut ISD hierzulande.}}</ref>

====Netherlands====
{{Main|Afro-Dutch}}
Afro-Dutch are residents of the ] who are of Black African or ] ancestry. They tend to be from the former and present Dutch overseas territories of ], ], ], ] and ]. The Netherlands also has sizable ]an and other African communities.

==== Portugal ====
{{See also|Afro-Portuguese people}}As of 2021, there were at least 232,000 people of recent Black-African immigrant background living in ]. They mainly live in the regions of ], ], ]. As Portugal doesn't collect information dealing with ethnicity, the estimate includes only people that, as of 2021, hold the citizenship of a Sub Saharan African country or people who have acquired ] from 2008 to 2021, thus excluding descendants, people of more distant African ancestry or people who have settled in Portugal generations ago and are now ].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sefstat |url=https://sefstat.sef.pt/Docs/Rifa2021.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Portal do INE |url=https://www.ine.pt/xportal/xmain?xpid=INE&xpgid=ine_indicadores&indOcorrCod=0008370&contexto=bd&selTab=tab2&xlang=pt |access-date=2023-06-04 |website=www.ine.pt}}</ref>

====Spain====
]'s ''Book of chess, dice and boards''. African Muslims playing chess. The book also has pictures of white and Arab Muslims playing chess in ]. Europeans loosely called the invading Muslims ''Moors'', blending the name for both people of Arab and Berber ancestry.<ref name=Randall>{{cite book|title=Race|author=John Randall Baker|page=|publisher=]|url=https://archive.org/details/race00bake|url-access=registration|quote=In one sense the word 'Moor' means Mohammedan Berbers and Arabs of North-western Africa, with some Syrians, who conquered most of Spain in the 8th century and dominated the country for hundreds of years.|year=1974|isbn=978-0-19-212954-3|author-link=John Baker (biologist)}}</ref><ref name=Blackmore>{{cite book|last=Blackmore|first=Josiah|title=Moorings: Portuguese Expansion and the Writing of Africa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iRNFebS_mUIC|year=2009|publisher=University of Minnesota Press|isbn=978-0-8166-4832-0|pages=, }}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |title= LITERARY CARTOGRAPHIES OF SPAIN: MAPPING IDENTITY IN AFRICAN AMERICAN TRAVEL WRITING |last= Ramos |first= Maria Christina |date= 2011 | publisher= Graduate School of the University of Maryland |place= College Park, Maryland |page= 42 |url= http://drum.lib.umd.edu/bitstream/1903/12049/1/Ramos_umd_0117E_12042.pdf |quote= Early in the history of al-Andalus, Moor signified "Berber" as a geographic and ethnic identity. Later writing, however, from twelfth-and thirteenth-century Christian kingdoms, demonstrates the "transformation of Moor from a term signifying Berber into a general term referring primarily to Muslims (regardless of ethnicity) living in recently conquered Christian lands and secondarily to those residing in what was still left of al-Andalus."}}</ref> ]]
{{Main|Afro-Spaniard}}
The term "]" has been used in Europe in a broader, somewhat derogatory sense to refer to ]s,<ref name="Menocal, María Rosa 2002 page 241">Menocal, María Rosa (2002). ''Ornament of the World: How Muslims, Jews and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval Spain'', Little, Brown, & Co., p. 241. {{ISBN|0-316-16871-8}}.</ref> especially those of ] or ] ancestry, whether living in North Africa or Iberia.<ref name=Randall/> Moors were not a distinct or ] people.<ref>{{cite thesis |title= LITERARY CARTOGRAPHIES OF SPAIN: MAPPING IDENTITY IN AFRICAN AMERICAN TRAVEL WRITING |last= Ramos |first= Maria Christina |date= 2011 | publisher= Graduate School of the University of Maryland |place= College Park, Maryland |page= 42 |url= http://drum.lib.umd.edu/bitstream/1903/12049/1/Ramos_umd_0117E_12042.pdf |quote= Andalusi Arabic sources, as opposed to later ] and ] sources in Aljamiado and medieval Spanish texts, neither refer to individuals as Moors nor recognize any such group, community or culture}}</ref> Medieval and early modern Europeans applied the name to Muslim Arabs, Berbers, Sub-Saharan Africans and Europeans alike.<ref name=Blackmore/>

], writing in the 7th century, claimed that the ] word Maurus was derived from the ] ''mauron'', μαύρον, which is the Greek word for "black". Indeed, by the time Isidore of Seville came to write his ''Etymologies'', the word Maurus or "Moor" had become an adjective in Latin, "for the Greeks call black, mauron". "In Isidore's day, Moors were black by definition..."<ref>Jonathan Conant, ''Staying Roman: Conquest and Identity in Africa and the Mediterranean'', Cambridge University Press, 2012, pp. 439–700.</ref>

Afro-Spaniards are ] of ]/]n ancestry. Today, they mainly come from ], ], ], ], ], ] and Senegal. Additionally, many Afro-Spaniards born in Spain are from the former Spanish colony ]. Today, there are an estimated 683,000 Afro-Spaniards in ].

====United Kingdom====
{{Main|Black British}}
According to the ], at the ] there were more than a million black people in the United Kingdom; 1% of the total population described themselves as "Black Caribbean", 0.8% as "Black African", and 0.2% as "Black other".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=273|title=Home- Office for National Statistics|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090313004514/http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=273|archive-date=13 March 2009}}</ref> Britain encouraged the immigration of workers from the Caribbean after World War II; the first symbolic movement was of those who came on the ship the '']'' and, hence, those who migrated between 1948 and 1970 are known as ]. The preferred official ] is "black, Asian and minority ethnic" (]), but sometimes the term "black" ], as in the ], which started with a mainly ] constituency, and the ], which has a membership of "African, African-Caribbean and Asian origin".<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100217032604/http://www.nbpa.co.uk/index.php?option=com_frontpage&Itemid=1 |date=17 February 2010 }}, NBPA Website.</ref>

===Eastern Europe===
{{Main|Afro-Russian|Afro-Romanians|Afro-Ukrainians|Afro-Greeks}}
], who was the great-grandfather of ].]]
As African states ] in the 1960s, the ] offered many of their citizens the chance to study in ]. Over a period of 40 years, about 400,000 African students from various countries moved to Russia to pursue higher studies, including many black Africans.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mediarights.org/film/black_russians|title=MediaRights: Film: Black Russians|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110417213901/http://www.mediarights.org/film/black_russians |archive-date=17 April 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.africana.ru/Golden/info/black_russians_project_engl.htm|title=Лили Голден и Лили Диксон. Телепроект "Черные русские": синопсис. Info on "Black Russians" film project in English|access-date=6 May 2018|archive-date=15 January 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110115174736/http://africana.ru/Golden/info/black_russians_project_engl.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> This extended beyond the Soviet Union to many countries of the ].

====Balkans====
Due to the ] in the ] that had flourished in the ], the coastal town of ] in ] had its own black community.<ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=http://www.cyber-adventures.com/yugo.html|title=Yugoslavia – Montenegro and Kosovo – The Next Conflict?|chapter=6|access-date=16 January 2009|archive-date=18 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161118043317/http://www.cyber-adventures.com/yugo.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 1878, that community consisted of about 100 people.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.visit-montenegro.com/main-cities/ulcinj/ulcinj-history/|title=Ulcinj History}}</ref>
{{clear}}

==Oceania==

===Indigenous Australians===
{{main|Indigenous Australians}}
] woman in 1911]]
] have been referred to as "black people" in Australia since the ].<ref>, ''The Hobart Town Courier'', 8 November 1828.</ref> While originally related to ], the term is used today to indicate Aboriginal or ] ancestry in general and can refer to people of any skin pigmentation.<ref>{{cite news|author=Byrd, Dylan|date=6 April 2011|access-date=6 May 2018|url=https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/aboriginal-identity-goes-beyond-skin-colour-20110406-1d40r.html|work=The Sydney Morning Herald|title=Aboriginal identity goes beyond skin colour}}</ref>

Being identified as either "black" or "white" in ] during the 19th and early 20th centuries was critical in one's employment and social prospects. Various state-based ]s were established which had virtually complete control over the lives of Indigenous Australians – where they lived, their employment, marriage, education and included the power to separate children from their parents.<ref>{{cite book|author=Broome, Richard|title=Aboriginal Victorians: A History Since 1800|publisher=]|year=2005|pages=130–131|isbn=978-1-74114-569-4}}</ref><ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130310000835/http://aeon.sro.wa.gov.au/Investigator/Details/Agency_Detail.asp?Id=1200 |date=10 March 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://foundingdocs.gov.au/item-sdid-54.html|title=Aboriginal Protection and Restriction of the Sale of Opium Act 1897 (Qld)|publisher=Museum of Australian Democracy|access-date=2012-12-19 }}</ref> Aborigines were not allowed to vote and were often confined to reserves and forced into low paid or effectively slave labour.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://epress.anu.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/whole34.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://epress.anu.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/whole34.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|pages=1–24|author=Goodall, Heather|title=Land In Our Own Country: The Aboriginal Land Rights Movement in South Eastern Australia, 1860 to 1914|journal=Aboriginal History|volume=14|year=1990}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/42696/2/Aborigines.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/42696/2/Aborigines.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|author=Armstrong, Mick|title=Aborigines: Problems of Race and Class|date=October 2004}}</ref> The social position of mixed-race or "]" individuals varied over time. A 1913 report by ] states that:

{{blockquote|the half-castes belong neither to the aboriginal nor to the whites, yet, on the whole, they have more leaning towards the former; ... One thing is certain and that is that the white population as a whole will never mix with half-castes... the best and kindest thing is to place them on reserves along with the natives, train them in the same schools and encourage them to marry amongst themselves.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-40215065/view|title=Preliminary Report on the Aboriginals of the Northern Territory|first=Sir Baldwin |last=Spencer|date=20 May 1913|page=21}}</ref>}}

After the ], however, it became apparent that the number of mixed-race people was growing at a faster rate than the white population, and, by 1930, fear of the "half-caste menace" undermining the ] ideal from within was being taken as a serious concern.<ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qL6njjk9mRIC&pg=PA1|title=Indifferent Inclusion: Aboriginal People and the Australian Nation|author=McGregor, Russell|publisher=Aboriginal Studies Press|year=2012|chapter=1|pages=1–5|isbn=978-0-85575-779-3}}</ref> ], the ] ], noted that:

{{blockquote|generally by the fifth and invariably by the sixth generation, all native characteristics of the Australian Aborigine are eradicated. The problem of our half-castes will quickly be eliminated by the complete disappearance of the black race, and the swift submergence of their progeny in the white.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.humanrights.gov.au/sites/default/files/content/education/bringing_them_home/Individual%20resources%20and%20activities/8_history_nt.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.humanrights.gov.au/sites/default/files/content/education/bringing_them_home/Individual%20resources%20and%20activities/8_history_nt.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|title=Bringing them home 8. The History – Northern Territory|publisher=Australian Human Rights Commission|access-date=6 May 2018}}</ref>}}

The official policy became one of biological and ]: "Eliminate the full-blood and permit the white admixture to half-castes and eventually the race will become white".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article31075105|title=COLOURED FOLK. Some Pitiful Cases.|first=(A. O. Neville, Chief Protector of Aborigines in Western Australia)|last=A.O.N|date=18 April 1930|newspaper=West Australian|page=9}}</ref> This led to different treatment for "black" and "half-caste" individuals, with lighter-skinned individuals targeted for removal from their families to be raised as "white" people and prohibited from speaking their native language and practicing traditional customs, a process now known as the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.humanrights.gov.au/sites/default/files/content/pdf/social_justice/bringing_them_home_report.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.humanrights.gov.au/sites/default/files/content/pdf/social_justice/bringing_them_home_report.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|author=Australian Human Rights Commission|title=Bringing Them Home: Report of the National Inquiry into the Separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Children from Their Families|year=1997}}</ref>

] ] ] addressing Invasion Day Rally 2007 in an "Australia has a Black History" T-shirt]]
The second half of the 20th century to the present has seen a gradual shift towards improved human rights for Aboriginal people. In ], more than 90% of the Australian population voted to end constitutional discrimination and to include Aborigines in the national ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://australianmuseum.net.au/indigenous-australia-timeline-1901-to-1969|title=Indigenous Australia Timeline – 1901 to 1969|date=3 November 2011|publisher=Australian Museum|access-date=6 May 2018}}</ref> During this period, many Aboriginal activists began to embrace the term "black" and use their ancestry as a source of pride. Activist ] said:
{{blockquote|I only hope that when I die I can say I'm black and it's beautiful to be black. It is this sense of pride which we are trying to give back to the aborigine today.<ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=http://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/p21521/pdf/book.pdf?referer=447|title=Transgressions: Critical Australian Indigenous histories|chapter=Moving Blackwards: Black Power and the Aboriginal Embassy|author=Lothian, Kathy|year=2007|publisher=Australian National University and Aboriginal History Inc|editor1=Macfarlane, Ingereth|editor2=Hannah, Mark|isbn=978-1-921313-44-8}}</ref>}}

In 1978, Aboriginal writer ] received the National Book Council award for his book ''Living Black: Blacks Talk to Kevin Gilbert'', a collection of Aboriginal people's stories, and in 1998 was awarded (but refused to accept) the Human Rights Award for Literature for ''Inside Black Australia'', a poetry anthology and exhibition of Aboriginal photography.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.austlit.edu.au/austlit/page/6129914?q=node/12205|title=Gilbert, Kevin|publisher=Teaching Aust. Lit.|access-date=6 May 2018}}</ref> In contrast to previous definitions based solely on the degree of Aboriginal ancestry, the Government changed the legal definition of Aboriginal in 1990 to include any:
{{blockquote|person of Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander descent who identifies as an Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander and is accepted as such by the community in which he lives<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.alrc.gov.au/publications/36-kinship-and-identity/legal-definitions-aboriginality|title=Essentially Yours: The Protection of Human Genetic Information in Australia (ALRC Report 96), Chapter 36 Kinship and Identity: Legal definitions of Aboriginality|publisher=Australian Law Reform Commission|access-date=12 November 2012|archive-date=27 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927075111/https://www.alrc.gov.au/publication/essentially-yours-the-protection-of-human-genetic-information-in-australia-alrc-report-96/36-kinship-and-identity/legal-definitions-of-aboriginality/|url-status=dead}}</ref>}}

This nationwide acceptance and recognition of Aboriginal people led to a significant increase in the number of people self-identifying as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.NSF/0/39F2F4183125265ACA2570EC0018E4F8?opendocument|title=Population Growth: Growth and distribution of Indigenous people|author=Australian Bureau of Statistics|year=1998}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.environment.gov.au/soe/2001/publications/technical/indigenous/population.html|title=Indigenous Settlements of Australia|publisher=Australian Government Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities|author=Memmott, Paul|author2=Moran, Mark|year=2001}}</ref> The ] of the term "black" with a positive and more inclusive meaning has resulted in its widespread use in mainstream Australian culture, including public media outlets,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/opinion/politics/the-forgotten-conflict-20120430-1xtuo.html|work=The Sydney Morning Herald|title=The forgotten conflict|author=Darby, Andrew|date=1 May 2012|access-date=6 May 2018}}</ref> government agencies,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nfsa.gov.au/collection/using-collection/black-screen|title=Black Screen|date=13 September 2016|access-date=6 May 2018}}</ref> and private companies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.blackontrack.com.au/|title=Black on Track: Indigenous Men?s Programs, School Programs, Employment Programs, Sports Mentoring Programs, Community Engagement Live in Program, Motivational Speaking, Developing Programs for your Community|access-date=2012-12-20|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408063307/http://blackontrack.com.au/|archive-date=8 April 2013}}</ref> In 2012, a number of high-profile cases highlighted the legal and community attitude that identifying as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander is not dependent on skin color, with a well-known boxer ] being widely criticized for questioning the "blackness" of another boxer<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.news.com.au/national/mundine-echoes-the-ku-klux-klan-mansell/news-story/4a699fce80e5bda2456d78866947c73f|title=Anthony Mundine echoes the Ku Klux Klan: Mansell|author=Shepherd, Tony|date=19 October 2012|website=]|access-date=6 May 2018}}</ref> and journalist ] being successfully sued for publishing discriminatory comments about Aboriginals with light skin.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2011-09-28/bolt-found-guilty-of-breaching-discrimination-act/3025918|title=Bolt breached discrimination act, judge rules|date=29 September 2011|publisher=]|access-date=6 May 2018}}</ref>

===Melanesians===
{{main|Melanesians}}
The region of ] is named from Greek {{lang|grc|μέλας}}, ''black'', and {{lang|grc|νῆσος}}, ''island'', ] meaning "islands of black ", in reference to the dark skin of the indigenous peoples. Early European settlers, such as Spanish explorer ], noted the resemblance of the people to those in Africa.<ref>{{cite book | last = Quanchi | first = Max| year = 2005 | title = Historical Dictionary of the Discovery and Exploration of the Pacific Islands | publisher = The Scarecrow Press |page=215|isbn=0-8108-5395-7}}</ref>

] warrior, 1870s.]]

Melanesians, along with other ], were frequently deceived or coerced during the 19th and 20th centuries into forced labour for sugarcane, cotton, and coffee planters in countries distant to their native lands in a practice known as ]. In ], some 55,000 to 62,500<ref name="AHRC">Tracey Flanagan, Meredith Wilkie, and Susanna Iuliano. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110314080249/http://www.hreoc.gov.au/racial_discrimination/forum/Erace/south_sea.html |date=14 March 2011 }}, Australian Human Rights Commission.</ref> were brought from the ], the ], and ] to work in sugarcane fields. Under the ], most islanders working in Queensland were repatriated back to their homelands.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item.asp?sdID=86|title=Documenting Democracy: Pacific Island Labourers Act 1901 (Cth)|publisher=Foundingdocs.gov.au|location=National Archives of Australia|access-date=14 October 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091026225820/http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item.asp?sdID=86|archive-date=26 October 2009}}</ref>
Those who remained in Australia, commonly called ], often faced discrimination similarly to Indigenous Australians by white-dominated society. Many indigenous rights activists have South Sea Islander ancestry, including ], ] and ].

Many Melanesians have taken up the term 'Melanesia' as a way to empower themselves as a collective people. Stephanie Lawson writes that the term "moved from a term of denigration to one of affirmation, providing a positive basis for contemporary subregional identity as well as a formal organisation".<ref name="Lawson 2013">{{cite journal|last=Lawson|first=Stephanie|title='Melanesia': The History and Politics of an Idea|journal=Journal of Pacific History|year=2013|volume=48|issue=1|pages=1–22|doi=10.1080/00223344.2012.760839|s2cid=219627550 }}</ref>{{rp|14}} For instance, the term is used in the ], which seeks to promote economic growth among Melanesian countries.

===Other===
{{Main|African Australians|African New Zealanders}}
], nicknamed "Black Caesar", a ] and ] with parents born in an unknown area in Africa, was one of the first people of recent black African ancestry to arrive in Australia.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/book-reviews/black-founders-the-unknown-story-of-australias-first-blacksettlers/2006/06/16/1149964726285.html?page=fullpage#contentSwap1|title=Black Founders: The Unknown Story of Australia's First Black Settlers|work=The Age|date=17 June 2006|access-date=6 May 2018|author=Sparrow, Jeff|location=Melbourne}}</ref>

At the 2006 Census, 248,605 residents declared that they were ]. This figure pertains to all immigrants to Australia who were born in nations in Africa regardless of race, and includes ].

==North America==

===Canada===
{{Main|Black Canadians}}
"Black Canadians" is a designation used for people of black African ancestry who are citizens or permanent residents of ].<ref>{{cite book |last = Harrison |first = Faye Venetia|author-link1=Faye Harrison |year =2005 |title =Resisting racism and xenophobia : global perspectives on race, gender, and human rights |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=-mHGl5HnEBIC&q=Resisting%20racism%20and%20xenophobia%3A%20global%20perspectives%20on%20race&pg=PA180 |publisher=AltaMira Press |isbn=978-0-7591-0482-2|page=180 }}</ref><ref name="Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples">{{cite book |last = Magocsi |first = Paul Robert |year =1999 |title =Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=dbUuX0mnvQMC&q=Encyclopedia%20of%20Canada%27s%20Peoples&pg=PA139 |publisher=University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division |isbn=978-0-8020-2938-6}}</ref> The majority of black Canadians are of ] origin, though the population also consists of ] immigrants and their descendants (including ]), as well as many ]n immigrants.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/tbt/Rp-eng.cfm?A=R&APATH=3&D1=0&D2=0&D3=0&D4=0&D5=0&D6=0&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=01&GID=837928&GK=1&GRP=1&LANG=E&O=D&PID=92333&PRID=0&PTYPE=88971%2C97154&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&TABID=1&THEME=80&Temporal=2006&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=|title=2006 Census of Canada – Ethnic Origin}}</ref><ref name=canada>{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/studies-etudes/11-008/feature-caracteristique/5018918-eng.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.statcan.gc.ca/studies-etudes/11-008/feature-caracteristique/5018918-eng.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=Blacks in Canada: A long history |access-date=2014-05-11}}</ref>

Black Canadians often draw a distinction between those of ] ancestry and those of other African roots. The term ''African Canadian'' is occasionally used by some black Canadians who trace their heritage to the first slaves brought by British and French colonists to the North American mainland.<ref name="Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples"/> Promised freedom by the British during the ], thousands of ] were resettled by the Crown in Canada afterward, such as ]. In addition, an estimated ten to thirty thousand ] reached freedom in Canada from the ] during the Antebellum years, aided by people along the Underground Railroad.

Many black people of Caribbean origin in Canada reject the term "African Canadian" as an elision of the uniquely Caribbean aspects of their heritage,<ref name=walcott>], ''Black Like Who?: Writing Black Canada''. 2003, ]. {{ISBN|1-894663-40-3}}.</ref> and instead identify as ''Caribbean Canadian''.<ref name=walcott/> Unlike in the United States, where "African American" has become a widely used term, in Canada controversies associated with distinguishing African or Caribbean heritage have resulted in the term "black Canadian" being widely accepted there.<ref name=pruegger>"As for terminology, in Canada, it is still appropriate to say Black Canadians." Valerie Pruegger, "Black History Month". ''Culture and Community Spirit'', Government of Alberta.</ref>

===United States===
{{Main|African Americans}}
]]]

There were eight principal areas used by Europeans to buy and ship slaves to the ]. The number of enslaved people sold to the New World varied throughout the slave trade. As for the distribution of slaves from regions of activity, certain areas produced far more enslaved people than others. Between 1650 and 1900, 10.24 million enslaved West Africans arrived in the Americas from the following regions in the following proportions:<ref name="Lovejoy">Lovejoy, Paul E. ''Transformations in Slavery''. Cambridge University Press, 2000.</ref>

* ] (Senegal and ]): 4.8%
* ] (], ] and ]): 4.1%
* ] (] and ]): 1.8%
* ] (] and east of ]): 10.4%
* ] (], ] and ] west of the Niger Delta): 20.2%
* ] (] east of the ], ], ] and ]): 14.6%
* West Central Africa (], ] and ]): 39.4%
* Southeastern Africa (] and ]): 4.7%
].]]

By the early 1900s, '']'' had become a pejorative word in the United States. In its stead, the term '']'' became the mainstream alternative to '']'' and its derived terms. After the ], the terms ''colored'' and ''negro'' gave way to "black". ''Negro'' had superseded ''colored'' as the most polite word for ] at a time when ''black'' was considered more offensive.<ref>Nguyen, Elizabeth, {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111002025209/http://www.thespartandaily.com/news/2004/02/24/CampusNews/Origins.Of.Black.History.Month.Discussed-1498219.shtml|date=2 October 2011}}, ''Spartan Daily'', Campus News. San Jose State University, 24 February 2004. Accessed 12 April 2008.</ref>{{failed verification|date=December 2020}} This term was accepted as normal, including by people classified as Negroes, until the later ] movement in the late 1960s. One well-known example is the use by Dr. Rev. ] of "Negro" in his famous speech of 1963, ]. During the American civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s, some African-American leaders in the United States, notably ], objected to the word ''Negro'' because they associated it with the long history of slavery, segregation, and discrimination that treated African Americans as second-class citizens, or worse.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Smith, Tom W|s2cid=143826058|year=1992|title=Changing racial labels: from 'Colored' to 'Negro' to 'Black' to 'African American'|journal=Public Opinion Quarterly|volume=56|issue=4|pages=496–514|doi=10.1086/269339}}</ref> Malcolm X preferred ''Black'' to ''Negro'', but later gradually abandoned that as well for ''Afro-American'' after leaving the ].<ref>Liz Mazucci, , ''Souls'' 7(1), 2005, pp. 66–83.</ref>

Since the late 1960s, various other terms for African Americans have been more widespread in popular usage. Aside from ''black American'', these include ''Afro-American'' (in use from the late 1960s to 1990) and ''African American'' (used in the United States to refer to Black Americans, people often referred to in the past as ''American Negroes'').<ref>Christopher H. Foreman, ''The African-American predicament'', Brookings Institution Press, 1999, p. 99.</ref>

In the first 200 years that black people were in the ], they primarily identified themselves by their specific ] (closely allied to language) and not by skin color. Individuals identified themselves, for example, as ], ], ], or ]. However, when the first captives were brought to ], they were often combined with other groups from West Africa, and individual ethnic affiliations were not generally acknowledged by English colonists. In areas of the Upper South, different ethnic groups were brought together. This is significant as the captives came from a vast geographic region: the West African coastline stretching from ] to ] and in some cases from the south-east coast such as ]. A new ''African-American'' identity and culture was born that incorporated elements of the various ethnic groups and of European cultural heritage, resulting in fusions such as the ] and ]. This new identity was based on provenance and slave status rather than membership in any one ethnic group.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.africanholocaust.net/news_ah/language%20new%20reality.htm|title=LINGUISTICS AND AFRICA {{!}} Black or African {{!}} Sub-Saharan Africa {{!}} Feminism {{!}} Pre-Colonial {{!}} Spiritual vs Religious|website=www.africanholocaust.net|access-date=2018-10-01|archive-date=5 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105231955/https://www.africanholocaust.net/news_ah/language%20new%20reality.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>

By contrast, slave records from Louisiana show that the French and Spanish colonists recorded more complete identities of the West Africans, including ethnicities and given tribal names.<ref>Gwendolyn Midlo Hall, , Louisiana State University Press, 1992/1995.</ref>

The U.S. racial or ethnic classification "black" refers to people with all possible kinds of skin pigmentation, from the darkest through to the very lightest skin colors, including ], if they are believed by others to have African ancestry (in any discernible percentage). There are also certain cultural traits associated with being "]", a term used effectively as a synonym for "black person" within the United States.

In March 1807, ], which largely controlled the Atlantic, declared ], as did the United States. (The latter prohibition took effect 1 January 1808, the earliest date on which ] had the power to do so after protecting the slave trade under ] of the ].)

By that time, the majority of black people in the United States were native-born, so the use of the term "African" became problematic. Though initially a source of pride, many blacks feared that the use of African as an identity would be a hindrance to their fight for full citizenship in the United States. They also felt that it would give ammunition to those who were advocating repatriating black people back to Africa. In 1835, black leaders called upon Black Americans to remove the title of "African" from their institutions and replace it with "]" or "Colored American". A few institutions chose to keep their historic names, such as the ]. African Americans popularly used the terms "Negro" or "colored" for themselves until the late 1960s.<ref>, pp. 63–64.</ref>

The term ''black'' was used throughout but not frequently since it carried a certain stigma. In his 1963 "]" speech,<ref>{{cite video|url=http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=1732754907698549493|people=Martin Luther King, Jr.|title=I Have a Dream |medium=Google Video|location=Washington, D.C.|date=28 August 1963|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100315154454/http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=1732754907698549493|archive-date=15 March 2010}}</ref> ] uses the terms ''negro'' fifteen times and ''black'' four times. Each time that he uses ''black'', it is in parallel construction with ''white''; for example, "black men and white men".<ref>{{cite journal|author=Smith, Tom W.|s2cid=143826058|title=Changing Racial Labels: From "Colored" to "Negro" to "Black" to "African American"|journal=The Public Opinion Quarterly|volume=56|issue=4|pages=496–514|oclc=192150485|date=Winter 1992|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1086/269339|jstor=2749204}}</ref>

With the successes of the ], a new term was needed to break from the past and help shed the reminders of legalized discrimination. In place of ''Negro'', activists promoted the use of ''black'' as standing for racial pride, militancy, and power. Some of the turning points included the use of the term "]" by Kwame Ture (]) and the popular singer ]'s song "]".

In 1988, the civil rights leader ] urged Americans to use instead the term "African American" because it had a historical cultural base and was a construction similar to terms used by European descendants, such as German American, Italian American, etc. Since then, African American and black have often had parallel status. However, controversy continues over which, if any, of the two terms is more appropriate. ] argues that the term African-American is more appropriate because it accurately articulates their geographical and historical origin.{{citation needed|date=September 2015}} Others have argued that "black" is a better term because "African" suggests foreignness, although black Americans helped found the United States.<ref>{{cite news|author=McWhorter, John H.|title=Why I'm Black, Not African American|work=Los Angeles Times|date=8 September 2004|url=https://www.manhattan-institute.org/html/why-im-black-not-african-american-0153.html|access-date=6 May 2018}}</ref> Still others believe that the term "black" is inaccurate because African Americans have a variety of skin tones.<ref name=Relethford2000>{{cite journal|author=Relethford, JH|title=Human skin color diversity is highest in sub-Saharan African populations|journal=Human Biology; an International Record of Research|volume=72|issue=5|pages=773–80|year=2000|pmid=11126724}}</ref><ref name="Shriver2003">{{cite journal|pages=387–399|doi=10.1007/s00439-002-0896-y|url=https://homepages.uc.edu/~nortonhr/MoCHA/Publications_files/Shriver%20et%20el%202003.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://homepages.uc.edu/~nortonhr/MoCHA/Publications_files/Shriver%20et%20el%202003.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|pmid=12579416|volume=112|issue=4|title=Skin pigmentation, biogeographical ancestry and admixture mapping|date=April 2003|author1=Shriver M.D.|author2=Parra E.J.|author3=Dios S.|journal=Human Genetics|s2cid=7877572|display-authors=etal}}</ref> Some surveys suggest that the majority of Black Americans have no preference for "African American" or "black",<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.gallup.com/poll/28816/black-african-american.aspx|title=Black or African American|author=Newport, Frank|publisher=Gallup|date=28 September 2007|access-date=6 May 2018}}</ref> although they have a slight preference for "black" in personal settings and "African American" in more formal settings.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Miller, Pepper|author2=Kemp, Herb|title=What's Black About? Insights to Increase Your Share of a Changing African-American Market|page=8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1OzZr_U2x_wC&pg=PA8|publisher=Paramount Market Publishing, Inc|year=2006|isbn=978-0-9725290-9-9|oclc=61694280}}</ref>

In the ], black and African Americans are citizens and residents of the United States with origins in the black racial groups of Africa.<ref name="IOM">{{cite web|title=Race, Ethnicity, and Language data – Standardization for Health Care Quality Improvement|url=http://www.ahrq.gov/sites/default/files/publications/files/iomracereport.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.ahrq.gov/sites/default/files/publications/files/iomracereport.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|publisher=Institute of Medicine of the National Academies|access-date=6 May 2018}}</ref> According to the ], the grouping includes individuals who self-identify as African American, as well as persons who emigrated from nations in the Caribbean and sub-Saharan Africa.<ref name="2010USCBAA">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-06.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-06.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|title=The Black Population: 2010|author=Sonya Tastogi|author2=Tallese D. Johnson|author3=Elizabeth M. Hoeffel|author4=Malcolm P. Drewery, Jr.|date=September 2011|work=United States Census Bureau|publisher=United States Department of Commerce|access-date=6 May 2018}}</ref> The grouping is thus based on geography, and may contradict or misrepresent an individual's self-identification, since not all immigrants from sub-Saharan Africa are "black".<ref name="IOM"/> The Census Bureau also notes that these classifications are socio-political constructs and should not be interpreted as scientific or anthropological.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/mso/www/c2000basics/00Basics.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.census.gov/mso/www/c2000basics/00Basics.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|title=2000 US Census basics|access-date=6 May 2018}}</ref>

According to U.S. Census Bureau data, ] generally do not self-identify as African American. The overwhelming majority of African immigrants identify instead with their own respective ethnicities (~95%).<ref>{{cite web|author=Kusow, Abdi M.|title=African Immigrants in the United States: Implications for Affirmative Action|url=https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=1005&context=soc_las_pubs|publisher=Iowa State University|access-date=6 May 2018}}</ref> Immigrants from some ], ] and ] nations and their descendants may or may not also self-identify with the term.<ref name="LewisM">{{cite web|url=http://mumford1.dyndns.org/cen2000/BlackWhite/BlackDiversityReport/black-diversity03.htm|title=The size and regional distribution of the black population|access-date=1 October 2007|publisher=Lewis Mumford Center|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012170004/http://mumford1.dyndns.org/cen2000/BlackWhite/BlackDiversityReport/black-diversity03.htm|archive-date=12 October 2007 <!--DASHBot-->}}</ref>

Recent surveys of African Americans using a ] service have found varied ancestries that show different tendencies by region and sex of ancestors. These studies found that on average, African Americans have 73.2–80.9% ], 18–24% European, and 0.8–0.9% ] genetic heritage, with large variation between individuals.<ref name="Bryc2009">{{cite journal|author1=Katarzyna Bryc|author2=Adam Auton|author3=Matthew R. Nelson|author4=Jorge R. Oksenberg|author5=Stephen L. Hauser|author6=Scott Williams|author7=Alain Froment|author8=Jean-Marie Bodo|author9=Charles Wambebe|author10=Sarah A. Tishkoff|author11=Carlos D. Bustamante|title=Genome-wide patterns of population structure and admixture in West Africans and African Americans|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|date=12 January 2010|volume=107|issue=2|pages=786–791|doi=10.1073/pnas.0909559107|pmid=20080753|pmc=2818934|bibcode=2010PNAS..107..786B|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Bryc 2015">{{cite journal|author1=Katarzyna Bryc|author2=Eric Y. Durand|author3=J. Michael Macpherson|author4=David Reich|author5=Joanna L. Mountain|title=The Genetic Ancestry of African Americans, Latinos, and European Americans across the United States|journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics|date=8 January 2015|volume=96|issue=1|pages=37–53|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2014.11.010|pmc=4289685|pmid=25529636}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author1=Soheil Baharian|author2=Maxime Barakatt|author3=Christopher R. Gignoux|author4=Suyash Shringarpure|author5=Jacob Errington|author6=William J. Blot|author7=Carlos D. Bustamante|author8=Eimear E. Kenny|author9=Scott M. Williams|author10=Melinda C. Aldrich|author11=Simon Gravel|title=The Great Migration and African-American Genomic Diversity|journal=PLOS Genetics|date=27 May 2015|doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1006059|volume=12|issue=5|pages=e1006059|pmid=27232753|pmc=4883799 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

According to studies in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, U.S. residents consistently overestimate the size, physical strength, and formidability of young black men.<ref>{{Cite web|last2=|last3=|first3=|last4=|last5=|last6=|last7=|last8=|first8=|last9=|date=2017-03-14|title=People overestimate the size of black men, perceive them as more threatening than white men, study finds|url=https://www.latimes.com/science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-black-men-threatening-20170313-story.html|url-status=live|access-date=2021-06-01|website=Los Angeles Times|language=en-US|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170314203550/http://www.latimes.com/science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-black-men-threatening-20170313-story.html|archive-date=14 March 2017}}</ref>

===New Great Migration===

The New Great Migration is not evenly distributed throughout the South. As with the earlier Great Migration, the New Great Migration is primarily directed toward cities and large urban areas, such as ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and so forth. North Carolina's ] area in particular, is a hot spot for African American migrants in the US. Between 1975 and 1980, ] saw a net gain of 2,725 African Americans in the area. This number continued to rise as between 1985 and 1990 as the area had a net gain of 7,497 African Americans, and from 1995 to 2000 the net gain was 23,313 African Americans.

This rise in net gain points to Atlanta, Charlotte, Dallas, and Houston being a growing hot spots for the migrants of The New Great Migration. The percentage of Black Americans who live in the South has been increasing since 1990, and the biggest gains have been in the region's large urban areas, according to census data. The Black population of metro Atlanta more than doubled between 1990 and 2020, surpassing 2 million in the most recent census. The Black population also more than doubled in metro Charlotte while Greater Houston and Dallas-Fort Worth both saw their Black populations surpass 1 million for the first time. Several smaller metro areas also saw sizable gains, including San Antonio;<ref name="expressnews.com">{{Cite news|date=2021-08-13|title=Latinos, Blacks Show Strong Growth in San Antonio as White Population Declines|newspaper=San Antonio Express-News |url=https://www.expressnews.com/news/local/article/Latinos-Black-communities-grow-in-San-Antonio-16385595.php|access-date=November 12, 2023|archive-date=March 1, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230301110840/https://www.expressnews.com/news/local/article/Latinos-Black-communities-grow-in-San-Antonio-16385595.php|url-status=live |last1=O'Hare |first1=By Peggy }}</ref> Raleigh and Greensboro, N.C.; and Orlando.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Felton |first1=Emmanuel |last2=Harden |first2=John D. |last3=Schaul |first3=Kevin |title=Still looking for a 'Black mecca,' the new Great Migration |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2022/01/14/black-migration-south/ |url-access=subscription |access-date=November 14, 2023 |newspaper=] |date=January 14, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221223173307/https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2022/01/14/black-migration-south/ |archive-date=2022-12-23}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Primary destinations are states that have the most job opportunities, especially ], ], ], ], ], ] and ]. Other southern states, including ], ], ], ] and ], have seen little net growth in the African American population from return migration.

====One-drop rule====
].]]
From the late 19th century, the South used a ] term, the '']'', to classify as black a person of any known African ancestry. This practice of ] was not put into law until the early 20th century.<ref name=Davis>{{cite web|author=James, F. Davis|title=Who is Black? One Nation's Definition|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/jefferson/mixed/onedrop.html|publisher=]|access-date=6 May 2018}}</ref> Legally, the definition varied from state to state. Racial definition was more flexible in the 18th and 19th centuries before the ]. For instance, President ] held in slavery persons who were legally white (less than 25% black) according to Virginia law at the time, but, because they were born to slave mothers, they were born into slavery, according to the principle of '']'', which Virginia adopted into law in 1662.

Outside of the United States, some other countries have adopted the one-drop rule, but the definition of who is black and the extent to which the one-drop "rule" applies varies greatly from country to country.

The one-drop rule may have originated as a means of increasing the number of black slaves<ref>], {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130801041928/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/essays/page_5-1.html |date=1 August 2013 }}, '']'', 1 May 1997.</ref> and was maintained as an attempt to keep the white race "pure".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://backintyme.com/essays/?p=25|title=Presenting the Triumph of the One-Drop Rule|last=Sweet|first=Frank|date=1 April 2006|work=The One-Drop Rule|access-date=6 May 2018}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|certain=y|reason=Frank Sweet is not a reliable source. His is a self-published fringe viewpoint.|date=September 2017}} One of the results of the one-drop rule was the uniting of the African-American community.<ref name=Davis/> Some of the most prominent abolitionists and civil-rights activists of the 19th century were multiracial, such as ], ] and James Mercer Langston. They advocated equality for all.

====Blackness====
]—the first person of color, biracial, and self-identified African American President of the United States<ref>{{cite book|author=Jolivétte, Andrew|title=Obama and the Biracial Factor: The Battle for a New American Majority|year=2012|publisher=Policy Press|isbn=978-1-4473-0100-4|page=xiii|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cNVeD3KO8fcC&pg=PR13|quote=He is not only the first self-identified African American/person of color to be elected President of the United States—but he is also the first biracial person to hold this office.}}</ref>—was throughout ] criticized as being either "too black" or "not black enough".<ref name="obama-speech">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/18_03_08_obama_speech.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/18_03_08_obama_speech.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|title=Remarks of Senator Barack Obama: "A More Perfect Union" (transcript)|access-date=6 May 2018|date=18 March 2008|work=]|quote=This is not to say that race has not been an issue in the campaign. At various stages in the campaign, some commentators have deemed me either "too black" or "not black enough". Racial tensions bubbled to the surface during the week before the ]. The press has scoured every exit poll for the latest evidence of racial polarization, not just in terms of white and black, but black and brown as well.|pages=2}} See also: </ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2008/jun/27/barackobama.ralphnader|title=Ralph Nader's guilt complex|access-date=6 May 2018|author=Adesioye, Lola|date=27 June 2008|work=The Guardian}}</ref><ref name="obama-time">{{cite magazine|url=http://content.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1584736,00.html|title=Is Obama Black Enough?|access-date=6 May 2018|first=Ta-Nehisi Paul|last=Coates|date=1 February 2007|magazine=Time|quote=Barack Obama's real problem isn't that he's too white—it's that he's too black.}}</ref>]]

The concept of blackness in the United States has been described as the degree to which one associates themselves with mainstream ], politics,<ref name=Eze>{{cite book|author=Eze, Chielozona|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BD88R4MxZmkC|isbn=978-0-7391-4508-1|title=Postcolonial Imaginations and Moral Representations|year=2011|page=25| publisher=Lexington Books |quote=For Du Bois, blackness is political, it is existential, but above all, it is moral, for in it values abound; these values spring from the fact of being an oppressed.}}</ref><ref name=Olson>{{cite book|author=Olson, Barbara|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EXqxzRjUC80C|isbn=978-0-89526-125-0|title=The Final Days|year=2003|page=58| publisher=Regnery |quote=In fact, Bill Clinton had promoted an even worse variation, that authentic blackness is political...}}</ref> and values.<ref>{{cite book|author=Olatunde, Allen Timilehin|title=Missions in the Dark Soil: Life and Work of Thomas Jefferson Bowen in Africa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BnnTBQAAQBAJ|publisher=aiconcept|isbn=978-978-52387-6-1|page=}}</ref> To a certain extent, this concept is not so much about race but more about political orientation,<ref name=Eze/><ref name=Olson/> culture and behavior. Blackness can be contrasted with "]", where black Americans are said to behave with assumed characteristics of stereotypical white Americans with regard to fashion, dialect, taste in music,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.kent.edu/Magazine/Spring2007/ActingWhite.cfm|title=Acting White|last=Edler|first=Melissa|date=Spring 2007|work=Kent State Magazine|access-date=22 July 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080929041631/http://www.kent.edu/Magazine/Spring2007/ActingWhite.cfm|archive-date=29 September 2008}}</ref> and possibly, from the perspective of a significant number of black youth, academic achievement.<ref>Ogbu, J. "Black American students in an affluent suburb: a study of academic disengagement". Erlbaum Associates Press. Mahwah, NJ. 2003.</ref>

Due to the often political<ref name=Eze/><ref name=Olson/> and cultural contours of blackness in the United States, the notion of blackness can also be extended to non-black people. ] once described ] as the first black ],<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.salon.com/2002/02/21/clinton_88/|title=Blacks and Bill Clinton|author=Hansen, Suzy|date=20 February 2002|work=Salon|access-date=6 May 2018}}</ref> because, as she put it, he displayed "almost every trope of blackness".<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/1998/10/05/comment-6543|title=Comment|author=Morrison, Toni|author-link=Toni Morrison|date=5 October 1998|magazine=]}}</ref> Clinton welcomed the label.<ref name=Halpern>{{cite news|author=Martin Halpern|title=Unions, Radicals, and Democratic Presidents: Seeking Social Change in the Twentieth Century|date=2003|page=220|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-2M6cwS5|publisher=Praeger}}{{Dead link|date=March 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

The question of blackness also arose in the Democrat ]'s ]. Commentators questioned whether Obama, who was elected the first president with black ancestry, was "black enough", contending that his background is not typical because his mother was a ] and his father was a black student visitor from Kenya.<ref name="obama-speech"/><ref name="obama-time"/> Obama chose to identify as black and ].<ref name=Kroft>{{cite news|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/transcript-excerpt-sen-barack-obama/|title=A Transcript Excerpt of Steve Kroft's Interview With Sen. Obama|author=Kroft, Steve|date=11 February 2007|work=CBS News|access-date=6 May 2018}}</ref>

===Mexico===
{{Main|Afro-Mexicans}}
{{see|Criollo people#Spanish colonial caste system{{!}}Society and black people in the Spanish Colonial Americas}}
The 2015 preliminary survey to the 2020 census allowed Afro-Mexicans to self-identify for the first time in Mexico and recorded a total of 1.4 million (1.2% of the total Mexican population). The majority of Afro-Mexicans live in the ] region.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/afro-mexicans/|title=Afro-Mexicans|publisher=]}}</ref>

===Caribbean===
{{Main|Afro-Caribbean people}}
{{see|Criollo people#Spanish colonial caste system{{!}}Society and black people in the Spanish Colonial Americas}}

====Dominican Republic====
{{Main|Afro-Dominicans}}
The first Afro-Dominican slaves were shipped to the ] by Spanish conquistadors during the Transatlantic slave trade.

====Puerto Rico====
{{Main|Afro-Puerto Ricans}}
Spanish conquistadors shipped slaves from West Africa to ]. Afro-Puerto Ricans in part trace ancestry to this colonization of the island.

==South America==
{{Main|Afro-Cuban|Afro-Guatemalan|Afro-Hondurans|Afro-Argentines|Afro-Chileans|Black Peruvians|Afro-Bolivians|Afro-Surinamese people|Afro-Ecuadorians|Afro-Guyanese people|Afro–French Guianans|Afro-Uruguayans}}
{{see|Criollo people#Spanish colonial caste system{{!}}Society and black people in the Spanish Colonial Americas}}
], an Afro-Brazilian martial art.]]
Approximately 12 million people were shipped from Africa to the ] during the ] from 1492 to 1888. Of these, 11.5 million of those shipped to ] and the ].<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131210063033/http://unslaverymemorial.org/history.html|date=10 December 2013 }}: "Accurate figures are still not available but at a conservative estimate, using the figures that have been generated by the latest Slave Trade Database, of the estimated millions transported, Portugal dominated the trade with 5.8 million or 46%, while Great Britain transported 3.25 million or 26%, France accounted for 1.38 million or 11%, and Spain 1.06 million or 8%. So it is unmistakable, that the 4 leading colonial powers accounted for a combined total of 11.5 million Africans or 92% of the overall trade. The remainder was transported by the US 305,326, the Netherlands 554,336, and Denmark/Baltic 111,041. There were several stages to the trade. During the first phase between 1501 and 1600, an estimated 277,509 Africans or just 2% of the overall trade, were sent to the Americas and Europe. During the 17th century, some 15% or 1,875,631 Africans embarked for the Americas. The period from 1701 to the passage of the British Abolition Act in 1807 was the peak of the trade. Here an estimated 7,163,241 or 57% of the trafficking in Africans transpired, with the remaining 26% or 3,204,935 occurring between 1808 and 1866."</ref> Brazil was the largest importer in the Americas, with 5.5 million African slaves imported, followed by the British Caribbean with 2.76 million, the Spanish Caribbean and Spanish Mainland with 1.59 million Africans, and the French Caribbean with 1.32 million.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131210063033/http://unslaverymemorial.org/history.html|date=10 December 2013}}:"In the Americas, Brazil was the largest importer of Africans, accounting for 5.5 million or 44%, the British Caribbean with 2.76 million or 22%, the French Caribbean 1.32 million, and the Spanish Caribbean and Spanish Mainland accounting for 1.59 million. The relatively high numbers for Brazil and the British Caribbean is largely a reflection of the dominance and continued expansion of the plantation system in those regions. Even more so, the inability of the enslaved population in these regions to reproduce meant that the replacement demand for laborers was significantly high. In other words, Africans were imported to make up the demographic deficit on the plantations."</ref> Today their descendants number approximately 150 million in South America and the Caribbean.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727004719/http://www.hunter.cuny.edu/galci/Archive.htm |date=27 July 2020 }}, ''Global Afro-Latino and Caribbean Initiative'', 4 February 2006.</ref> In addition to skin color, other physical characteristics such as facial features and hair texture are often variously used in classifying peoples as black in South America and the Caribbean.<ref>{{cite book| title=Hispanic American Religious Cultures|page=386|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GFrwuj-ZXMkC|author=De La Torre, Miguel A.|year=2009|publisher=ABC-Clio|isbn=978-1-59884-139-8|quote=The ways of defining blackness range from characteristics of skin tones, hair textures, facial features...}}</ref><ref name="Whitten1998">{{cite book|editor1=Whitten, Norman E.|editor2=Torres, Arlene|title=Blackness in Latin America and the Caribbean |year=1998|publisher=Indiana University Press|page=161|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mB-r3L3PMNEC&q=hair+texture|isbn=978-0-253-21194-1|quote=In still other instances, persons are counted in reference to equally ambiguous phenotypical variations, particularly skin color, facial features, or hair texture.}}</ref> In South America and the Caribbean, classification as black is also closely tied to social status and socioeconomic variables, especially in light of social conceptions of "]" (racial whitening) and related concepts.<ref name="Whitten1998"/><ref>{{cite book|author=Hernandez, Tanya Kateri|year=2012|page=20|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e_ARE8CLMToC&q=blanqueamiento+|isbn=978-1-107-02486-1|quote=Given the larger numbers of persons of African and indigenous descent in Spanish America, the region developed its own form of eugenics with the concepts of blanqueamiento (whitening) ...blanqueamiento was meant to benefit the entire nation with a white image, and not just individual persons of African descent seeking access to the legal rights and privileges of colonial whites.|title=Racial Subordination in Latin America}}</ref>

===Brazil===
{{Main|Afro-Brazilians}}
The concept of race in ] is complex. A Brazilian child was never automatically identified with the racial type of one or both of their parents, nor were there only two categories to choose from. Between an individual of unmixed West African ancestry and a very light ] individual, more than a dozen racial categories were acknowledged, based on various combinations of ], ], ], and ]. These types grade into each other like the colors of the spectrum, and no one category stands significantly isolated from the rest. In Brazil, people are classified by appearance, not heredity.<ref name=skidmore>{{cite journal|author=Skidmore, Thomas E.|title=Fact and Myth: Discovering a Racial Problem in Brazil|journal=Working Paper|volume=173|url=http://www.nd.edu/~kellogg/publications/workingpapers/WPS/173.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.nd.edu/~kellogg/publications/workingpapers/WPS/173.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|date=April 1992}}</ref>

Scholars disagree over the effects of social status on racial classifications in Brazil. It is generally believed that achieving ] and education results in individuals being classified as a category of lighter skin. The popular claim is that in Brazil, poor whites are considered black and wealthy blacks are considered white. Some scholars disagree, arguing that "]" of one's social status may be open to people of ], a large part of the population known as '']'', but a person perceived as ''preto'' (black) will continue to be classified as black regardless of wealth or social status.<ref>{{cite book|author=Telles, Edward Eric|title=Race in Another America: The Significance of Skin Color in Brazil|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YwJoyyXm7ZkC|year=2004|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-11866-6|pages=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Telles, Edward E.|title=Racial Ambiguity Among the Brazilian Population|journal=Ethnic and Racial Studies|url=http://www.ccpr.ucla.edu/ccprwpseries/ccpr_012_01.pdf|volume=25|pages=415–441|date=3 May 2002|publisher=California Center for Population Research|doi=10.1080/01419870252932133|issue=3|s2cid=51807734|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050115211322/http://www.ccpr.ucla.edu/ccprwpseries/ccpr_012_01.pdf|archive-date=15 January 2005}}</ref>

====Statistics====
{| class=wikitable align=center
!colspan=11|Brazilian Population, by Race, from 1872 to 1991 (Census Data)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibge.gov.br/ibgeteen/povoamento/ |title=Brasil: 500 anos de povoamento |publisher=IBGE |language=pt-BR |access-date=29 December 2011|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090923103736/http://www.ibge.gov.br/ibgeteen/povoamento/|archive-date=23 September 2009}}</ref>
|-
!Ethnic group||White||Black||Brown||Yellow (East Asian)||Undeclared||Total
|-align="right"
|1872||3,787,289||1,954,452||4,188,737||–||–||9,930,478
|-align="right"
|1940||26,171,778||6,035,869||8,744,365||242,320||41,983||41,236,315
|-align=right
|1991||75,704,927||7,335,136||62,316,064||630,656||534,878||146,521,661
|-align="right"
|}
{| class=wikitable style="float: right; margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em;"
|+Demographics of Brazil
|-
!Year!! White!!Pardo!!Black
|-
|1835
|24.4%||18.2%||51.4%
|-
|2000
|53.7%||38.5%||6.2%
|-
|2010
|48.4%||42.4%||6.7%
|}

From the years 1500 to 1850, an estimated 3.5 million captives were forcibly shipped from West/Central Africa to Brazil. The territory received the highest number of slaves of any country in the Americas.<ref>{{cite book|author=Telles, Edward Eric|title=Race in Another America: The Significance of Skin Color in Brazil|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YwJoyyXm7ZkC|year=2004|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-11866-6|page=}}</ref> Scholars estimate that more than half of the Brazilian population is at least in part descended from these individuals. Brazil has the largest population of Afro-ancestry outside Africa. In contrast to the US, during the slavery period and after, the Portuguese colonial government in Brazil and the later Brazilian government did not pass formal anti-] or segregation laws. As in other Latin American countries, ] was prevalent during the colonial period and continued afterward. In addition, people of ] (''pardo'') often tended to marry white spouses, and their descendants became accepted as white. As a result, some of the European descended population also has West African or Amerindian blood. According to the last census of the 20th century, in which Brazilians could choose from five color/ethnic categories with which they identified, 54% of individuals identified as white, 6.2% identified as black, and 39.5% identified as pardo (brown)—a broad multi-racial category, including tri-racial persons.<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Brazil|access-date=6 May 2018}}</ref>

In the 19th century, a philosophy of ] emerged in Brazil, related to the assimilation of mixed-race people into the white population through intermarriage. Until recently the government did not keep data on race. However, statisticians estimate that in 1835, roughly 50% of the population was ''preto'' (black; most were ]), a further 20% was ''pardo'' (brown), and 25% white, with the remainder ]. Some classified as pardo were tri-racial.

By the 2000 census, demographic changes including the end to slavery, immigration from Europe and Asia, assimilation of multiracial persons, and other factors resulted in a population in which 6.2% of the population identified as black, 40% as pardo, and 55% as white. Essentially most of the black population was absorbed into the multi-racial category by intermixing.<ref name="skidmore" /> A 2007 genetic study found that at least 29% of the middle-class, white Brazilian population had some recent (since 1822 and the end of the colonial period) African ancestry.<ref>V.F. Gonçalves, F. Prosdocimi, L. S. Santos, J. M. Ortega and S. D. J. Pena, , ''GMR'', 2007, Vol. 12, No. 6.</ref>

====Race relations in Brazil====
] ceremony]]
According to the 2022 census, 10.2% of Brazilians said they were black, compared with 7.6% in 2010, and 45.3% said they were racially mixed, up from 43.1%, while the proportion of self-declared white Brazilians has fallen from 47.7% to 43.5%. Activists from Brazil’s Black movement attribute the racial shift in the population to a growing sense of pride among African-descended Brazilians in recognising and celebrating their ancestry.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mixed-race people become Brazil's biggest population group {{!}} Brazil {{!}} The Guardian |url=https://amp.theguardian.com/world/2023/dec/22/mixed-race-brazil-largest-population-group |access-date=2024-06-04 |website=theguardian.com}}</ref>

The philosophy of the ] in Brazil has drawn some criticism, based on economic issues. Brazil has one of the largest gaps in income distribution in the world. The richest 10% of the population earn 28 times the average income of the bottom 40%. The richest 10 percent is almost exclusively white or predominantly European in ancestry. One-third of the population lives under the ], with blacks and other ] accounting for 70 percent of the poor.<ref>{{cite web|author=Barrolle, Melvin Kadiri|title=African 'Americans' in Brazil|publisher=New America Media|url=http://news.newamericamedia.org/news/view_article.html?article_id=5b8d531de860940110af2433244782c6|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070516030431/http://news.newamericamedia.org/news/view_article.html?article_id=5b8d531de860940110af2433244782c6|url-status=usurped|archive-date=16 May 2007|access-date=5 August 2009}}</ref>
] c. 1820]]
In 2015 United States, African Americans, including multiracial people, earned 76.8% as much as white people. By contrast, black and mixed race Brazilians earned on average 58% as much as whites in 2014.<ref name="EconomistSlaverysLegacies">{{cite news|title=Slavery's legacies|url=https://www.economist.com/news/international/21706510-american-thinking-about-race-starting-influence-brazil-country-whose-population|newspaper=The Economist|access-date=6 May 2018}}</ref> The gap in income between blacks and other non-whites is relatively small compared to the large gap between whites and all people of color. Other social factors, such as illiteracy and education levels, show the same patterns of disadvantage for people of color.<ref>{{cite web|author=Roland, Edna Maria Santos|title=The Economics of Racism: People of African Descent in Brazil|url=http://www.falapreta.org.br/durban/racism.doc|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614014314/http://www.falapreta.org.br/durban/racism.doc|archive-date=14 June 2007}}</ref>

]
Some commentators{{Who|date=September 2016}} observe that the United States practice of ] and ] in the South, and discrimination in many areas outside that region, forced many African Americans to unite in the civil rights struggle, whereas the fluid nature of race in Brazil has divided individuals of African ancestry between those with more or less ancestry and helped sustain an image of the country as an example of post-colonial harmony. This has hindered the development of a common identity among black Brazilians.<ref name="EconomistSlaverysLegacies"/>

Though Brazilians of at least partial African heritage make up a large percentage<ref name=Phillips>Tom Phillips, , ''The Guardian'', 17 November 2011. Retrieved 6 May 2018.</ref> of the population, few blacks have been elected as politicians. The city of ], for instance, is 80% people of color, but voters have not elected a mayor of color.

Patterns of discrimination against non-whites have led some academic and other activists to advocate for use of the Portuguese term ''negro'' to encompass all African-descended people, in order to stimulate a "black" consciousness and identity.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2006-sep-03-oe-rodriguez3-story.html|title=Brazil Separates into a World of Black and White|work=Los Angeles Times|first=Gregory |last=Rodriguez|date=3 September 2006|access-date=6 May 2018}}</ref>

===Colombia===
{{Main|Afro-Colombians}}
Afro-Colombians are the third-largest African diaspora population in Latin America after Afro-Brazilians and Afro-].

===Venezuela===
{{Main|Afro-Venezuelan}}
Most black Venezuelans descend from people brought as slaves to Venezuela directly from Africa during colonization;<ref>{{citation|url=http://antropologiayecologiaupel.blogspot.com/2011/03/procedencia-de-los-esclavos-negros-en.html|author=University of the Andes (Venezuela)|title=Historia de Venezuela – Procedencia de los Esclavos Negros en Venezuela|date=3 March 2011|access-date=6 May 2018|author-link=University of the Andes (Venezuela)}}</ref> others have been descendants of immigrants from the Antilles and Colombia. Many blacks were part of the ], and several managed to be heroes. There is a deep-rooted heritage of African culture in Venezuelan culture, as demonstrated in many traditional Venezuelan music and dances, such as the ], a musical genre inherited from black members of the colony, or the ] or the ] that both are a fusion of all the three major peoples that contribute to the cultural heritage. Also, black inheritance is present in the country's gastronomy.

There are entire communities of blacks in the ] zone, as well as part of the ] and in other small towns; they also live peaceably among the general population in the rest of Venezuela. Currently, blacks represent a plurality of the Venezuelan population, although many are actually ].

==See also==
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ] – the first free African town in the Americas
* ]
* ]


== References ==
{{Reflist}}


===Historical links=== == External links ==
* {{Commons-inline}}
* {{Wikiquote inline}}


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Latest revision as of 22:37, 20 December 2024

Racialized classification of people "Blacks" redirects here. For the color, see Black. For other uses, see Blacks (disambiguation).

Black people
African diaspora
Asia-Pacific
African-derived culture
History
Race-related
Related topics

Black is a racialized classification of people, usually a political and skin color-based category for specific populations with a mid- to dark brown complexion. Not all people considered "black" have dark skin; in certain countries, often in socially based systems of racial classification in the Western world, the term "black" is used to describe persons who are perceived as dark-skinned compared to other populations. It is most commonly used for people of sub-Saharan African ancestry, Indigenous Australians and Melanesians, though it has been applied in many contexts to other groups, and is no indicator of any close ancestral relationship whatsoever. Indigenous African societies do not use the term black as a racial identity outside of influences brought by Western cultures.

Contemporary anthropologists and other scientists, while recognizing the reality of biological variation between different human populations, regard the concept of a unified, distinguishable "Black race" as socially constructed. Different societies apply different criteria regarding who is classified "black", and these social constructs have changed over time. In a number of countries, societal variables affect classification as much as skin color, and the social criteria for "blackness" vary. In the United Kingdom, "black" was historically equivalent with "person of color", a general term for non-European peoples. While the term "person of color" is commonly used and accepted in the United States, the near-sounding term "colored person" is considered highly offensive, except in South Africa, where it is a descriptor for a person of mixed race. In other regions such as Australasia, settlers applied the adjective "black" to the indigenous population. It was universally regarded as highly offensive in Australia until the 1960s and 70s. "Black" was generally not used as a noun, but rather as an adjective qualifying some other descriptor (e.g. "black ****"). As desegregation progressed after the 1967 referendum, some Aboriginals adopted the term, following the American fashion, but it remains problematic. Several American style guides, including the AP Stylebook, changed their guides to capitalize the 'b' in 'black', following the 2020 murder of George Floyd, an African American. The ASA Style Guide says that the 'b' should not be capitalized. Some perceive the term 'black' as a derogatory, outdated, reductive or otherwise unrepresentative label, and as a result neither use nor define it, especially in African countries with little to no history of colonial racial segregation.

Africa

Main articles: Indigenous peoples of Africa and List of ethnic groups of Africa

Northern Africa

The main slave routes in the Middle East and Northern Africa during the Middle Ages.

Numerous communities of dark-skinned peoples are present in North Africa, some dating from prehistoric communities. Others descend from migrants via the historical trans-Saharan trade or, after the Arab invasions of North Africa in the 7th century, from slaves from the trans-Saharan slave trade in North Africa.

Haratin women, a community of recent Sub-Saharan African origin residing in the Maghreb (Northwest Africa).

In the 18th century, the Moroccan Sultan Moulay Ismail "the Warrior King" (1672–1727) raised a corps of 150,000 black soldiers, called his Black Guard.

According to Carlos Moore, resident scholar at Brazil's University of the State of Bahia, in the 21st century Afro-multiracials in the Arab world, including Arabs in North Africa, self-identify in ways that resemble multi-racials in Latin America. He claims that darker-toned Arabs, much like darker-toned Latin Americans, consider themselves white because they have some distant white ancestry.

Egyptian President Anwar Sadat had a mother who was a dark-skinned Nubian Sudanese (Sudanese Arab) woman and a father who was a lighter-skinned Egyptian. In response to an advertisement for an acting position, as a young man he said, "I am not white but I am not exactly black either. My blackness is tending to reddish".

Due to the patriarchal nature of Arab society, Arab men, including during the slave trade in North Africa, enslaved more African women than men. The female slaves were often put to work in domestic service and agriculture. The men interpreted the Quran to permit sexual relations between a male master and his enslaved females outside of marriage (see Ma malakat aymanukum and sex), leading to many mixed-race children. When an enslaved woman became pregnant with her Arab master's child, she was considered as umm walad or "mother of a child", a status that granted her privileged rights. The child was given rights of inheritance to the father's property, so mixed-race children could share in any wealth of the father. Because the society was patrilineal, the children inherited their fathers' social status at birth and were born free.

Some mixed-race children succeeded their respective fathers as rulers, such as Sultan Ahmad al-Mansur, who ruled Morocco from 1578 to 1608. He was not technically considered as a mixed-race child of a slave; his mother was Fulani and a concubine of his father.

In early 1991, non-Arabs of the Zaghawa people of Sudan attested that they were victims of an intensifying Arab apartheid campaign, segregating Arabs and non-Arabs (specifically, people of Nilotic ancestry). Sudanese Arabs, who controlled the government, were widely referred to as practicing apartheid against Sudan's non-Arab citizens. The government was accused of "deftly manipulating Arab solidarity" to carry out policies of apartheid and ethnic cleansing.

Sudanese Arabs are also black people in that they are culturally and linguistically Arabized indigenous peoples of Sudan of mostly Nilo-Saharan, Nubian, and Cushitic ancestry; their skin tone and appearance resembles that of other black people.

American University economist George Ayittey accused the Arab government of Sudan of practicing acts of racism against black citizens. According to Ayittey, "In Sudan... the Arabs monopolized power and excluded blacks – Arab apartheid." Many African commentators joined Ayittey in accusing Sudan of practicing Arab apartheid.

Sahara

An Ibenheren (Bella) woman

In the Sahara, the native Tuareg Berber populations kept "negro" slaves. Most of these captives were of Nilo-Saharan extraction, and were either purchased by the Tuareg nobles from slave markets in the Western Sudan or taken during raids. Their origin is denoted via the Ahaggar Berber word Ibenheren (sing. Ébenher), which alludes to slaves that only spoke a Nilo-Saharan language. These slaves were also sometimes known by the borrowed Songhay term Bella.

Similarly, the Sahrawi indigenous peoples of the Western Sahara observed a class system consisting of high castes and low castes. Outside of these traditional tribal boundaries were "Negro" slaves, who were drawn from the surrounding areas.

North-Eastern Africa

In Ethiopia and Somalia, the slave classes mainly consisted of captured peoples from the Sudanese-Ethiopian and Kenyan-Somali international borders or other surrounding areas of Nilotic and Bantu peoples who were collectively known as Shanqella and Adone (both analogues to "negro" in an English-speaking context). Some of these slaves were captured during territorial conflicts in the Horn of Africa and then sold off to slave merchants. The earliest representation of this tradition dates from a seventh or eighth century BC inscription belonging to the Kingdom of Damat.

These captives and others of analogous morphology were distinguished as tsalim barya (dark-skinned slave) in contrast with the Afroasiatic-speaking nobles or saba qayh ("red men") or light-skinned slave; while on the other hand, western racial category standards do not differentiate between saba qayh ("red men"—light-skinned) or saba tiqur ("black men"—dark-skinned) Horn Africans (of either Afroasiatic-speaking, Nilotic-speaking or Bantu origin) thus considering all of them as "black people" (and in some case "negro") according to Western society's notion of race.

Southern Africa

Further information: Bantu peoples of South Africa, Khoisan, and Coloureds

In South Africa, the period of colonisation resulted in many unions and marriages between European and Africans (Bantu peoples of South Africa and Khoisans) from various tribes, resulting in mixed-race children. As the European colonialists acquired control of territory, they generally pushed the mixed-race and African populations into second-class status. During the first half of the 20th century, the white-dominated government classified the population according to four main racial groups: Black, White, Asian (mostly Indian), and Coloured. The Coloured group included people of mixed Bantu, Khoisan, and European ancestry (with some Malay ancestry, especially in the Western Cape). The Coloured definition occupied an intermediary political position between the Black and White definitions in South Africa. It imposed a system of legal racial segregation, a complex of laws known as apartheid.

The apartheid bureaucracy devised complex (and often arbitrary) criteria in the Population Registration Act of 1945 to determine who belonged in which group. Minor officials administered tests to enforce the classifications. When it was unclear from a person's physical appearance whether the individual should be considered Coloured or Black, the "pencil test" was used. A pencil was inserted into a person's hair to determine if the hair was kinky enough to hold the pencil, rather than having it pass through, as it would with smoother hair. If so, the person was classified as Black. Such classifications sometimes divided families.

Sandra Laing is a South African woman who was classified as Coloured by authorities during the apartheid era, due to her skin colour and hair texture, although her parents could prove at least three generations of European ancestors. At age 10, she was expelled from her all-white school. The officials' decisions based on her anomalous appearance disrupted her family and adult life. She was the subject of the 2008 biographical dramatic film Skin, which won numerous awards. During the apartheid era, those classed as "Coloured" were oppressed and discriminated against. But, they had limited rights and overall had slightly better socioeconomic conditions than those classed as "Black". The government required that Blacks and Coloureds live in areas separate from Whites, creating large townships located away from the cities as areas for Blacks.

In the post-apartheid era, the Constitution of South Africa has declared the country to be a "Non-racial democracy". In an effort to redress past injustices, the ANC government has introduced laws in support of affirmative action policies for Blacks; under these they define "Black" people to include "Africans", "Coloureds" and "Asians". Some affirmative action policies favor "Africans" over "Coloureds" in terms of qualifying for certain benefits. Some South Africans categorized as "African Black" say that "Coloureds" did not suffer as much as they did during apartheid. "Coloured" South Africans are known to discuss their dilemma by saying, "we were not white enough under apartheid, and we are not black enough under the ANC (African National Congress)".

In 2008, the High Court in South Africa ruled that Chinese South Africans who were residents during the apartheid era (and their descendants) are to be reclassified as "Black people," solely for the purposes of accessing affirmative action benefits, because they were also "disadvantaged" by racial discrimination. Chinese people who arrived in the country after the end of apartheid do not qualify for such benefits.

Other than by appearance, "Coloureds" can usually be distinguished from "Blacks" by language. Most speak Afrikaans or English as a first language, as opposed to Bantu languages such as Zulu or Xhosa. They also tend to have more European-sounding names than Bantu names.

Asia

Afro-Asians

Main article: Afro-Asians

"Afro-Asians" or "African-Asians" are persons of mixed sub-Saharan African and Asian ancestry. In the United States, they are also called "black Asians" or "Blasians". Historically, Afro-Asian populations have been marginalized as a result of human migration and social conflict.

Western Asia

Arab world

Main article: Afro-Arab See also: Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate, Trans-Saharan slave trade, and Red Sea slave trade
Bilal ibn Ribah (pictured atop the Kaaba, Mecca) was a former Ethiopian slave and the first muezzin, ca. 630.

In the medieval Arab world, the ethnic designation of "Black" encompassed not only Zanj, or Africans, but also communities like Zutt, Sindis and Indians from the Indian subcontinent. Historians estimate that between the advent of Islam in 650 CE and the abolition of slavery in the Arabian Peninsula in the mid-20th century, 10 to 18 million black Africans (known as the Zanj) were enslaved by east African slave traders and transported to the Arabian Peninsula and neighboring countries. This number far exceeded the number of slaves who were taken to the Americas. Slavery in Saudi Arabia and slavery in Yemen was abolished in 1962, slavery in Dubai in 1963, and slavery in Oman in 1970.

Several factors affected the visibility of descendants of this diaspora in 21st-century Arab societies: The traders shipped more female slaves than males, as there was a demand for them to serve as concubines in harems in the Arabian Peninsula and neighboring countries. Male slaves were castrated in order to serve as harem guards. The death toll of black African slaves from forced labor was high. The mixed-race children of female slaves and Arab owners were assimilated into the Arab owners' families under the patrilineal kinship system. As a result, few distinctive Afro-Arab communities have survived in the Arabian Peninsula and neighboring countries.

Distinctive and self-identified black communities have been reported in countries such as Iraq, with a reported 1.2 million black people (Afro-Iraqis), and they attest to a history of discrimination. These descendants of the Zanj have sought minority status from the government, which would reserve some seats in Parliament for representatives of their population. According to Alamin M. Mazrui et al., generally in the Arabian Peninsula and neighboring countries, most of these communities identify as both black and Arab.

Iran

Main article: Afro-Iranians

Afro-Iranians are people of black African ancestry residing in Iran. During the Qajar dynasty, many wealthy households imported black African women and children as slaves to perform domestic work. This slave labor was drawn exclusively from the Zanj, who were Bantu-speaking peoples that lived along the African Great Lakes, in an area roughly comprising modern-day Tanzania, Mozambique and Malawi.

Israel

Main article: Beta Israel Main article: African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem
An African Hebrew Israelite child in Dimona
An ethnic Jewish (Beta Israel Ethiopian Jew) Israeli Border Policeman

About 150,000 East African and black people live in Israel, amounting to just over 2% of the nation's population. The vast majority of these, some 120,000, are Beta Israel, most of whom are recent immigrants who came during the 1980s and 1990s from Ethiopia. In addition, Israel is home to more than 5,000 members of the African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem movement that are ancestry of African Americans who emigrated to Israel in the 20th century, and who reside mainly in a distinct neighborhood in the Negev town of Dimona. Unknown numbers of black converts to Judaism reside in Israel, most of them converts from the United Kingdom, Canada, and the United States.

Additionally, there are around 60,000 non-Jewish African immigrants in Israel, some of whom have sought asylum. Most of the migrants are from communities in Sudan and Eritrea, particularly the Niger-Congo-speaking Nuba groups of the southern Nuba Mountains; some are illegal immigrants.

Turkey

Main articles: Africans in Turkey and Afro-Turks
A Bashi-bazouk of the Ottoman Empire, painting by Jean-Léon Gérôme, 1869

Beginning several centuries ago, during the period of the Ottoman Empire, tens of thousands of Zanj captives were brought by slave traders to plantations and agricultural areas situated between Antalya and Istanbul, which gave rise to the Afro-Turk population in present-day Turkey. Some of their ancestry remained in situ, and many migrated to larger cities and towns. Other black slaves were transported to Crete, from where they or their descendants later reached the İzmir area through the population exchange between Greece and Turkey in 1923, or indirectly from Ayvalık in pursuit of work.

Apart from the historical Afro-Turk presence Turkey also hosts a sizeable immigrant black population since the end of the 1990s. The community is composed mostly of modern immigrants from Ghana, Ethiopia, DRC, Sudan, Nigeria, Kenya, Eritrea, Somalia and Senegal. According to official figures 1.5 million Africans live in Turkey and around 25% of them are located in Istanbul. Other studies state the majority of Africans in Turkey lives in Istanbul and report Tarlabaşı, Dolapdere, Kumkapı, Yenikapı and Kurtuluş as having a strong African presence.

Most of the African immigrants in Turkey come to Turkey to further migrate to Europe. Immigrants from Eastern Africa are usually refugees, meanwhile Western and Central African immigration is reported to be economically driven. It is reported that African immigrants in Turkey regularly face economic and social challenges, notably racism and opposition to immigration by locals.

Southern Asia

Main articles: Afro-Asians in South Asia and Siddi
A Siddi girl from the town of Yellapur in Uttara Karnataka district, Karnataka, India.

The Siddi are an ethnic group inhabiting India and Pakistan. Members are descended from the Bantu peoples of Southeast Africa. Some were merchants, sailors, indentured servants, slaves or mercenaries. The Siddi population is currently estimated at 270,000–350,000 individuals, living mostly in Karnataka, Gujarat, and Hyderabad in India and Makran and Karachi in Pakistan. In the Makran strip of the Sindh and Balochistan provinces in southwestern Pakistan, these Bantu descendants are known as the Makrani. There was a brief "Black Power" movement in Sindh in the 1960s and many Siddi are proud of and celebrate their African ancestry.

Southeastern Asia

Main articles: Negritos and Africans in Malaysia
Population genomic "TreeMix" analysis of Malaysian Negritos (Semang) and closely related populations (e.g. East Asians and Andamanese peoples).
Ati woman, Philippines – the Negritos are an indigenous people of Southeast Asia.

Negritos, are a collection of various, often unrelated peoples, who were once considered a single distinct population of closely related groups, but genetic studies showed that they descended from the same ancient East Eurasian meta-population which gave rise to modern East Asian peoples, and consist of several separate groups, as well as displaying genetic heterogeneity. They inhabit isolated parts of Southeast Asia, and are now confined primarily to Southern Thailand, the Malay Peninsula, and the Andaman Islands of India.

Negrito means "little black people" in Spanish (negrito is the Spanish diminutive of negro, i.e., "little black person"); it is what the Spaniards called the aborigines that they encountered in the Philippines. The term Negrito itself has come under criticism in countries like Malaysia, where it is now interchangeable with the more acceptable Semang, although this term actually refers to a specific group.

They have dark skin, often curly-hair and Asiatic facial characteristics, and are stockily built.

Negritos in the Philippines frequently face discrimination. Because of their traditional hunter-gatherer lifestyle, they are marginalized and live in poverty, unable to find employment.

Europe

Western Europe

Main articles: Afro-Portuguese and Black people in Ireland

France

Main article: Black people in France
Young Negro with a Bow by Hyacinthe Rigaud, ca. 1697.

While census collection of ethnic background is illegal in France, it is estimated that there are about 2.5 – 5 million black people residing there.

Germany

Main article: Afro-Germans See also: Persecution of black people in Nazi Germany

As of 2020, there are approximately one million black people living in Germany.

Netherlands

Main article: Afro-Dutch

Afro-Dutch are residents of the Netherlands who are of Black African or Afro-Caribbean ancestry. They tend to be from the former and present Dutch overseas territories of Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao, Sint Maarten and Suriname. The Netherlands also has sizable Cape Verdean and other African communities.

Portugal

See also: Afro-Portuguese people

As of 2021, there were at least 232,000 people of recent Black-African immigrant background living in Portugal. They mainly live in the regions of Lisbon, Porto, Coimbra. As Portugal doesn't collect information dealing with ethnicity, the estimate includes only people that, as of 2021, hold the citizenship of a Sub Saharan African country or people who have acquired Portuguese citizenship from 2008 to 2021, thus excluding descendants, people of more distant African ancestry or people who have settled in Portugal generations ago and are now Portuguese citizens.

Spain

1283 A.D. Miniature from Alfonso X's Book of chess, dice and boards. African Muslims playing chess. The book also has pictures of white and Arab Muslims playing chess in al-Andalusia. Europeans loosely called the invading Muslims Moors, blending the name for both people of Arab and Berber ancestry.
Main article: Afro-Spaniard

The term "Moors" has been used in Europe in a broader, somewhat derogatory sense to refer to Muslims, especially those of Arab or Berber ancestry, whether living in North Africa or Iberia. Moors were not a distinct or self-defined people. Medieval and early modern Europeans applied the name to Muslim Arabs, Berbers, Sub-Saharan Africans and Europeans alike.

Isidore of Seville, writing in the 7th century, claimed that the Latin word Maurus was derived from the Greek mauron, μαύρον, which is the Greek word for "black". Indeed, by the time Isidore of Seville came to write his Etymologies, the word Maurus or "Moor" had become an adjective in Latin, "for the Greeks call black, mauron". "In Isidore's day, Moors were black by definition..."

Afro-Spaniards are Spanish nationals of West/Central African ancestry. Today, they mainly come from Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Ghana, Gambia, Mali, Nigeria and Senegal. Additionally, many Afro-Spaniards born in Spain are from the former Spanish colony Equatorial Guinea. Today, there are an estimated 683,000 Afro-Spaniards in Spain.

United Kingdom

Main article: Black British

According to the Office for National Statistics, at the 2001 census there were more than a million black people in the United Kingdom; 1% of the total population described themselves as "Black Caribbean", 0.8% as "Black African", and 0.2% as "Black other". Britain encouraged the immigration of workers from the Caribbean after World War II; the first symbolic movement was of those who came on the ship the Empire Windrush and, hence, those who migrated between 1948 and 1970 are known as the Windrush generation. The preferred official umbrella term is "black, Asian and minority ethnic" (BAME), but sometimes the term "black" is used on its own, to express unified opposition to racism, as in the Southall Black Sisters, which started with a mainly British Asian constituency, and the National Black Police Association, which has a membership of "African, African-Caribbean and Asian origin".

Eastern Europe

Main articles: Afro-Russian, Afro-Romanians, Afro-Ukrainians, and Afro-Greeks
Bust of Russian general Abram Gannibal, who was the great-grandfather of Alexander Pushkin.

As African states became independent in the 1960s, the Soviet Union offered many of their citizens the chance to study in Russia. Over a period of 40 years, about 400,000 African students from various countries moved to Russia to pursue higher studies, including many black Africans. This extended beyond the Soviet Union to many countries of the Eastern bloc.

Balkans

Due to the slave trade in the Ottoman Empire that had flourished in the Balkans, the coastal town of Ulcinj in Montenegro had its own black community. In 1878, that community consisted of about 100 people.

Oceania

Indigenous Australians

Main article: Indigenous Australians
Unknown Aboriginal woman in 1911

Indigenous Australians have been referred to as "black people" in Australia since the early days of European settlement. While originally related to skin colour, the term is used today to indicate Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander ancestry in general and can refer to people of any skin pigmentation.

Being identified as either "black" or "white" in Australia during the 19th and early 20th centuries was critical in one's employment and social prospects. Various state-based Aboriginal Protection Boards were established which had virtually complete control over the lives of Indigenous Australians – where they lived, their employment, marriage, education and included the power to separate children from their parents. Aborigines were not allowed to vote and were often confined to reserves and forced into low paid or effectively slave labour. The social position of mixed-race or "half-caste" individuals varied over time. A 1913 report by Baldwin Spencer states that:

the half-castes belong neither to the aboriginal nor to the whites, yet, on the whole, they have more leaning towards the former; ... One thing is certain and that is that the white population as a whole will never mix with half-castes... the best and kindest thing is to place them on reserves along with the natives, train them in the same schools and encourage them to marry amongst themselves.

After the First World War, however, it became apparent that the number of mixed-race people was growing at a faster rate than the white population, and, by 1930, fear of the "half-caste menace" undermining the White Australia ideal from within was being taken as a serious concern. Cecil Cook, the Northern Territory Protector of Natives, noted that:

generally by the fifth and invariably by the sixth generation, all native characteristics of the Australian Aborigine are eradicated. The problem of our half-castes will quickly be eliminated by the complete disappearance of the black race, and the swift submergence of their progeny in the white.

The official policy became one of biological and cultural assimilation: "Eliminate the full-blood and permit the white admixture to half-castes and eventually the race will become white". This led to different treatment for "black" and "half-caste" individuals, with lighter-skinned individuals targeted for removal from their families to be raised as "white" people and prohibited from speaking their native language and practicing traditional customs, a process now known as the Stolen Generation.

Aboriginal activist Sam Watson addressing Invasion Day Rally 2007 in an "Australia has a Black History" T-shirt

The second half of the 20th century to the present has seen a gradual shift towards improved human rights for Aboriginal people. In a 1967 referendum, more than 90% of the Australian population voted to end constitutional discrimination and to include Aborigines in the national census. During this period, many Aboriginal activists began to embrace the term "black" and use their ancestry as a source of pride. Activist Bob Maza said:

I only hope that when I die I can say I'm black and it's beautiful to be black. It is this sense of pride which we are trying to give back to the aborigine today.

In 1978, Aboriginal writer Kevin Gilbert received the National Book Council award for his book Living Black: Blacks Talk to Kevin Gilbert, a collection of Aboriginal people's stories, and in 1998 was awarded (but refused to accept) the Human Rights Award for Literature for Inside Black Australia, a poetry anthology and exhibition of Aboriginal photography. In contrast to previous definitions based solely on the degree of Aboriginal ancestry, the Government changed the legal definition of Aboriginal in 1990 to include any:

person of Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander descent who identifies as an Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander and is accepted as such by the community in which he lives

This nationwide acceptance and recognition of Aboriginal people led to a significant increase in the number of people self-identifying as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander. The reappropriation of the term "black" with a positive and more inclusive meaning has resulted in its widespread use in mainstream Australian culture, including public media outlets, government agencies, and private companies. In 2012, a number of high-profile cases highlighted the legal and community attitude that identifying as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander is not dependent on skin color, with a well-known boxer Anthony Mundine being widely criticized for questioning the "blackness" of another boxer and journalist Andrew Bolt being successfully sued for publishing discriminatory comments about Aboriginals with light skin.

Melanesians

Main article: Melanesians

The region of Melanesia is named from Greek μέλας, black, and νῆσος, island, etymologically meaning "islands of black ", in reference to the dark skin of the indigenous peoples. Early European settlers, such as Spanish explorer Yñigo Ortiz de Retez, noted the resemblance of the people to those in Africa.

Fijian warrior, 1870s.

Melanesians, along with other Pacific Islanders, were frequently deceived or coerced during the 19th and 20th centuries into forced labour for sugarcane, cotton, and coffee planters in countries distant to their native lands in a practice known as blackbirding. In Queensland, some 55,000 to 62,500 were brought from the New Hebrides, the Solomon Islands, and New Guinea to work in sugarcane fields. Under the Pacific Island Labourers Act 1901, most islanders working in Queensland were repatriated back to their homelands. Those who remained in Australia, commonly called South Sea Islanders, often faced discrimination similarly to Indigenous Australians by white-dominated society. Many indigenous rights activists have South Sea Islander ancestry, including Faith Bandler, Evelyn Scott and Bonita Mabo.

Many Melanesians have taken up the term 'Melanesia' as a way to empower themselves as a collective people. Stephanie Lawson writes that the term "moved from a term of denigration to one of affirmation, providing a positive basis for contemporary subregional identity as well as a formal organisation". For instance, the term is used in the Melanesian Spearhead Group, which seeks to promote economic growth among Melanesian countries.

Other

Main articles: African Australians and African New Zealanders

John Caesar, nicknamed "Black Caesar", a convict and bushranger with parents born in an unknown area in Africa, was one of the first people of recent black African ancestry to arrive in Australia.

At the 2006 Census, 248,605 residents declared that they were born in Africa. This figure pertains to all immigrants to Australia who were born in nations in Africa regardless of race, and includes white Africans.

North America

Canada

Main article: Black Canadians

"Black Canadians" is a designation used for people of black African ancestry who are citizens or permanent residents of Canada. The majority of black Canadians are of Caribbean origin, though the population also consists of African American immigrants and their descendants (including black Nova Scotians), as well as many African immigrants.

Black Canadians often draw a distinction between those of Afro-Caribbean ancestry and those of other African roots. The term African Canadian is occasionally used by some black Canadians who trace their heritage to the first slaves brought by British and French colonists to the North American mainland. Promised freedom by the British during the American Revolutionary War, thousands of Black Loyalists were resettled by the Crown in Canada afterward, such as Thomas Peters. In addition, an estimated ten to thirty thousand fugitive slaves reached freedom in Canada from the Southern United States during the Antebellum years, aided by people along the Underground Railroad.

Many black people of Caribbean origin in Canada reject the term "African Canadian" as an elision of the uniquely Caribbean aspects of their heritage, and instead identify as Caribbean Canadian. Unlike in the United States, where "African American" has become a widely used term, in Canada controversies associated with distinguishing African or Caribbean heritage have resulted in the term "black Canadian" being widely accepted there.

United States

Main article: African Americans
Civil rights activist Martin Luther King Jr.

There were eight principal areas used by Europeans to buy and ship slaves to the Western Hemisphere. The number of enslaved people sold to the New World varied throughout the slave trade. As for the distribution of slaves from regions of activity, certain areas produced far more enslaved people than others. Between 1650 and 1900, 10.24 million enslaved West Africans arrived in the Americas from the following regions in the following proportions:

The main slave routes in the Atlantic Slave Trade.

By the early 1900s, nigger had become a pejorative word in the United States. In its stead, the term colored became the mainstream alternative to negro and its derived terms. After the American Civil Rights Movement, the terms colored and negro gave way to "black". Negro had superseded colored as the most polite word for African Americans at a time when black was considered more offensive. This term was accepted as normal, including by people classified as Negroes, until the later Civil Rights movement in the late 1960s. One well-known example is the use by Dr. Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. of "Negro" in his famous speech of 1963, I Have a Dream. During the American civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s, some African-American leaders in the United States, notably Malcolm X, objected to the word Negro because they associated it with the long history of slavery, segregation, and discrimination that treated African Americans as second-class citizens, or worse. Malcolm X preferred Black to Negro, but later gradually abandoned that as well for Afro-American after leaving the Nation of Islam.

Since the late 1960s, various other terms for African Americans have been more widespread in popular usage. Aside from black American, these include Afro-American (in use from the late 1960s to 1990) and African American (used in the United States to refer to Black Americans, people often referred to in the past as American Negroes).

In the first 200 years that black people were in the United States, they primarily identified themselves by their specific ethnic group (closely allied to language) and not by skin color. Individuals identified themselves, for example, as Ashanti, Igbo, Bakongo, or Wolof. However, when the first captives were brought to the Americas, they were often combined with other groups from West Africa, and individual ethnic affiliations were not generally acknowledged by English colonists. In areas of the Upper South, different ethnic groups were brought together. This is significant as the captives came from a vast geographic region: the West African coastline stretching from Senegal to Angola and in some cases from the south-east coast such as Mozambique. A new African-American identity and culture was born that incorporated elements of the various ethnic groups and of European cultural heritage, resulting in fusions such as the Black church and African-American English. This new identity was based on provenance and slave status rather than membership in any one ethnic group.

By contrast, slave records from Louisiana show that the French and Spanish colonists recorded more complete identities of the West Africans, including ethnicities and given tribal names.

The U.S. racial or ethnic classification "black" refers to people with all possible kinds of skin pigmentation, from the darkest through to the very lightest skin colors, including albinos, if they are believed by others to have African ancestry (in any discernible percentage). There are also certain cultural traits associated with being "African American", a term used effectively as a synonym for "black person" within the United States.

In March 1807, Great Britain, which largely controlled the Atlantic, declared the transatlantic slave trade illegal, as did the United States. (The latter prohibition took effect 1 January 1808, the earliest date on which Congress had the power to do so after protecting the slave trade under Article I, Section 9 of the United States Constitution.)

By that time, the majority of black people in the United States were native-born, so the use of the term "African" became problematic. Though initially a source of pride, many blacks feared that the use of African as an identity would be a hindrance to their fight for full citizenship in the United States. They also felt that it would give ammunition to those who were advocating repatriating black people back to Africa. In 1835, black leaders called upon Black Americans to remove the title of "African" from their institutions and replace it with "Negro" or "Colored American". A few institutions chose to keep their historic names, such as the African Methodist Episcopal Church. African Americans popularly used the terms "Negro" or "colored" for themselves until the late 1960s.

The term black was used throughout but not frequently since it carried a certain stigma. In his 1963 "I Have a Dream" speech, Martin Luther King Jr. uses the terms negro fifteen times and black four times. Each time that he uses black, it is in parallel construction with white; for example, "black men and white men".

With the successes of the American Civil Rights Movement, a new term was needed to break from the past and help shed the reminders of legalized discrimination. In place of Negro, activists promoted the use of black as standing for racial pride, militancy, and power. Some of the turning points included the use of the term "Black Power" by Kwame Ture (Stokely Carmichael) and the popular singer James Brown's song "Say It Loud – I'm Black and I'm Proud".

In 1988, the civil rights leader Jesse Jackson urged Americans to use instead the term "African American" because it had a historical cultural base and was a construction similar to terms used by European descendants, such as German American, Italian American, etc. Since then, African American and black have often had parallel status. However, controversy continues over which, if any, of the two terms is more appropriate. Maulana Karenga argues that the term African-American is more appropriate because it accurately articulates their geographical and historical origin. Others have argued that "black" is a better term because "African" suggests foreignness, although black Americans helped found the United States. Still others believe that the term "black" is inaccurate because African Americans have a variety of skin tones. Some surveys suggest that the majority of Black Americans have no preference for "African American" or "black", although they have a slight preference for "black" in personal settings and "African American" in more formal settings.

In the U.S. census race definitions, black and African Americans are citizens and residents of the United States with origins in the black racial groups of Africa. According to the Office of Management and Budget, the grouping includes individuals who self-identify as African American, as well as persons who emigrated from nations in the Caribbean and sub-Saharan Africa. The grouping is thus based on geography, and may contradict or misrepresent an individual's self-identification, since not all immigrants from sub-Saharan Africa are "black". The Census Bureau also notes that these classifications are socio-political constructs and should not be interpreted as scientific or anthropological.

According to U.S. Census Bureau data, African immigrants generally do not self-identify as African American. The overwhelming majority of African immigrants identify instead with their own respective ethnicities (~95%). Immigrants from some Caribbean, Central American and South American nations and their descendants may or may not also self-identify with the term.

Recent surveys of African Americans using a genetic testing service have found varied ancestries that show different tendencies by region and sex of ancestors. These studies found that on average, African Americans have 73.2–80.9% West African, 18–24% European, and 0.8–0.9% Native American genetic heritage, with large variation between individuals.

According to studies in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, U.S. residents consistently overestimate the size, physical strength, and formidability of young black men.

New Great Migration

The New Great Migration is not evenly distributed throughout the South. As with the earlier Great Migration, the New Great Migration is primarily directed toward cities and large urban areas, such as Atlanta, Charlotte, Houston, Dallas, Raleigh, Washington, D.C., Tampa, Virginia Beach, San Antonio, Memphis, Orlando, Nashville, Jacksonville, and so forth. North Carolina's Charlotte metro area in particular, is a hot spot for African American migrants in the US. Between 1975 and 1980, Charlotte saw a net gain of 2,725 African Americans in the area. This number continued to rise as between 1985 and 1990 as the area had a net gain of 7,497 African Americans, and from 1995 to 2000 the net gain was 23,313 African Americans.

This rise in net gain points to Atlanta, Charlotte, Dallas, and Houston being a growing hot spots for the migrants of The New Great Migration. The percentage of Black Americans who live in the South has been increasing since 1990, and the biggest gains have been in the region's large urban areas, according to census data. The Black population of metro Atlanta more than doubled between 1990 and 2020, surpassing 2 million in the most recent census. The Black population also more than doubled in metro Charlotte while Greater Houston and Dallas-Fort Worth both saw their Black populations surpass 1 million for the first time. Several smaller metro areas also saw sizable gains, including San Antonio; Raleigh and Greensboro, N.C.; and Orlando. Primary destinations are states that have the most job opportunities, especially Georgia, North Carolina, Maryland, Virginia, Tennessee, Florida and Texas. Other southern states, including Mississippi, Louisiana, South Carolina, Alabama and Arkansas, have seen little net growth in the African American population from return migration.

One-drop rule

Multiracial social reformer Frederick Douglass.

From the late 19th century, the South used a colloquial term, the one-drop rule, to classify as black a person of any known African ancestry. This practice of hypodescent was not put into law until the early 20th century. Legally, the definition varied from state to state. Racial definition was more flexible in the 18th and 19th centuries before the American Civil War. For instance, President Thomas Jefferson held in slavery persons who were legally white (less than 25% black) according to Virginia law at the time, but, because they were born to slave mothers, they were born into slavery, according to the principle of partus sequitur ventrem, which Virginia adopted into law in 1662.

Outside of the United States, some other countries have adopted the one-drop rule, but the definition of who is black and the extent to which the one-drop "rule" applies varies greatly from country to country.

The one-drop rule may have originated as a means of increasing the number of black slaves and was maintained as an attempt to keep the white race "pure". One of the results of the one-drop rule was the uniting of the African-American community. Some of the most prominent abolitionists and civil-rights activists of the 19th century were multiracial, such as Frederick Douglass, Robert Purvis and James Mercer Langston. They advocated equality for all.

Blackness

Barack Obama—the first person of color, biracial, and self-identified African American President of the United States—was throughout his campaign criticized as being either "too black" or "not black enough".

The concept of blackness in the United States has been described as the degree to which one associates themselves with mainstream African-American culture, politics, and values. To a certain extent, this concept is not so much about race but more about political orientation, culture and behavior. Blackness can be contrasted with "acting white", where black Americans are said to behave with assumed characteristics of stereotypical white Americans with regard to fashion, dialect, taste in music, and possibly, from the perspective of a significant number of black youth, academic achievement.

Due to the often political and cultural contours of blackness in the United States, the notion of blackness can also be extended to non-black people. Toni Morrison once described Bill Clinton as the first black President of the United States, because, as she put it, he displayed "almost every trope of blackness". Clinton welcomed the label.

The question of blackness also arose in the Democrat Barack Obama's 2008 presidential campaign. Commentators questioned whether Obama, who was elected the first president with black ancestry, was "black enough", contending that his background is not typical because his mother was a white American and his father was a black student visitor from Kenya. Obama chose to identify as black and African American.

Mexico

Main article: Afro-Mexicans Further information: Society and black people in the Spanish Colonial Americas

The 2015 preliminary survey to the 2020 census allowed Afro-Mexicans to self-identify for the first time in Mexico and recorded a total of 1.4 million (1.2% of the total Mexican population). The majority of Afro-Mexicans live in the Costa Chica of Guerrero region.

Caribbean

Main article: Afro-Caribbean people Further information: Society and black people in the Spanish Colonial Americas

Dominican Republic

Main article: Afro-Dominicans

The first Afro-Dominican slaves were shipped to the Dominican Republic by Spanish conquistadors during the Transatlantic slave trade.

Puerto Rico

Main article: Afro-Puerto Ricans

Spanish conquistadors shipped slaves from West Africa to Puerto Rico. Afro-Puerto Ricans in part trace ancestry to this colonization of the island.

South America

Main articles: Afro-Cuban, Afro-Guatemalan, Afro-Hondurans, Afro-Argentines, Afro-Chileans, Black Peruvians, Afro-Bolivians, Afro-Surinamese people, Afro-Ecuadorians, Afro-Guyanese people, Afro–French Guianans, and Afro-Uruguayans Further information: Society and black people in the Spanish Colonial Americas
Capoeira, an Afro-Brazilian martial art.

Approximately 12 million people were shipped from Africa to the Americas during the Atlantic slave trade from 1492 to 1888. Of these, 11.5 million of those shipped to South America and the Caribbean. Brazil was the largest importer in the Americas, with 5.5 million African slaves imported, followed by the British Caribbean with 2.76 million, the Spanish Caribbean and Spanish Mainland with 1.59 million Africans, and the French Caribbean with 1.32 million. Today their descendants number approximately 150 million in South America and the Caribbean. In addition to skin color, other physical characteristics such as facial features and hair texture are often variously used in classifying peoples as black in South America and the Caribbean. In South America and the Caribbean, classification as black is also closely tied to social status and socioeconomic variables, especially in light of social conceptions of "blanqueamiento" (racial whitening) and related concepts.

Brazil

Main article: Afro-Brazilians

The concept of race in Brazil is complex. A Brazilian child was never automatically identified with the racial type of one or both of their parents, nor were there only two categories to choose from. Between an individual of unmixed West African ancestry and a very light mulatto individual, more than a dozen racial categories were acknowledged, based on various combinations of hair color, hair texture, eye color, and skin color. These types grade into each other like the colors of the spectrum, and no one category stands significantly isolated from the rest. In Brazil, people are classified by appearance, not heredity.

Scholars disagree over the effects of social status on racial classifications in Brazil. It is generally believed that achieving upward mobility and education results in individuals being classified as a category of lighter skin. The popular claim is that in Brazil, poor whites are considered black and wealthy blacks are considered white. Some scholars disagree, arguing that "whitening" of one's social status may be open to people of mixed race, a large part of the population known as pardo, but a person perceived as preto (black) will continue to be classified as black regardless of wealth or social status.

Statistics

Brazilian Population, by Race, from 1872 to 1991 (Census Data)
Ethnic group White Black Brown Yellow (East Asian) Undeclared Total
1872 3,787,289 1,954,452 4,188,737 9,930,478
1940 26,171,778 6,035,869 8,744,365 242,320 41,983 41,236,315
1991 75,704,927 7,335,136 62,316,064 630,656 534,878 146,521,661
Demographics of Brazil
Year White Pardo Black
1835 24.4% 18.2% 51.4%
2000 53.7% 38.5% 6.2%
2010 48.4% 42.4% 6.7%

From the years 1500 to 1850, an estimated 3.5 million captives were forcibly shipped from West/Central Africa to Brazil. The territory received the highest number of slaves of any country in the Americas. Scholars estimate that more than half of the Brazilian population is at least in part descended from these individuals. Brazil has the largest population of Afro-ancestry outside Africa. In contrast to the US, during the slavery period and after, the Portuguese colonial government in Brazil and the later Brazilian government did not pass formal anti-miscegenation or segregation laws. As in other Latin American countries, intermarriage was prevalent during the colonial period and continued afterward. In addition, people of mixed race (pardo) often tended to marry white spouses, and their descendants became accepted as white. As a result, some of the European descended population also has West African or Amerindian blood. According to the last census of the 20th century, in which Brazilians could choose from five color/ethnic categories with which they identified, 54% of individuals identified as white, 6.2% identified as black, and 39.5% identified as pardo (brown)—a broad multi-racial category, including tri-racial persons.

In the 19th century, a philosophy of racial whitening emerged in Brazil, related to the assimilation of mixed-race people into the white population through intermarriage. Until recently the government did not keep data on race. However, statisticians estimate that in 1835, roughly 50% of the population was preto (black; most were enslaved), a further 20% was pardo (brown), and 25% white, with the remainder Amerindian. Some classified as pardo were tri-racial.

By the 2000 census, demographic changes including the end to slavery, immigration from Europe and Asia, assimilation of multiracial persons, and other factors resulted in a population in which 6.2% of the population identified as black, 40% as pardo, and 55% as white. Essentially most of the black population was absorbed into the multi-racial category by intermixing. A 2007 genetic study found that at least 29% of the middle-class, white Brazilian population had some recent (since 1822 and the end of the colonial period) African ancestry.

Race relations in Brazil

Brazilian Candomblé ceremony

According to the 2022 census, 10.2% of Brazilians said they were black, compared with 7.6% in 2010, and 45.3% said they were racially mixed, up from 43.1%, while the proportion of self-declared white Brazilians has fallen from 47.7% to 43.5%. Activists from Brazil’s Black movement attribute the racial shift in the population to a growing sense of pride among African-descended Brazilians in recognising and celebrating their ancestry.

The philosophy of the racial democracy in Brazil has drawn some criticism, based on economic issues. Brazil has one of the largest gaps in income distribution in the world. The richest 10% of the population earn 28 times the average income of the bottom 40%. The richest 10 percent is almost exclusively white or predominantly European in ancestry. One-third of the population lives under the poverty line, with blacks and other people of color accounting for 70 percent of the poor.

Fruit sellers in Rio de Janeiro c. 1820

In 2015 United States, African Americans, including multiracial people, earned 76.8% as much as white people. By contrast, black and mixed race Brazilians earned on average 58% as much as whites in 2014. The gap in income between blacks and other non-whites is relatively small compared to the large gap between whites and all people of color. Other social factors, such as illiteracy and education levels, show the same patterns of disadvantage for people of color.

Black people in Brazil c. 1821

Some commentators observe that the United States practice of segregation and white supremacy in the South, and discrimination in many areas outside that region, forced many African Americans to unite in the civil rights struggle, whereas the fluid nature of race in Brazil has divided individuals of African ancestry between those with more or less ancestry and helped sustain an image of the country as an example of post-colonial harmony. This has hindered the development of a common identity among black Brazilians.

Though Brazilians of at least partial African heritage make up a large percentage of the population, few blacks have been elected as politicians. The city of Salvador, Bahia, for instance, is 80% people of color, but voters have not elected a mayor of color.

Patterns of discrimination against non-whites have led some academic and other activists to advocate for use of the Portuguese term negro to encompass all African-descended people, in order to stimulate a "black" consciousness and identity.

Colombia

Main article: Afro-Colombians

Afro-Colombians are the third-largest African diaspora population in Latin America after Afro-Brazilians and Afro-Haitians.

Venezuela

Main article: Afro-Venezuelan

Most black Venezuelans descend from people brought as slaves to Venezuela directly from Africa during colonization; others have been descendants of immigrants from the Antilles and Colombia. Many blacks were part of the independence movement, and several managed to be heroes. There is a deep-rooted heritage of African culture in Venezuelan culture, as demonstrated in many traditional Venezuelan music and dances, such as the Tambor, a musical genre inherited from black members of the colony, or the Llanera music or the Gaita zuliana that both are a fusion of all the three major peoples that contribute to the cultural heritage. Also, black inheritance is present in the country's gastronomy.

There are entire communities of blacks in the Barlovento zone, as well as part of the Bolívar state and in other small towns; they also live peaceably among the general population in the rest of Venezuela. Currently, blacks represent a plurality of the Venezuelan population, although many are actually mixed people.

See also

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  188. University of the Andes (Venezuela) (3 March 2011), Historia de Venezuela – Procedencia de los Esclavos Negros en Venezuela, retrieved 6 May 2018

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Human skin color
Obsolete definitions of race
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