Misplaced Pages

Latest revision as of 04:30, 21 December 2024

Mount Kailash
North face of Mount Kailash
Highest point
Elevation	6,638 m (21,778 ft)
Coordinates	31°4′0″N 81°18′45″E / 31.06667°N 81.31250°E / 31.06667; 81.31250
Naming
Native name	གངས་རིན་པོ་ཆེ (Standard Tibetan) कैलास (Sanskrit)
Geography
Mount KailashBurang County, Tibet Autonomous Region
Country	China
Parent range	Gangdisê Range
Climbing
First ascent	Unclimbed (prohibited)

Mount Kailash (also Kailasa; Kangrinboqê or Gang Rinpoche; Standard Tibetan: གངས་རིན་པོ་ཆེ; simplified Chinese: 冈仁波齐峰; traditional Chinese: 岡仁波齊峰; pinyin: Gāngrénbōqí Fēng; Sanskrit: कैलास, IAST: Kailāsa) is a mountain in Ngari Prefecture, Tibet Autonomous Region of China. It lies in the Kailash Range (Gangdisê Mountains) of the Transhimalaya, in the western part of the Tibetan Plateau. The peak of Mount Kailash is located at an elevation of 6,638 m (21,778 ft), near the western trijunction between China, India and Nepal.

Mount Kailash is located close to Manasarovar and Rakshastal lakes. The sources of four rivers: Indus, Sutlej, Brahmaputra, and Karnali lie in the vicinity of the region. Mount Kailash is sacred in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Bon religion. People from India, China, Nepal and other countries in the region undertake a pilgrimage to the mountain. The pilgrimage generally involves trekking towards Lake Mansarovar and a circumambulation of Mount Kailash.

While the mountain has been surveyed by climbers in the past, there has been no recorded successful ascent of the mountain. The climbing of the mountain is prohibited by the Chinese government due to its religious significance.

Etymology

The mountain is known as "Kailāsa" (कैलास; var. Kailāśa कैलाश) in Sanskrit. The name could have been derived from the word "kelāsa" (केलास), which means "crystal".

In his Tibetan-English dictionary, Sarat Chandra Das states that 'kai la ca' (Wylie: kai la ca) from Sanskrit Kailāsa is used to denote the mountain. The mountain is also called as Gang Rinpoche (Tibetan: གངས་རིན་པོ་ཆེ་; simplified Chinese: 冈仁波齐峰; traditional Chinese: 岡仁波齊峰) or Gang Tise locally. Gang Rinpoche means "snow jewel mountain" with Kang (or Gang) being the Tibetan word meaning white mountain (snow peak) and rinpoche is an honorific meaning "precious one". Gang Tise means "mountain of ice or cool".

"Tibetan Buddhists call it Kangri Rinpoche; 'Precious Snow Mountain'. Bon texts have many names: Water's Flower, Mountain of Sea Water, Nine Stacked Swastikas Mountain. For Hindus, it is the home of the Hindu god Shiva...for Jains it is where their first leader was enlightened; for Buddhists, the navel of the universe; and for adherents of Bon, the abode of the sky goddess Sipaimen."

— Alice Albinia lists some of the names for the mountain, and its religious significance to various faiths

Geography and topography

Mount Kailash is located in Ngari Prefecture, Tibet Autonomous Region of China. It lies in the Gangdisê Mountains (also called as Kailash Range) of the Transhimalaya, in the western part of the Tibetan Plateau. The peak of Mount Kailash is at an elevation of 6,638 m (21,778 ft). The region is located north of the western tripoint of the border between China, India and Nepal.

The major rivers rising from the western Gangdise mountains are the Yarlung Tsangpo (which becomes the Brahmaputra), the Indus, the Sutlej and the Karnali, a tributary of Ganges. All these river systems originate within a 60 km (37 mi) stretch in the region. Mount Kailash is located on the banks of Manasarovar and Rakshastal lakes. Spread over an area of 320 km (120 sq mi), Manasarovar is the highest freshwater lake in the world.

Geology

The region around Mount Kailash are remnants of large ice sheets that covered the region during the Quaternary period, the last of which retreated about 10,000 years ago. The mountain might be a large metasedimentary roof pendant supported by a base of granite. The Indus headwaters area is typified by wide-scale faulting of metamorphosed late-Cretaceous to mid-Cenozoic sedimentary rocks interspersed with igneous Cenozoic granitic rocks. The Cenozoic rocks represent offshore marine limestones deposited before subduction of the Tethys oceanic crust. These sediments were deposited on the southern margin of the Asia block during subduction of the Tethys oceanic crust before the collision between the Indian and Asian continents. It also consists of sand dunes covering late Eocene volcanic forms interspersed with Cretaceous and Eocene sediments.

The Kailash flysch zone extends about 20 km (12 mi) from the mountain and marks the northern end of the Himalayas and the start of the Trans Himalayas. The Trans Himalayan range was formed by the subduction of sediments from the collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates. The flysch zone consists of alternate areas of peridotites, sandy shales, and dolomites, covered by gravel terraces. The mountain itself consists of thick conglomerate rocks sitting on granite. The visible part of the conglomerates extend from 4,700 m (15,400 ft) to the top with the base located deeper in the mountain.

Climate

The weather is fairly dry during April to June with day time temperatures of 5 to 17 °C (41 to 63 °F) and night time temperatures of 0 to 6 °C (32 to 43 °F). The temperature starts to decrease in October and winters have much lower day time temperatures ranging from −4 to 0 °C (25 to 32 °F) and further lower in the night reaching up to −20 °C (−4 °F) with January being the coldest. Monsoons bring rain from late June to August with cold winds.

Global warming is described as happening three times faster (by about 0.3 C per decade) on the Tibetan Plateau than anywhere else in the world with lesser snowfall in the winter. According to locals, the land around Mount Kailash has been growing warmer in recent years with winters not as cold as it used to be. The retreating glaciers and thawing of the permafrost in the Tibet region might lead to uncertain effects on water resources of the region. These effects along with population explosion and tourism has put severe stress on the fragile ecosystem around Mount Kailash.

The intergovernmental organisation International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) is involved in a trans boundary project called the Kailash Sacred Landscape Conservation and Development Initiative in the region around Mount Kailash. The organization is involved in ongoing efforts to generate climate data, and to devise sustainable ways of life for the people of the region.

Mountaineering

In 1926, Hugh Ruttledge, the deputy commissioner of Almora, visited the area to meet the Garpon (local Tibetan leader) of Ngari. As the Garpon was away, he circumambulated Mount Kailash while studying it. As per Ruttledge, the mountain was about 6,000 m (20,000 ft) high and utterly unclimbable. He thought about an ascent along the northeast ridge and had been exploring the area with Colonel R. C. Wilson, who was on the other side of the mountain with a Sherpa named Tseten. As per Wilson, Tseten told him that the southeast ridge represented a feasible route to the summit. Wilson explained that although they attempted to climb the mountain, they ran into heavy snowfall, making the ascent impossible.

Herbert Tichy visited the area in 1936, attempting to climb the mountain. When he asked the local people whether Kailash was climbable, a Garpon replied: "Only a man entirely free of sin could climb Kailash. And he wouldn't have to actually scale the sheer walls of ice to do it – he'd just turn himself into a bird and fly to the summit". Italian mountaineer Reinhold Messner was given the opportunity by the Chinese government to climb the mountain in the mid-1980s. But he reportedly declined, saying "If we conquer this mountain, then we conquer something in people's souls. I would suggest they go and climb something a little harder." In 2001, permission was denied to a Spanish team, who requested to climb the peak. Chinese authorities promised that any climbing activities on Mount Kailash were strictly prohibited. As of 2023, there have been no known successful ascents of the mountain.

Religious significance

Mount Kailash is considered sacred in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Bon religions.

Hinduism

In Hindu art and literature, the mountain is described as the abode of Shiva, who is depicted as residing there along with his consort Parvati and their children, Ganesha and Kartikeya. In early Hindu depictions, Kailash was described as one of the mountains in the Himalayas. In Hindu mythology, Mount Meru is considered as a stairway to heaven, where the devas reside and the Vishnu Purana states that it lies in the center of the world surrounded by six mountain ranges similar to a lotus, one of which is the Himalayas. In the later Hindu theology, Kailash came to be identified with Meru. Shiva is described as sitting in a lotus position, engaged in meditation within the confines of the mountain. Kailash and Mansarovar are mentioned in the Hindu epics Ramayana and Mahabharata. According to the Hindu scriptures and sculptural depictions, the demon-king Ravana shook the mountain after he was refused entry to Kailash. This enraged Shiva, who pressed his toe upon the mountain, trapping Ravana in between. Ravana sang hymns in praise of Shiva for a thousand years before he was released. This representation of Shiva is also referred to as Ravananugraha (meaning "form showing favour to Ravana").

Jainism

According to Jain scriptures, Rishabhanatha, the founder of Jainism attained moksha (liberation) on Mount Kailash. It is believed by Jains that after Rishabhanatha attained moksha, his son emperor Bharata had constructed three stupas and twenty four shrines of the 24 tirthankaras in the region with their idols studded with precious stones and named it Sinhnishdha. He also performed a fortnight of worship termed Mahamaga and attained moksha from Kailash. Large pits were dug around the mountain later and the River Ganges was made to flow through it. As per Jain traditions, the 24th and the last Tirthankara, Mahavira, was taken to the summit of Meru by Indra shortly after his birth, after putting his mother into deep slumber. There he was anointed with precious unctions.

Buddhism and Bon

As per Buddhist texts, Mount Kailash (Kailasa) is known as the mythological Mount Meru. Kailash is central to its cosmology, and a major pilgrimage site for some Buddhist traditions. In Buddhism, Kailash represents the father of the world and lake Mansarovar symbolizes the mother. Numerous sites in the region are associated with Padmasambhava, who is credited with establishing Tantric Buddhism in Tibet in the 8th century CE. Vajrayana Buddhists believe that saint Milarepa (c. 1052 – c. 1135) had a challenge with Naro Böncham, a follower of Bön religion of Tibet. The two engaged in a battle of wits with neither able to gain a decisive advantage. Finally, it was agreed that whoever could reach the summit of Kailash first would be the victor. While Naro sat on his magic drum to climb up the slope, Milarepa reached the summit riding on the rays of the Sun, thus winning the contest. He also gave the nearby mountain, since known as Bönri bequeathing it to Bön.

For the Bon people, the mountain is the abode of sky goddess Sipaimen and the mountain was the centre of the ancient Bon empire of Zhang Zhung. As per Tibetan beliefs, the mountain was the centre of the universe Mandala and the source of the mythical Lion, Horse, Peacock, and Elephant Rivers which flowed in the four cardinal directions.

Pilgrimage

Due to its perceived sacredness to various religions, people undertake a pilgrimage called yatra to the mountain. While it is not known when the first pilgrimage started, it is one of the oldest of the oldest pilgrimage routes, which has been in existence for many years.

Pilgrimage to the mountain increased in the 1930s but was affected later due to both China and the British Empire claiming the region. Religious pilgrimages to Mount Kailas and Manasarovar were permitted by China after its occupation of Tibet in 1950-51. While pilgrimage from India was guaranteed by the 1954 Sino-Indian Agreement, access was restricted after the subsequent 1959 Tibetan uprising and the borders were closed after the Sino-Indian War in 1962. After nearly two decades, pilgrimage from India was allowed in 1981 after an agreement between the governments of India and China. The pilgrimage was suspended for three years since 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The route was re-opened in 2023 with new regulations.

Since the reopening of the pilgrimage route from India in 1981, the numbers of pilgrims going on the annual yatra has grown considerably. Before the closure in 2020, several thousand pilgrims from India were going to this pilgrimage every year. Since 2015, aspiring pilgrims from India were required to apply in advance to the Ministry of External Affairs and specific number of passes were issued to pilgrims by computerized random selection with preference given to first timers. In India, the pilgrimage is organized by the Government of India and is permitted between June and September. Pilgrims from India travel through two routes opened for the purpose with border crossings at Lipu Lekh pass in Uttarakhand and the Nathu La pass in Sikkim. Since 2020, a motorable road is available till the Lipu Lekh pass through the Indian side of the Mahakali valley, before crossing over to China. The Nathu La route was opened in 2015 and involves traveling to Gangtok before crossing the Nathu La pass into China.

Since 2015, the pilgrimage from Nepal is generally done from the nearby Humla district in northwestern Nepal. The April 2015 Nepal Earthquake resulted in the closure of the border crossing at Tatopani-Zangmu. Pilgrims also pray to Mount Kailash from within Nepal where it is visible from the Lapcha La pass above the Limi valley on a clear day. Another route exists through the crossing at Rasuwa-Gyirong. Pilgrims could reach Lhasa by air before the journey to Lake Manasarovar or Darchen.

The pilgrimage involves trekking towards Lake Mansarovar and a circumambulation of Mount Kailash. The path around Mount Kailash is 53 km (33 mi) long. The circumambulation is made in a clockwise direction by Hindus, Buddhists, and Jains, while Bönpos circumambulate the mountain in a counterclockwise direction. The circumambulation usually begins and ends at Darchen, a small outpost located at an elevation of 4,670 m (15,320 ft) with the highest point at the Drölma pass situated at 5,650 m (18,540 ft). Trekking around the mountain can be done on foot with support from a pony or domestic yak. The circumambulation takes three days on average with the first day trek from Darchen to Dirapuk gompa for about 14 km (8.7 mi), followed by a journey from Dirpauk to Zutulphuk via the Drölma pass for 19 km (12 mi) on the second day and the final trek back to Darchen on the last day. The most extreme method of doing the circumambulation (called Kora) in Tibetan Buddhism is performed by doing full body-length prostrations over the entire stretch around the mountain. The pilgrim bends down, kneels, prostrates full-length, makes a mark with her fingers, rises to her knees, prays, and then crawls forward on hands and knees to the mark made by her fingers before repeating the process. With this method, the pilgrimage takes three weeks on average to complete.

Pilgrims believe that doing a circumambulation of Mount Kailash is a spiritually beneficial practice that can bring various positive effects, such as the cleansing of one's sins. Each circumambulation is considered to have fulfilled a life-death cycle. There are many stupas, flag poles, Buddhist monasteries and praying stations along the route. Many of the cultural artifacts along the route was destroyed during the Cultural Revolution of China from 1966 to 1976. Hindus take a ritual bath in the Manasarovar before doing circumambulation. Hindu text Skanda Purana states that "There are no mountains like the Himalaya, for in them are Kailas and Mansarovar. As the dew is dried up by the morning Sun, so are the sins of mankind dried up by the sight of the Himalaya."

Tibetan Buddhist pilgrims often chant om mani padme hum (jewel in the lotus) and sing nyelu songs while crossing the Dolma La pass which are believe to proclaim a fraternity amongst all pilgrims who cross paths on a Kailash pilgrimage. As the mountain is located in a remote area of the Himalayas, very few facilities exist to aid during the pilgrimage. For varied reasons for the different faiths that revere the mountain, setting foot on the slopes of the mountain or attempting to climb it is forbidden by law.

See also

References

1. "The Snow Mountains of China: Kangrin Boqe Topographic Map". 1997. Archived from the original on 13 November 2023. Retrieved 13 November 2023.
2. "Open Topo Map". Archived from the original on 23 June 2016. Retrieved 13 November 2023.
3. "Sanskrit Dictionary". Monier-Williams. p. 311. Archived from the original on 3 December 2018. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
4. "Entry for कैलासः". Apte Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Archived from the original on 8 July 2012. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
5. Jones & Ryan 2006, p. 220.
6. Williams, Monier. "Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary". Archived from the original on 31 August 2018. Retrieved 10 October 2017. kelāsa m. crystal W
7. ^ Das 1902, p. 32.
8. ^ Samkar 2020, p. 3.
9. ^ "Mount Kailas". Britannica. Archived from the original on 1 June 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
10. Shakspo, Nawang Tsering (1999). "The Role of Incarnate Lamas in Buddhist Tradition: A Brief Survey of Bakula Rinpoche's Previous Incarnations". The Tibet Journal. 24 (3): 38–47. ISSN 0970-5368. JSTOR 43300761.
11. "Imphal's Kangla To Ladakh's Kangla - Postulating A Kang Culture Belt". e-pao. Archived from the original on 20 August 2024. Retrieved 1 June 2024. Kang is homonym with multiple meaning like mountain white...
12. ^ Albinia 2008, p. 288.
13. ^ Freeman Attwood (2003). "Gangdise Mountains" (PDF). Alpine Journal. 4: 103–109. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 November 2022. Retrieved 17 March 2024.
14. "Mount Kaliash, China". Peakbagger.com. Archived from the original on 20 August 2024. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
15. Claude Arpi (23 February 2024). "China playing new border games close to Mt Kailash". Deccan Chronicle. Archived from the original on 28 February 2024. Retrieved 1 March 2024.
16. ^ Brockman 2011, p. 356.
17. "Lake Mapam". Britannica. Archived from the original on 20 August 2024. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
18. Likens 2009, p. 505.
19. Likens 2010, p. 294.
20. Pete Winn. "Geology and Geography of the Mt. Kailash area and Indus River headwaters in southwestern Tibet". Archived from the original on 28 December 2014. Retrieved 1 January 2014.
21. "Geology and Geography of the Mt. Kailash area and Indus River headwaters in southwestern Tibet". Ministry of Geology and Mineral Resources, China. Archived from the original on 15 January 2014. Retrieved 1 January 2014.
22. Francois Debon (1986). "The Four Plutonic Belts of the Transhimalaya-Himalaya: a Chemical, Mineralogical, Isotopic, and Chronological Synthesis along a Tibet-Nepal Section". Journal of Petrology. 27 (1): 219–250. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.1018.511. doi:10.1093/petrology/27.1.219. Retrieved 22 June 2022.
23. Augusto Gansser-Biaggi (1964). Geology Of The Himalayas. Wiley. pp. 141–144. ISBN 978-0-47029-055-2.
24. "Tibet Weather". Tibet tour. Archived from the original on 20 August 2024. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
25. ^ Kailash Yatra (PDF) (Report). Government of India. 12 May 2006. p. 60. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 August 2024. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
26. Qiu, Jane (1 July 2008). "China: The third pole". Nature. 454 (7203): 393–396. Bibcode:2008Natur.454..393Q. doi:10.1038/454393a. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 18650887.
27. "The world has a third pole – and it's melting quickly". The Guardian. 15 September 2019. Archived from the original on 20 August 2024. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
28. "Ignoring climate change in the Himalayas". The Third Pole. 9 January 2019. Archived from the original on 6 August 2022. Retrieved 6 August 2022.
29. Tanguang Gao (23 April 2021). "Accelerating permafrost collapse on the eastern Tibetan Plateau". Environmental Research Letters. 16 (5). Bibcode:2021ERL....16e4023G. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/abf7f0.
30. Kailash Sacred Landscape Conservation Initiative: Feasibility Assessment Report (Report). Kathmandu: ICIMOD. 22 June 2009. p. 4. Archived from the original on 20 August 2024. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
31. Zomer & Oli 2011, p. 39-40.
32. "About KSLCDI". ICIMOD. 16 December 2019. Archived from the original on 7 August 2022. Retrieved 7 August 2022.
33. "KSLCDI Components". ICIMOD. 16 December 2019. Archived from the original on 7 August 2022. Retrieved 7 August 2022.
34. "ICIMOD collaborates with NASA to monitor air quality in the Hindu Kush Himalayas". Deccan Herald. 27 May 2024. Archived from the original on 20 August 2024. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
35. "Khar's experimentation with Himalayan nettle brings recognition". Down to Earth. 16 May 2017. Archived from the original on 20 August 2024. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
36. Samkar 2020, p. 95.
37. Hugh Ruttledge (1928). "Notes on a Visit to Western Tibet in 1926". The Geographical Journal. 71 (5). The Royal Geographical Society: 431–438. Bibcode:1928GeogJ..71..431R. doi:10.2307/1783276. JSTOR 1783276. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
38. R.C.Wilson (1928). "Kailas Mountains" (PDF). Alpine Journal. 40: 23–37. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 August 2024. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
39. Snelling 1983, p. 15–39.
40. Bernbaum 2022, p. 29.
41. Samkar 2020, p. 95-96.
42. ^ Samkar 2020, p. 96.
43. ^ Brit Jones (3 November 2023). "Mountain significantly smaller than Everest has never been climbed by a human". Unilad. Archived from the original on 7 November 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
44. "Kailash: the mountain that calls". Suunto. Archived from the original on 11 August 2022. Retrieved 6 August 2022.
45. ^ "Are there any mountains left unclimbed?". The Spectator. 23 January 2021. Archived from the original on 20 August 2024. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
46. "China to Ban Expeditions on Mount Kailash". tew.org. 7 June 2001. Archived from the original on 18 July 2011. Retrieved 16 September 2016.
47. Izu, Kenro (2013). "Passage to Kailash". World Literature Today. 87 (2): 68. doi:10.7588/worllitetoda.87.2.0068. S2CID 163370522.
48. "Kailash Manasarovar Yatra". Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India. Archived from the original on 17 June 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
49. Karen Swenson (16 March 2003). "A Sacred Circuit in Tibet". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
50. Archer 1973, p. 365.
51. Flood 1996, p. 151.
52. Mckay 2015, p. 74. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMckay2015 (help)
53. Zimmer 1946, p. 68.
54. Allen 1982, p. 4. sfn error: no target: CITEREFAllen1982 (help)
55. Allen 1982, p. 8. sfn error: no target: CITEREFAllen1982 (help)
56. ^ Mckay 2015, p. 13. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMckay2015 (help)
57. Thubron 2011, p. 5.
58. Wolpert 1994, p. 74.
59. ^ Thubron 2011, p. 6.
60. Allen 1982, p. 3. sfn error: no target: CITEREFAllen1982 (help)
61. Rangaswamy 1990, p. 527.
62. Honour & Fleming 2005, p. 443.
63. Henry 2022, p. 46.
64. DiBiasio 2013, p. 33.
65. Dallapiccola 2003.
66. Rai 1929, p. 178.
67. "Rishabhanatha". Britannica. Archived from the original on 19 May 2017. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
68. ^ Jain 2009, p. 273.
69. Rai 1929, p. 179-180.
70. Welch 1985, p. 71.
71. "Jainism Literature Center - Rituals". Archived from the original on 16 August 2019. Retrieved 3 December 2018.
72. Govinda 1966, p. 198.
73. Buswell 2004, p. 407-408.
74. Mckay 2015, p. 84. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMckay2015 (help)
75. "Padmasambhava". Britannica. Archived from the original on 20 August 2024. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
76. Heller, Orofino & Ramble 2003, p. 187.
77. Gyatso 2022, p. 395.
78. Samkar 2020, p. 21.
79. Batchelor 1987, p. 367.
80. Vinding 1998, p. 413.
81. Allen 2013, p. 266-267.
82. Chamaria 1996, p. 19.
83. Govinda 1966, p. 199-200.
84. ^ "Kailash Mansarovar Yatra". Government of Uttarakhand. Archived from the original on 8 December 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
85. Mckay 2015, p. 217. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMckay2015 (help)
86. ^ Thubron 2011, p. 7.
87. "Kailash-Mansarovar yatra unlikely to resume this year, say officials". The Hindu. 7 April 2022. Archived from the original on 20 August 2024. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
88. ^ "Pilgrims to Kailash discouraged by new Chinese rules". Kathmandu Post. 8 May 2023. Archived from the original on 20 August 2024. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
89. "Kailash Masarovar Yatra hits hurdles ahead of opening next month". The Indian Express. 19 May 2023. Archived from the original on 20 August 2024. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
90. Zomer & Oli 2011, p. 10.
91. "Kailash Manasarovar Yatra likely to see record numbers". Kathmandu Post. Archived from the original on 4 August 2022. Retrieved 4 August 2022.
92. "First-time pilgrims get preference for Mansarovar Yatra". The Hindu. 16 May 2019. Archived from the original on 20 August 2024. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
93. "Mansarovar Yatra: First-time pilgrims get preference in computerized draw of lots". The Economic Times. Archived from the original on 4 August 2022. Retrieved 4 August 2022.
94. "Kailash Manasarovar Yatra". Government of India. Archived from the original on 17 June 2022. Retrieved 4 August 2022.
95. "New road to Kailash Mansarovar via Lipulekh Pass and why Nepal is objecting to it". The Print. 11 May 2020. Archived from the original on 6 August 2022. Retrieved 6 August 2022.
96. "Alternate Route for Kailash-Mansarovar Yatra Will Become Operational Next Month: PM Modi". NDTV. 15 May 2015. Archived from the original on 17 March 2024. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
97. ^ Bubriski & Pandey 2018, p. 163-165.
98. Rajan & Thakuir 2024, p. 86.
99. "Limi-Lapcha could be an alternative route to Kailash Manasarovar". The Himalayan Times. 13 March 2021. Archived from the original on 28 May 2022. Retrieved 9 August 2022.
100. "A Personal Account of Border Crossing Reveals the Deep Ties Between Nepal, China". The Wire. Archived from the original on 4 August 2021. Retrieved 9 August 2022.
101. ^ Macfarlane 2012, p. 259-288.
102. Govinda 1966, p. 202.
103. ^ Brockman 2011, p. 357.
104. Thurman & Wise 1999, p. 32.
105. Huber & Rigzin 1999, p. 130.
106. Berreman 1972, p. 15.
107. Pandey, Abhimanyu (20 April 2023). "Ancient bonds: Joining the Kailash-Mansarovar yatra". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 21 April 2023. Retrieved 21 April 2023.
108. McNeely 2018, p. 282.
109. Snelling 1983, p. 15-39.

Bibliography

• Albinia, Alice (2008). Empires of the Indus: The Story of a River. John Murray. ISBN 978-0-71956-003-3.
• Allen, Charles (2013). A Mountain in Tibet: The Search for Mount Kailas and the Sources of the Great Rivers of Asia. Abacus. ISBN 978-1-40552-497-1. Archived from the original on 20 August 2024. Retrieved 16 July 2024.
• Archer, W. G. (1973). Indian paintings from the Punjab Hills : a survey and history of Pahari miniature painting. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-85667-002-2.
• Batchelor, Stephen (1987). The Tibet Guide. Wisdom Publications. ISBN 978-0-86171-046-1. Archived from the original on 20 August 2024. Retrieved 16 July 2024.
• Bernbaum, Edwin (2022). Sacred Mountains of the World. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-10883-474-2. Archived from the original on 20 August 2024. Retrieved 16 July 2024.
• Berreman, Gerald Duane (1972). Hindus of the Himalayas: Ethnography and Change. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-52001-423-7. Archived from the original on 20 August 2024. Retrieved 18 August 2024.
• Brockman, Norbert (2011). Encyclopedia of Sacred Places, Volume 1. ABC-Clio. ISBN 978-1-59884-654-6. Archived from the original on 19 August 2024. Retrieved 16 July 2024.
• Bubriski, Kevin; Pandey, Abhimanyu (2018). Kailash Yatra: a Long Walk to Mount Kailash through Humla (PDF). Penguin Random House. ISBN 978-0-67009-111-9. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 July 2024. Retrieved 4 July 2024.
• Buswell, Robert (2004). Encyclopedia of Buddhism: A-L. Macmillan Publishers. ISBN 978-0-02865-719-6. Archived from the original on 20 August 2024. Retrieved 27 December 2017.
• Chamaria, Pradeep (1996). Kailash Manasarovara on the Rugged Road to Revelation. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 978-8-17017-336-6.
• Dallapiccola, Anna L. (2003). "Ravananugrahamurti". Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-50051-088-9. Archived from the original on 20 August 2024. Retrieved 20 May 2020.
• Das, Sarat Chandra (1902). Tibetan-English Dictionary with Sanskrit Synonyms. Bengal Secretariat Book Depot.
• DiBiasio, Jame (2013). The Story of Angkor. Silkworm Books. ISBN 978-1-63102-259-3. Archived from the original on 20 August 2024. Retrieved 19 August 2024.
• Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-52143-878-0.
• Govinda, Lama Anagarika (1966). The Way of the White Clouds: A Buddhist Pilgrim in Tibet. Shambhala Publications. ISBN 978-0-87773-007-1.
• Gyatso, Tenzing (2022). The Fourteenth Dalai Lama's Stages of the Path, Volume 1. Wisdom Publications. ISBN 978-1-61429-793-2. Archived from the original on 20 August 2024. Retrieved 16 July 2024.
• Heller, Amy; Orofino, Giacomella; Ramble, Charles (2003). Discoveries in Western Tibet and the Western Himalayas. Brill Publishers. ISBN 978-9-00415-520-6. Archived from the original on 20 August 2024. Retrieved 20 August 2024.
• Henry, Justin W. (2022). Ravana's Kingdom: The Ramayana and Sri Lankan History from Below. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19763-630-5. Archived from the original on 20 August 2024. Retrieved 19 August 2024.
• Honour, Hugh; Fleming, John (2005). A World History of Art. Laurence King. ISBN 978-1-85669-451-3. Archived from the original on 20 August 2024. Retrieved 19 August 2024.
• Huber, Toni; Rigzin, Tsepak (1999). "A Tibetan Guide for Pilgrimage to Ti-se and mTsho Ma-pham". Sacred Spaces and Powerful Places in Tibetan Culture: A Collection of Essays (PDF). Library of Tibetan Works and Archives. ISBN 978-8-18647-022-0.
• Jain, Arun Kumar (2009). Faith & Philosophy of Jainism. Kalpaz Publications. ISBN 978-8-17835-723-2. Archived from the original on 20 August 2024. Retrieved 4 July 2024.
• Johnson, Russell; Kerry Moran (1989). The Sacred Mountain of Tibet: On Pilgrimage to Kailas. Park Street Press. ISBN 978-0-89281-325-4.
• Jones, Constance; Ryan, James (2006). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Facts On File. ISBN 978-0-81607-564-5. Archived from the original on 20 October 2022. Retrieved 16 July 2024.
• Likens, Gene (2009). Encyclopedia of Inland Waters. Elsevier Science. ISBN 978-0-12370-626-3. Archived from the original on 20 August 2024. Retrieved 18 August 2024.
• Likens, Gene (2010). Lake Ecosystem Ecology: A Global Perspective. Elsevier Science. ISBN 978-0-12382-003-7. Archived from the original on 20 August 2024. Retrieved 18 August 2024.
• Macfarlane, Robert (2012). The Old Ways: A Journey on Foot. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-241-14553-1. Archived from the original on 19 August 2024. Retrieved 19 August 2024.
• McKay, Alex (2015). Kailas Histories: Renunciate Traditions and the Construction of Himalayan Sacred Geography. Brill Publishers. ISBN 978-9-00430-618-9. Archived from the original on 20 August 2024. Retrieved 16 July 2024.
• McNeely, Scott (2018). Ultimate Book of Adventure: Life-Changing Excursions and Experiences Around the World. Chronicle Books. ISBN 978-1-45216-425-0. Archived from the original on 20 August 2024. Retrieved 16 July 2024.
• Rai, Champat (1929). Riṣabha Deva, the Founder of Jainism. Indian Press. Archived from the original on 20 August 2024. Retrieved 16 July 2024.
• Rajan, K.V.; Thakuir, Atul (2024). Kathmandu Chronicle:Reclaiming India–Nepal Relations. Penguin Random House. ISBN 978-9-35708-708-7. Archived from the original on 20 August 2024. Retrieved 16 July 2024.
• Rangaswamy, M. A. Dorai (1990) . Religion and Philosophy of Tevaram (PDF). University of Madras. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 August 2024. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
• Samkar, Nyima (2020). Mount Kailash: the White Mirror. Library of Tibetan Works and Archives. ISBN 978-9-38702-385-7. Archived from the original on 20 August 2024. Retrieved 16 July 2024.
• Snelling, John (1983). The Sacred Mountain:Travellers and Pilgrims at Mount Kailas in Western Tibet, and the Great Universal Symbol of the Mountain. East West Publishing. ISBN 978-0-85692-111-7. Archived from the original on 20 August 2024. Retrieved 19 August 2024.
• Thubron, Colin (2011). To a Mountain in Tibet. Chatto & Windus. ISBN 978-0-70118-380-6. Archived from the original on 20 August 2024. Retrieved 19 August 2024.
• Thurman, Robert; Wise, Tad (1999). Circling the Sacred Mountain: A Spiritual Adventure Through the Himalayas. Bantam Books. ISBN 978-0-55337-850-4.
• Vinding, Michael (1998). The Thakali: A Himalayan Ethnography. Serindia Publications. ISBN 978-0-90602-650-2. Archived from the original on 20 August 2024. Retrieved 16 July 2024.
• Welch, Stuart Cary (1985). India: Art and Culture, 1300-1900. Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-0-03006-114-1. Archived from the original on 20 August 2024. Retrieved 11 August 2020.
• Wolpert, Stanley (1994). An Introduction to India. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14016-870-9.
• Zimmer, Heinrich (1946). Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization. Pantheon Books. ISBN 978-0-69101-778-5.
• Zomer, Robert; Oli, Krishna Prasad (2011). Kailash Sacred Landscape Conservation Initiative: Feasibility Assessment Report (PDF). International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 August 2024. Retrieved 18 August 2024.

v t e    Topics in Buddhism
Outline Glossary Index
Foundations	Four Noble Truths Three Jewels Buddha Dharma Sangha Noble Eightfold Path Nirvana Middle Way
The Buddha	Tathāgata Birthday Four sights Eight Great Events Great Renunciation Physical characteristics Life of Buddha in art Footprint Relics Iconography in Laos and Thailand Films Miracles Family Suddhodāna (father) Māyā (mother) Mahapajapati Gotamī (aunt, adoptive mother) Yaśodharā (wife) Rāhula (son) Ānanda (cousin) Devadatta (cousin) Places where the Buddha stayed Buddha in world religions
Bodhisattvas	Avalokiteśvara Guanyin Mañjuśrī Mahāsthāmaprāpta Ākāśagarbha Kṣitigarbha Samantabhadra Vajrapāṇi Skanda Tārā Metteyya/Maitreya
Disciples	Kaundinya Assaji Sāriputta Mahamoggallāna Ānanda Mahākassapa Aṅgulimāla Anuruddha Mahākaccana Nanda Subhūti Puṇṇa Mantānīputta Upāli Mahapajapati Gotamī Khema Uppalavanna Asita Channa Yasa
Key concepts	Avidyā (Ignorance) Bardo Bodhicitta Buddha-nature Dhamma theory Dharma Enlightenment Five hindrances Indriya Karma Kleshas Mental factors Mindstream Parinirvana Pratītyasamutpāda Rebirth Saṃsāra Saṅkhāra Skandha Śūnyatā Taṇhā (Craving) Tathātā Ten Fetters Three marks of existence Anicca Dukkha Anattā Two truths doctrine
Cosmology	Ten spiritual realms Six Paths Deva realm Human realm Asura realm Hungry Ghost realm Animal realm Naraka Three planes of existence
Branches	Mahayana Zen Chinese Chan Japanese Zen Korean Seon Vietnamese Thiền Pure Land Tiantai Huayan Risshū Nichiren Madhyamaka Yogachara Vajrayana Tibetan Buddhism Chinese Esoteric Buddhism Shingon Dzogchen Theravada Navayana Early Buddhist schools Pre-sectarian Buddhism Basic points unifying Theravāda and Mahāyāna Southern, Eastern and Northern Buddhism
Practices	Bhavana Bodhipakkhiyādhammā Brahmavihara Mettā Karuṇā Mudita Upekkha Buddhābhiṣeka Dāna Devotion Deity yoga Dhyāna Faith Five Strengths Iddhipada Meditation Mantras Kammaṭṭhāna Recollection Smarana Anapanasati Samatha-vipassanā (Vipassana movement) Shikantaza Zazen Tukdam Koan Ganana Mandala Tonglen Tantra Tertön Terma Merit Mindfulness Mindful Yoga Satipatthana Nekkhamma Nianfo Pāramitā Paritta Puja Offerings Prostration Music Refuge Sādhu Satya Sacca Seven Factors of Enlightenment Sati Dhamma vicaya Pīti Passaddhi Śīla Five precepts Eight precepts Bodhisattva vow Pratimokṣa Threefold Training Śīla Samadhi Prajñā Vīrya Four Right Exertions Twenty-two vows of Ambedkar
Nirvana	Bodhi Bodhisattva Buddhahood Pratyekabuddhayāna Four stages of awakening Sotāpanna Sakadagami Anāgāmi Arhat
Monasticism	Bhikkhu Bhikkhunī Śrāmaṇera Śrāmaṇerī Anagārika Ajahn Sayadaw Zen master Rōshi Lama Rinpoche Geshe Tulku Western tulku Kappiya Donchee Householder Upāsaka and Upāsikā Achar Śrāvaka Ten principal disciples Shaolin Monastery
Major figures	The Buddha Nagasena Aśvaghoṣa Nagarjuna Asanga Vasubandhu Kumārajīva Buddhaghosa Buddhapālita Dignāga Bodhidharma Zhiyi Emperor Wen of Sui Songtsen Gampo Xuanzang Shandao Padmasambhava Saraha Atiśa Naropa Karmapa Hōnen Shinran Dōgen Nichiren Shamarpa Dalai Lama Panchen Lama Ajahn Mun B. R. Ambedkar Ajahn Chah Thích Nhất Hạnh
Texts	Early Buddhist texts Tripiṭaka Mahayana sutras Pali Canon Chinese Buddhist canon Tibetan Buddhist canon Dhammapada Sutra Vinaya Madhyamakālaṃkāra Abhidharmadīpa
Countries	Afghanistan Bangladesh Bhutan Cambodia China India Indonesia Japan Korea Laos Malaysia Maldives Mongolia Myanmar Nepal Pakistan Philippines Russia Buryatia Kalmykia Tuva (ru) Singapore Sri Lanka Taiwan Thailand Tibet Vietnam Africa Senegal South Africa Central Asia Uzbekistan Middle East Iran Saudi Arabia Western countries Argentina Australia Brazil Canada Costa Rica Czech Republic France Germany Italy Mexico New Zealand Norway Poland Sweden Switzerland Ukraine United Kingdom United States Venezuela
History	Timeline Ashoka Kanishka Buddhist councils History of Buddhism in India Decline of Buddhism in India Huichang persecution of Buddhism Greco-Buddhism Gandharan Buddhism Texts Menander I Buddhism and the Roman world Buddhism in the West Silk Road transmission of Buddhism Persecution of Buddhists In Afghanistan In Vietnam Rimé movement Banishment of Buddhist monks from Nepal Dalit Buddhist movement Chinese invasion of Tibet 1959 Tibetan uprising Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism Buddhist modernism Vipassana movement 969 Movement Engaged Buddhism Women in Buddhism
Philosophy	Abhidharma Atomism Buddhology Creator Buddhism and democracy Economics Eight Consciousnesses Engaged Buddhism Eschatology Ethics Evolution Humanism Logic Reality Secular Buddhism Socialism The unanswerable questions
Culture	Architecture Temple Vihāra Kyaung Wat Ordination hall Stupa Pagoda Burmese pagoda Candi Dzong architecture List of Buddhist architecture in China Japanese Buddhist architecture Buddhist temples in Korea Thai temple art and architecture Tibetan Buddhist architecture Art Greco-Buddhist Bodhi Tree Budai Buddha in art Calendar Cuisine Funeral Holidays Vesak Uposatha Māgha Pūjā Asalha Puja Vassa Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi Kasaya Mahabodhi Temple Mantra Om mani padme hum Mudra Music Pilgrimage Lumbini Maya Devi Temple Bodh Gaya Sarnath Kushinagar Poetry Prayer beads Hama yumi Prayer wheel Symbolism Dharmachakra Flag Bhavacakra Swastika Thangka Temple of the Tooth Vegetarianism
Miscellaneous	Abhijñā Amitābha Brahmā Dharma talk Hinayana Iddhi Kalpa Koliya Lineage Māra Siddhi Sacred languages Pāḷi Sanskrit
Comparison	Baháʼí Faith Christianity Influences Comparison East Asian religions Gnosticism Hinduism Jainism Judaism Psychology Science Theosophy Violence Western philosophy
Lists	Bodhisattvas Buddhas Buddhists Suttas Sutras Temples Festivals
Category Buddhism portal

v t e Shaivism
History
Deities	Shiva Bhairava Dakshinamurti Harihara Ishana Nataraja Sadyojata Tatpurusha Vamadeva Shakti Ardhanarishvara Sati Parvati Ganesha Kartikeya Devasena Valli Nandi
Texts	Shvetashvatara Upanishad Shivarahasya Purana Shiva Purana Shiva Sutras of Vasugupta Tirumurai
Mantra/Stotra	Om Namah Shivaya Rudrashtakam Mahāmrityunjaya Shiva Tandava Sahasranama Chalisa Shri Rudram Shiva Mahimna Hara Hara Mahadeva
Traditions	Shaiva Siddhanta Pashupata Shaivism Kapalika Aghori Kaula Trika Shaivism Veera Shaivism Siddha Siddhanta Shiva Advaita Shaiva Smartas
Festivals and observances	Kanwar Yatra Maha Shivaratri Pradosha Shiva Puja
Shiva temples	Panch Kedar Kedarnath Tungnath Rudranath Madhyamaheshwar Kalpeshwar Pancha Sabhai Rathinam Pon Velli Thamiram Chitiram Pancha Bhuta Sthalam Chidambaram (Ether) Tirukalahasti (Air) Tiruvannamalai (Fire) Tiruvanaikaval (Water) Kanchipuram (Earth) Jyotirlingas Bhimashankar Grishneshwar Kedarnath Mallikarjun Mahakaleshwar Nageshvar Omkareshwar Ramanathaswamy Somnath Trimbakeshwar Vaidyanath Vishwanath Others Amarnath Brihadeeswarar Kailash Mansarovar Katas Raj Lingaraja Meenakshi Sundareshwarar Tiruchengode Vadakkum Nathan
Related topics	Lingam Rasalingam Siddha Vibhuti Other names
Category Portal

v t e Jainism topics
Gods	Tirthankara Ganadhara Arihant
Philosophy	Five Vows Ahimsa Epistemology Kevala Jñāna Jaina logic Anekāntavāda Jain cosmology Siddhashila Naraka Heavenly beings Karma Types Causes Gunasthana Dravya Jīva Ajiva Pudgala Dharma Tattva Asrava Bandha Samvara Nirjara Mokṣa Death Saṃsāra Ratnatraya Kashaya
Branches	Digambara Mula Sangha Balatkara Gana Kashtha Sangha Taran Panth Bispanthi Terapanth Yapaniya Kanji Panth Śvetāmbara Murtipujaka Gaccha Kharatara Tapa Tristutik Sthānakavāsī Terapanth
Practices	Sallekhana Meditation Sāmāyika Monasticism Vegetarianism Fasting Rituals Festivals Paryushana Kshamavani Mahamastakabhisheka Upadhan Tapas Pratikramana
Literature	Agama Pravachanasara Shatkhandagama Kasayapahuda Mantra Namokar Mantra Bhaktamara Stotra Tattvartha Sutra Samayasāra Aptamimamsa Kalpa Sūtra Uttaradhyayana
Symbols	Jain flag Siddhachakra Ashtamangala Shrivatsa Nandavarta Auspicious dreams Swastika
Ascetics	Digambara monk Aryika Kshullak Pattavali Acharya
Scholars	Nalini Balbir Colette Caillat Chandabai John E. Cort Paul Dundas Virchand Gandhi Hermann Jacobi Champat Rai Jain Padmanabh Jaini Jeffery D. Long Hampa Nagarajaiah Bal Patil Jinendra Varni
Community	Śrāvaka Sarak Tamil Organisations Digambar Jain Mahasabha Vishwa Jain Sangathan JAINA
Jainism in	India Bundelkhand Delhi Goa Gujarat Haryana Karnataka North Kerala Maharashtra Mumbai Rajasthan Tamil Nadu Uttar Pradesh Overseas Africa Australia Belgium Canada Europe Hong Kong Japan Pakistan Singapore Southeast Asia United States
Jainism and	Buddhism Hinduism Islam Sikhism Non-creationism
Dynasties and empires	Chalukya Ganga Hoysala Ikshvaku Kadamba Kalinga Maurya Pandya Rashtrakuta Santara
Related	History Timeline Ekendriya Pañca-Parameṣṭhi Pratima Śalākāpuruṣa Tirtha Samavasarana Jain calendar Samvatsari Panch Kalyanaka Statue of Ahimsa Temple Stupa Sculpture Art Law Nigoda Jain terms and concepts Sexual differences
Lists	List of Jains List of Jain temples List of Jain ascetics List of Digambar Jain ascetics Topics List (index)
Navboxes	Gods Literature Monks & nuns Scholars Temples America Bengal
Religion portal

• Mountains of Tibet
• Hindu pilgrimage sites in China
• Sacred mountains of China
• Sacred mountains
• Buddhist pilgrimage sites in China
• Hindu tantra
• Tibetan Buddhist places
• Padal Petra Stalam
• Six-thousanders of the Transhimalayas
• Mountains in Buddhism
• Mountains in Hinduism