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{{Short description|Movement to revive Nazi ideologies}}
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{{About|Nazism after World War II|fascist movements after World War II|Neo-fascism}}
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{{Neo-fascism}}
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{{Antisemitism}}
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{{Terrorism}}


'''Neo-Nazism''' comprises the post-] militant, social, and political movements that seek to revive and reinstate ]. Neo-Nazis employ their ideology to promote hatred and ] (often ]), to attack racial and ethnic minorities (often ] and ]), and in some cases to create a ].<ref>Gay, Kathlyn (1997) ]. Enslow. p. 114. {{isbn|978-0894909016}}. Quote: "Neo-Nazis ... use fear and violence in their efforts to destroy minorities. Their goal is to ''establish'' a "superior" society."(emphasis added)</ref><ref>Staff (ndg) {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210212171945/https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/ideology/neo-nazi |date=12 February 2021 }} ]. Quote: "While some neo-Nazi groups emphasize simple hatred, others are more focused on the revolutionary ''creation of a fascist political state''." (emphasis added)<!-- italic emphasis only, not bold + italic --></ref>
'''Neo-Nazism''' consists of post-] social or political movements seeking to revive ] or some variant thereof.<!--
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--><ref name="McGowan">{{cite book
|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=EkInaWFrki4C&printsec=frontcover#PPA9,M1
|title=The Radical Right in Germany: 1870 to the Present
|accessdate=
|author=Lee McGowan
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|year=2002
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|publisher=Pearson Education
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--><ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.döw.at/english/right/englre.html
|title=Right-Wing Extremism in Austria: History, Organisations, Ideology
|accessdate=
|author=Brigitte Bailer-Galanda
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|coauthors=Wolfgang Neugebauer
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|quote=Right-wing extremism can be equated neither with Nazism nor with neo-Fascism or neo-Nazism. Neo-Nazism, a legal term, is understood as the attempt to propagate, in direct defiance of the law (Verbotsgesetz), Nazi ideology or measures such as the denial, playing-down, approval or justification of Nazi mass murder, especially the Holocaust.
}}</ref><!--
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--><ref name="Frost">{{cite web
|url=http://www.martinfrost.ws/htmlfiles/neonazism1.html
|title=Neo Nazism
|accessdate=
|author=Martin Frost
|last=
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|quote=The term neo-Nazism refers to any social or political movement seeking to revive National Socialism or a form of Fascism, and which postdates the Second World War. Often, especially internationally, those who are part of such movements do not use the term to describe themselves.
}}</ref><!--
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--><ref>Lee, Martin A. 1997. The Beast Reawakens. Boston: Little, Brown and Co, pp. 85–118, 214–234, 277–281, 287–330, 333–378. On ''Volk'' concept," and a discussion of ethnonationalist integralism, see pp. 215–218</ref><!--
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The term ''neo-Nazism'' can also refer to the ] of these movements.<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.holocaust-education.dk/eftertid/nynazisme.asp
|title=Neo-Nazism
|accessdate=2007-12-08
|author=Peter Vogelsang & Brian B. M. Larsen
|last=
|first=
|authorlink=
|coauthors=
|date=
|year=2002
|month=
|format=
|work=
|publisher=The Danish Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies
|pages=
|doi=
|archiveurl=
|archivedate=
|quote=Neo-Nazism is the name for a modern offshoot of Nazism. It is a radically right-wing ideology, whose main characteristics are extreme nationalism and violent xenophobia. Neo-Nazism is, as the word suggests, a modern version of Nazism. In general, it is an incoherent right-extremist ideology, which is characterised by ‘borrowing’ many of the elements that constituted traditional Nazism.}}</ref><!--
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--><ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://czechkid.eu/si1310.html|title=Neo-Nazism
|accessdate=2007-12-08
|author=Ondřej Cakl & Klára Kalibová
|last=
|first=
|authorlink=
|coauthors=
|date=
|year=2002
|month=
|work=
|publisher=Faculty of Humanities at Charles University in Prague, Department of Civil Society Studies
|pages=
|doi=
|archiveurl=
|archivedate=
|quote=Neo-Nazism: An ideology which draws upon the legacy of the Nazi Third Reich, the main pillars of which are an admiration for Adolf Hitler, aggressive nationalism (“nothing but the nation”), and hatred of Jews, foreigners, ethnic minorities, homosexuals and everyone who is different in some way.
}}</ref>


Neo-Nazism borrows elements from Nazi doctrine, including militant ], ], ], ], ] and ]. ] is a common feature, as is incorporation of ] and admiration of ]. It is related to the ] and ] movements in many countries. Neo-Nazism is a global phenomenon, with organized representation in many countries and international networks. It borrows elements from Nazi doctrine, including antisemitism, ], ], ], ], ], ], and creating a "]". ] is common in neo-Nazi circles.


Neo-Nazis regularly display ] and express admiration for ] and other Nazi leaders. In some European and Latin American countries, laws prohibit the expression of pro-Nazi, racist, antisemitic, or homophobic views. ] (especially ]) in an effort to curtail neo-Nazism.<ref>* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5Mc9wZPAky8C |title=Anti-Semitism in Germany: The Post-Nazi Epoch Since 1945 |author=Werner Bergmann |author2=Rainer Erb |year=1997 |publisher=Transaction Publishers |pages=91 |isbn=978-1-56000-270-3 |oclc=35318351 |quote=In contrast to today, in which rigid authoritarianism and neo-Nazism are characteristic of marginal groups, open or latent leanings toward Nazi ideology in the 1940s and 1950s |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=20 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210220161901/https://books.google.com/books?id=5Mc9wZPAky8C |url-status=live }}
Neo-Nazi activity appears to be a global phenomenon, with organized representation in many countries, as well as international networks. Some ]an and ]n countries have laws prohibiting the expression of pro-Nazi, racist, anti-Semitic or anti-gay views. Many Nazi-related symbols are banned in European countries in an effort to curtail neo-Nazism.
* {{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/azofmoderneurope0000poll |url-access=registration |title=A–Z of Modern Europe Since 1789 |year=2000 |author=Martin Polley |publisher=Routledge |pages= |isbn=978-0-415-18597-4 |oclc=49569961 |quote=Neo-Nazism, drawing heavily both on the ideology and aesthetics of the NSDAP, emerged in many parts of Europe and elsewhere in the economic crises of the 1970s, and has continued to influence a number of small political groups. }}
<!-- These references are not necessary to establish definition of neo-Nazism, but may be useful elsewhere
* {{cite web |url=https://www.apologeticsindex.org/26-neo-nazism |title=Neo-Nazism |publisher=ApologeticsIndex |quote=The term Neo-Nazism refers to any social, political and/or (quasi) religious movement seeking to revive Nazism. Neo-Nazi groups are racist hate groups that pattern themselves after Hitler's philosophies. Examples include: Aryan Nations, National Alliance |date=2005-12-16 |access-date=12 December 2007 |archive-date=3 January 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060103204641/https://www.apologeticsindex.org/26-neo-nazism |url-status=live }}</ref>
<ref>{{cite book
|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=5Mc9wZPAky8C&printsec=frontcover#PPA91,M1
|title=Anti-Semitism in Germany: The Post-Nazi Epoch Since 1945
|accessdate=
|accessdaymonth =
|accessmonthday =
|accessyear=
|author=Werner Bergmann
|last=
|first=
|authorlink=
|coauthors=Rainer Erb
|date =
|year=1997
|month=
|format=
|work=
|publisher=Transaction Publishers
|pages=91
|language=English
|isbn=1560002700
|oclc = 35318351
|doi=
|archiveurl=
|archivedate=
|quote=In contrast to today, in which rigid authoritarianism and neo-Nazism are characteristic of marginal groups, open or latent leanings toward Nazi ideology in the 1940s and 1950s
}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite book
|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=1m8gILidU1gC&printsec=frontcover#PRA1-PA103,M1
|title=A-Z of Modern Europe Since 1789
|accessdate=
|accessdaymonth =
|accessmonthday =
|accessyear=
|author=Martin Polley
|last=
|first=
|authorlink=
|coauthors=
|date =
|year=200
|month=
|format=
|work=
|publisher=Routledge
|pages=103
|language=
|isbn=0415185971
|oclc = 49569961
|doi=
|archiveurl=
|archivedate=
|quote=Neo-Nazism, drawing heavily both on the ideology and aesthetics of the NSDAP, emerged in many parts of Europe and elsewhere in the economic crises of the 1970s, and has continued to influence a number of small political groups.
}}</ref>
<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.apologeticsindex.org/26-neo-nazism
|title=Neo-Nazism
|accessdate=
|accessdaymonth =
|accessmonthday =
|accessyear=
|author=
|last=
|first=
|authorlink=
|coauthors=
|date =
|year=
|month=
|format=
|work=
|publisher=ApologeticsIndex
|pages=
|language=English
|doi=
|archiveurl=
|archivedate=
|quote=The term Neo-Nazism refers to any social, political and/or (quasi) religious movement seeking to revive Nazism or Fascism. Neo-Nazi groups are racist hate groups that pattern themselves after Hitler’s philosophies. Examples include: Aryan Nations, National Alliance
}}</ref>-->


==Austria== == Definition ==
The term neo-Nazism describes any post-] militant, social or political movements seeking to revive the ideology of ] in whole or in part.<ref>* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EkInaWFrki4C |title=The Radical Right in Germany: 1870 to the Present |author=Lee McGowan |year=2002 |publisher=Pearson Education |pages=9, 178 |isbn=978-0-582-29193-5 |oclc=49785551 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=20 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210220161140/https://books.google.com/books?id=EkInaWFrki4C |url-status=live }}
] parties are among the strongest political parties in ].<ref>Laqueur, Walter, ''Fascism: Past, Present, Future'', p. 5</ref> The success of the far right in Austria has not been the result of economic crisis or social conflict, but primarily of political factors, including the failure of '']'' after World War II.<ref>Laqueur, Walter, ''Fascism: Past, Present, Future'', p. 117</ref>
* {{cite web |url=https://www.döw.at/english/right/englre.html |title=Right-Wing Extremism in Austria: History, Organisations, Ideology |author=Brigitte Bailer-Galanda |author2=Wolfgang Neugebauer |quote=Right-wing extremism can be equated neither with Nazism nor with neo-Fascism or neo-Nazism. Neo-Nazism, a legal term, is understood as the attempt to propagate, in direct defiance of the law (Verbotsgesetz), Nazi ideology or measures such as the denial, playing-down, approval or justification of Nazi mass murder, especially the Holocaust. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117201946/https://www.xn--dw-fka.at/english/right/englre.html |archive-date=17 January 2012 |author-link=Brigitte Bailer-Galanda }}
* {{cite web |url=https://www.martinfrost.ws/htmlfiles/neonazism1.html |title=Neo Nazism |author=Martin Frost |quote=The term neo-Nazism refers to any social or political movement seeking to revive National Socialism, and which postdates the Second World War. Often, especially internationally, those who are part of such movements do not use the term to describe themselves. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071027053134/https://www.martinfrost.ws/htmlfiles/neonazism1.html |archive-date=27 October 2007 }}
* Lee, Martin A. 1997. ''The Beast Reawakens''. Boston: Little, Brown and Co, pp. 85–118, 214–34, 277–81, 287–330, 333–78. On ''Volk'' concept, and a discussion of ethnonationalist integralism, see pp. 215–18</ref><ref>* {{cite web |url=https://www.holocaust-education.dk/eftertid/nynazisme.asp |title=Neo-Nazism |access-date=2007-12-08 |author1=Peter Vogelsang |author2=Brian B. M. Larsen |year=2002 |publisher=The Danish Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies |quote=Neo-Nazism is the name for a modern offshoot of Nazism. It is a radically right-wing ideology, whose main characteristics are extreme nationalism and violent xenophobia. Neo-Nazism is, as the word suggests, a modern version of Nazism. In general, it is an incoherent right-extremist ideology, which is characterised by 'borrowing' many of the elements that constituted traditional Nazism. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071109212637/https://www.holocaust-education.dk/eftertid/nynazisme.asp |archive-date=9 November 2007 }}
* {{cite web |url=https://czechkid.eu/si1310.html |title=Neo-Nazism |access-date=2007-12-08 |author1=Ondřej Cakl |author2=Klára Kalibová |year=2002 |publisher=Faculty of Humanities at Charles University in Prague, Department of Civil Society Studies |quote=Neo-Nazism: An ideology which draws upon the legacy of the Nazi Third Reich, the main pillars of which are an admiration for Adolf Hitler, aggressive nationalism ("nothing but the nation"), and hatred of Jews, foreigners, ethnic minorities, homosexuals and everyone who is different in some way. |archive-date=26 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226110257/https://czechkid.eu/si1310.html |url-status=live }}</ref>


The term 'neo-Nazism' can also refer to the ideology of these movements, which may borrow elements from Nazi doctrine, including ], ], racism, ], ], ], ], up to initiating the ]. ] is a common feature, as is the incorporation of ] and admiration of ].
The major postwar far right party was the Austrian ], until it was banned in 1988 for violating Austria's anti-Nazi legislation, ].<ref>{{cite book | author = Brigitte Bailer-Galanda | chapter = 'Revisionism' in Germany and Austria: The Evolution of a Doctrine | title = Antisemitism and Xenophobia in Germany After Unification | editor = Hermann Kurthen, Werner Bergmann, & Rainer Erb | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1997 | isbn = 0195104854 | page = 188}}</ref> The ] (FPÖ) served as a shelter for ex-Nazis almost from its inception. In 1980, scandals undermined Austria's two main parties, and the economy stagnated. ] became leader of the FPÖ and offered partial justification for ], calling its employment policy effective. In 1994, the FPÖ won 33 percent of the vote in ] and 22 percent in Vienna, showing that it had become a force capable of reversing the old pattern of Austrian politics. In the ], the FPÖ won 22 percent of the vote.<ref>Laqueur, Walter, ''Fascism: Past, Present, Future'', pp. 80, 116, 117</ref>


Neo-Nazism is considered a particular form of ] and right-wing extremism.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180616001922/https://www.verfassungsschutz.de/en/fields-of-work/right-wing-extremism/what-is-right-wing-extremism |date=16 June 2018 }} Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz, n.d., retrieved 4 December 2017 (in English)</ref>
Historian Walter Laqueur writes that even though Haider welcomed former Nazis at his meetings and went out of his way to address ] (SS) veterans, the FPÖ is not a fascist party in the traditional sense, since it has not made ] an important issue, and does not advocate the overthrow of the democratic order or the use of violence. In his view, the FPÖ is "not quite fascist", although it is part of a tradition, similar to that of 19th century Viennese mayor ], that involves nationalism, xenophobic populism, and authoritarianism.<ref>Laqueur, Walter, ''Fascism: Past, Present, Future'', p. 117-118</ref> Professor ], however, identified the FPÖ as neo-Nazi in a BBC world lecture.<ref>http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/people/features/world_lectures/mazrui_lect.shtml</ref>


=== Hyperborean racial doctrine ===
Haider, who in 2005 left the Freedom Party and formed the ], was killed in a traffic accident in October, 2008.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7664846.stm | work=BBC News | title=Austria's Haider dies in accident | date=2008-10-11 | accessdate=2010-05-20}}</ref> The Freedom Party's current leader, ], is controversial for having made allegedly pro-Nazi statements.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8634796.stm | work=BBC News | title=Austria spooked by Nazi past in election | date=2010-04-23 | accessdate=2010-05-20}}</ref> Rosenkranz is married to ], a key member of a banned neo-Nazi party, and a man known for publishing far-right books. Rosenkranz says she sees nothing dishonourable" in her husband's behavior.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/reich-mother-on-the-march-in-hitlers-homeland-1953005.html | work=The Independent | location=London | title=Reich mother on the march in Hitler's homeland | date=2010-04-24 | accessdate=2010-05-20}}</ref>
{{See also|Esoteric Nazism}}
Neo-Nazi writers have posited a spiritual, esoteric doctrine of ], which moves beyond the primarily ]-inspired materialist ] popular mainly in the ] during the 20th century. Figures influential in the development of neo-Nazi racism,{{Citation needed|reason=Citation needed for 'influential in the development of neo-Nazi racism', as our only current cited source (Southern Poverty Law Center, 2015) presents them as influential on the 'bizarre fringes' of Nazism, but racism is central to Nazism, not just part of its fringe|date=October 2018}} such as ] and ] (writers who are described by critics of Nazism such as the ] as influential within what it presents as parts of "the bizarre fringes of National Socialism, past and present"),<ref name=2015-02-08>{{cite news|url=https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/intelligence-report/2002/new-book-black-sun-looks-fringes-national-socialism|publisher=Southern Poverty Law Center|title=New Book, Black Sun, Looks at Fringes of National Socialism|date=8 February 2015|access-date=28 June 2017|archive-date=24 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201124155901/https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/intelligence-report/2002/new-book-black-sun-looks-fringes-national-socialism|url-status=live}}</ref> claim that the ] ancestors of the ] were in the distant past, far higher beings than their current state, having suffered from "involution" due to mixing with the "Telluric" peoples; supposed creations of the ]. Within this theory, if the "Aryans" are to return to the ] of the distant past, they need to awaken the memory of the blood. An ] origin of the Hyperboreans is often claimed. These theories draw influence from ] and ], building on the work of the ]. Within this racist theory, Jews are held up as the antithesis of nobility, purity and beauty.


=== Ecology and environmentalism ===
The volume ''Rechtsextremismus in Österreich seit 1945'' (Right-wing Extremism in Austria since 1945), issued by DÖW in 1979, listed nearly 50 active far right organizations in Austria. Their influence waned gradually, partly due to liberalization programs in secondary schools and universities that emphasized Austrian identity and democratic traditions. Votes for the RFS{{who|date=April 2011}} in student elections fell from 30% in the 1960s to 2% in 1987. In the 1995 elections for the student representative body Österreichische Hochschülerschaft, the RFS got 4% of the vote. The FPÖ won 22% of the votes at the General Election in the same year.<ref>Brigitte Bailer-Galanda/Wolfgang Neugebauer. (1996). 'Incorrigibly Right – Right-Wing Extremists, "Revisionists" and Anti-Semites in Austrian Politics Today'. Vienna-New York.</ref>
Neo-Nazism generally aligns itself with a ] variation of environmentalism, which has themes in common with ], the ] and ].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.dw.com/en/neo-nazis-cloak-themselves-in-eco-rhetoric/a-15793310|publisher=DW|title=Neo-Nazis cloak themselves in eco-rhetoric|date=8 February 2015|access-date=29 June 2017|archive-date=15 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180815131552/https://www.dw.com/en/neo-nazis-cloak-themselves-in-eco-rhetoric/a-15793310|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.redpepper.org.uk/darker-shades-of-green/|publisher=Red Pepper|title=Darker Shades of Green|date=8 February 2015|access-date=29 June 2017|archive-date=15 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180615190702/https://www.redpepper.org.uk/darker-shades-of-green/|url-status=live}}</ref> This tendency, sometimes called "]", was represented in the original German Nazism by ] who was the ] from 1933 until 1942.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.spunk.org/texts/places/germany/sp001630/peter.html|publisher=Peter Staudenmaier|title=Fascist Ecology: The "Green Wing" of the Nazi Party and its Historical Antecedents|date=8 February 2015|access-date=29 June 2017|archive-date=29 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180829023614/https://www.spunk.org/texts/places/germany/sp001630/peter.html|url-status=live}}</ref>


==Belgium== == History ==
=== Germany and Austria, 1945–1950s ===
{{Main|Bloed-Bodem-Eer en Trouw}}
Following the defeat of ], the political ideology of the ruling party, Nazism, was in complete disarray. The final leader of the ] (NSDAP) was ]. He died on 2 May 1945 during the ], but the ] did not reveal his death to the rest of the world, and his ultimate fate remained a mystery for many years. ], that he had secretly survived the war and fled to South America or elsewhere.
A Belgian neo-Nazi organization, ] (Blood, Land, Honour and Faithfulness), was created in 2004 after splitting from the international network (]). The group rose to public prominence in September 2006, after 17 members (including 11 soldiers) were arrested under the December 2003 ] and laws against ], ] and ]. According to Justice Minister ] and Interior Minister ], the suspects (11 of whom were members of the military) were preparing terrorist attacks in order to "destabilize" ].<ref>, ], 8 September 2006 {{fr icon}}</ref><ref>, '']'', 13 September 2006 {{fr icon}}</ref> According to journalist Manuel Abramowicz, of the network, the ultras of the radical right have always had as its aim to "infiltrate the state mechanisms," including the army in the 1970s and the 1980s, through ] and the ].<ref>, '']'', Jeudi 7 septembre 2006 {{fr icon}}</ref>


The ] officially dissolved the NSDAP on 10 October 1945, marking the end of "Old" Nazism. A process of ] began, and the ] took place, where many major leaders and ideologues were condemned to death by October 1946, others committed suicide.
A police operation, which mobilized 150 agents, searched five military barracks (in ] near the Dutch border: Kleine-Brogel, ], ] (Royal military school) and ]– as well as 18 private addresses in ]. They found weapons, munitions, explosives, and a homemade bomb large enough to make "a car explode." The leading suspect, B.T., was organizing the trafficking of weapons, and was developing international links, in particular with the Dutch far right movement De Nationale Alliantie.<ref>, '']'', 8 septembre 2006 {{fr icon}}</ref><ref>, ], 7 septembre 2006 {{fr icon}}</ref><ref>, ] Belgique, 8 septembre 2006 {{fr icon}}</ref><ref>, ], September 8, 2006 {{fr icon}}</ref><ref>, AFP, September 8, 2006. {{fr icon}}</ref><ref>, '']'', September 8, 2006 {{fr icon}}</ref>


], {{lang|de|]}} general and leader of the postwar ]]]
==Bosnia and Herzegovina==
In both the East and West, surviving ex-party members and military veterans assimilated to the new reality and had no interest in constructing a "neo-Nazism".{{Citation needed|date=December 2017}} However, during the ] a number of Nazi advocates such as ] had infiltrated the ] '']'', which had five members elected. Rössler and others left to found the more radical ] (SRP) under ]. At the onset of the ], the SRP favoured the Soviet Union over the United States.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}}
The neo-Nazi organization Bosanski Pokret Nacionalnog Ponosa (Bosnian Movement of National Pride) was founded in ] in February 2010. Their model is the ]. They proclaimed "], ], ], the ], ], ], ] and ]" as their main enemies.<ref></ref>


In ], national independence had been restored, and the {{lang|de|]}} explicitly criminalised the NSDAP and any attempt at restoration. ] adopted a similar law to target parties it defined as anti-constitutional; Article 21 Paragraph 2 in the ], banning the SRP in 1952 for being opposed to ].
==Chile==
Some neo-Nazis in ] derive their ideology from the writings of ], while others follow an orthodox Nazi ideology influenced by ] and German Nazis who fled to the country after ]. Traditional Nazism is more common among descendants of German or other European immigrants in southern Chile. Common targets of neo-Nazi hate crimes in Chile include ]s, ]ns, ], homosexuals and ].


As a consequence, some members of the nascent movement of German neo-Nazism joined the {{lang|de|Deutsche Reichspartei}} of which ] was the most prominent figure. Younger members founded the {{lang|de|]}} modelled after the ]. The {{lang|de|Deutsche Reichspartei}} stood for elections from 1953 until 1961 fetching around 1% of the vote each time.{{Citation needed|date=December 2017}} Rudel befriended French-born ], who was a proponent of ]. In the 1950s she wrote a number of books, such as '']'' (1958), which concerns prominent ] sites, and '']'' (1958), in which she claims that Adolf Hitler was an avatar of the God ]. She was not alone in this reorientation of Nazism towards its ]-roots; the {{lang|de|]}}, founded by former SS member Wilhelm Kusserow, attempted to promote a new ].{{Citation needed|date=December 2017}}
The approach influenced by Palacios elevates the Chilean ] in status, since he considered the "Chilean race" a mix of two bellicose master races: the ]s of Spain and the ] of Chile. He traced the origins of the Spanish component of the Chilean race to the coast of the ], specifically to ] in ], one of the supposed ]s of the ].<ref> ]</ref> Palacios claimed that both the blonde and the bronze coloured Chilean Mestizo share a "moral physonomy", and that both think and reason in an identical way. He opposed immigration from ], and argued on medical grounds that Mestizos derived from south Europeans lack "cerebral control", and are a social load.
In the ] (East Germany) a former member of ], ], founded the ]. It reached out to those attracted by the Nazi Party before 1945 and provide them with a political outlet, so that they would not be tempted to support the far-right again or turn to the anti-communist Western Allies.{{Citation needed|date=December 2017}} ] wanted to use them to create a new pro-Soviet and anti-Western strain in German politics.<ref name=":0a">{{Cite book|last=Zubok, V. M. (Vladislav Martinovich)|title=A failed empire: the Soviet Union in the Cold War from Stalin to Gorbachev|date=2007|publisher=University of North Carolina Press|isbn=978-0-8078-3098-7|location=Chapel Hill|pages=89–90|oclc=86090559}}</ref> According to top Soviet diplomat Vladimir Semyonov, Stalin even suggested that they could be allowed to continue publishing their own newspaper, ].<ref name=":0a" /> While in Austria, former SS member Wilhelm Lang founded an esoteric group known as the ]; he popularised ] such as the ] and ideas of Third Reich survival colonies below the polar ice caps.{{Citation needed|date=December 2017}}


], leader of the ], returned from exile to Germany in the mid-1950s.]]
==Croatia==
With the onset of the ], the allied forces had lost interest in prosecuting anyone as part of the denazification.<ref name="Evans-2008">{{cite book |last=Evans |first=Richard J. |author-link=Richard J. Evans |year=2008 |title=The Third Reich at War |url=https://archive.org/details/thirdreichatwar00evan_0 |url-access=registration |series=The Third Reich Trilogy |publisher=Penguin Books |pages= |isbn=978-0-14-311671-4}}</ref> In the mid-1950s this new political environment allowed ], an NS activist on the left of the NSDAP, who had founded the ] to return from exile. In 1956, Strasser founded the ] as a Black Front successor, promoting a ] "nationalist and socialist" policy, which dissolved in 1962 due to lack of support. Other Third Reich associated groups were the ] and ] dedicated to advancing the interests of ] veterans and rehabilitating them into the new democratic society. However, they did not claim to be attempting to restore Nazism, instead functioning as lobbying organizations for their members before the government and the two main political parties (the conservative ] and the Nazis' one-time archenemies, the ])
{{See also|Far right in Croatia}}
Neo-Nazis in ] base their ideology on the writings of ] and ], and on ], a fascist anti-Yugoslav separatist movement.<ref>"Blood And Homeland": Eugenics And Racial Nationalism in Central And Southeast Europe, 1900–1940 edited by Marius Turda, Paul Weindling Published 2006 Central European University Press Rory Yeomans article: Of "Yugoslav Barbarians" and Croatian Gentlemen Scholars: Nationalist Ideology and Racial Anthropology in Interwar Yugoslavia</ref><ref>Nationalism and National Policy in Independent State of Croatia by Irina Ognyanova (1941–1945) </ref><ref>Genocide and Gross Human Rights Violations by Kurt Jonassohn, Karin Solveig Björnson Transaction Publishers 1998, page 279
<br />
To further legitimize the claim that Croats constituted a distinct nation, entitled to their own state, Starcevic revived archaic usages and invented new words to artificially separate a Croatian literary language from the common Serbo-Croatian linguistic stock. It is interesting to note that Starcevic's ideas were later advocated by Ante Pavelic and the Ustashi
</ref><ref>Croatia: A Nation Forged in War by Marcus Tanner, Yale University Press 1997, Page 106: <br />Pavelic claimed Starcevic was the spiritual father of the Ustashe-run Independent State of Croatia (NDH)</ref> At the end of ], many of Pavelić's Ustaše members fled to ], where they found sanctuary and continued their ] and ] activities (which were tolerated because of ] hostilities).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jasenovac-info.com/cd/biblioteka/pavelicpapers/pavelic/ap0011.html |title=jasenovac-info.com |publisher=jasenovac-info.com |date= |accessdate=2009-11-03}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> The resurgence of the Ustaše movement in post-war Croatia is partly due to significant financial support of the ] by Ustaše emigrants.<ref>http://taylorandfrancis.metapress.com/index/DGB4V0MCGNFLU49E.pdf</ref> Jonathan Levy, a lawyer who represented plaintiffs in a 1999 lawsuit against the Ustaše and others, said: "Many are still terrified of the Ustashe, the ] particularly. Unlike the ], the Ustashe still exist and have a party headquarters in ]." <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.christusrex.org/www1/news/haaretz-1-15-06a.html |title=War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity |publisher=Christusrex.org |date= |accessdate=2009-11-03}}</ref>


Many bureaucrats who served under the Third Reich continued to serve in German administration after the war. According to the ], many of the more than 90,000 Nazi war criminals recorded in German files were serving in positions of prominence under Chancellor ].<ref name="Simon Wiesenthal Center">{{cite web |url=https://www.wiesenthal.com/site/pp.asp?c=lsKWLbPJLnF&b=4441293 |title=About Simon Wiesenthal |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |year=2013 |website=Simon Wiesenthal Center |access-date=17 November 2013 |at=Section 11 |archive-date=26 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220326215654/https://www.wiesenthal.com/site/pp.asp?c=lsKWLbPJLnF&b=4441293 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Hartmann">{{cite web |url=https://www.sopos.org/aufsaetze/4bdfd55e42f57/1.phtml |title=Der Alibiprozeß |publisher=Ossietzky 9/2010 |work=Den Aufsatz kommentieren |year=2010 |access-date=19 November 2013 |last=Hartmann |first=Ralph |language=de |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202222254/https://www.sopos.org/aufsaetze/4bdfd55e42f57/1.phtml |archive-date=2 December 2013}}</ref> Not until the 1960s were the former concentration camp personnel prosecuted by ] in the ], ], ], ], and the ].<ref name="Rückerl-1972">{{Cite book |last=Rückerl |first=Adalbert |year=1972 |title=NS-Prozesse |publisher=Verlag C F Muller |location=Karlsruhe, Germany |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K23zAAAAMAAJ&q=Treblinka |access-date=8 September 2013 |quote=Adalbert Rückerl, head of the Central Bureau for the Prosecution of National Socialist Crimes observed that because of the 1968 Dreher's amendment (§ 50 StGB), 90% of all Nazi war criminals in Germany enjoyed total immunity from prosecution. |page=132 |isbn=978-3788020156 |archive-date=4 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220304125116/https://books.google.com/books?id=K23zAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> However, the government had passed laws prohibiting Nazis from publicly expressing their beliefs.
There have been instances of ] in Croatia, such as the phrase ] (meaning "hang Serbs on the ] trees!"). In 2004, for example, an Orthodox church was ]ed with pro-Ustaše graffiti.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.index.hr/clanak.aspx?id=279919 |title=Zbog srpskih tablica vandali Mađarima uništili kuću - Vijesti.net |publisher=Index.hr |date= |accessdate=2009-11-03}}</ref><ref>http://www.spc.org.yu/Vesti-2004/04/28-4-04-e01.html#usta</ref> Police have sped up responses to the appearance of extreme ] graffiti and other hate-based vandalism.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.index.hr/clanak.aspx?id=253042 |title=Mursko Središće: policija traga za autorima grafita na zgradi Poglavarstva - Vijesti.net |publisher=Index.hr |date= |accessdate=2009-11-03}}</ref> During some protests in Croatia, supporters of ] and other suspected ] have carried ] symbols and pictures of Ante Pavelić.<ref></ref>


=== "Universal National Socialism", 1950s–1970s ===
In 2003, an attempt was made to amend the Croatian ] by adding articles prohibiting the public display of Nazi symbols, the propagation of Nazi ideology, ] and ]. However, this attempt was prevented by the Croatian ]al court in the same year.<ref></ref> An amendment was added in 2006 to prohibit any type of ] based on factors such as ], ], ], ], ] or ]al origin.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nn.hr/clanci/sluzbeno/2006/1706.htm |title=71 28.6.2006 Zakon o izmjenama i dopunama Kaznenog zakona |publisher=Nn.hr |date=2006-06-28 |accessdate=2009-11-03}}</ref> In 2007, ]n authorities launched a criminal investigation into the widespread display of Ustaše symbols at the May 12 gathering of Croatian nationalists in ], Austria.<ref>Wiesenthal Center Welcomes Opening of Investigation by Austrian Authorities of the Display of Fascist Ustasha Symbols at Recent Bleiburg Gathering </ref><ref>Austrija pokrenula istragu o ustaskim obiljezjima u Bleiburgu ('''Croatian''')</ref>


{{more citations needed section|date=May 2022}}
On May 17, 2007, a concert in ] by '']'', a popular Croatian singer, was attended by 60,000 people, many of them wearing Ustaše uniforms. Some gave Ustaše salutes and shouted the Ustaše slogan "]" (for the homeland – ready!). This event prompted the ] office of the ] to publicly issue a protest to the Croatian president, ].<ref>Zuroff Mesiću: Gnušamo se ustaških simbola na Thompsonovu koncertu ('''Croatian''')</ref><ref>Margelov institut traži opoziv ministra Kirina zbog Thompsonovog koncerta ('''Croatian''')</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.suntimes.co.za/News/Article.aspx?id=496261 |title=Nazi hunters slam singer’s concert |publisher=Suntimes.co.za |date=1970-01-01 |accessdate=2009-11-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Lefkovits |first=Etgar |url=http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1181813065577&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull |title=Nazi hunter raps 'fascist' Croatian rock concert |publisher=Jpost.com |date= |accessdate=2009-11-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ejpress.org/article/17594 |title=Jews slam Croatia's failure to condemn 'Nazi' concert |publisher=Ejpress.org |date=2007-06-19 |accessdate=2009-11-03}}</ref>


Neo-Nazism found expression outside of Germany, including in countries who fought against the Third Reich during the Second World War, and sometimes adopted ] or "universal" characteristics, beyond the parameters of ].{{Citation needed|date=December 2017}} The two main tendencies, with differing styles and even worldviews, were the followers of the American ], who was fundamentally ] and advocated for a ], and those of ], an ].<ref group= "nb">Some of the fascistic old-guard from the pre-war ultra-nationalist movements were more skeptical of the benefits of the Rockwell-Jordan uniform scene. ] of the ] described Jordan as, "a midget trying to walk in the boots of giants." Meanwhile, Yockeyism leaned more to the left than the "official" fascistic Pan-Europeanism of those which would become the ]. The latter associated with Mosley, ] and others upheld a strictly "neither East, nor West", third position in regards to Soviet and American power.</ref>{{Citation needed|date=December 2017}}
==Estonia==
There have been alleged neo-Nazi activities in ]. In November 2006, the government passed a law banning the display of ].<ref>] 26 January 2007: by ]</ref>


Yockey, a neo-Spenglerian author, had written '']'' (1949) dedicated to "the hero of the twentieth century" (namely, Adolf Hitler) and founded the ]. He was interested more in the destiny of Europe; to this end, he advocated a ]-esque ] against ] and influenced 1960s figures such as SS-veteran ]. Yockey was also fond of ], in particular ], and saw ]'s ] as a positive, visiting officials there. Yockey's views impressed Otto Ernst Remer and the radical traditionalist philosopher ]. He was constantly hounded by the ] and was eventually arrested in 1960, before committing suicide. Domestically, Yockey's biggest sympathisers were the ], including ], ] and ] ({{lang|fr|protégé}} of ]) and the ] of ].{{Citation needed|date=December 2017}}
In 2006, Roman Ilin, a ]ish theatre director from ], was attacked by neo-Nazis when returning from an underground tunnel after a rehearsal. Ilin subsequently accused Estonian police of indifference after filing the incident.<ref> UCSJ: Union of Councils for Jews in the Former Soviet Union. 26 April 2006. Retrieved 6 June 2009.</ref> When a dark-skinned ] student was attacked in ], the head of an association of foreign students claimed the attack as characteristic of a wave of neo-Nazi violence. However an Estonian police official stated that there were only a few cases involving foreign students over the previous two years.<ref> Human Rights First. 2008. Retrieved 6 June 2009.</ref>


Rockwell, an American conservative, was first politicised in the ] and anti-] movements before becoming anti-Jewish. In response to his opponents calling him a "Nazi", he theatrically appropriated the aesthetic elements of the NSDAP, to "own" the intended insult. In 1959, Rockwell founded the ] and instructed his members to dress in imitation ]-style brown shirts, while flying the flag of the Third Reich. In contrast to Yockey, he was pro-American and cooperated with FBI requests, despite the party being targeted by ] due to the mistaken belief that they were agents of Nasser's Egypt during a brief intelligence "brown scare".<ref group= "nb">While the intelligence claims in regards to the Rockwell's American costume group proved unfounded, a number of actual German Nazis did relocate to the Middle East, some converted to Islam and changed their names; particularly Egypt and Syria. This includes ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and others. The father of Neo-Nazism, Otto Ernst Remer, also fled to Egypt, then Syria during the 1950s.</ref> Later leaders of American ] came to politics through the ANP, including a teenage ] and ] of the ], although they soon distanced themselves from explicit self-identification with neo-Nazism.{{Citation needed|date=December 2017}}
The ] Special Rapporteur's Report of 2008 noted that non-governmental organizations devoted to human rights as well as community representatives had pointed out that neo-Nazi groups are currently active in Estonia—particularly in Tartu—and have perpetrated acts of violence against non-European minorities.<ref> 25–28 September 2008. Universal Human Rights Index. Retrieved 3 September 2009.</ref>


In 1961, the ] was founded by Rockwell and ] of the British ], adopting the ''].'' French socialite ] was involved romantically with Jordan and his deputy ] and a friend of Savitri Devi, who also attended the meeting. The National Socialist Movement wore quasi-SA uniforms, was involved in streets conflicts with the Jewish ]. In the 1970s, Tyndall's earlier involvement with neo-Nazism would come back to haunt the ], which he led, as they attempted to ride a wave of anti-immigration populism and concerns over British national decline. Televised exposes on '']'' in 1974 and '']'' in 1978, showed their neo-Nazi pedigree and damaged their electoral chances. In 1967, Rockwell was killed by a disgruntled former member. ] took control of the ANP, and strongly influenced by Savitri Devi, gradually transformed it into an esoteric group known as the ].{{Citation needed|date=December 2017}}
Parliamentary bodies of the member states of ]'s geopolitical group Eurasia (comprising Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russian Federation, and Tajikistan)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ipu.org/strct-e/geopol.htm#Eurasia|title=Geopolitical groups|publisher=Inter-Parliamentary Union|accessdate=27 December 2009}}</ref> passed a resolution in 2007, in response to the relocation of a ] by the Government, expressing their collective "deep concern over the neo-Nazi sentiments in Estonia."<ref> National Assembly of the Council of the Republic of Belarus. 30 April 2007. Retrieved 6 June 2009.</ref>


In ], certain SS refugees most notably ], ] and the son of ] became associated with ] (''Círculo Español de Amigos de Europa''), an organisation which disseminated Third Reich apologetics out of ]. They intersected with neo-Nazi advocates from ] in France to ] in Mexico.
Neo-Nazi groups in Estonia and neighboring Latvia have staged parades celebrating the Nazi units of the Baltic states, which fought against the forces of the Soviet Union in the Second World War.<ref> STRATFOR Global Intelligence. 27 August 2008. Retrieved 3 September 2009.</ref> ] of the United States-based ] commented on some of the attendees: "dozens of foreign neo-Nazis clearly the danger that they will encourage the rebirth of fascism and racist extremism."<ref> European Jewish Press. 8 August 2007. Retrieved 6 June 2009.</ref>
In the post-fascist ] splinter groups such as ] and ], involved in the "]" considered Nazism a reference. ] created a "]" synthesis.


In Germany itself, the various Third Reich nostalgic movements coalesced around the ] in 1964 and in Austria the ] in 1967 as the primary sympathisers of the NSDAP past, although more publicly cautious than earlier groups.{{Citation needed|date=December 2017}}
==France==

=== Holocaust denial and subcultures, 1970s–1990s ===
], the claim that ] were not deliberately and systematically exterminated as an official policy of the Third Reich and Adolf Hitler, became a more prominent feature of neo-Nazism in the 1970s. Before this time, Holocaust denial had long existed as a sentiment among neo-Nazis, but it had not yet been systematically articulated as a theory with a bibliographical canon. Few of the major theorists of Holocaust denial (who call themselves "]") can be uncontroversially classified as outright neo-Nazis (though some works such as those of ] forward a clearly sympathetic view of Hitler and the publisher ] was deeply tied to international neo-Nazism), however, the main interest of Holocaust denial to neo-Nazis was their hope that it would help them rehabilitate their political ideology in the eyes of the general public. '']'' (1974) by ] and '']'' (1976) by ] are popular examples of Holocaust denial material.
] in the 1970s energised international neo-Nazism.]]

Key developments in international neo-Nazism during this time include the radicalisation of the {{lang|nl|]}} under former ] member ]. They began hosting an annual conference; the "Iron Pilgrimage"; at ], which drew kindred ideologues from across Europe and beyond. As well as this, the ] under ] arose in the United States in 1972 and challenged the international influence of the Rockwellite WUNS. Lauck's organisation drew support from the ] of ] and various German and Austrian figures who felt that the "National Democratic" parties were too bourgeois and insufficiently Nazi in orientation. This included ], ], ] and ] of the 1977-founded ] which called for the establishment of a Germanic ]. Some ANS/NS members were imprisoned for planning paramilitary attacks on ] bases in Germany and planning to liberate ] from ]. The organisation was officially banned in 1983 by the Minister of the Interior.

During the late 1970s, a British subculture came to be associated with neo-Nazism; the ]. Portraying an ultra-masculine, crude and aggressive image, with working-class references, some of the skinheads joined the ] under ] (successor of ]), while others became associated with the National Front's ] project which was meant to counter the ]'s ]. The most significant music group involved in this project was ], led by ]. Together with ex-BM member ], Donaldson founded the international ] network in 1987. By 1992 this network, with input from ], had developed a paramilitary wing; ], which intersected with ] firms such as the ]. The neo-Nazi skinhead movement spread to the United States, with groups such as the ]. It was popularised from 1986 onwards by ] of the ]. Since then it has spread across the world. Films such as '']'' (1992) and '']'' (1998) would fix a public perception that ] were synonymous.

]", a symbol found at SS-cult site ].]]
New developments also emerged on the esoteric level, as former Chilean diplomat ] built on the works of ], ], ], ] and ] to bind together and develop already existing theories. Serrano had been a member of the ] in the 1930s and from the early days of neo-Nazism, he had been in contact with key figures across Europe and beyond. Despite this, he was able to work as an ambassador to numerous countries until the rise of ]. In 1984 he published his book ''Adolf Hitler: The Ultimate Avatar''. Serrano claimed that the Aryans were extragalactic beings who founded ] and lived the heroic life of ], while the Jews were created by the ] and were concerned only with coarse ]. Serrano claimed that a new ] can be attained if the Hyperboreans repurify their blood (supposedly the light of the Black Sun) and restore their "]." As with Savitri Devi before him, Serrano's works became a key point of reference in neo-Nazism.

=== Lifting of the Iron Curtain, 1990s–present ===
With the fall of the ] and the ] during the early 1990s, neo-Nazism began to spread its ideas in the East, as hostility to the triumphant liberal order was high and ] a widespread feeling. In Russia, during the chaos of the early 1990s, an amorphous mixture of ] hardliners, Orthodox neo-Tsarist nostalgics (i.e., ]) and explicit neo-Nazis found themselves strewn together in the same camp. They were united by opposition to the influence of the United States, against the liberalising legacy of ]'s {{transliteration|ru|]}} and on the ], ] merged with a more explicit anti-Jewish sentiment. The most significant organisation representing this was ] under the leadership of ], where black-uniform clad Russians marched with a red flag incorporating the ] under the banner of ''].'' These forces came together in a last gasp effort to save the ] against ] during the ]. As well as events in Russia, in newly independent ex-Soviet states, annual commemorations for SS volunteers now took place; particularly in ], ] and ].

]. "Nazbols" tailor ultra-nationalist themes to a native Russian environment while still employing Nazi aesthetics.]]
The Russian developments excited German neo-Nazism who dreamed of a ]–Moscow alliance against the supposedly "decadent" ] forces; a dream which had been thematic since the days of Remer.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}} Zündel visited Russia and met with ex-KGB general Aleksandr Stergilov and other Russian National Unity members. Despite these initial aspirations, international neo-Nazism and its close affiliates in ultra-nationalism would be split over the ] between 1992 and 1995, as part of the ]. The split would largely be along ethnic and sectarian lines. The Germans and the French would largely back the Western Catholic ] (Lauck's NSDAP/AO explicitly ], which Kühnen's ] answered and the French formed the "Groupe ]"), while the Russians and the Greeks would back the Orthodox ] (including Russians from Barkashov's Russian National Unity, ]'s ] and ] members joined the ]). Indeed, the revival of ] was able to steal some of the thunder from overt Russian neo-Nazism, as ultra-nationalism was wedded with veneration of ] in place of Adolf Hitler, while still also flirting with Nazi aesthetics.

== Analogous European movements ==
Outside Germany, in other countries which were involved with the ] and had their own native ultra-nationalist movements, which sometimes collaborated with the Third Reich but were not technically German-style National Socialists, revivalist and nostalgic movements have emerged in the post-war period which, as neo-Nazism has done in Germany, seek to rehabilitate their various loosely associated ideologies. These movements include ] and ] in Italy; Vichyites, Pétainists and "national Europeans" in France; ] sympathisers in ]; neo-] in Serbia; ] revivalists in ]; ] and ] in Hungary and others.<ref>Lõwy, Michael (1998) {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806190931/https://books.google.com/books?id=-gIOBkCDlZMC&lpg=PA66&ots=u5924_NLGc&dq=%22neo-chetniks%22%20%22neo-Nazis%22&pg=PA66#v=onepage&q=%22neo-chetniks%22%20%22neo-Nazis%22&f=false |date=6 August 2020 }} Pluto Press. pp. 65–66 {{isbn|978-0745313436}}</ref>

== Issues ==
=== Ex-Nazis in mainstream politics ===
] and the ] caused an international incident.]]
The most significant case on an international level was the election of ] to the Presidency of Austria in 1986. It came to light that Waldheim had been a member of the ], the SA and served as an intelligence officer during the Second World War. Following this he served as an Austrian diplomat and was the ] from 1972 until 1981. After revelations of Waldheim's past were made by an Austrian journalist, Waldheim clashed with the ] on the international stage. Waldheim's record was defended by ], an Austrian Jew who served as Chancellor of Austria. The legacy of the affair lingers on, as ] has claimed the ] doctored the file of Waldheim to implicate him in war crimes.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}}

=== Contemporary right-wing populism ===
Some critics have sought to draw a connection between Nazism and modern ] in Europe, but the two are not widely regarded as interchangeable by most academics. In Austria, the ] (FPÖ) served as a shelter for ex-Nazis almost from its inception.<ref name="Fuchs">{{cite book |last=Fuchs|first=Christian |editor-last=Morelock |editor-first=Jeremiah |title=Critical Theory and Authoritarian Populism |publisher=University of Westminster Press |date=2018 |page=165 |chapter=Racism, Nationalism and Right-Wing Extremism Online: The Austrian Presidential Election 2016 on Facebook |isbn=978-1-912656-04-2}}</ref> In 1980, scandals undermined Austria's two main parties and the economy stagnated. ] became leader of the FPÖ and offered partial justification for ], calling its employment policy effective. In the ], the FPÖ won 22 percent of the vote, as well as 33 percent of the vote in ] and 22 percent in Vienna; showing that it had become a force capable of reversing the old pattern of Austrian politics.<ref>Laqueur, Walter, ''Fascism: Past, Present, Future'', pp. 80, 116, 117</ref>

Historian ] writes that even though Haider welcomed former Nazis at his meetings and went out of his way to address ] (SS) veterans, the FPÖ is not a fascist party in the traditional sense, since it has not made ] an important issue, and it does not advocate the overthrow of the democratic order or the use of violence. In his view, the FPÖ is "not quite fascist", although it is part of a tradition, similar to that of 19th-century Viennese mayor ], which involves ], xenophobic populism, and authoritarianism.<ref>Laqueur, Walter, ''Fascism: Past, Present, Future'', pp. 117–18</ref> Haider, who in 2005 left the Freedom Party and formed the ], was killed in a traffic accident in October 2008.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7664846.stm | publisher=BBC News | title=Austria's Haider dies in accident | date=2008-10-11 | access-date=2010-05-20 | archive-date=12 July 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180712185019/https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7664846.stm | url-status=live }}</ref>

], the Freedom Party's candidate in ], was controversial for having made allegedly pro-Nazi statements.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8634796.stm | publisher=BBC News | title=Austria spooked by Nazi past in election | date=2010-04-23 | access-date=2010-05-20 | archive-date=26 April 2010 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100426205322/https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8634796.stm | url-status=live }}</ref> Rosenkranz is married to ], a key member of a banned neo-Nazi party, who is known for publishing far-right books. Rosenkranz says she cannot detect anything "dishonourable" in her husband's activities.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/reich-mother-on-the-march-in-hitlers-homeland-1953005.html | work=The Independent | location=London | title=Reich mother on the march in Hitler's homeland | date=2010-04-24 | access-date=2010-05-20 | archive-date=27 April 2010 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100427010909/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/reich-mother-on-the-march-in-hitlers-homeland-1953005.html | url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Around the world==
===Europe===
====Armenia====
The ] is a National Socialist movement in ]. It was founded in 2021 and supports ], Antisemitism, and White supremacy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://judaism.walla.co.il/item/3633204|title=בעיר הבירה: תנועה אנטישמית ארמנית צעדה עם דגלי נאצים - וואלה! יהדות|website=וואלה!|date=4 February 2024 }}</ref>

====Belgium====
{{Main|Bloed, Bodem, Eer en Trouw}}

A Belgian neo-Nazi organization, ] (Blood, Soil, Honour and Loyalty), was created in 2004 after splitting from the international network (]). The group rose to public prominence in September 2006, after 17 members (including 11 soldiers) were arrested under the December 2003 ] and laws against racism, ] and supporters of censorship. According to Justice Minister ] and Interior Minister ], the suspects (11 of whom were members of the military) were preparing to launch terrorist attacks in order to "destabilize" ].<ref>* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071212055603/https://www.lalibre.be/article.phtml?id=10&subid=90&art_id=305025 |date=12 December 2007 }}, '']'', 8 September 2006 {{in lang|fr}}
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070312223922/https://www.lesoir.be/actualite/belgique/2006/09/12/article__12_neonazis_en_chambre_du_conseil.shtml |date=12 March 2007 }}, '']'', 13 September 2006 {{in lang|fr}}</ref> According to the journalist Manuel Abramowicz, of the Resistances,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.resistances.be/network | title=Network }}{{Dead link|date=December 2017|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref> the extremists of the radical right have always had as its aim to "infiltrate the state mechanisms," including the army in the 1970s and the 1980s, through ] and the ].<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061014000647/https://www.lesoir.be/actualite/belgique/2006/09/08/article_hermes_469637.shtml |date=14 October 2006}}, '']'', 7 September 2006 {{in lang|fr}}</ref>

A police operation, which mobilized 150 agents, searched five military barracks (in ] near the Dutch border, Kleine-Brogel, ], Brussels (Royal military school) and ]) as well as 18 private addresses in ]. They found weapons, munitions, explosives and a homemade bomb large enough to make "a car explode". The leading suspect, B.T., was organizing the trafficking of weapons and was developing international links, in particular with the Dutch far-right movement ].<ref>* {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20110224061043/https://permanent.nouvelobs.com/europe/20060908.OBS1014.html |date=24 February 2011 }}, '']'', 8 September 2006 {{in lang|fr}}
* {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120604115911/https://www.lemonde.fr/web/article/0,1-0@2-3214,36-810816,0.html |date=4 June 2012 }}, '']'', 7 September 2006 {{in lang|fr}}
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070310190123/https://www.rtl.be/page/rtlinfo/articles/societearticle/227.aspx?articleid=63636 |date=10 March 2007 }}, ] Belgique, 8 September 2006 {{in lang|fr}}
* {{Dead link|date=July 2018|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}, ], 8 September 2006 {{in lang|fr}}
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210716155057/https://www.lorientlejour.com/article/539618/La_Belgique_decouvre%252C_stupefaite%252C_un_complot_neonazi_au_sein_de_son_armee.html |date=16 July 2021 }} AFP, 8 September 2006. {{in lang|fr}}
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080111001326/https://www.lemonde.fr/web/article/0,1-0@2-3214,36-810996@51-810817,0.html |date=11 January 2008 }}, '']'', 8 September 2006 {{in lang|fr}}</ref>

==== Bosnia and Herzegovina ====
The neo-Nazi ] organization Bosanski Pokret Nacionalnog Ponosa (]) was founded in ] in July 2009. Its model is the ] ], which was composed of ] volunteers.<ref>{{cite book |first=George |last=Lepre |title=Himmler's Bosnian Division: The Waffen-SS Handschar Division 1943–1945 |publisher=Schiffer Publishing |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-7643-0134-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rPZmAAAAMAAJ&q=lepre+george |ref=Lepre_1997 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=5 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805011359/https://books.google.com/books?id=rPZmAAAAMAAJ&q=lepre+george |url-status=live }}</ref> It proclaimed its main enemies to be "Jews, ], Serbian ], the ], ], ], homosexuals and ]".<ref>* {{cite web|url=https://www.bosanski-nacionalisti.com/|title=はげ対策|食事やシャンプーで薄毛抑制?!|育毛剤で元気な髪を|publisher=bosanski-nacionalisti.com|access-date=8 January 2012|archive-date=14 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114142201/https://www.bosanski-nacionalisti.com/|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite news|url=https://www.slobodnaevropa.org/content/neonacisti_bih/1956417.html|title=Osnovan Bosanski pokret nacionalnog ponosa|newspaper=Radio Slobodna Evropa|date=12 February 2010 |access-date=13 February 2010|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304054310/https://www.slobodnaevropa.org/content/neonacisti_bih/1956417.html|url-status=live|last1=Arnautović |first1=Marija }}</ref> Its ideology is a mixture of ], ] and ]. It says "Ideologies that are not welcome in Bosnia are: Zionism, Islamism, communism, capitalism. The only ideology good for us is Bosnian nationalism because it secures national prosperity and social justice..."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.memri.org/reports/muslim-bosnian-neo-nazi-group-most-worlds-problems-result-plot-aimed-letting-chosen-people|title=Muslim Bosnian Neo-Nazi Group: Most of the World's Problems Result From a Plot Aimed at "Letting the 'Chosen People' Control... the World"|website=MEMRI|access-date=30 August 2022|archive-date=23 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201123195228/https://www.memri.org/reports/muslim-bosnian-neo-nazi-group-most-worlds-problems-result-plot-aimed-letting-chosen-people|url-status=live}}</ref> The group is led by a person nicknamed Sauberzwig, after the commander of the 13th SS Handschar. The group's strongest area of operations is in the Tuzla area of Bosnia.

==== Bulgaria ====
The primary neo-Nazi political party to receive attention in post-WWII Bulgaria is the ].{{citation needed|date=January 2023}}

On 13 February of every year since 2003, Bulgarian neo-Nazis and like-minded far-right nationalists gather at ] to honor ], a late World War II general known for his antisemitic and pro-Nazi stance. From 2003 to 2019, the annual event was hosted by Bulgarian National Union.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/bulgaria-nationalists-honor-pro-nazi-general-flowers-75876539 |title=Bulgaria: Nationalists honor pro-Nazi general with flowers |date=13 February 2021 |website=ABC News |access-date=16 July 2021 |archive-date=10 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210710213206/https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/bulgaria-nationalists-honor-pro-nazi-general-flowers-75876539 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Romekhvpaac | archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211029/Romekhvpaac| archive-date=2021-10-29|title=Neo-Nazis march in the streets of Sofia, Bulgaria |date=12 February 2021 |via=YouTube |author=World Jewish Congress |access-date=16 July 2021}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://eurojewcong.org/news/communities-news/bulgaria/neo-nazi-lukov-march-thwarted/ |title=Neo-Nazi Likov march thwarted |date=16 February 2021 |website=European Jewish Congress |access-date=16 July 2021 |archive-date=15 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210715051008/https://eurojewcong.org/news/communities-news/bulgaria/neo-nazi-lukov-march-thwarted/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Croatia ====
{{See also|Far-right politics in Croatia}}
] sign at a ] concert]]
] during the ]]]
Neo-Nazis in ] base their ideology on the writings of ] and the ], a ] anti-Yugoslav separatist movement.<ref>* Yeomans, Rory, "Of "Yugoslav Barbarians" and Croatian Gentlemen Scholars: Nationalist Ideology and Racial Anthropology in Interwar Yugoslavia", in Turda, Marius and Paul Weindling, eds., ''"Blood And Homeland": Eugenics And Racial Nationalism in Central And Southeast Europe, 1900–1940'' Central European University Press, 2006)
* {{cite web |last=Ognyanova |first=Irina |title=Nationalism and National Policy in Independent State of Croatia (1941–1945) |url=https://www.usna.edu/Users/history/tucker/hh367/OgnyanovaArticle.pdf |publisher=Usna.edu |access-date=14 August 2009 |archive-date=7 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207104245/https://www.usna.edu/Users/history/tucker/hh367/OgnyanovaArticle.pdf |url-status=dead }}
* Jonassohn, Kurt and Karin Solveig Björnson, ''Genocide and Gross Human Rights Violations'' (Transaction Publishers 1998), p. 279</ref> The Ustaše regime committed a ] against ], ]. At the end of ], many Ustaše members fled to the West, where they found sanctuary and continued their political and ] activities (which were tolerated due to ] hostilities).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.jasenovac-info.com/cd/biblioteka/pavelicpapers/pavelic/ap0011.html |publisher=Jasenovac-info.com |title=Headquarters Counter Intelligence Corps Allied Forces Headquarters APO 512, 30 January 1947: Present Whereabouts and Past Background of Ante Pavelic, Croat Quisling |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071006030523/https://www.jasenovac-info.com/cd/biblioteka/pavelicpapers/pavelic/ap0011.html |archive-date=6 October 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://taylorandfrancis.metapress.com/index/DGB4V0MCGNFLU49E.pdf |title=The historical link between the Ustasha genocide and the Croato-Serb civil war: 1991-1995 |year=2000 |doi=10.1080/713677614 |access-date=16 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160415062323if_/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/713677614#.VxCI4Oj7SUk |archive-date=15 April 2016|last1=Mirkovic |first1=Damir |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=363–373 |s2cid=72467680 | issn = 1462-3528}}</ref>

In 1999, Zagreb's ] was renamed ''Croatian Nobles Square'', provoking widespread criticism of Croatia's attitude towards the ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://iwpr.net/report-news/croatias-willingness-tolerate-fascist-legacy-worries-many |title=Croatia's Willingness To Tolerate Fascist Legacy Worries Many |publisher=Iwpr.net |date=1999-09-08 |access-date=2009-11-03 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101116083050/https://iwpr.net/report-news/croatias-willingness-tolerate-fascist-legacy-worries-many |archive-date=16 November 2010}}</ref> In 2000, the ] again renamed the square into ''Square of the Victims of Fascism''.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://arhiv.slobodnadalmacija.hr/20001221/novosti1.htm |title=Slobodna Dalmacija, Četvrtak 21. prosinca 2000. – novosti |publisher=Arhiv.slobodnadalmacija.hr |access-date=2009-11-03 |archive-date=20 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081220100153/https://arhiv.slobodnadalmacija.hr/20001221/novosti1.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Many streets in Croatia were renamed after the prominent Ustaše figure ], which provoked outrage amongst the Serbian minority. Since 2002, there has been a reversal of this development, and streets with the name of Mile Budak or other persons connected with the Ustaše movement are few or non-existent.<ref name="news.bbc.co.uk">{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3605236.stm |title=Europe &#124; Croatia erases 'fascist' tributes |publisher=BBC News |date=2004-08-27 |access-date=2009-11-03 |archive-date=7 January 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090107000052/https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3605236.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> A plaque in ] with the inscription "Croatian Knight ]" was erected to commemorate Francetić, the notorious Ustaše leader of the Black Legion. The plaque remained there for four years, until it was removed by the authorities.<ref name="news.bbc.co.uk"/><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ex-yupress.com/nacional/nacional7.html |title=Nacional, Monument to Francetic in Slunj |publisher=Ex-yupress.com |date=2000-06-15 |access-date=2009-11-03 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927003423/https://www.ex-yupress.com/nacional/nacional7.html |archive-date=27 September 2013}}</ref>

In 2003, Croatian ] was amended with provisions prohibiting the public display of Nazi symbols, the propagation of Nazi ideology, ] and ] but the amendments were annulled in 2004 since they were not enacted in accordance with a constitutionally prescribed procedure.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.index.hr/clanak.aspx?id=172879|title=Ustavni sud ukinuo izmjene i dopune Kaznenog zakona|website=index.hr|access-date=21 February 2022|archive-date=30 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220830181332/https://www.index.hr/vijesti/clanak/ustavni-sud-ukinuo-izmjene-i-dopune-kaznenog-zakona/172879.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref> Nevertheless, since 2006 Croatian penal code explicitly prohibits any type of ] based on ], ], ], ], religion or national origin.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nn.hr/clanci/sluzbeno/2006/1706.htm |title=71 28.6.2006 Zakon o izmjenama i dopunama Kaznenog zakona |publisher=Nn.hr |date=2006-06-28 |access-date=2009-11-03 |archive-date=15 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160415062130/https://narodne-novine.nn.hr/clanci/sluzbeni/127449.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

There have been instances of ] in Croatia, such as the use of the phrase {{transliteration|sh|]}} (" Serbs on the ] trees!").{{Citation needed|date=January 2018}} In 2004, an ] church was ] with pro-Ustaše graffiti.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.index.hr/clanak.aspx?id=279919 |title=Zbog srpskih tablica vandali Mađarima uništili kuću – Vijesti.net |publisher=Index.hr |access-date=2009-11-03 |archive-date=16 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120716185256/https://www.index.hr/vijesti/clanak/zbog-srpskih-tablica-vandali-madjarima-unistili-kucu-/279919.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.spc.org.yu/Vesti-2004/04/28-4-04-e01.html#usta |title=Information Service of the Serbian Orthodox Church |date=28 April 2004 |website=Serbian Orthodox Church |access-date=16 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061010052901/https://www.spc.org.yu/Vesti-2004/04/28-4-04-e01.html |archive-date=10 October 2006}}</ref> During some protests in Croatia, supporters of ] and other at the time suspected ] (all acquitted in 2012) have carried ] symbols and pictures of Pavelić.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.novilist.hr/default.asp?WCI=Pretrazivac&WCU=285A285B2863285D2863285A28582858285E2863286328632859285F2859285F2861285828632863286328592863M |title=Da san ima 40 kuna, nosija bi' i ja ustasku kapu |date=18 December 2005 |access-date=16 July 2021 |language=hr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080107225003/https://www.novilist.hr/default.asp?WCI=Pretrazivac&WCU=285A285B2863285D2863285A28582858285E2863286328632859285F2859285F2861285828632863286328592863M |archive-date=7 January 2008}}</ref> On 17 May 2007, a concert in Zagreb by ], a popular Croatian singer, was attended by 60,000 people, some of them wearing Ustaše uniforms. Some gave Ustaše salutes and shouted the Ustaše slogan "'']''" ("For the homeland – ready!"). This event prompted the ] to publicly issue a protest to the Croatian president.<ref>{{cite web |author=Mesiću, Zuroff |title=Gnušamo se ustaških simbola na Thompsonovu koncertu |url=https://www.jutarnji.hr/clanak/art-2007,6,18,zuroff_mesic,78943.jl |publisher=Jutarnji.hr |language=hr |access-date=14 August 2009 |archive-date=9 January 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080109225642/https://www.jutarnji.hr/clanak/art-2007,6,18,zuroff_mesic,78943.jl |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Margelov institut traži opoziv ministra Kirina zbog Thompsonovog koncerta |url=https://www.jutarnji.hr/dogadjaji_dana/clanak/art-2007,6,18,mergelov_institut,79015.jl |publisher=jutarnji.hr |language=hr |access-date=14 August 2009 |archive-date=9 January 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080109225730/https://www.jutarnji.hr/dogadjaji_dana/clanak/art-2007,6,18,mergelov_institut,79015.jl |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.suntimes.co.za/News/Article.aspx?id=496261 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927183434/https://www.suntimes.co.za/News/Article.aspx?id=496261 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2007-09-27 |title=Nazi hunters slam singer's concert |publisher=Suntimes.co.za |date=1970-01-01 |access-date=2009-11-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Lefkovits |first=Etgar |url=https://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1181813065577&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130619160845/https://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1181813065577&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull |url-status=dead |archive-date=2013-06-19 |title=Nazi hunter raps 'fascist' Croatian rock concert |newspaper=The Jerusalem Post |access-date=2009-11-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.ejpress.org/article/17594 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070625140217/https://www.ejpress.org/article/17594 |url-status=dead |archive-date=25 June 2007 |title=Jews slam Croatia's failure to condemn 'Nazi' concert |work=European Jewish Press |date=2007-06-19 |access-date=2009-11-03}}</ref> Cases of displaying Ustashe memorabilia have been recorded at the ] held annually in Austria.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vecernji.hr/vijesti/koruski-zupan-skup-u-bleiburgu-treba-zabraniti-1240486|title=Koruški župan: Skup u Bleiburgu treba zabraniti|website=vecernji.hr|access-date=29 May 2018|archive-date=30 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030095646/https://www.vecernji.hr/vijesti/koruski-zupan-skup-u-bleiburgu-treba-zabraniti-1240486|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Czech Republic ====
{{unreferenced section|date=February 2023}}
The government of the ] strictly punishes neo-Nazism (]: ''Neonacismus''). According to a report by the ], neo-Nazis committed more than 211 crimes in 2013. The Czech Republic has various neo-Nazi groups. One of them is the group Wotan Jugend, based in Germany.

==== Denmark ====
The ] was formed in 1991, and was formally a neo nazi party, that would actively promote the nazi ideology in Denmark. The party did not gain any political influence, and were regarded as a failed political project by neo nazi expert Frede Farmand.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2010-10-20 |title=Fra politik til politi-sag |url=https://www.information.dk/indland/2010/10/politik-politi-sag |access-date=2024-05-31 |website=Information |language=da}}</ref> Long time party leader Johnni Hansen was replaced by Esben Rohde Kristensen in 2010, which resulted in a large amount of party members leaving the party. While the party never has been formally dissolved, there has been very little activity from its core member since 2010.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=værd |first1=Af Torsten Ruus Husk den gode tone! På Ekstra Bladet lægger vi stor vægt på at have en tæt dialog med jer læsere Jeres input er guld |last2=turde |first2=og mange historier ville ikke kunne lade sig gøre uden jeres tip Men selv om vi også har tradition for at |last3=Tier |first3=Når Andre |last4=mene |first4=værner vi om en sober og konstruktiv tone Du må |last5=Vil |first5=Hvad Du |last6=Henvendelser |first6=Men Vi Accepterer Ikke |last7=Chikanerende |first7=Der Er |last8=politianmeldt |first8=hadefulde eller krænkende overfor vores medarbejdere Sådanne henvendelser vil blive blokeret og registreret af Ekstra Bladet og evt |date=2021-12-11 |title=Nazi-veteran begraver DNSB: - Vi har ingen fører mere |url=https://ekstrabladet.dk/krimi/nazi-veteran-begraver-dnsb-vi-har-ingen-foerer-mere/9038719 |access-date=2024-05-31 |website=ekstrabladet.dk |language=da}}</ref> Former neo nazi ] formed the small national party ] in 2011, which officially rejected nazism, but were none the less categorized as such by professor in politics Peter Nedergaard.<ref>{{cite web |title=Europeiskt miljonstöd till sammanslutning av fascister och nazister |date=13 April 2016 |url=https://expo.se/2016/europeiskt-miljonstod-till-sammanslutning-av-fascister-och-nazister_7063.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106061000/https://expo.se/2016/europeiskt-miljonstod-till-sammanslutning-av-fascister-och-nazister_7063.html |archive-date=6 January 2017 |access-date=1 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-04-27 |title=Hovedrysten over nyt parti på den yderste højrefløj - Nationalt {{!}} www.b.dk |url=https://www.b.dk/nationalt/hovedrysten-over-nyt-parti-paa-den-yderste-hoejrefloej |access-date=2024-05-31 |archive-date=27 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150427194356/https://www.b.dk/nationalt/hovedrysten-over-nyt-parti-paa-den-yderste-hoejrefloej |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref>It was dissolved in 2017 after its founder ] announced retirement from politics.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.berlingske.dk/content/item/64604|title=Partiformand trækker sig og nedlægger Danskernes Parti|date=24 June 2017|website=Berlingske.dk|access-date=21 February 2022|archive-date=30 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220830181334/https://www.berlingske.dk/politik/partiformand-traekker-sig-og-nedlaegger-danskernes-parti|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Estonia ====
In 2006, Roman Ilin, a Jewish theatre director from ], Russia, was attacked by neo-Nazis when returning from a tunnel after a rehearsal. Ilin subsequently accused Estonian police of indifference after filing the incident.<ref>UCSJ: Union of Councils for Jews in the Former Soviet Union, 26 April 2006, {{cite web |url=https://www.ucsj.org/news/estonian-police-criticized-reaction-antisemitic-incident |title=Estonian Police Criticized for Reaction to Antisemitic Incident |access-date=2009-06-08 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111004142804/https://www.ucsj.org/news/estonian-police-criticized-reaction-antisemitic-incident |archive-date=4 October 2011}}. Retrieved 6 June 2009.</ref> When a dark-skinned French student was attacked in ], the head of an association of foreign students claimed that the attack was characteristic of a wave of neo-Nazi violence. An Estonian police official, however, stated that there were only a few cases involving foreign students over the previous two years.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.humanrightsfirst.org/pdf/fd/08/fd-080924-race-xen-web.pdf |title=Violence Based on Racism and Xenophobia: 2008 Hate Crime Survey |access-date=2009-06-08 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091111091808/https://www.humanrightsfirst.org/pdf/fd/08/fd-080924-race-xen-web.pdf |archive-date=11 November 2009}}. Human Rights First. 2008. Retrieved 6 June 2009.</ref> In November 2006, the Estonian government passed a law banning the display of ].<ref>] 26 January 2007: {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160920033500/https://www.jamestown.org/single/?no_cache=1&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=32427 |date=20 September 2016 }} by ]</ref>

The 2008 ] Special Rapporteur's Report noted that community representatives and non-governmental organizations devoted to human rights had pointed out that neo-Nazi groups were active in Estonia—particularly in Tartu—and had perpetrated acts of violence against non-European minorities.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.universalhumanrightsindex.org/documents/832/1334/document/en/pdf/text.pdf |title=Report Submitted by the Special Rapporteur on Contemporary Forms of Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance, Doudou Diene, on His Mission to Estonia |access-date=2011-11-04 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720183627/https://www.universalhumanrightsindex.org/documents/832/1334/document/en/pdf/text.pdf |archive-date=20 July 2011}}. 25–28 September 2008. Universal Human Rights Index. Retrieved 3 September 2009.</ref>

The neo-Nazi terrorist organization ] was found and operates in the country, with some members of the ] having been linked to the Feuerkrieg Division.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://estonianworld.com/security/a-global-neo-nazi-organisation-led-by-a-13-year-old-estonian-schoolboy/ |title=A global neo-Nazi organisation led by a 13-year-old Estonian schoolboy |work=Estonian World |date=August 10, 2020 |last=Silver |first=Tambur |access-date=April 10, 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200512122848/https://estonianworld.com/security/a-global-neo-nazi-organisation-led-by-a-13-year-old-estonian-schoolboy/ |archive-date=May 12, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.delfi.lt/news/daily/lithuania/grupuote-kurios-narys-planavo-ispuoli-lietuvoje-itraukti-siekiama-net-ir-vaikus.d?id=84628759 | work=] | title=Grupuotė, kurios narys planavo išpuolį Lietuvoje: įtraukti siekiama net ir vaikus (The group whose member planned the attack in Lithuania: even children are sought in involvement) | date=June 26, 2020 | access-date=June 27, 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200627140746/https://www.delfi.lt/news/daily/lithuania/grupuote-kurios-narys-planavo-ispuoli-lietuvoje-itraukti-siekiama-net-ir-vaikus.d?id=84628759 | archive-date=June 27, 2020 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://news.err.ee/926367/weekly-ekre-mp-ruuben-kaalep-has-long-history-of-neo-nazi-activity | title=EKRE MP Ruuben Kaalep has long history of neo-Nazi activity | work=] | date=July 10, 2019 | access-date=July 10, 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200508103640/https://news.err.ee/926367/weekly-ekre-mp-ruuben-kaalep-has-long-history-of-neo-nazi-activity | archive-date=May 8, 2020 | url-status=live }}</ref>

====Finland====
{{Further|Nazism in Finland}}
] Finnish independence day demonstration, 2018.]]
], Finnish neo-Nazi and ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.turkulainen.fi/paikalliset/1401646 |title=Suomessa on lakkautettu järjestöjä viimeksi 1970-luvulla – muistatko vielä surullisen kuuluisan Naantalin uusnatsin? |last=Mäkilä |first=Ville |date=1 September 2018 |website={{ill|Turkulainen (newspaper)|lt=Turkulainen|fi|Turkulainen}} |language=fi |access-date=23 February 2021 |archive-date=5 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805230049/https://www.turkulainen.fi/paikalliset/1401646 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
In Finland, neo-Nazism is often connected to the 1930s and 1940s fascist and pro-Nazi ] (IKL), its youth movement ] and its predecessor ]. Post-war fascist groups such as ], ], ], ] and many others consciously copy the style of the movement and look up to its leaders as inspiration. A ] councillor and police officer in Seinäjoki caused small scandal wearing the fascist blue-and-black uniform.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kaplan|first=Jeffrey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qb92tBxVOZgC&pg=PA37|title=Millennial Violence: Past, Present, and Future|publisher=]|year=2002|isbn=978-0-7146-5294-8|page=209|access-date=30 August 2022|archive-date=27 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427212401/https://books.google.com/books?id=qb92tBxVOZgC&pg=PA37|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Finns Party splinter group dons colours of 1940s fascists|date=13 January 2021|url=https://yle.fi/uutiset/osasto/news/finns_party_splinter_group_dons_colours_of_1940s_fascists/11735369|publisher=]|access-date=30 August 2022|archive-date=3 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603080717/https://yle.fi/uutiset/osasto/news/finns_party_splinter_group_dons_colours_of_1940s_fascists/11735369|url-status=live}}</ref>

During the Cold War, all partied deemed fascist were banned according to the ] and all former fascist activists had to find new political homes.<ref>Jorma O. Tiainen (toim.): ''Vuosisatamme Kronikka'', s. 668. Jyväskylä: Gummerus, 1987. {{ISBN|951-20-2893-X}}.</ref> Despite ], many continued in public life. Three former members of the Waffen SS served as ministers; the ] officers ] (]) and ] (]) as well as ] (]), a soldier in the ], formed of pro-Nazi defectors.<ref>''] – Sotavangit ja internoidut Kansallisarkiston artikkelikirja''. Kansallisarkisto, Helsinki 2008 ( {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220724123204/https://arkisto.fi/uploads/Julkaisut/monografiat/Internoidut_Naytto.pdf|date=24 July 2022}})</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www2.kirjastot.fi/kysy/arkistohaku/kysymys/?ID=e5a28990-6bcf-4d52-a597-bdae00af97bd|title=Kysymys SS-vapaaehtoisista|date=31 May 2007|publisher=Kirjastot.fi|access-date=23 September 2016|archive-date=7 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170907213251/https://www2.kirjastot.fi/kysy/arkistohaku/kysymys/?ID=e5a28990-6bcf-4d52-a597-bdae00af97bd|url-status=live}}</ref> Neo-Nazi activism was limited to small illegal groups like the ] led by ] who made headlines after ] of the printing houses of the ]. His associates also sent ]s to leftists, including to the headquarters of the ].<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210514124647/https://www.is.fi/kotimaa/art-2000005528696.html |date=14 May 2021 }}, ], Miika Viljakainen</ref> Another group called the "New Patriotic People's Movement" bombed the left-wing '']'' newspaper and the embassy of communist Bulgaria.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://areena.yle.fi/audio/1-4342434 |title="Minä vannon uhraavani kaikkeni sille työlle, joka koituu maani ja kansani parhaaksi!" |publisher=] |author=Harri Alanne |access-date=9 August 2021 |archive-date=9 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210809135404/https://areena.yle.fi/audio/1-4342434 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ksml.fi/kulttuuri/Kirja-arvio-Marginaaliset-mellastajat/1096708 |title=Kirja-arvio: Marginaaliset mellastajat |author=Alanko, Aki |date=19 January 2018 |publisher=] |access-date=9 August 2021 |archive-date=11 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411232136/https://www.ksml.fi/kulttuuri/Kirja-arvio-Marginaaliset-mellastajat/1096708 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.iltalehti.fi/kotimaa/a/201801182200677781 |title= Okkultistinen "valtakunnanjohtaja" seurasi lukiolaisten pommi-iskuja – tällainen on Suomen äärioikeiston historia |author= Muurinen, Juha |publisher= ] |access-date= 9 August 2021 |archive-date= 4 November 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20211104214732/https://www.iltalehti.fi/kotimaa/a/201801182200677781 |url-status= live }}</ref> Member of the ] Seppo Seluska was convicted of the torture and murder of a gay Jewish person.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Maestre|first=Antonio|author-link=Antonio Maestre|date=26 November 2019|title=Nadia es nuestra Danuta|url=https://www.lasexta.com/el-muro/antonio-maestre/nadia-nuestra-danuta_201911265ddcef480cf2ab850a60192c.html|work=]|language=es|access-date=9 August 2021|archive-date=23 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210923100242/https://www.lasexta.com/el-muro/antonio-maestre/nadia-nuestra-danuta_201911265ddcef480cf2ab850a60192c.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite news|last=Pienszka|first=Magdalena|date=13 April 2020|title=Kobieta z torebką atakuje skinheada. Za legendarnym zdjęciem stoi smutna historia|url=https://ksiazki.wp.pl/kobieta-z-torebka-atakuje-skinheada-za-legendarnym-zdjeciem-stoi-smutna-historia-6499560997025921a|work=]|language=pl|access-date=9 August 2021|archive-date=10 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200610071451/https://ksiazki.wp.pl/kobieta-z-torebka-atakuje-skinheada-za-legendarnym-zdjeciem-stoi-smutna-historia-6499560997025921a|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Previdelli|first=Fabio|date=2 May 2020|title=Muito além da foto: Danuta Danielsson, a mulher que deu bolsada em um neonazista|url=https://aventurasnahistoria.uol.com.br/noticias/reportagem/muito-alem-da-foto-danuta-danielsson-a-mulher-que-deu-bolsada-em-um-neonazista.phtml|work=Aventuras na História|language=pt-br|access-date=9 August 2021|archive-date=23 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211023174705/https://aventurasnahistoria.uol.com.br/noticias/reportagem/muito-alem-da-foto-danuta-danielsson-a-mulher-que-deu-bolsada-em-um-neonazista.phtml|url-status=live}}</ref>

The skinhead culture gained momentum during the late 1980s and peaked during the late 1990s. In 1991, Finland received a number of Somali immigrants who became the main target of Finnish skinhead violence in the following years, including four attacks using explosives and a racist murder. Asylum seeker centres were attacked, in ] skinheads would force their way into an asylum seeker centre and start shooting with shotguns. At worst Somalis were assaulted by 50 skinheads at the same time.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308084006/https://www.hs.fi/elama/a1381948605154 |date=8 March 2016 }} Helsingin sanomat 17.10.2013</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.duo.uio.no/bitstream/handle/10852/64981/Ravndal_with+title+page.pdf?sequence=2|title=Right-Wing Terrorism and Militancy in the Nordic Countries: A Comparative Case Study|publisher=] Center for Research on Extremism|access-date=5 November 2020|quote=One particularly severe episode happened in 1997, when a group of about 50 skinheads attacked Somali youths playing football in the Helsinki suburb Kontula. The violence did not stop before the police started shooting warning shots, and 22 skinheads were sentenced for the attack. Pekonen et al. also mention a number of other violent events from the 1990s, including ten particularly severe events from 1995 (not included in the RTV dataset because sufficient event details are lacking): a racist murder, an immigrant stabbed by a skinhead, four attacks on immigrants using explosives, and another four immigrants beaten severely.|archive-date=26 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326170854/https://www.duo.uio.no/bitstream/handle/10852/64981/Ravndal_with+title+page.pdf?sequence=2|url-status=live}}</ref>

The most prominent neo-Nazi group is the ], which is tied to multiple murders, attempted murders and assaults of political enemies was found in 2006 and proscribed in 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://yle.fi/uutiset/extreme_right_radicals_seeking_more_visible_presence_in_finland/6478162|title=Extreme right radicals seeking more visible presence in Finland|date=2 February 2013|publisher=]|access-date=1 October 2017|archive-date=5 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505122827/https://yle.fi/uutiset/extreme_right_radicals_seeking_more_visible_presence_in_finland/6478162|url-status=live}}</ref> The second biggest Finnish party, the ] politicians have frequently supported far-right and neo-Nazi movements such as the Finnish Defense League, Soldiers of Odin, Nordic Resistance Movement, Rajat Kiinni (Close the Borders), and Suomi Ensin (Finland First).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://bridge.georgetown.edu/research/factsheet-the-finns-party/ |title=FACTSHEET: THE FINNS PARTY |website=Bridge Initiative |publisher=Georgetown University |access-date=9 August 2021 |archive-date=22 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220122025209/https://bridge.georgetown.edu/research/factsheet-the-finns-party/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In the 1990s and 2000s, before the breakthrough of the Finns Party, a few neo-Nazi candidates enjoyed success, like Janne Kujala of ] (founded as Aryan Germanic Brotherhood) and ] who was previously associated with the ].<ref name="hs2017">Juho Jokinen: (vain tilaajille) Helsingin Sanomat 4.10.2017.</ref><ref>], , 30.3.2005</ref> Pekka Siitoin of the ] was the fifth most popular candidate in ] city council elections.<ref>Pohjola, Mike (toim.): Mitä Pekka Siitoin tarkoittaa? Savukeidas, 2015. ISBN 978-952-268-155-3 p. 79</ref>

The NRM, Finns party and other far-right nationalist parties organize an annual torch march demonstration in Helsinki in memory of the Finnish SS-battalion on the ] which ends at the ] where members visit the tomb of ] and the monument to the Finnish SS Battalion.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.brusselstimes.com/427922/neo-nazis-marching-on-the-streets-in-european-cities-despite-eu-bans|title=Neo-Nazis marching on the streets in European cities despite EU bans|quote=Helsinki, Finland, 'Towards Freedom' and '612 for freedom' march' in memory of the Finnish SS-battalion which fought with Nazi Germany|date=28 March 2023|work=]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bnaibrith.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/AnnualMarchesGlorifyingNazism_Z105c.pdf|title=On Europe's Streets:Annual Marches Glorifying Nazism|quote=Thethe main organizers and guests of the event have been drawn from either non-party-affiliated far-right-activists or members of the right-wing populist Finns Party (Perussuomalaiset), its youth organization Finns Party Youth (Perussuomalaiset Nuoret)...the 612-march is a torchlight procession from central Helsinki to the Hietaniemi war cemetery, where members visit the tomb of World War II-era President Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim and the monument to the Finnish SS-Battalion. There are speeches at both the assembly point and at the cemetery, eulogizing the Battle for Helsinki, depicted by speakers as the occasion "when Germans and Finns marched side by side and liberated the city from the communists."|date=25 March 2023|work=], ], ]}}</ref> The event is protested by antifascists, leading to counterdemonstrators being violently assaulted by NRM members who act as security. The demonstration attracts close to 3,000 participants according to the estimates of the police and hundreds of officers patrol Helsinki to prevent violent clashes.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hs.fi/kaupunki/art-2000006334051.html?share=f6b9cc465a58c4b97bd69ce71733f9eb|title=Äärioikeistolaisten hihamerkit ja anarkistiliput vilahtelivat Helsingissä, kun tuhannet marssivat itsenäisyyspäivän mielenosoituksissa – Poliisi otti kiinni 13 ihmistä|publisher=]|date=7 October 2020|access-date=9 August 2021|archive-date=4 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211104213300/https://www.hs.fi/kaupunki/art-2000006334051.html?share=f6b9cc465a58c4b97bd69ce71733f9eb|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.iltalehti.fi/kotimaa/a/201712082200589810|title=Pohjoismainen vastarintaliike joukkonujakassa itsenäisyyspäivänä – uusnatsit naureskelivat väkivallalle: "Hauskaa!"|publisher=]|date=7 October 2020|access-date=9 August 2021|archive-date=19 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019223439/https://www.iltalehti.fi/kotimaa/a/201712082200589810|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="holappa">{{cite web|url=https://yle.fi/aihe/artikkeli/2016/05/15/nain-toimii-suomen-vastarintaliike|title=Näin toimii Suomen Vastarintaliike|date=15 May 2016 |publisher=]|access-date=26 September 2020|archive-date=23 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200923224412/https://yle.fi/aihe/artikkeli/2016/05/15/nain-toimii-suomen-vastarintaliike|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://yle.fi/a/3-10535875|work=]|title=Finnish neo-Nazi group diversifies, seeks alliances as ban closes in|date=21 September 2024|quote=Last year's right-wing 612 torchlight procession on Independence Day attracted about 3,000 people.}}</ref>

==== France ====
{{Main|History of far-right movements in France}} {{Main|History of far-right movements in France}}
] as an ambiguous "Christian and pagan" symbol in the 1940s.|left]]
Neo-Nazi organizations in France are outlawed, yet a significant number exist.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2005/feb/03/thefarright.france |title=France says it will outlaw all neo-Nazi groups &#124; World news |publisher=The Guardian |date= 2005-02-03|accessdate=2009-11-03 | location=London | first=Jon | last=Henley}}</ref> Legal far-right groups are also numerous, and include the '']'', created by former members of ]'s '']'' group. Close to ] and ] ideologies, ''Unité Radicale'' was dissolved in 2002 following ]'s assassination attempt on July 14, 2002 against then President ]. Christian Bouchet had previously been a member of '']'' (NR), an off-shoot of '']'' (Third Way) which described itself as "]". Although Nouvelle Résistance at first opposed the "]" of ]'s ], it finally changed strategy, adopting the slogan "Less Leftism! More Fascism!<ref name=Banquet>, '']'', n°19, 2004 {{fr icon}}</ref> " Nouvelle Résistance was also a successor to ]'s '']'' neo-Nazi ] movement of the 1960s, which had participated in the ], along with ]'s ], ] and other groups and individuals.
In France, the most enthusiastic collaborationists during the ] had been the ] of ] (former ] members) and the ] of ] (former ] members). These two groups, like the Germans, saw themselves as combining ultra-nationalism and ]. In the south there existed the vassal state of ] under the military "Hero of the Verdun", Marshal ] whose {{lang|fr|]}} emphasised an authoritarian Catholic conservative politics. Following the ] and the creation of the ], collaborators were prosecuted during the {{lang|fr|]}} and nearly 800 put to death for treason under ].


In the aftermath of the Second World War, the main concern of the French radical right was the collapse of the ], in particular the ], which led to the creation of the ]. Outside of this, individual fascistic activists such as ] (brother-in-law of ]), as well as SS-veterans ] and ], were active in France and involved in the ] and later the ], alongside similar groups from across Europe. Early neo-fascist groups included ], which introduced the ] into use by radical right groups (an association which would spread internationally). A "neither East, nor West" pan-Europeanism was most popular among French fascistic activists until the late 1960s, partly motivated by feelings of national vulnerability following the collapse of their empire; thus the Belgian SS-veteran ]'s group ] also had a considerable French contingent.
==Germany==
{{Main|Far right in Germany}}
In Germany immediately after ], ] and the new German government attempted to prevent the creation of new Nazi movements through a process known as ]. The West German government had passed strict laws prohibiting Nazis from publicly expressing their beliefs as well as barring them from the political process. Displaying the ] was an offense punishable by up to one year imprisonment. There was little overt neo-Nazi activity in Europe until the 1960s. However, some former Nazis retained their political beliefs, and passed them down to new generations.


It was the 1960s, during the ], that a considerable upturn in French neo-fascism occurred; some of it in response to the ]. The most explicitly pro-Nazi of these was the ] of ]. Neo-fascist groups included ]' ], the ] (which was banned after violent clashes with the Trotskyist ]) and the student-based ]. A number of these activists such as ] were instrumental in founding the ] under ]; but the FN also included a broader selection from the French hard-right, including not only these neo-fascist elements, but also ], monarchists, Algerian War veterans, ] and national-conservatives. Others from these neo-fascist micro-groups formed the ] working against Le Pen.
After ] in the 1990s, neo-Nazi groups gained more followers, mostly among disaffected teenagers in the former ]. These gangs were formed under their dislike of the ] system installed after WWII, then the system collapsed in 1989. Many of the groups that increased their membership this way were new, having arisen amidst the economic collapse and high unemployment in the former East Germany. They have also had an aversion to people from Slavic countries (especially ]) and people of other national backgrounds who moved from the former ] into the former ] after Germany was reunited. Much of their ideology was similar to ].


Within the FN itself, Duprat founded the FANE-backed ] faction, until his 1978 assassination. The subsequent history of the French hard right has been the conflict between the national-conservative controlled FN and "national revolutionary" (fascistic and National Bolshevik) splinter or opposition groups. The latter include groups in the tradition of Thiriart and Duprat, such as the ], ], the ] of ],<ref name="Banquet"> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929082901/https://www.revue-lebanquet.com/docs/a_0000362.html|date=29 September 2007}}, ''Le Banquet'', n°19, 2004 {{in lang|fr}}</ref> ] and most recently ]. Direct splits from the FN include the 1987 founded FANE-revival ], which was disbanded in 2000. Neo-Nazi organizations are outlawed in the Fifth French Republic, yet a significant number of them still exist.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/feb/03/thefarright.france |title=France says it will outlaw all neo-Nazi groups |newspaper=The Guardian |date=2005-02-03 |access-date=2009-11-03 |location=London |first=Jon |last=Henley |archive-date=29 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130829015300/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/feb/03/thefarright.france |url-status=live }}</ref>
According to the preliminary version of the annual report of Germany's interior intelligence service (]) for 2010<ref>, Bundesministerium des Innern</ref>, there are currently 25,000 right-wing extremists living in Germany<ref>name=SPON2011>{{cite web|url=http://www.spiegel.de/politik/deutschland/0,1518,771647,00.html|title=Verfassungsschutz warnt vor getarnten Neonazis|first=Sebastian|last=Fischer|publischer=]|date=1 July 2011|accessdate=1 July 2011}}</ref>, including 5,600 neo-Nazis<ref>, Bundesministerium des Innern, p.54</ref> Neo-Nazi organizations, related and derivative symbols and ] are outlawed in Germany according to the German Criminal Code ] and ].


==Greece== ==== Germany ====
{{Further|Far-right politics in Germany (1945–present)}}
The most notable Greek neo-Nazi political organization is ] (Chrysi Avyi). According to numerous journalist accounts, the Greek police does very little – if anything – to quell Chrysi Avyi's violent activities, avoiding to arrest or bring the neo-Nazis to justice.<ref name="Ιός">Ιός της Ελευθεροτυπίας;"Αλλάξτε μυαλά, γιατί θα σας λιώσουμε σαν τα σκουλήκια", εφημερίδα Ελευθεροτυπία: Ασυλία από ΕΛ.ΑΣ. (article in Greek) </ref> Another Greek neo-Nazi group is the ] organization "Mavros Krinos" (Μαύρος Κρίνος – Black Lily).
], Germany, in October 2009]]
Following the failure of the ] in the ], small groups committed to the revival of Nazi ideology began to emerge in Germany. The NPD splintered, giving rise to paramilitary ''Wehrsportgruppe''. These groups attempted to organize under a national umbrella organization, the ].<ref name=virchow>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/0031322032000185587 |title=The groupuscularization of neo-Nazism in Germany: The case of the Aktionsbüro Norddeutschland |journal=Patterns of Prejudice |volume=38 |pages=56–70 |year=2004 |last1=Virchow |first1=Fabian|issue=1 |s2cid=143578391 }}</ref> Neo-Nazi movements in ] began as a rebellion against the Communist regime; the banning of Nazi symbols helped neo-Nazism to develop as an ] youth movement.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.3167/ej.2000.330206 |title=Issues Surrounding the Development of the Neo-Nazi Scene in East Berlin |journal=European Judaism |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=45–50 |year=2000 |last1=Brothers |first1=Eric}}</ref> Mail order networks developed to send illegal Nazi-themed music ]s and merchandise to Germany.<ref>{{Cite news| title = A cultural history of neo-Nazi rock| access-date = 2018-11-12| url = https://www.theglobeandmail.com/arts/music/a-cultural-history-of-neo-nazi-rock/article4468118/| archive-date = 9 June 2020| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200609083115/https://www.theglobeandmail.com/arts/music/a-cultural-history-of-neo-nazi-rock/article4468118/| url-status = live}}</ref>


] have been victims of neo-Nazi violence on several occasions. In 1992, two young girls were killed in the ] along with their grandmother; nine others were injured.<ref>{{Cite web| title = Turkish victims killed by Neo-Nazis in 1992 Mölln attack remembered in Germany| work = DailySabah| date = 23 November 2017| access-date = 2018-11-11| url = https://www.dailysabah.com/europe/2017/11/23/turkish-victims-killed-by-neo-nazis-in-1992-molln-attack-remembered-in-germany| archive-date = 12 November 2018| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181112021707/https://www.dailysabah.com/europe/2017/11/23/turkish-victims-killed-by-neo-nazis-in-1992-molln-attack-remembered-in-germany| url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web| last = Welle| first = Deutsche| date = 2012-11-22| title = Neo-Nazi fire attack still smolders 20 years on| work = ]| access-date = 2018-11-11| url = https://www.dw.com/en/neo-nazi-fire-attack-still-smolders-20-years-on/a-16399158| archive-date = 23 November 2017| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171123175424/https://www.dw.com/en/neo-nazi-fire-attack-still-smolders-20-years-on/a-16399158| url-status = live}}</ref> In 1993, five Turks were killed in the ].<ref>{{Cite web| last = Zeller| first = Frank| title = Tense Germany, Turkey mark deadly 1993 neo-Nazi attack| website = ]| access-date = 2018-11-11| url = https://www.timesofisrael.com/tense-germany-turkey-mark-deadly-1993-neo-nazi-attack/| archive-date = 12 November 2018| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181112022252/https://www.timesofisrael.com/tense-germany-turkey-mark-deadly-1993-neo-nazi-attack/| url-status = live}}</ref> In response to the fire Turkish youth in Solingen rioted chanting "Nazis out!" and "We want Nazi blood". In other parts of Germany police had to intervene to protect ]s from assault.<ref>{{Cite news| issn = 0190-8286| title = Turks Riot, Set Fires in Germany| newspaper = ]| access-date = 2018-11-11| date = 1993-06-01| url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1993/06/01/turks-riot-set-fires-in-germany/f3f4f33e-9276-4886-a007-41237050115c/| archive-date = 12 November 2018| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181112021647/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1993/06/01/turks-riot-set-fires-in-germany/f3f4f33e-9276-4886-a007-41237050115c/| url-status = live}}</ref> The ] and ] targeting migrants and ethnic minorities living in Germany also took place during the 1990s.<ref name=virchow />
A few Golden Dawn members participated in the ] in the ] (GVG). A few GVG volunteers were present in ] during the ].<ref name="Michas">Michas, Takis;"Unholy Alliance", ] Press: Eastern European Studies (College Station, Tex.) pp. 22 </ref> Spiros Tzanopoulos, a GVG sergeant who took part in the attack against Srebrenica, said many of the Greek volunteers participated in the war because they were members of Golden Dawn.<ref name="srebr"> in Eleftherotypia. (in Greek)</ref>


Between 2000 and 2007, eight Turkish immigrants, one ] and a German policewoman were murdered by the neo-Nazi ].<ref>{{Cite web| title = Turkey awaits justice for neo-Nazi group victims: Envoy – Turkey News| work = Hürriyet Daily News| date = 8 July 2018| access-date = 2018-11-11| url = https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-awaits-justice-for-neo-nazi-group-victims-envoy-134304| archive-date = 12 November 2018| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181112101246/https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-awaits-justice-for-neo-nazi-group-victims-envoy-134304| url-status = live}}</ref> The NSU has its roots in the former East German area of ], which '']'' identified as "one of the heartlands of Germany's radical right". The German intelligence services have been criticized for extravagant distributions of cash to informants within the far-right movement. Tino Brandt publicly boasted on television that he had received around €100,000 in funding from the German state. Though Brandt did not give the state "useful information", the funding supported recruitment efforts in Thuringia during the early 1990s. (Brandt was eventually sentenced to five and a half years in prison on for 66 counts of ] and ]).<ref name=meaney />
==Israel==
] has seen a surge of neo-Nazi activity in the past decade, linked to the arrival of over 1.2 million immigrants from the former ]– a substantial proportion of whom do not identify as Jews, even though they have some Jewish ancestry.<ref> ''The News (Pakistan)''. Sunday, April 22, 2007.</ref> In August 2007, Israeli police broke up ], a cell in ] made up of eight young immigrants from the former Soviet Union, which had been attacking religious Jews, foreign workers and homosexuals, and which had been vandalizing ]s with Nazi images.<ref name="BBC Israeli">{{cite news|title=Israeli 'neo-Nazi gang' arrested|date=9 September 2007|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6985808.stm|publisher=BBC}}</ref><ref name="Asser">{{cite news|title=Israeli anger over 'Nazi' group|author=Martin Asser|publisher=BBC|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6987848.stm|date=10 September 2007}}</ref>


Police were only able to locate the killers when they were tipped off following a botched bank robbery in ]. As the police closed in on them, the two men committed suicide. They had evaded capture for 13 years. ], who had been living with the two men in ], turned herself in to the German authorities a few days later. Zschäpe's trial began in May 2013; she was charged with nine counts of murder. She pleaded "not guilty". According to ''The Guardian'', the NSU may have enjoyed protection and support from certain "elements of the state". ], a fan of Zschäpe's, reportedly sent her a letter from prison in 2012.<ref name=meaney>{{Cite news| issn = 0261-3077| last1 = Meaney| first1 = Thomas| last2 = Schäfer| first2 = Saskia| title = The neo-Nazi murder trial revealing Germany's darkest secrets| work = The Guardian| access-date = 2018-11-12| date = 2016-12-15| url = https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/dec/15/neo-nazi-murders-revealing-germanys-darkest-secrets| archive-date = 2 September 2018| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180902214956/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/dec/15/neo-nazi-murders-revealing-germanys-darkest-secrets| url-status = live}}</ref>
The Soviet Union-born neo-Nazis<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6989776.stm |title=Middle East &#124; Israeli neo-Nazi suspects charged |publisher=BBC News |date=2007-09-11 |accessdate=2009-11-03}}</ref> are reported to operate in cities across Israel, and have been described as having little connection to Jewish heritage, and of being influenced by the rise of neo-Nazism and anti-Semitism in Europe.<ref name="BBC Israeli"/><ref name="Asser"/> Widely publicized arrests have led to a call to reform the ] to permit the revocation of Israeli citizenship for – and the subsequent deportation of – neo-Nazis.<ref name="Asser"/>


According to the annual report of Germany's interior intelligence service (Verfassungsschutz) for 2012, at the time there were 26,000 right-wing extremists living in Germany, including 6,000 neo-Nazis.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150321183652/https://www.verfassungsschutz.de/de/oeffentlichkeitsarbeit/publikationen/verfassungsschutzberichte/vsbericht-2012 |date=21 March 2015}} Federal Ministry of the Interior.</ref> In January 2020, Combat 18 was banned in Germany, and raids directed against the organization were made across the country.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-51219274 |title=Germany bans Combat 18 as police raid neo-Nazi group |publisher=BBC News |date=2020-01-23 |access-date=2020-03-20 |archive-date=27 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200127003202/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-51219274 |url-status=live }}</ref> In March 2020, United German Peoples and Tribes, which is part of ], a neo-Nazi movement that rejects the German state as a legal entity, was raided by the German police.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-51961069 |title=German police raid neo-Nazi Reichsbürger movement nationwide |publisher=BBC News |date=2020-03-19 |access-date=2020-03-20 |archive-date=19 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200319152421/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-51961069 |url-status=live }}</ref> ] is a crime, according to the German Criminal Code (]) and ].{{citation needed|date=March 2020}}
==Mongolia==
Neo-Nazism is a growing political force in ]. From 2008, Mongolian Neo-Nazi groups have defaced public and private buildings in ], smashed ] shopkeepers' windows, and killed moderate Mongols. The Neo-Nazi Mongols' targets for violence are Chinese, ],<ref name="naive">{{Cite news|url=http://ubpost.mongolnews.mn/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=2446&Itemid=42|title=The Naivety of Mongolia's Nazis|first=Kirril|last=Sheilds|date=2008-10-04|accessdate=2010-08-08|publisher=]}}</ref> Mongol women who sleep with Chinese men, and ] people.<ref name="mnn">{{Cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/aug/02/mongolia-far-right|title=Mongolian neo-Nazis: Anti-Chinese sentiment fuelds rise of ultra-nationalism|first=Tania|last=Branigan|location=Ulan Bator|date=2010-08-02|accessdate=2010-08-08|publisher=]}}</ref> They wear Nazi uniforms and revere the ] and ]. Observers have noted the irony of Neo-Nazi Mongols, because Nazi Germany killed Soviet ] with Mongolian features. Some have ascribed it to poor ].<ref name="naive"/>


==Russia== ==== Greece ====
{{Ref improve section|date=January 2008}} {{update section|date=April 2024}}
]]]
{{further|]|]}}
The far-right political party ] (Χρυσή Αυγή – Chrysi Avyi) is generally labelled neo-Nazi, although the group rejects this label.<ref>{{Citation |first=Helena |last=Smith |title=Rise of the Greek far right raises fears of further turmoil |newspaper=The Guardian |date=16 December 2011 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/dec/16/rise-greek-far-right-turmoil |location=London |access-date=15 December 2016 |archive-date=18 September 2014 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140918212646/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/dec/16/rise-greek-far-right-turmoil |url-status=live }}</ref> A few Golden Dawn members participated in the ] in the ] (GVG) and were present in ] during the ].<ref name="Michas">{{cite web |first=Michas |last=Takis |title=Unholy Alliance |publisher=] Press: Eastern European Studies (College Station, Tex.) |page=22 |url=https://www.preventgenocide.org/edu/pastgenocides/formeryugoslavia/resources/ |access-date=12 April 2007 |archive-date=24 September 2014 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140924140927/https://www.preventgenocide.org/edu/pastgenocides/formeryugoslavia/resources/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="srebr"> {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130217151821/https://archive.enet.gr/online/online_fpage_text?id=13996864,21821632,8195520%2522 |date=17 February 2013 }} in Eleftherotypia. (Greek)</ref> The party has its roots in Papadopoulos' regime.
Traditional Nazism, which defines Slavs as racially inferior ''Untermenschen'', appeals to few people in Russia. Consequently, there are few neo-Nazis in Russia who follow traditional Nazi doctrine.<ref>Laqueur, Walter, ''Fascism: Past, Present, Future'', p.178</ref> Many Russian neo-Nazis, however, openly admire ] and use the German Nazi ] as their symbol. Russian neo-Nazis are characterized by ], ], ] and extreme ] towards people from Asia.<ref>{{cite web|author=4 mei 2008 |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aLUxuq-E9yA |title=Horrific Documentary on Russian Neo Nazis part 1 |publisher=YouTube |date= |accessdate=2009-11-03}}</ref> Their ideology centers on defending Russian national identity against what they perceive as a takeover by minority groups such as ]s, ], ]ns, ] and Muslims. Dark-skinned Russians are often subjected to racial abuse.


There is often collaboration between the state and neo-Nazi elements in Greece.<ref name=dalakoglou /> In 2018, during the trial of sixty-nine members of the Golden Dawn party, evidence was presented of the close ties between the party and the ].<ref name=aj>{{Cite web| title = Tapped phone calls further reveal Golden Dawn's police ties| access-date = 2018-11-12| url = https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/04/tapped-phone-calls-reveal-golden-dawns-police-ties-180419212215599.html| archive-date = 11 November 2018| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181111194309/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/04/tapped-phone-calls-reveal-golden-dawns-police-ties-180419212215599.html| url-status = live}}</ref>
], founded in 1990 and led by ], claims to have members in 250 cities. RNE adopted the swastika as its symbol, and sees itself as the avant-garde of a coming national revolution. It is critical of other major far right organizations, such as the ] (LDPR). Historian Walter Laqueur calls RNE far closer to the Nazi model than the LDPR. RNE publishes several news sheets; one of them, ''Russky poryadok'', claims to have a circulation of 150,000. Full members of RNE are called Soratnik (comrades in arms), receive combat training at locations near Moscow, and many of them work as security officers or armed guards.<ref>Laqueur, Walter, ''Fascism: Past, Present, Future'', p. 189</ref>


Golden Dawn has spoken out in favour of the ] in Syria,<ref>{{cite news | url= https://forward.com/articles/171423/greek-neo-nazi-golden-dawn-party-blasts-holocaust | title= Greek Neo-Nazi Golden Dawn Party Blasts Holocaust Remembrance as 'Unacceptable' | newspaper= ] | date= 18 February 2014 | access-date= 15 December 2014 | archive-date= 3 April 2015 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150403023628/https://forward.com/articles/171423/greek-neo-nazi-golden-dawn-party-blasts-holocaust/ | url-status= live }}</ref> and the Strasserist group Black Lily have claimed to have sent mercenaries to Syria to fight alongside the Syrian regime, specifically mentioning their participation in the ].<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.vice.com/read/are-greek-neo-nazis-fighting-for-assad-in-syria1 | title=Are Greek Neo-Nazis Fighting for Assad in Syria? | publisher=Vice News | first1=Brian | last1=Whelan | date=1 October 2013 | access-date=6 December 2014 | archive-date=5 December 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161205214919/https://www.vice.com/read/are-greek-neo-nazis-fighting-for-assad-in-syria1 | url-status=live }}</ref> In the ], Golden Dawn received 6.97% of the votes, entering the Greek parliament for the first time with 21 representatives, but when the elected parties were unable to form a ] a ] was held in June 2012. Golden Dawn received 6.92% of the votes in the June election and entered the ] with 18 representatives.
The National-Social Union, led by Viktor Yakushev wants to establish a national state and an economy emphasizing ] values, and aims to stop ] from establishing global hegemony. Yakushev believes that all ] are homosexuals, that members of inferior races have one fewer chromosome than members of superior races, and that Jews are "biorobots" programmed to commit suicide.<ref>Laqueur, Walter, ''Fascism: Past, Present, Future'', pp.190–191</ref>


Since 2008, neo-Nazi violence in Greece has targeted ], ]s and ] activists. In 2009, certain far-right groups announced that ] in Athens was off limits to immigrants. Neo-Nazi patrols affiliated with the Golden Dawn party began attacking migrants in this neighborhood. The violence continued escalating through 2010.<ref name=dalakoglou>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1111/wusa.12044| issn = 1089-7011| volume = 16| issue = 2| pages = 283–92| last = Dalakoglou| first = Dimitris| title = Neo-Nazism and Neoliberalism: A Few Comments on Violence in Athens at the Time of Crisis Neo-Nazism and Neoliberalism: A Few Comments on Violence in Athens at the Time of Crisis| journal = WorkingUSA| date = June 2013| url = https://research.vu.nl/en/publications/89a5fc47-6409-46d0-8d9b-343f7567f73d| access-date = 11 March 2020| archive-date = 20 February 2021| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210220162403/https://research.vu.nl/en/publications/neo-nazism-and-neoliberalism-a-few-comments-on-violence-in-athens| url-status = live| hdl = 1871.1/89a5fc47-6409-46d0-8d9b-343f7567f73d| hdl-access = free}}</ref> In 2013, after the murder of ] rapper ], the number of ] in Greece declined for several years until 2017. Many of the crimes in 2017 have been attributed to other groups like the Crypteia Organisation and Combat 18 Hellas.<ref name=aj />
===Social roots===
The collapse of the ] in the early 1990s caused great economic and social problems, including widespread ] and ]. Several ] ] organizations were able to tap into popular discontent, particularly among marginalized, lesser educated and unemployed youths. Of the three major age groups — youths, adults, and the elderly — youths may have been hit the hardest. The elderly suffered due to inadequate (or unpaid) pensions, but they found effective political representation in the ], and generally had their concerns addressed through better budget allocations. Adults, although often suffering financially and psychologically due to job losses, were generally able to find new sources of income. Moreover, Soviet-era indoctrination into the ideals of ] predisposed most adults against the message of right-wing extremists.


===Activities=== ==== Hungary ====
]
Russian neo-Nazis have made it an explicit goal to take over the country by force, and have put serious effort into preparing for this. ] organizations operating under the guise of sports clubs have trained their members in squad tactics, ] and weapons handling. They have stockpiled and used weapons, often illegally.
In Hungary, the historical political party which allied itself ideologically with German National Socialism and drew inspiration from it, was the ] of ]. They referred to themselves explicitly as National Socialists and within Hungarian politics this tendency is known as ].{{Citation needed|date=June 2017}} After the Second World War, exiles such as ] kept the Hungarist tradition alive. Following the fall of the ] in 1989, which was a ] state and a member of the ], many new parties emerged. Amongst these was the ] of ], which was a Hungarist party and considered itself the heirs of Arrow Cross-style National Socialism (a self-description they explicitly embraced).{{Citation needed|date=June 2017}} In the 2000s, Győrkös' movement moved closer to a ] and ] position, aligned with ], cooperating with the ]. Some Hungarists opposed this and founded the ].


In modern Hungary, the ultranationalist ] is regarded by some scholars as a neo-Nazi party; for example, it has been termed as such by ].<ref>Randolph L. Braham, "Hungary: The Assault on the Historical Memory of the Holocaust" in ''The Holocaust in Hungary: Seventy Years Later'' (eds. Randolph L. Braham & András Kovács: Central European University Press, 2016).</ref> The party denies being neo-Nazi, although "there is extensive proof that the leading members of the party made no effort to hide their racism and anti-Semitism."<ref name="Spectrum">{{cite news|url=https://hungarianspectrum.org/2013/04/08/jobbik-is-not-a-neo-nazi-party-at-least-not-according-to-a-hungarian-judge/|title=Jobbik is not a neo-Nazi party. At least not according to a Hungarian judge|work=Hungarian Spectrum|date=8 April 2013|access-date=30 August 2022|archive-date=19 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190419210827/https://hungarianspectrum.org/2013/04/08/jobbik-is-not-a-neo-nazi-party-at-least-not-according-to-a-hungarian-judge/|url-status=live}}</ref> Rudolf Paksa, a scholar of the Hungarian far-right, describes Jobbik as "anti-Semitic, racist, homophobic and chauvinistic" but not as neo-Nazi because it does not pursue the establishment of a totalitarian regime.<ref name="Spectrum"/> Historian ] writes that "It is safe to say that certain messages of Jobbik can be called open neo-Nazi propaganda. However, it is quite certain that the popularity of the party is not due to these statements."<ref>Krisztián Ungváry, "'One Camp, One Banner': How Fidesz Views History" in ''Twenty-Five Sides of a Post-Communist Mafia State'' (ed. Balint Magyar & Julia Vasarhelyi: Central European University Press, 2017).</ref>
On August 15, 2007, Russian authorities arrested a student for allegedly posting a video on the Internet which appears to show two Muslim migrant workers being beheaded in front of a red and black swastika flag.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6946810.stm |title=Europe &#124; Russian held over 'deaths' video |publisher=BBC News |date=2007-08-15 |accessdate=2009-11-03}}</ref> Alexander Verkhovsky, the head of a Moscow-based center that monitors hate crime in Russia, said, "It looks like this is the real thing. The killing is genuine ... There are similar videos from the Chechen war. But this is the first time the killing appears to have been done intentionally."<ref name="execution">{{cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/russia/article/0,,2149611,00.html|title=Student arrested over Russian neo-Nazi 'execution' video|author=Luke Harding|publisher=The Guardian|date=2007-08-16|accessdate=2007-08-16 | location=London}}</ref> A Russian neo-Nazi group called the ] claimed responsibility for the murders.


==Serbia== ==== Italy ====
], banned in 1974, drew influence from the ] and ] via ].]]
{{See also|Neo-Nazism in Serbia}}
During the 1950s, the neo-fascist ] moved closer to bourgeois conservative politics on the domestic front, which led to radical youths founding hardline splinter groups, such as ]'s ] (later succeeded by ]) and ]'s ]. These organisations were influenced by the esotericism of ] and considered the Waffen-SS and Romanian leader ] a reference, moving beyond Italian fascism. They were implicated in ] during the late 1960s to the early 1980s, such as the ]. Delle Chiaie had even assisted ] in a failed 1970 coup attempt known as the ], which attempted to reinstate a fascist state in Italy.
Neo-Nazism in Serbia is mostly based on national and religious factors.<ref> (in Serbian), ''centar za nove medije_kuda.org''</ref> ] (National Alignment), a neo-Nazi organization from the ] region, orchestrated several incidents. Charges were laid against 18 of the leading members, and each of them faced up to eight years in prison.<ref>, ''] Serbian.com'', January 9, 2006</ref> This organization is now banned in Serbia.<ref></ref>


==Sweden== ====Ireland====
The ], a small party, was active between 1968 and the late 1980s, producing neo-Nazi propaganda pamphlets and sending threatening messages to Jews and Black people living in Ireland.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.broadsheet.ie/2013/02/06/d4s-dumb-nazis/|title=The Dumb Nazis of Dublin 4|website=Broadsheet.ie|date=6 February 2013|access-date=21 February 2022|archive-date=21 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220221225302/https://www.broadsheet.ie/2013/02/06/d4s-dumb-nazis/|url-status=live}}</ref>
Neo-Nazi activities in ] have been limited to sects and groups of white-supremacist "skinheads", none of which has more than a few hundred members.<ref>Laqueur, Walter, ''Fascism: Past, Present, Future'', p.120</ref>


==== Netherlands ====
==United States==
Noteworthy neo-Nazi movements and parties in the Netherlands include the ] (NESB), the ] (NVU),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://dnpp.nl/pp/nvu|title=Nederlandse Volks Unie (NVU)|website=Documentatiecentrum Nederlandse Politieke Partijen (DNPP)|date=9 July 2021 |publisher=]|language=nl|access-date=31 May 2022|archive-date=31 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531022622/https://dnpp.nl/pp/nvu|url-status=live}}</ref> the ] (NA),<ref name=cp>{{cite web|url=https://dnpp.nl/pp/cp/geschied|title=CP (CP'86) partijgeschiedenis|website=Documentatiecentrum Nederlandse Politieke Partijen (DNPP)|date=9 July 2021 |publisher=]|language=nl|access-date=31 May 2022|archive-date=30 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220830181340/https://dnpp.nl/pp/cp/geschied|url-status=live}}</ref> and the ] (NVB). Individuals of note have included ''Waffen-SS'' volunteer and NESB founder ], war-time collaborator and NESB co-founder ], former NVU member ], the "Black Widow" ], former NVU leader ],<ref name=nvu1>{{cite web|url=https://dnpp.nl/node/2167|title=NVU partijgeschiedenis|website=Documentatiecentrum Nederlandse Politieke Partijen (DNPP)|date=9 July 2021 |publisher=]|language=nl|access-date=31 May 2022|archive-date=31 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531022628/https://dnpp.nl/node/2167|url-status=live}}</ref> CP/CP'86 member and NVB leader ], former CP/CP'86 member and NA leader ], former NVU member and "Hitler-lookalike"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.trouw.nl/nieuws/nederlandse-hitler-lookalike-vrijgesproken~b1fd4ac8/|title=Nederlandse Hitler-lookalike vrijgesproken|date=1 February 2012|publisher=]|language=nl|access-date=31 May 2022|archive-date=31 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531022615/https://www.trouw.nl/nieuws/nederlandse-hitler-lookalike-vrijgesproken~b1fd4ac8/|url-status=live}}</ref> ], former CP'86 member and current NVU leader ],<ref name=nvu1/> and former NVU member and NA leader ].
There are a number of small neo-Nazi groups in the United States. The earliest example of this ideological tendency can be traced back to 1924 and the formation of the ]. This organization merged with the ] to form the ]. The German-American Bund and similar groups achieved limited popularity in the 1930s (at one point staging a rally with over 20,000 people), but rapidly faded with the onset of ]. The groups either disbanded or were dismantled by force of law (such as the 1942 sedition trial{{Clarify|date=April 2011}}) during the war period. After the war, new organizations formed, with varying degrees of support for Nazi principles.


Both the ]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aivd.nl/onderwerpen/extremisme/documenten/publicaties/2018/10/02/rechts-extremisme-in-nederland-een-fenomeen-in-beweging|title=AIVD-publicatie 'Rechts-extremisme in Nederland, een fenomeen in beweging'|date=2 October 2018|publisher=]|language=nl|access-date=31 May 2022|archive-date=29 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129032546/https://www.aivd.nl/onderwerpen/extremisme/documenten/publicaties/2018/10/02/rechts-extremisme-in-nederland-een-fenomeen-in-beweging|url-status=live}}</ref> and non-governmental initiatives such as the far-left ] research neo-Nazism and other forms of political extremism and have attested to the local presence of international movements such as Blood & Honour,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kafka.nl/organisatie/blood-honour/|title=Blood & Honour Archieven – Kafka|publisher=]|language=nl|access-date=31 May 2022|archive-date=31 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531022617/https://kafka.nl/organisatie/blood-honour/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://kafka.nl/organisatie/blood-honour-nederland/|title=Blood & Honour Nederland Archieven – Kafka|publisher=]|language=nl|access-date=31 May 2022|archive-date=31 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531022619/https://kafka.nl/organisatie/blood-honour-nederland/|url-status=live}}</ref> Combat 18,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kafka.nl/organisatie/combat-18-c18/|title=Combat 18 Archieven – Kafka|publisher=]|language=nl|access-date=31 May 2022|archive-date=31 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531024125/https://kafka.nl/organisatie/combat-18-c18/|url-status=live}}</ref> the ],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kafka.nl/organisatie/racial-volunteer-force-rvf/|title=Racial Volunteer Force Archieven – Kafka|publisher=]|language=nl|access-date=31 May 2022|archive-date=3 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220603054112/https://kafka.nl/organisatie/racial-volunteer-force-rvf/|url-status=live}}</ref> and ],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ad.nl/binnenland/experts-maken-zich-zorgen-om-nieuwe-generatie-nederlandse-neonazis~a22b106f/|title=Experts maken zich zorgen om nieuwe generatie Nederlandse neonazi's|last=Rosman|first=Cyril|date=21 January 2021|publisher=]|language=nl|access-date=31 May 2022|archive-date=31 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531022615/https://www.ad.nl/binnenland/experts-maken-zich-zorgen-om-nieuwe-generatie-nederlandse-neonazis~a22b106f/|url-status=live}}</ref> and expressed concern at the online dissemination of alt-right and ] thought in the Netherlands.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aivd.nl/actueel/nieuws/2022/04/28/aivd-jaarverslag-2021-zorgen-over-verdeeldheid-en-verharding-in-de-samenleving|title=AIVD-jaarverslag 2021: zorgen over verdeeldheid en verharding in de samenleving|publisher=]|language=nl|date=28 April 2022|access-date=31 May 2022|archive-date=31 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531022617/https://www.aivd.nl/actueel/nieuws/2022/04/28/aivd-jaarverslag-2021-zorgen-over-verdeeldheid-en-verharding-in-de-samenleving|url-status=live}}</ref>
The ], founded in 1958 by ] and ] countered racial integration in the American South with Nazi-inspired publications and iconography. The ] founded by ] in 1959 achieved high-profile coverage in the press through their public demonstrations.<ref>Jeffrey Kaplan. '']: A Sourcebook on the Radical Racist Right''. Rowman Altamira, 2000. pp 1–3.</ref>


==== Poland ====
Organizations which report upon American neo-Nazi activities include the ] and ]. While a small minority of American neo-Nazis draw public attention, most operate ], so they can recruit, organize and raise funds without interference or harassment.
] in November 2015]]


Under the ] promoting any totalitarian system such as ], ], or ], as well as inciting violence and/or racial hatred is illegal.<ref>] (Dz.U. z 1997 r. Nr 78, poz. 483)</ref> This was further re-enforced in the ] where discrediting any group or persons on national, religious, or racial grounds carries a sentence of 3 years.<ref>] (Dz.U. z 2017 r. poz. 2204, z późn. zm.; Art 256 & Art 257)</ref>
The ] guarantees ], which allows political organizations great latitude in expressing Nazi, racist, anti-Semitic, homophobic, and, to an unaffiliated extent, ] views. A First Amendment landmark was the "]", in which neo-Nazis threatened to march in a predominantly Jewish suburb of Chicago. The march never took place in Skokie, but the court ruling allowed the neo-Nazis to stage a series of demonstrations in the Chicago area. Neo-Nazis are known to attack and harass ]s, ]s, ], ]s, ], ]s, ], ], and people with different political or religious opinions. American neo-Nazi groups often operate websites, occasionally stage public demonstrations, and maintain ties to groups in Europe and elsewhere.<ref>George Michael, ''The Enemy of My Enemy: The Alarming Convergence of Militant Islam and the Extreme Right'', Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2006</ref>


Although several small far-right and anti-semitic organisations exist, most notably ] and ] (both of which exist legally), they frequently adhere to ] and ], in which Nazism is generally considered to be against ] principles, and although they are classed as ] and ] movements, they are at the same time considered anti-Nazi. Some of their elements may resemble neo-Nazi features, but these groups frequently dissociate themselves from Nazi elements, claiming that such acts are unpatriotic and they argue that Nazism misappropriated or slightly altered several pre-existing symbols and features, such as distinguishing the ] from the ].<ref name="dziennik.pl(2008-06-21)">PAP (2008-06-21), ''Dziennik.pl'' Kraj. Retrieved 25 January 2013.</ref>
==See also==

{{div col |cols=3}}
Self-declared neo-Nazi movements in Poland frequently treat Polish culture and traditions with contempt, are ] and translate various texts from German, meaning they are considered movements favouring ].<ref>{{cite book|author= Olgierd Grott|title= Faszyści i narodowi socjaliści w Polsce| publisher= Nomos|location= Kraków|year= 2007 |page= 344|isbn= 978-83-60490-19-8}}</ref>
*'']''

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According to several reporter investigations, the Polish government turns a blind eye to these groups, and they are free to spread their ideology, frequently dismissing their existence as ], dismissing acts political provocations, deeming them too insignificant to pose a threat, or attempting to justify or diminish the seriousness of their actions.<ref>{{Cite web| url=https://wiadomosci.wp.pl/polscy-neonazisci-zdemaskowani-sympatycy-pis-widza-w-tym-spisek-6212049554433665a| title=Polscy neonaziści zdemaskowani. Sympatycy PiS widzą w tym spisek| date=2018-01-22| access-date=30 August 2022| archive-date=5 August 2020| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805195343/https://wiadomosci.wp.pl/polscy-neonazisci-zdemaskowani-sympatycy-pis-widza-w-tym-spisek-6212049554433665a| url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.tvn24.pl/superwizjer-w-tvn24,149,m/superwizjer-tvn-z-kamera-w-srodowisku-polskich-neonazistow,807953.html | title="Za Hitlera i naszą ojczyznę, ukochaną Polskę". Reporterzy przeniknęli do środowiska neonazistów | date=20 January 2018 | access-date=30 August 2022 | archive-date=2 September 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190902091100/https://www.tvn24.pl/superwizjer-w-tvn24,149,m/superwizjer-tvn-z-kamera-w-srodowisku-polskich-neonazistow,807953.html | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{citation |title= Sieg heil! Neonazizm w Polsce ma się dobrze. Harłukowicz tropi faszystowskie kapele |author= Gazeta Wyborcza |access-date= 2018-07-18 |url= https://wyborcza.pl/duzyformat/7,127290,21574114,sieg-heil-neonazizm-w-polsce-ma-sie-dobrze-harlukowicz.html |language= pl |author-link= Gazeta Wyborcza |archive-date= 19 July 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180719000128/https://wyborcza.pl/duzyformat/7,127290,21574114,sieg-heil-neonazizm-w-polsce-ma-sie-dobrze-harlukowicz.html |url-status= live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://wroclaw.wyborcza.pl/wroclaw/7,35771,23190155,niemieccy-i-polscy-neonazisci-uczcza-na-granicy-rocznice-urodzin.html |title=Niemieccy i polscy neonaziści uczczą na granicy rocznicę urodzin Hitlera |language=pl |author=Jacek Harłukowicz |author2=Michał Kokot |date=26 March 2018 |access-date=30 August 2022 |archive-date=1 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191001101959/https://wroclaw.wyborcza.pl/wroclaw/7,35771,23190155,niemieccy-i-polscy-neonazisci-uczcza-na-granicy-rocznice-urodzin.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
*'']''

*]
==== Russia ====
*]
{{Main|Neo-Nazism in Russia}}
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{{Further|Racism in Russia|Radical nationalism in Russia|Rashism|Antisemitism in the Soviet Union#Right-wing movements}}
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]
* ]

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Some observers have noted a subjective irony of Russians embracing Nazism, because one of Hitler's ambitions at the start of ] was the ] (Master Plan East) which envisaged to exterminate, expel, or enslave most or all Slavs from central and eastern Europe (e.g., Russians, Ukrainians, Poles etc.).<ref name=William1>] (2012). '' {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201002232035/https://books.google.com/books?id=zBgr3kL-PP4C&pg=&dq&hl=en |date=2 October 2020 }}''. Cambridge University Press. p. 313. {{ISBN|0-521-19190-4}}</ref> At the end of the ], over 25 million Soviet citizens had died.<ref>" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210105171542/https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/soviet_german_war_01.shtml |date=5 January 2021 }}". BBC – History.</ref>
*]

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The first reports of ] organizations in the USSR appeared in the second half of the 1950s. In some cases, the participants were attracted primarily by the aesthetics of Nazism (rituals, parades, uniforms, the cult of physical fitness, architecture). Other organizations were more interested in the ideology of the Nazis, their program, and the image of ].<ref name=Charn>''Чарный, Семен Александрович'' // Неприкосновенный запас. 2004. № 5 (37).</ref> The formation of neo-Nazism in the USSR dates back to the turn of the 1960s and 1970s; during this period, these organizations still preferred to operate underground.
*]

*]
Modern ] took shape in the second half of the 1970s<ref>{{cite web|last=Shizhensky |first=Roman |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0ndN7PUGBnw |title=Современное "родноверие": реперные точки |language=ru |website=|publisher=Доклад на круглом столе: «Славянское язычество XXI века: проблемы генезиса и развития», held on February 15, 2020 at the Nizhny Novgorod State Pedagogical University named after Kozma Minin |date=2020|accessdate=}}</ref> and is associated with the activities of supporters of antisemitism, especially the Moscow Arabist ] (also known as "Velemir") and the former dissident and neo-Nazi activist ] (also known as "Dobroslav").
*]

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In Soviet times, the founder of the movement of ] (a branch of Slavic neopaganism) Viktor Bezverkhy (Ostromysl) revered Hitler and ] and propagated ] and ] in a narrow circle of his students, calling for the deliverance of mankind from "inferior offspring", allegedly arising from ]s. He called such "inferior people" "bastards", referred to them as "]s, Indians or gypsies and ]es" and believed that they prevent society from achieving social justice.
*]

*'']''
The first public manifestations of neo-Nazis in Russia took place in 1981 in ], and then in ], ], ], and Leningrad.<ref name=obezyana>'']'' // ]. 2017. № 42 (2619). 21.04.2017. P. 15—18.</ref><ref>''Alexander Tarasov''
*]
// ]. 2017. № 45 (2622). 28.04.2017. С. 11—14.</ref>
*]

*]
In 1982, on Hitler's birthday, a group of Moscow high school students held a Nazi demonstration on ].<ref name=obezyana/>

] (RNE) was a Neo-Nazi group founded in 1990 and was led by ], who claimed to have members in 250 cities. RNE adopted the swastika as its symbol, and sees itself as the avant-garde of a coming national revolution. It is critical of other major far-right organizations, such as the ] (LDPR). As of 1997, the members RNE were called Soratnik (comrades in arms), receive combat training at locations near Moscow, and many of them work as security officers or armed guards.<ref>Laqueur, Walter, ''Fascism: Past, Present, Future'', 1997, p. 189</ref> RNE was banned in 1999 by Moscow's court in 1999,<ref name="Saunders">{{cite book | last1=Saunders | first1=R.A. | last2=Strukov | first2=V. | title=Historical Dictionary of the Russian Federation | publisher=Scarecrow Press | year=2010 | isbn=978-0-8108-7460-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l_uAoNJiOMwC&pg=PA69 | access-date=2022-03-09 | page=69 | archive-date=9 March 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220309054839/https://books.google.com/books?id=l_uAoNJiOMwC&pg=PA69 | url-status=live }}</ref> after which the group faded away.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/d90d/870620f804f298bf834d50ca3f2477a15af6.pdf|title=The European and Russian Far Right as Political Actors: Comparative Approach|year=2019|doi=10.5539/JPL.V12N2P86|s2cid=189962172|quote=Soon afterwards the Moscow headquarter of the party was closed and the organization practically liquidated|last1=Ekaterina|first1=Ivanova|last2=Andrey|first2=Kinyakin|last3=Sergey|first3=Stepanov|journal=Journal of Politics and Law|volume=12|issue=2|page=86|access-date=10 March 2022|archive-date=17 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220317182114/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/d90d/870620f804f298bf834d50ca3f2477a15af6.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://apnews.com/article/10a4f5b5397a4ca795afac58f900ab61|title=Neo-Nazis Banned in Russian Area|date=1999-11-26|access-date=10 March 2022|archive-date=9 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220309065123/https://apnews.com/article/10a4f5b5397a4ca795afac58f900ab61|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2007, it was claimed that Russian neo-Nazis accounted for "half of the world's total".<ref>" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220717215626/https://abcnews.go.com/Nightline/story?id=3718255&page=1#.UCDbiaA4SuI |date=17 July 2022 }}." '']''. October 11, 2007.</ref><ref>" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220717215622/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-medvedev-nationalism/russias-medvedev-calls-for-crackdown-on-neo-nazis-idUSTRE70G4DP20110117 |date=17 July 2022 }}". Reuters. January 17, 2011.</ref>

On 15 August 2007, Russian authorities arrested a student for allegedly posting a video on the Internet which appears to show two migrant workers being beheaded in front of a red and black swastika flag.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6946810.stm |title=Russian held over 'deaths' video |publisher=BBC News |date=2007-08-15 |access-date=2009-11-03 |archive-date=30 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090930142613/https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6946810.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> Alexander Verkhovsky, the head of a Moscow-based center that monitors ] in Russia, said, "It looks like this is the real thing. The killing is genuine ... There are similar videos from the Chechen war. But this is the first time the killing appears to have been done intentionally."<ref name="execution">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/russia/article/0,,2149611,00.html|title=Student arrested over Russian neo-Nazi 'execution' video|author=Luke Harding|work=The Guardian|date=2007-08-16|access-date=2007-08-16|location=London|archive-date=20 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210220160403/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/aug/16/russia.lukeharding|url-status=live}}</ref>

] is a neo-Nazi terrorist group in Russia found by Russian officials to have been tied to multiple mass murder plots. AWDR was founded by former members of defunct ] responsible for 27 murders and AWDR is connected to local chapter of the Order of Nine Angles responsible for rapes, ritual murders and drug trafficking. The Russian authorities raided an Atomwaffen compound in ] and uncovered illegal weapons and explosives.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.itatiaia.com.br/noticia/casal-de-adoradores-de-sata-sao-acusados-de-homicidios-na-russia | title=Casal de adoradores do diabo é acusado de sacrificar duas pessoas em rituais na Rússia | language=pt | trans-title=Devil-worshipping couple accused of sacrificing two people in rituals in Russia | work=] | date=August 21, 2021 | access-date=26 September 2022 | archive-date=26 September 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220926135810/https://www.itatiaia.com.br/noticia/casal-de-adoradores-de-sata-sao-acusados-de-homicidios-na-russia | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=Fontaka>{{cite news|date=August 21, 2021|title=Меру пресечения сатанистам по делу об убийстве петербуржца изберут в Приозерске|work=]|url=https://www.fontanka.ru/2021/08/20/70089818/}}</ref><ref name=Fontaka2>{{cite news|date=August 21, 2021|title=СК задержал еще двоих по делу сатанистов, совершавших ритуальные убийства в Ленобласти. И показал следственный эксперимент|work=]|url=https://www.fontanka.ru/2021/08/20/70089473/}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=October 20, 2021|title="Атомная дивизия": в Бурятии задержаны неонацисты, подражавшие банде из США|work=]|url=https://www.gazeta.ru/social/2021/10/29/14149513.shtml}}</ref>

==== Serbia ====
An example of neo-Nazism in Serbia is the group ]. In 2006 charges were brought against 18 leading members.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.b92.net/eng/news/crimes.php?yyyy=2009&mm=03&dd=27&nav_id=58116 |title=Embassy: Neo-Nazi leader received Italian visa |date=27 March 2009 |website=b92 |access-date=16 July 2021 |archive-date=2 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201202013214/https://www.b92.net/eng/news/crimes.php?yyyy=2009&mm=03&dd=27&nav_id=58116 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7033156.stm |publisher=BBC News |title=Serbian police arrest neo-Nazis |date=8 October 2007 |access-date=16 July 2021 |archive-date=25 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125144418/https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7033156.stm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/serbian/news/2006/01/060109_stroj_ns.shtml |title="Nacionalni stroj" pred sudom |last=Mihailovic |first=Gordana |website=] Serbian.com |date=9 January 2006 |access-date=16 July 2021 |archive-date=9 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171109011804/https://www.bbc.co.uk/serbian/news/2006/01/060109_stroj_ns.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> Besides political parties, there are a few militant neo-Nazi organizations in Serbia, such as ] and ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.blic.rs/vesti/hronika/neonacisti-formiraju-borbene-odrede/kkf2s26 |title=Neonacisti formiraju borbene odrede |date=11 April 2013 |website=blic |last=Cvijic |first=Vuk Z |access-date=16 July 2021 |archive-date=4 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804104531/https://www.blic.rs/vesti/hronika/neonacisti-formiraju-borbene-odrede/kkf2s26 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Slovakia ====
{{main|Kotlebists – People's Party Our Slovakia#Ties to fascism and far-right extremism}}
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|footer=From top: ] flag, Kotleba's former flag, Kotleba's current flag}} -->

The Slovak political party ], which is represented in the ] and ], is widely characterized as neo-Nazi.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Benakis |first1=Theodoros |title=The darkest side of Dark Europe: Neo-Nazis in the European Parliament |url=https://www.europeaninterest.eu/article/darkest-side-dark-europe-neo-nazis-european-parliament/ |access-date=15 March 2020 |work=European Interest |date=8 May 2019 |archive-date=4 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804145419/https://www.europeaninterest.eu/article/darkest-side-dark-europe-neo-nazis-european-parliament/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Walker |first1=Shaun |title=How a Slovakian neo-Nazi got elected |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/feb/14/how-a-slovakian-neo-nazi-got-elected |access-date=15 March 2020 |work=The Guardian |date=14 February 2019 |archive-date=12 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200412023941/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/feb/14/how-a-slovakian-neo-nazi-got-elected |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Stone |first1=Jon |title=Neo-Nazis on course to win second place in Slovakia election next month |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/neo-nazi-slovakia-election-results-kotlebovci-lsns-poll-a9281301.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220618/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/neo-nazi-slovakia-election-results-kotlebovci-lsns-poll-a9281301.html |archive-date=18 June 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=15 March 2020 |work=] |date=13 January 2020 |language=en}}</ref> Kotleba has softened its image over time and now disputes that is fascist or neo-Nazi, even suing a media outlet that described it as neo-Nazi. As of 2020, the party spokesperson was Ondrej Durica, a former member of the neo-Nazi band {{lang|sl|Biely Odpor}} (White Resistance). 2020 candidate Andrej Medvecky was convicted of attacking a black man while shouting racial slurs; another candidate, Anton Grňo, was fined for making a ]. The party still celebrates 14 March, the anniversary of the founding of the fascist first ].<ref name=fp>{{cite news |last1=Colborne |first1=Michael |title=Marian Kotleba Wants to Make Slovakia Fascist Again |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/02/28/marian-kotleba-slovakia-election-right-wing-fascism/ |access-date=15 March 2020 |work=Foreign Policy |date=28 February 2020 |archive-date=6 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306184306/https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/02/28/marian-kotleba-slovakia-election-right-wing-fascism/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2020, party leader ] was facing trial for writing checks for 1,488 euros, alleged to be a reference to ] and ].<ref>{{cite news |title=Kotleba may be jailed for up to 8 years for controversial cheques |url=https://spectator.sme.sk/c/22351376/kotleba-may-be-jailed-for-up-to-8-years-for-controversial-cheques.html |access-date=15 March 2020 |work=] |date=5 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=6 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306143724/https://spectator.sme.sk/c/22351376/kotleba-may-be-jailed-for-up-to-8-years-for-controversial-cheques.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Spain ====
]
Spanish neo-Nazism is often connected to the country's ] and ] past, and nurtured by the ideology of the ].<ref>], ''Ultrapatriotas'', Crítica, Barcelona 2003. {{ISBN|84-8432-430-3}}</ref><ref>], ''Ramiro Ledesma Ramos y el fascismo español'', Editorial Síntesis, Madrid 2005. {{ISBN|84-9756-313-1}}</ref>

According to a study by the ], ] are the ones who have suffered the most attacks by neo-Nazi groups, followed by ] and ]. They have also caused deaths in the anti-fascist group, such as the murder of the Madrid-born sixteen-year-old ] on 11 November 2007, stabbed with a knife by a soldier in the ] (]).<ref>], ''El fascismo'', Madrid, Planeta, 1995. {{ISBN|84-08-01470-6}}</ref>

There have been other neo-Nazi cultural organizations such as the ] (CEDADE) and the Circle of Indo-European Studies (CEI).<ref>], ''Los hijos del 20-N. Historia violenta del fascismo español'', Ediciones Temas de hoy, Madrid 1996. {{ISBN|84-7880-700-4}} Primera edición: septiembre de 1993 {{ISBN|84-7880-305-X}}</ref>

The extreme right has little electoral support, with the presence of these groups of 0.36% (if the ] (PxC) party is excluded with 66007 votes (0.39%), according to the voting data of the European elections of 2014. The first extreme right party ] obtains 0.13% of the votes (21 577 votes), after doubling its results after the crisis; this is followed by the far-right party La España en Marcha (LEM) with 0.1% of the votes, ] (DN) of the far-right with 0.08%, ] (MSR) (far-right) with 0.05% of the votes.<ref>], ''Las derechas españolas en el siglo XX: authoritarismo, fascismo y golpismo'', Editorial Sistema, Madrid 1986. {{ISBN|84-86497-01-9}}</ref>

==== Sweden ====
Neo-Nazi activities in Sweden have previously been limited to ] groups, few of which have a membership over a few hundred members.<ref>Laqueur, Walter, ''Fascism: Past, Present, Future'', p. 120</ref> The main neo-Nazi organization is the ], a political movement which engages in martial arts training and paramilitary exercises<ref>Potter, Nicholas (6 January 2021) {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613215416/https://www.belltower.news/nordic-resistance-the-pan-european-ikea-fascism-of-nordiska-motstandsroerelsen-109787/ |date=13 June 2021 }} ''Belltower.News''</ref> and which has been called a terrorist group.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.etc.se/inrikes/terrorforskare-nmr-definitivt-en-terrorgrupp|title=Terrorforskare: "NMR definitivt en terrorgrupp"|last=Ankersen|first=Dag|date=2017-05-04|work=ETC|access-date=2018-07-23|language=sv|archive-date=26 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226110025/https://www.etc.se/inrikes/terrorforskare-nmr-definitivt-en-terrorgrupp|url-status=live}}</ref> They are also active in ] and ]; the branch in ]&nbsp;was banned in 2019.

==== Switzerland ====
{{See also|Far-right politics in Switzerland}}
The neo-Nazi and ] scene in Switzerland has seen significant growth in the 1990s and 2000s.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fedpol.admin.ch/etc/medialib/data/sicherheit/bericht_innere_sicherheit.Par.0042.File.tmp/d_s01_s92.pdf |title=Bericht Innere Sicherheit der Schweiz 2006 |language=de |date=May 2007 |access-date=16 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071030110036/https://www.fedpol.admin.ch/etc/medialib/data/sicherheit/bericht_innere_sicherheit.Par.0042.File.tmp/d_s01_s92.pdf |archive-date=30 October 2007}}</ref> It is reflected in the foundation of the ] in 2000, which resulted in an improved organizational structure of the neo-Nazi and white supremacist scene.

==== Ukraine ====
{{Main|Far-right politics in Ukraine}}
{{See also|Racism and discrimination in Ukraine|Ukrainian nationalism}}
In 1991, the ] (SNPU) was founded.<ref>" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125223653/https://www.algemeiner.com/2013/05/24/svoboda-fuels-ukraines-growing-anti-semitism/ |date=25 January 2021 }}". '']''. 24 May 2013.</ref> The party combined ] and neo-Nazi features.<ref name="konotop">" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210211220740/https://www.jpost.com/Diaspora/Ukrainian-Jews-shocked-after-city-elects-neo-Nazi-mayor-437975 |date=11 February 2021 }}". ''The Jerusalem Post''. 21 December 2015.</ref><ref name="ibtimes"/> The SNPU was characterized as a ] party that combined elements of ] and ]. During the 1990s, it was accused of neo-Nazism due to the party's recruitment of ] and usage of neo-Nazi symbols.<ref name="umlandp412">{{cite journal|last=Umland|first=Andreas|author2=Anton Shekhovtsov|date=September–October 2013|title=Ultraright Party Politics in Post-Soviet Ukraine and the Puzzle of the Electoral Marginalism of Ukrainian Ultranationalists in 1994–2009|journal=Russian Politics and Law|volume=51|issue=5|page=41|doi=10.2753/rup1061-1940510502|s2cid=144502924}}</ref><ref name="andrusechko">Andrusechko, P. ''''. "Ukrayinsky zhurnal". Poznan, May 2009</ref><ref name="rudling13wr2">{{cite book|last=Rudling|first=Per Anders|title=The Return of the Ukrainian Far Right: The Case of VO Svoboda|url=https://www.academia.edu/2481420|publisher=Routledge|year=2013|editor=Ruth Wodak and John E. Richardson|location=New York|pages=229–247}}</ref> When ] was elected party leader in 2004, he made efforts to moderate the party's image by changing the party's name to ], changing its symbols and expelling neo-Nazi and ] groups.<ref name="osw-tadeusz2">{{cite journal|last=Olszański|first=Tadeusz A.|date=4 July 2011|title=Svoboda Party – The New Phenomenon on the Ukrainian Right-Wing Scene|url=https://www.isn.ethz.ch/Digital-Library/Publications/Detail/?lng=en&id=137051|journal=Centre for Eastern Studies|series=OSW Commentary|issue=56|page=6|access-date=27 September 2013}}</ref><ref name="umland2013rpl2">{{cite journal|last=Umland|first=Andreas|author2=Anton Shekhovstsov|year=2013|title=Ultraright Party Politics in Post-Soviet Ukraine and the Puzzle of the Electoral Marginalism of Ukraine Ultranationalists in 1994-2009.|journal=Russian Politics and Law|volume=51|issue=5|pages=33–58|doi=10.2753/rup1061-1940510502|s2cid=144502924}}</ref> Some commentators continued to consider it neo-Nazi: in 2016, '']'' reported that "in Ukrainian municipal elections ]], the neo-Nazi Svoboda party won 10 percent of the vote in ] and placed second in ]. The Svoboda party's candidate won the mayoral election in the city of ]."<ref name="nation">" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200114161138/https://www.thenation.com/article/congress-has-removed-a-ban-on-funding-neo-nazis-from-its-year-end-spending-bill/ |date=14 January 2020 }}". '']''. 14 January 2016.</ref> In 2015, the Svoboda party mayor in Konotop reportedly had the number "]" displayed on his car and refused to display the city's official flag because it contains a ], and has implied that Jews were responsible for the ].<ref name="konotop"/>

The topic of ] and its alleged relationship to neo-Nazism came to the fore in polemics about the more radical elements involved in the ] protests and subsequent ] from 2014 onward.<ref name="ibtimes">" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111224234/https://www.ibtimes.co.uk/ukraine-svoboda-party-building-close-relations-germanys-neo-nazi-npd-party-1440899 |date=11 November 2020 }}". '']''. 19 March 2014.</ref> Some Russian, Latin American, U.S. and Israeli media have portrayed the Ukrainian nationalists in the conflict as neo-Nazi.<ref>" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210212084655/https://www.salon.com/2014/02/25/is_the_us_backing_neo_nazis_in_ukraine_partner/ |date=12 February 2021 }}". '']''. 25 February 2014.</ref>

The ], founded in 2014, has been described as a far-right militia,<ref name="bbc-20140905">{{cite news |last=Keane |first=Fergal |date=5 September 2014 |title=Ukraine crisis: Heavy shelling in hours before ceasefire |work=] |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-29086403 |url-status=live |access-date= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150129082900/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-29086403 |archive-date=29 January 2015}}</ref><ref name="telegraph-20220318">{{cite news |date=18 March 2022 |title=Inside Azov, the far-Right brigade killing Russian generals and playing a PR game in the Ukraine war |newspaper=The Daily Telegraph |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/world-news/2022/03/18/inside-azov-neo-nazi-brigade-killing-russian-generals-playing/ |url-access=limited |access-date=1 April 2022 |archive-date=18 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220318224111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/world-news/2022/03/18/inside-azov-neo-nazi-brigade-killing-russian-generals-playing/ |url-status=live }}</ref> with connections to neo-Nazism<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jones |first=Seth G. |date=7 November 2018 |title=The Rise of Far-Right Extremism in the United States |url=https://www.csis.org/analysis/rise-far-right-extremism-united-states |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220212041104/https://www.csis.org/analysis/rise-far-right-extremism-united-states |archive-date=12 February 2022 |access-date= |website=] |quote=Azov Battalion, a paramilitary unit of the Ukrainian National Guard, which the FBI says is associated with neo-Nazi ideology.}}</ref> and members wearing neo-Nazi and ] symbols and regalia, as well as expressing neo-Nazi views.<ref name="parfitt">{{cite news |last1=Parfitt |first1=Tom |date=11 August 2014 |title=Ukraine crisis: the neo-Nazi brigade fighting pro-Russian separatists |work=] |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/Europe/ukraine/11025137/Ukraine-crisis-the-neo-Nazi-brigade-fighting-pro-Russian-separatists.html |url-status=dead |access-date= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180705220331/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/ukraine/11025137/Ukraine-crisis-the-neo-Nazi-brigade-fighting-pro-Russian-separatists.html |archive-date=5 July 2018}}</ref><ref name="Walker">{{cite news |last=Walker |first=Shaun |title=Azov fighters are Ukraine's greatest weapon and may be its greatest threat |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/sep/10/azov-far-right-fighters-ukraine-neo-nazis |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140910130437/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/sep/10/azov-far-right-fighters-ukraine-neo-nazis |archive-date=10 September 2014 |url-status=live |work=The Guardian |date=10 September 2014}}</ref>

According to Vyacheslav Likhachev of the {{lang|fr|]}}, members of far-right (including neo-Nazi) groups played an important role on the pro-Russian side, arguably more so than on the Ukrainian side, especially during early 2014.<ref name="Likhachev" /><ref name="Averre">{{cite book |editor1-last=Averre |editor1-first=Derek |editor2-last=Wolczuk |editor2-first=Kataryna |title=The Ukraine Conflict: Security, Identity and Politics in the Wider Europe |date=2018 |publisher=Routledge |pages=90–91}}</ref> Members and former members of the ], ] (RNU), ], and ] participated in recruitment of the separatists.<ref name="Likhachev" /><ref name="Yudina">Yudina, Natalia (2015). {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220313202440/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/313258866_Russian_Nationalists_Fight_Ukrainian_War |date=13 March 2022 }}, in: ''Journal on Baltic Security'', Volume 1, Issue 1 (]). pp.47–69. ].</ref><ref name="washingtonp">{{cite news |date=26 June 2014 |title=Is anyone in charge of Russian nationalists fighting in Ukraine? |newspaper=] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2014/06/26/is-anyone-in-charge-of-russian-nationalists-fighting-in-ukraine/ |last=Laruelle |first=Marlene |access-date=3 March 2022 |archive-date=1 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301032420/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2014/06/26/is-anyone-in-charge-of-russian-nationalists-fighting-in-ukraine/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Saunders |first1=Robert |title=Historical Dictionary of the Russian Federation |date=2019 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishing |pages=581–582}}</ref> A former RNU member, ], was founder of the Donbas People's Militia and first "governor" of the Donetsk People's Republic.<ref name="Likhachev" /><ref>]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140317211808/https://www.newrepublic.com/article/117048/crimean-referendum-was-electoral-farce |date=17 March 2014 }}. '']''. 17 March 2014.</ref> RNU is particularly linked to the ],<ref name="Likhachev" /> one of a number of separatist units described as "pro-Tsarist" and "extremist" Orthodox nationalists.<ref name="Kuzio110">{{cite book |last1=Kuzio |first1=Taras |title=Ukraine: Democratization, Corruption, and the New Russian Imperialism |date=2015 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |pages=110–111|quote=the Russian Orthodox Army, one of a number of separatist units fighting for the "Orthodox faith," revival of the Tsarist Empire, and the Russkii Mir. Igor Girkin (Strelkov ), who led the Russian capture of Slovyansk in April 2014, was an example of the Russian nationalists who have sympathies to pro-Tsarist and extremist Orthodox groups in Russia. ... the Russian Imperial Movement ... has recruited thousands of volunteers to fight with the separatists. ... such as the Russian Party of National Unity who use a modified swastika as their party symbol and Dugin's Eurasianist movement. The paramilitaries of both of these ... are fighting alongside separatists.}}</ref><ref name="Likhachev" /> 'Rusich' is part of the ], a Russian mercenary group in Ukraine which has been linked to far-right extremism.<ref name="Guardian Wagner">{{cite news |title=Russian mercenaries in Ukraine linked to far-right extremists |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/mar/20/russian-mercenaries-in-ukraine-linked-to-far-right-extremists |work=] |last=Townsend |first=Mark |date=20 March 2022 |quote=Russian mercenaries fighting in Ukraine, including the Kremlin-backed Wagner Group, have been linked to far-right extremism ... Much of the extremist content, posted on Telegram and the Russian social media platform VKontakte (VK), relates to a far-right unit within the Wagner Group called Rusich ... One post on the messaging app Telegram, dated 15 March, shows the flag of the Russian Imperial Movement (RIM), a white-supremacist paramilitary ... Another recent VK posting lists Rusich as part of a coalition of separatist groups and militias including the extreme far-right group, Russian National Unity. |access-date=26 April 2022 |archive-date=27 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220327141257/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/mar/20/russian-mercenaries-in-ukraine-linked-to-far-right-extremists |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Smid">Šmíd, Tomáš & Šmídová, Alexandra. (2021). . ''Czech Journal of International Relations'', Volume 56, Issue 2. pp.48–49. Quote: "Another group of Russian citizens who became involved in the armed conflict in Eastern Ukraine were members of the so-called right-wing units of the Russian Spring."</ref> Afterward, the pro-Russian far-right groups became less important in Donbas and the need for Russian radical nationalists started to disappear.<ref name="Likhachev">{{cite web |first=Vyacheslav |last=Likhachev |url=https://www.ifri.org/sites/default/files/atoms/files/rnv95_uk_likhachev_far-right_radicals_final.pdf |title=The Far Right in the Conflict between Russia and Ukraine |date=July 2016 |publisher=] |access-date=6 March 2022 |archive-date=8 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108002745/https://www.ifri.org/sites/default/files/atoms/files/rnv95_uk_likhachev_far-right_radicals_final.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

The radical nationalist group ], whose members openly expressed neo-Nazi views, gained notoriety in 2018 for being involved in violent attacks on ] camps.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203110137/https://www.rferl.org/a/ukrainian-militia-behind-brutal-romany-attacks-getting-state-funds/29290844.html |date=3 February 2021 }}, ] (14 June 2018)</ref><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129101946/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-44593995 |date=29 January 2021 }}, ] (24 June 2018)</ref><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210220162432/https://www.unian.info/society/10156238-sbu-opens-case-against-c14-nationalists-for-detention-of-brazilian-mercenary-lawyer.html |date=20 February 2021 }}, ] (18 June 2018)</ref>

==== United Kingdom ====
{{See also|Far-right politics in the United Kingdom|List of British fascist parties}}
] marchers in the 1970s. It is a far-right, ] ].]]
In 1962, the British neo-Nazi activist ] formed the ] (NSM) which later became the ] (BM) in 1968.<ref name="Times">{{cite news | url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/opinion/obituaries/article2085009.ece | title=Colin Jordan: leader of the far Right | newspaper=] | date=16 April 2009 | access-date=22 February 2015 | archive-date=3 June 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150603113022/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/opinion/obituaries/article2085009.ece | url-status=live }}{{subscription required}}</ref><ref>R. Hill & A. Bell, ''The Other Face of Terror – Inside Europe's Neo-Nazi Network'', London: Collins, 1988, p. 116</ref>

], a long-term neo-Nazi activist in the UK, led a break-away from the ] to form an openly neo-Nazi party named the ].<ref>{{cite book|title=Contemporary British Fascism: The British National Party and its Quest for Legitimacy|url=https://archive.org/details/contemporarybrit00cops_664|url-access=limited|last=Copsey|first=Nigel|year=2004|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-1-4039-0214-6|pages=–25}}</ref> In the 1990s, the party formed a group for protecting its meetings named ],<ref name="Ryan 1998">{{cite news |last1=Ryan |first1=Nick |title=Combat 18: Memoirs of a street-fighting man |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/combat-18-memoirs-of-a-street-fighting-man-1142204.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220618/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/combat-18-memoirs-of-a-street-fighting-man-1142204.html |archive-date=18 June 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=26 June 2018 |work=] |date=1 February 1998}}</ref> which later grew too violent for the party to control and began to attack members of the BNP who were not perceived as supportive of neo-Nazism.<ref>{{cite book|title=Contemporary British Fascism: The British National Party and its Quest for Legitimacy|url=https://archive.org/details/contemporarybrit00cops_664|url-access=limited|last=Copsey|first=Nigel|year=2004|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-1-4039-0214-6|page=}}</ref> Under the subsequent leadership of ], the BNP distanced itself from neo-Nazism, although many members (including Griffin himself) have been accused of links to other neo-Nazi groups.<ref>{{cite book|last=Goodwin|first=Matthew J.|title=New British Fascism: Rise of the British National Party|year=2011|publisher=Routledge|location=London and New York|isbn=978-0-415-46500-7|pages=55–56}}</ref>

] is a neo-Nazi terrorist organization in the United Kingdom, linked to international ] network. Multiple members have been jailed for plotting terror attacks against minorities. Sonnenkrieg Division has been proscribed as a terrorist organization in United Kingdom and Australia. Sonnenkrieg Division is also closely tied with the ] linked to the ].<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-48672929 | title=Teenage neo-Nazis jailed over terror offences | work=] | date=June 18, 2019 | access-date=June 18, 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200310211745/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-48672929 | archive-date=March 10, 2020 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Australia">{{cite web | url=https://www.dw.com/en/australia-bans-far-right-extremist-sonnenkrieg-division/a-56947377 | title=Australia bans far-right extremist Sonnenkrieg Division | work=] | date=March 22, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-53141759 | title=Order of Nine Angles: What is this obscure Nazi Satanist group? | work=] | quote=The Sonnenkrieg Division, with its glorification of sexual violence, highlights another disturbing theme relating to the ONA – sexual offending as a way of undermining social norms....The authorities are concerned by the number of paedophiles associated with the ONA, taking the group into a different area of law enforcement activity. | date=June 29, 2020}}</ref>

The UK has also been a source of neo-Nazi music, such as the band ].<ref>{{Cite book|page=57|title=Oy Oy Oy Gevalt! Jews and Punk: Jews and Punk|last=Croland|first=Michael|date=2016|publisher=ABC-CLIO}}</ref>

=== Asia ===
==== Iran ====
{{See also|SUMKA|Aria Party|Azure Party}}
]]]
Several neo-Nazi groups were active in Iran, although they are now defunct. Advocates of Nazism continue to exist in Iran and are mainly based on the Internet.<ref>{{citation|author=Maryam Sinaiee|title=Iranian ministry denies authorising neo-Nazi website|date=24 November 2010|url=https://www.thenational.ae/world/mena/iranian-ministry-denies-authorising-neo-nazi-website-1.512238|work=The National|access-date=5 October 2017|archive-date=9 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171009092333/https://www.thenational.ae/world/mena/iranian-ministry-denies-authorising-neo-nazi-website-1.512238|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{citation|author=Lorena Galliot|title=Who's behind the 'Association of Iranian Nazis'|date=18 November 2010|url=https://observers.france24.com/en/20101118-association-iranian-nazis-aryan-race-persian-nationalism|work=France 24|access-date=5 October 2017|archive-date=3 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171003124522/https://observers.france24.com/en/20101118-association-iranian-nazis-aryan-race-persian-nationalism|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Israel ====
{{see also|Jewish fascism|l1=Fascism in Israel}}
Neo-Nazi activity is not common or widespread in Israel, and the few reported activities have all been the work of extremists, who were punished severely. One notable case is that of ], a cell in ] made up of eight teenage immigrants from the former Soviet Union who had been attacking foreign workers and gay people, and vandalizing synagogues with Nazi images.<ref name="BBC Israeli">{{cite news|title=Israeli 'neo-Nazi gang' arrested|date=9 September 2007|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6985808.stm|publisher=BBC News|access-date=11 September 2007|archive-date=8 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111108061244/https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6985808.stm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Asser">{{cite news|title=Israeli anger over 'Nazi' group|author=Martin Asser|publisher=BBC News|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6987848.stm|date=10 September 2007|access-date=11 September 2007|archive-date=4 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101204162956/https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6987848.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> These neo-Nazis were reported to have operated in cities across Israel, and have been described as being influenced by the rise of neo-Nazism in Europe;<ref name="BBC Israeli" /><ref name="Asser" /><ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6989776.stm |title=Middle East &#124; Israeli neo-Nazi suspects charged |publisher=BBC News |date=2007-09-11 |access-date=2009-11-03 |archive-date=7 January 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090107075148/https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6989776.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> mostly influenced by similar movements in Russia and Ukraine, as the rise of the phenomenon is widely credited to immigrants from those two states, the largest sources of emigration to Israel.<ref>{{cite news|title=Israel's Unbelievable Neo-Nazis|date=8 December 2008|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ezXm9jkukBo|publisher=Journeyman Pictures|access-date=26 March 2015|archive-date=11 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170111135339/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ezXm9jkukBo|url-status=live}}</ref> Widely publicized arrests have led to a call to reform the ] to permit the revocation of Israeli citizenship for—and the subsequent deportation of—neo-Nazis.<ref name="Asser" />

==== Japan ====
Since 1982, the neo-Nazi ] has operated in Japan, currently under the leadership of Kazunari Yamada, who has praised Hitler and denied the Holocaust.<ref>{{Cite news|last=McCurry|first=Justin|date=9 September 2014|title=Neo-Nazi photos pose headache for Shinzo Abe|work=]|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/sep/09/neo-nazi-photos-pose-headache-for-shinzo-abe|access-date=18 June 2021}}</ref>

==== Mongolia ====
]
From 2008, Mongolian neo-Nazi groups have defaced buildings in ], smashed Chinese shopkeepers' windows, and killed Chinese immigrants. The neo-Nazi Mongols' targets for violence are Chinese, ],<ref name="naive">{{Cite news|url=https://ubpost.mongolnews.mn/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=2446&Itemid=42|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110512064316/https://ubpost.mongolnews.mn/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=2446&Itemid=42|archive-date=2011-05-12|title=The Naivety of Mongolia's Nazis|first=Kirril|last=Sheilds|date=2008-10-04|access-date=2010-08-08|work=]}}</ref> Mongol women who have sex with Chinese men, and ] people.<ref name="mnn">{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/aug/02/mongolia-far-right|title=Mongolian neo-Nazis: Anti-Chinese sentiment fuels rise of ultra-nationalism|first=Tania|last=Branigan|location=Ulan Bator|date=2010-08-02|access-date=2010-08-08|newspaper=The Guardian|archive-date=15 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130915190700/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/aug/02/mongolia-far-right|url-status=live}}</ref> They wear Nazi uniforms and revere the ] and ]. Though Tsagaan Khass leaders say they do not support violence, they are self-proclaimed Nazis. "Adolf Hitler was someone we respect. He taught us how to preserve national identity," said the 41-year-old co-founder, who calls himself Big Brother. "We don't agree with his extremism and starting the Second World War. We are against all those killings, but we support his ideology. We support nationalism rather than fascism." Some have ascribed it to poor ].<ref name="naive" />

==== Taiwan ====
{{Main|National Socialism Association}}
The ] (NSA) is a neo-Nazi political organisation founded in ] in September 2006 by Hsu Na-chi ({{zh|t=許娜琦|link=no}}), at that time a 22-year-old female ] graduate of ]. The NSA has an explicit stated goal of obtaining the power to govern the state. The ] condemned the National Socialism Association on 13 March 2007 for championing the former ] dictator and blaming democracy for ] in Taiwan.<ref name=Haaretz837967> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100304123401/https://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/837697.html |date=4 March 2010 }} '']'' (], the ]). 14 March 2007. Accessed 23 October 2015.</ref>

==== Turkey ====
{{See also|Turkish nationalism}}
A neo-Nazi group existed in 1969 in ], when a group of former ] members (precursor party of the ]) founded the association "]" (''National Activity and Vigorous Development''). The club maintained two combat units. The members wore ] uniforms and used the ]. One of the leaders (Gündüz Kapancıoğlu) was re-admitted to the Nationalist Movement Party in 1975.<ref>Jürgen Roth and Kamil Taylan: ''Die Türkei – Republik unter Wölfen''. Bornheim-Merten, p. 119.</ref>

Apart from ]<ref name="Political Terrorism p. 674">Political Terrorism, by Alex Peter Schmid, A. J. Jongman, Michael Stohl, Transaction Publishers, 2005, p. 674</ref><ref>''Annual of Power and Conflict'', by Institute for the Study of Conflict, National Strategy Information Center, 1982, p. 148</ref><ref name="Fascism 1993, p. 171">''The Nature of Fascism'', by Roger Griffin, Routledge, 1993, p. 171</ref><ref name="Terrorist Groups 2003, p. 45">''Political Parties and Terrorist Groups'', by Leonard Weinberg, Ami Pedahzur, Arie Perliger, Routledge, 2003, p. 45</ref><ref>''The Inner Sea: The Mediterranean and Its People'', by Robert Fox, 1991, p. 260</ref> ] and the Turkish ]<ref>{{cite journal | last = Avcı | first = Gamze | title = The Nationalist Movement Party's euroscepticism: party ideology meets strategy | journal = South European Society and Politics | volume = 16 | issue = 3, pt II | pages = 435–47 | doi = 10.1080/13608746.2011.598359 | date = September 2011 | s2cid = 154513216 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140521115140/https://wiki.zirve.edu.tr/sandbox/groups/economicsandadministrativesciences/ff77d/attachments/f46f9/W7-Avci%202.PDF |date=21 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/turkish-far-right-on-the-rise-1088461.html|title=Turkish far right on the rise|last=Huggler|first=Justin|date=20 April 1999|newspaper=The Independent|access-date=21 May 2014|archive-date=20 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131220012836/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/turkish-far-right-on-the-rise-1088461.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Arıkan|first=E. Burak|date=July 2002|title=Turkish ultra-nationalists under review: a study of the Nationalist Action Party|journal=Nations and Nationalism|volume=8|issue=3|pages=357–75|doi=10.1111/1469-8219.00055}}</ref> ], there are some neo-Nazi organizations in Turkey such as the Turkish Nazi Party<ref name=turknazipartisi>{{cite web|title=Turkish Nazi Party|url=https://ww2.turknazipartisi.com/|website=turknazipartisi.com|access-date=7 July 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140218113142/https://ww2.turknazipartisi.com/|archive-date=18 February 2014}}</ref> or the National Socialist Party of Turkey, which are mainly based on the Internet.<ref name=sabah>{{cite web|title=Nazi Party Established in Turkey|url=https://www.sabah.com.tr/Gunaydin/Yazarlar/sb-mevlut_tezel/2009/12/22/turkiyede_nazi_partisi_kuruldu|website=sabah.com.tr|access-date=7 July 2014|archive-date=14 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714222708/https://www.sabah.com.tr/Gunaydin/Yazarlar/sb-mevlut_tezel/2009/12/22/turkiyede_nazi_partisi_kuruldu|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=hurriyet>{{cite news|title=They Might Be Joking But They Grow in Numbers.|url=https://www.hurriyet.com.tr/planet/24908479.asp|website=hurriyet.com.tr|access-date=7 July 2014|archive-date=17 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117190803/https://www.hurriyet.com.tr/planet/24908479.asp|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=caucasusforum.org>{{cite web|title=Neo-Nazi Circassians on Turkey|url=https://www.caucasusforum.org/tr/neo-nazi-cerkesler-2-/|website=caucasusforum.org|access-date=7 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714132003/https://www.caucasusforum.org/tr/neo-nazi-cerkesler-2-/|archive-date=14 July 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>

National Front Party (Ulusal Cephe Partisi) adheres to neo-Nazism, spreads Nazi material translated into Turkish and targets Jews, Arabs and Africans. National Front Party has about 1000 members and is affiliated with the racist ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nordicmonitor.com/2024/10/unmasking-the-intelligence-linked-neo-nazi-group-national-front-in-turkey/|title=Unmasking the intelligence-linked neo-Nazi group National Front in Turkey|work=]|date=3 October 2024}}</ref>

The neo-Nazi Ataman Brotherhood (Ataman Kardeşliği) patrols streets in Turkey and attacks Syrian and Afghan refugees.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://turkishminute.com/2021/12/30/rkish-far-right-group-beat-afghan-man-and-shared-video-on-social-media/|title=Turkish far-right group beat Afghan man and shared video on social media|work=]|date=3 October 2024}}</ref>

=== Americas ===
==== Brazil ====
{{Main|Nazism in Brazil}}
Several Brazilian neo-Nazi gangs appeared in the 1990s in ] and ], regions with mostly white people, with their acts gaining more media coverage and public notoriety in the 2010s.<ref name="istoe">{{Cite web|url=https://www.istoe.com.br/reportagens/28930_A+SOMBRA+DA+SUASTICA+|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303225120/https://www.istoe.com.br/reportagens/28930_A+SOMBRA+DA+SUASTICA+ |title=To the shadow of the swastika: intolerance still ignites groups of young radicals who despise history, deny their own miscegenated race and threaten minorities|date=8 December 1999 |archive-date=3 March 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.instablogs.com/entry/the-growth-of-neo-nazi-movement-in-brazil/|title=The Growth of Neo Nazi Movement in Brazil|publisher=InstaBlogs – Global Community Viewpoint and Opinion|date=2008-06-21|access-date=29 April 2012|archive-date=11 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120511194028/https://www.instablogs.com/entry/the-growth-of-neo-nazi-movement-in-brazil|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fighthatred.com/recent-events/organized-hate/400-brazil-lethal-infighting-among-neo-nazis-leads-to-police-raids-exposing-megalomaniacal-plans-for-qneulandq |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120729221903/https://www.fighthatred.com/recent-events/organized-hate/400-brazil-lethal-infighting-among-neo-nazis-leads-to-police-raids-exposing-megalomaniacal-plans-for-qneulandq |url-status=dead |archive-date=2012-07-29 |title=Brazil: Lethal infighting among neo-Nazis leads to Police raids, exposing megalomaniacal plans for "Neuland" |publisher=Fighthatred.com |date=2010-03-22 |access-date=2013-06-18}}</ref><ref name="spgaypride">{{cite news |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2009-12-05/neo-nazis-arrested-over-gay-parade-bombing/1170302 |title=neo-Nazis arrested over gay pride bombing in São Paulo |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |access-date=2013-06-18 |archive-date=29 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131229100911/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2009-12-05/neo-nazis-arrested-over-gay-parade-bombing/1170302 |url-status=live }}</ref> Some members of Brazilian neo-Nazi groups have been associated with ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bigsoccer.com/forum/showthread.php?t=607386 |title=Grêmio neo-Nazi fans arrested for attempted murder after football match |publisher=Bigsoccer.com |access-date=2013-06-18 |archive-date=30 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220830181339/https://www.bigsoccer.com/threads/gremio-neo-nazi-fans-arrested-for-murder-attempt-on-grenal.607386/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Their targets have included African, South American and Asian immigrants; Jews, ], ] and ]; ] and internal migrants with origins in the northern regions of Brazil (who are mostly ] or Afro-Brazilian);<ref name="nizkor">{{cite web |title=The Skinhead International: Brazil |url=https://www.nizkor.org/hweb/orgs/american/adl/skinhead-international/skins-brazil.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120717090457/https://nizkor.org/hweb/orgs/american/adl/skinhead-international/skins-brazil.html |archive-date=17 July 2012 |access-date=29 April 2012 |publisher=nizkor.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.paulopes.com.br/2011/07/neonazistas-atacam-em-sp-negros-e.html|title=Neo-Nazis in São Paulo: Blacks and Northeasterners, we will kill you!|access-date=26 May 2012|archive-date=1 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701054056/https://www.paulopes.com.br/2011/07/neonazistas-atacam-em-sp-negros-e.html|url-status=live}}</ref> ], ]; ]rs; ] and—more frequently reported in the media—gay people, ], and ] and ] people.<ref name="spgaypride" /><ref>{{cite web |url=https://americasouthandnorth.wordpress.com/2012/04/03/homophobia-is-not-just-a-neo-nazi-problem/ |title=Homophobia is not just a neo-Nazi problem in Latin America |publisher=Americasouthandnorth.wordpress.com |date=2012-04-03 |access-date=2013-06-18 |archive-date=8 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140508031023/https://americasouthandnorth.wordpress.com/2012/04/03/homophobia-is-not-just-a-neo-nazi-problem/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Kristian Jebsen |url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2012/04/08/brazil-s-surge-in-violence-against-gays-is-just-getting-worse.html |title=Brazil's surge in violence against gays is just getting worse |newspaper=The Daily Beast |date=2012-04-08 |access-date=2013-06-18 |archive-date=9 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130609174849/https://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2012/04/08/brazil-s-surge-in-violence-against-gays-is-just-getting-worse.html |url-status=live }}</ref> News of their attacks has played a role in debates about ] (including to some extent ] laws) and the issues of ] and ].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://pt.globalvoices.org/2011/04/28/brasil-homofobia-religiao-e-politica/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120613001903/https://pt.globalvoicesonline.org/2011/04/28/brasil-homofobia-religiao-e-politica/ |title=Brasil: Homofobia, Religião e Política|date=28 April 2011|archive-date=13 June 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://blogdacidadania.com.br/2011/04/sao-paulo-me-mata-de-vergonha/|title=São Paulo me mata de vergonha|date=9 April 2011|access-date=21 February 2022|archive-date=21 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220221114304/https://blogdacidadania.com.br/2011/04/sao-paulo-me-mata-de-vergonha/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.plc122.com.br/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180504053655/https://www.plc122.com.br/entenda-plc122/ |title=PLC122 – Informação Diaria|url-status=usurped|archive-date=4 May 2018}}</ref>

==== Canada ====
] began with the formation of the ] in 1965. In the 1970s and 1980s, neo-Nazism continued to spread in the country as organizations including the ] and ] (later renamed ''Creativity'') promoted white supremacist ideals.<ref name= source2>{{cite web|url=https://www.nizkor.org/|title=Holocaust Educational Resource|publisher=nizkor.org|access-date=6 July 2021|archive-date=29 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210629220918/https://www.nizkor.org/|url-status=live}}</ref> Founded in the United States in 1973, Creativity calls for ] to wage ] (Rahowa) against Jews and other perceived enemies.<ref name= source14>{{cite journal | last1 = Berlet | first1 = Chip | last2 = Vysotsky | first2 = Stanislav | year = 2006 | title = Overview of U.S. White Supremacist Groups | journal = Journal of Political and Military Sociology | volume = 34 | issue = 1| pages = 11–48}}</ref>

] founded the ] in 1977. The purported goals of the unregistered party are "the promotion and maintenance of European Heritage and Culture in Canada," but the party is known for anti-Semitism and racism. Many influential neo-Nazi Leaders, such as ], were affiliated with the party, but many of its members left to join the ], which was founded in 1989.<ref name= source3/>

Droege founded the Heritage Front in ] at a time when leaders of the white supremacist movement were "disgruntled about the state of the radical right" and wanted to unite unorganized groups of white supremacists into an influential and efficient group with common objectives.<ref name= source3/> Plans for the organization began in September 1989, and the formation of the Heritage Front was formally announced a couple of months later in November. In the 1990s, ] of ] and the band ] popularized the Creativity movement and the ] scene.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Hilliard | first1=R.L. | last2=Keith | first2=M.C. | title=Waves of Rancor: Tuning into the Radical Right | publisher=Taylor & Francis | date=2016 | isbn=978-1-315-50316-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9oOTDAAAQBAJ | pages=220–221 | access-date=21 April 2022 | archive-date=21 April 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220421044357/https://books.google.com/books?id=9oOTDAAAQBAJ | url-status=live }}</ref>

On September 18, 2020, Toronto Police arrested 34-year-old Guilherme "William" Von Neutegem and charged him with the murder of Mohamed-Aslim Zafis. Zafis was the caretaker of a local mosque who was found dead with his throat cut. The Toronto Police Service said the killing is possibly connected to the stabbing murder of Rampreet Singh a few days prior a short distance from the spot where Zafis' murder took place. Von Neutegem is a member of the ] and social media accounts established as belonging to him promote the group and included recordings of Von Neutegem performing satanic chants. In his home there was also an altar with the symbol of the O9A adorning a monolith.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.antihate.ca/suspect_stabbing_toronto_mosque_follow_hitler_worshiping_satanist_movement | title=Suspect In Fatal Stabbing Outside Toronto Mosque Appears To Follow Hitler-Worshipping Satanist Movement | work=Canadian Anti-Hate Network | date=September 18, 2020}}</ref> According to Evan Balgord of the Canadian Anti-Hate Network, they are aware of more O9A members in Canada and their affiliated organization Northern Order.<ref>{{cite news | date=October 5, 2020 | quote=Today, adherents are infiltrating and influencing a new generation of neo-Nazi terrorist groups like Atomwaffen Division Canada | url=https://www.thestar.com/opinion/contributors/2020/09/29/police-should-seek-expert-help-with-hate-crime-inspired-murder.html | title=Police should seek expert help with hate-crime inspired murder at Toronto mosque | newspaper=]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/k7qvny/random-murder-of-muslim-man-linked-to-neo-nazi-death-cult-report | title='Random' Murder of Muslim Man Linked to 'Neo-Nazi Death Cult': Report | date=September 30, 2020}}</ref> ] is a proscribed<ref>{{cite web|date=3 February 2021|title=Government of Canada lists 13 new groups as terrorist entities and completes review of seven others|url=https://www.canada.ca/en/public-safety-canada/news/2021/02/government-of-canada-lists-13-new-groups-as-terrorist-entities-and-completes-review-of-seven-others.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203182322/https://www.canada.ca/en/public-safety-canada/news/2021/02/government-of-canada-lists-13-new-groups-as-terrorist-entities-and-completes-review-of-seven-others.html|archive-date=3 February 2021|access-date=3 February 2021|website=Government of Canada}}</ref> neo-Nazi terrorist organization in Canada. NO members have been arrested for trafficking explosives and firearms, and NO has active members of the Canadian Armed Forces as its members and even a member of the ] was identified as a member.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.thestar.com/politics/federal/2020/10/22/canadian-forces-investigates-after-mystery-man-in-secret-recording-claims-to-be-a-soldier-and-a-neo-nazi.html | title=Canadian Forces investigates after mystery man in secret recording claims to be a soldier – and a neo-Nazi | date=October 22, 2020 | work=]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.hilltimes.com/2020/11/09/integrated-national-security-efforts-that-include-more-stringent-security-screening-should-weed-out-violent-white-supremacists-in-the-canadian-military/270485 | title=Integrated national security efforts that include more stringent security screening should weed out violent white supremacists in Canadian military | date=November 9, 2020 | work=]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.portalnovosti.com/fasisticka-braca | title=Fašistička braća (Fascist Brothers) | work=] | date=November 15, 2019 | access-date=November 15, 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191115161900/https://www.portalnovosti.com/fasisticka-braca | archive-date=November 15, 2019 | url-status=live }}</ref>

Controversy and dissention has left many Canadian neo-Nazi organizations dissolved or weakened.<ref name= source3>{{cite journal | last1 = Burstow | first1 = Bonnie | year = 2003 | title = Surviving and thriving by becoming more 'groupuscular': the case of the Heritage Front | journal = Patterns of Prejudice | volume = 37 | issue = 4| pages = 415–28 | doi=10.1080/0031322032000144492| s2cid = 143856285 }}</ref>

==== Chile ====
{{Main|Nazism in Chile}}
]]]
After the dissolution of the ] (MNSCH) in 1938, notable former members of MNSCH migrated into ] (PAL), obtaining high positions.<ref name=etche>Etchepare, Jaime Antonio; Stewart; Hamish I., "Nazism in Chile: A Particular Type of Fascism in South America". '']'' (1995).</ref> Not all former MNSCH members joined the PAL; some continued to form parties that followed the MNSCH model until 1952.<ref name=etche/> A new old-school Nazi party was formed in 1964 by school teacher Franz Pfeiffer.<ref name=etche/> Among the activities of this group were the organization of a ''Miss Nazi'' beauty contest and the formation of a Chilean branch of the ].<ref name=etche/> The party disbanded in 1970. Pfeiffer attempted to restart it in 1983 in the wake of a wave of protests against the ].<ref name=etche/>

] considered the "Chilean race" to be a mix of two bellicose master races: the ]s of Spain and the ] (Araucanians) of Chile.<ref name=palaciosmestizo>], ''Raza Chilena'' (Editorial Chilena, 1918), pp. 35–36.</ref> Palacios traces the origins of the Spanish component of the "Chilean race" to the coast of the ], specifically to ] in Sweden,<ref name=palaciosmestizo/> one of the supposed ]s of the ]. Palacios claimed that both the blonde-haired and the bronze-coloured Chilean ] share a "moral physonomy" and a masculine psychology.<ref name=palaciospsico>], ''Raza Chilena'' (Editorial Chilena, 1918), p. 37.</ref> He opposed immigration from Southern Europe, and argued that Mestizos who are derived from south Europeans lack "cerebral control" and are a social burden.<ref name=palacioslatino>], ''Raza Chilena'' (Editorial Chilena, 1918), p. 41.</ref>

==== Costa Rica ====
Several fringe neo-Nazi groups have existed in ], some with online presence since around 2003.<ref name=nacion>{{cite news|title=Aparece grupo neonazi en Costa Rica|url=https://www.nacion.com/el-pais/aparece-grupo-neonazi-en-costa-rica/2AZ6OMHZLVHZPAXJI5ZL6K3REY/story/|access-date=19 December 2018|work=La Nación|date=9 November 2003|language=es|archive-date=19 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181219134526/https://www.nacion.com/el-pais/aparece-grupo-neonazi-en-costa-rica/2AZ6OMHZLVHZPAXJI5ZL6K3REY/story/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Brotes clandestinos |url=https://archivo.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/77741.html |access-date=16 July 2019 |work=El Universal |date=8 May 2012 |language=spanish |archive-date=16 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190716102053/https://archivo.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/77741.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The groups normally target Jewish Costa Ricans, ]s, ], gay people and especially Nicaraguan and Colombian immigrants. In 2012 the media discovered the existence of a neo-Nazi police officer inside the ], for which he was fired and would later commit suicide in April 2016 due to lack of job opportunities and threats from ].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nacion.com/2012-04-16/Sucesos/null.aspx |title=Fuerza Pública investiga fotos de policía en Facebook – SUCESOS |newspaper=La Nación |date=2012-04-16 |access-date=2012-11-07 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120702214252/https://www.nacion.com/2012-04-16/Sucesos/null.aspx |archive-date=2 July 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Miranda|first1=Hulda|last2=Rodríguez|first2=Óscar|title=Policía cesado por usar símbolos nazis recoge chatarra para vivir|url=https://www.nacion.com/sucesos/seguridad/policia-cesado-por-usar-simbolos-nazis-recoge-chatarra-para-vivir/3V5LGA3SDVE6FJWK5IKCDZ5AIE/story/|access-date=19 December 2018|archive-date=19 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181219134426/https://www.nacion.com/sucesos/seguridad/policia-cesado-por-usar-simbolos-nazis-recoge-chatarra-para-vivir/3V5LGA3SDVE6FJWK5IKCDZ5AIE/story/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Expolicía nazi se quita la vida y deja un extenso mensaje|url=https://www.diarioextra.com/Noticia/detalle/288371/expolicia-nazi-se-quita-la-vida-y-deja-un-extenso-mensaje|access-date=19 December 2018|agency=Diario Extra|date=2 April 2016|archive-date=19 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181219135529/https://www.diarioextra.com/Noticia/detalle/288371/expolicia-nazi-se-quita-la-vida-y-deja-un-extenso-mensaje|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Miranda|first1=Hulda|last2=Rodríguez|first2=Óscar|last3=Solano|first3=Hugo|title=Expolicía despedido por ideología nazi se suicidó en su casa|url=https://www.nacion.com/sucesos/crimenes/expolicia-despedido-por-ideologia-nazi-se-suicido-en-su-casa/BC3SKOSNX5BEPA3V5FNLPUCIOU/story/|access-date=19 December 2018|agency=Nación.com|date=2 April 2016|archive-date=19 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181219134603/https://www.nacion.com/sucesos/crimenes/expolicia-despedido-por-ideologia-nazi-se-suicido-en-su-casa/BC3SKOSNX5BEPA3V5FNLPUCIOU/story/|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2015, the ] asked the Costa Rican government to shut down a store in ] that sells Nazi paraphernalia, ] books and other products associated with ].<ref>{{cite news|title=Centro Wiesenthal insta a Costa Rica a investigar tienda "nazi" en la capital|url=https://www.elpais.cr/2015/09/11/centro-wiesenthal-insta-a-costa-rica-a-investigar-tienda-nazi-en-la-capital/|access-date=25 May 2019|agency=EFE – El País|date=11 September 2015|archive-date=3 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403133502/https://www.elpais.cr/2015/09/11/centro-wiesenthal-insta-a-costa-rica-a-investigar-tienda-nazi-en-la-capital/|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2018, a series of pages on the ] Facebook of neo-Nazi inclination openly or discreetly carried out a vast campaign instigating ] by recycling old news or posting ] to take advantage of an anti-immigrant sentiment after three homicides of tourists allegedly committed by migrants (although from one of the homicides the suspect is Costa Rican).<ref name="q">{{cite news |last1=Rico |title=44 arrested for xenophobic attacks against Nicaraguans in San José |url=https://qcostarica.com/44-arrested-for-xenophobic-attacks-against-nicaraguans-in-san-jose/ |access-date=2 November 2018 |agency=QCosta Rica |date=18 August 2018 |archive-date=25 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180825144617/https://qcostarica.com/44-arrested-for-xenophobic-attacks-against-nicaraguans-in-san-jose/ |url-status=live }}</ref> A rally against the country's migration policy was held on 19 August 2018, in which neo-Nazi and ] took part. Although not all participants were linked these groups and the majority of participants were peaceful, the protest turned violent and the ] intervened with 44 arrested (36 Costa Ricans and the rest Nicaraguans).<ref name="montreal">{{cite news |title=Costa Rica: symboles nazis lors d'une manifestation anti-migrants nicaraguayens |url=https://www.journaldemontreal.com/2018/08/19/costa-rica-symboles-nazis-lors-dune-manifestation-anti-migrants-nicaraguayens |access-date=2 November 2018 |agency=Journal de Montreal |date=19 August 2018 |archive-date=1 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181201180903/https://www.journaldemontreal.com/2018/08/19/costa-rica-symboles-nazis-lors-dune-manifestation-anti-migrants-nicaraguayens |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Castillo|first1=Bryan|title='Neonazis' e integrantes de barras de fútbol participaron en agresiones a nicaragüenses|url=https://www.lateja.cr/nacional/neonazis-e-integrantes-de-barras-de-futbol/FBAUAQIYMJCIXPQVJSMY2R3WIM/story/|access-date=25 May 2019|agency=La Teja|date=18 August 2018|archive-date=25 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190525203201/https://www.lateja.cr/nacional/neonazis-e-integrantes-de-barras-de-futbol/FBAUAQIYMJCIXPQVJSMY2R3WIM/story/|url-status=live}}</ref> Authorities confiscated sharp weapons, ] and other items from the neo-Nazis, who also carried swastika flags.<ref name="dw">{{cite news |title=Costa Rica: violenta protesta contra inmigración nicaragüense |url=https://www.dw.com/es/costa-rica-violenta-protesta-contra-inmigraci%C3%B3n-nicarag%C3%BCense/a-45134202 |access-date=2 November 2018 |agency=DW |archive-date=1 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181201181039/https://www.dw.com/es/costa-rica-violenta-protesta-contra-inmigraci%C3%B3n-nicarag%C3%BCense/a-45134202 |url-status=live }}</ref> A subsequent anti-xenophobic march and solidarity with the Nicaraguan refugees was organized a week later with more assistance. A second anti-migration demonstration, with the explicit exclusion of neo-Nazis and hooligans, was carried out in September with similar assistance.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Redaccion |title=Costa Rica marcha contra la xenofobia hacia los migrantes de Nicaragua que llegan al país huyendo de la crisis |url=https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-45312167 |access-date=2 November 2018 |agency=BBC Mundo |date=26 August 2018 |archive-date=9 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181209130459/https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-45312167 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2019 Facebook pages of extreme right-wing tendencies and anti-immigration position as ''Deputy 58'', ''Costa Rican Resistance'' and ''Salvation Costa Rica'' called an anti-government demonstration on 1 May with small attendance.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Chinchilla|first1=Aarón|title=Ultranacionalistas costarricenses convocan marcha contra Gobierno en 1 de Mayo|url=https://elperiodicocr.com/ultranacionalistas-costarricenses-convocan-marcha-contra-gobierno-en-1-de-mayo/|access-date=24 June 2019|agency=El Periódico|date=30 April 2019|archive-date=24 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190624053752/https://elperiodicocr.com/ultranacionalistas-costarricenses-convocan-marcha-contra-gobierno-en-1-de-mayo/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Cartín|first1=Cristian|title=Llaman a concentrarse contra Carlos Alvarado|url=https://www.diarioextra.com/Noticia/detalle/388095/llaman-a-concentrarse--contra-carlos-alvarado|access-date=24 June 2019|agency=Diario Extra|date=30 April 2019|archive-date=24 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190624053752/https://www.diarioextra.com/Noticia/detalle/388095/llaman-a-concentrarse--contra-carlos-alvarado|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Peru====
Peru has been home to a handful of neo-Nazi groups, most notably the National Socialist Movement "Peru Awake", the National Socialist Tercios of New Castile, and the Peruvian National Socialist Union.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://archivo.elcomercio.pe/sociedad/lima/unas-ocho-agrupaciones-afines-al-nazismo-captan-jovenes-pais_1-noticia-328657 |title=Unas Ocho Agrupaciones Afines Al Nazismo Captan a Jovenes en el Pais |date=16 August 2009 |website=El Comercio Sociedad |language=es |access-date=16 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://lamula.pe/2014/10/08/peruanos-neonazis-y-paramilitares/manu.abelardo.gutti/ |title=Peruanos Neonazis y paramilitares |last=Gutti |first=Manuel Abelardo |date=8 October 2014 |language=es |website=Lamula |access-date=16 July 2021 |archive-date=9 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182600/https://lamula.pe/2014/10/08/peruanos-neonazis-y-paramilitares/manu.abelardo.gutti/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/aug/16/peru-nazi-party-leader-believes-conquistadors-jews |title=Peru's Nazi Party Leader Believes Even the Conquistadors were Jews |last=Collyns |first=Dan |date=16 August 2012 |website=The Guardian |access-date=16 July 2021 |archive-date=9 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182836/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/aug/16/peru-nazi-party-leader-believes-conquistadors-jews |url-status=live }}</ref>

====United States====
{{See also|Radical right (United States)|Racism in the United States}}
] rally on the west lawn of the ], Washington, DC, 2008]]'''Statistics'''

In 2017, following the ], an ]/] poll found out that 9% of all Americans supported the neo-Nazi ideology, which back then amounted to some 22 million Americans.<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 August 2017 |title=1 in 10 say it's acceptable to hold neo-Nazi views (POLL) |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/28-approve-trumps-response-charlottesville-poll/story?id=49334079 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240927140420/https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/28-approve-trumps-response-charlottesville-poll/story?id=49334079 |archive-date=27 September 2024 |website=ABC News/Washington Post |quote=9 percent in a new ABC News/Washington Post poll call it acceptable to hold neo-Nazi or white supremacist views, equivalent to about 22 million Americans.}}</ref>

'''Ideology'''

The ideology of ], leader of the ], was influenced by ]. ] developed a racial theory of ], holding that the ] was the "fifth rootrace" called the ]. According to Blavatsky, Aryans had been preceded by Atlanteans who had perished in the flood that sunk the continent ]. The three races that preceded the Atlanteans, in Blavatsky's view, were proto-humans; these were the ], ]ns and the first Astral rootrace. It was on this foundation that Madole based his claims that the Aryan Race has been worshiped as "White Gods" since time immemorial and proposed a governance structure based on the Hindu ] and its hierarchical ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Goodrick-Clarke |first=Nicholas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xaiaM77s6N4C |title=Black Sun: Aryan Cults, Esoteric Nazism, and the Politics of Identity |date=2003 |publisher=NYU Press |isbn=978-0-8147-3155-0 |pages=79–81 |access-date=18 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200605020914/https://books.google.com/books?id=xaiaM77s6N4C |archive-date=5 June 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>

'''Organizations and individuals'''

There are several neo-Nazi groups in the United States. The ] (NSM), with about 400 members in 32 states,<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180706110149/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/11/us/11nazi.html?_r=1&pagewanted=all |date=6 July 2018 }}. ''The New York Times''. 10 May 2011.</ref> is currently the largest neo-Nazi organization in the US.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130104004433/https://www.adl.org/Learn/Ext_US/nsm/default.asp?LEARN_Cat=Extremism&LEARN_SubCat=Extremism_in_America&xpicked=3&item=nsm |date=4 January 2013}}. ].</ref> After World War II, new organizations formed with varying degrees of support for Nazi principles. The ], founded in 1958 by Edward Reed Fields and ], countered ] in the Southern United States with Nazi-inspired publications and iconography. The ], founded by ] in 1959, achieved high-profile coverage in the press through its public demonstrations.<ref>Kaplan, Jeffrey, '']: A Sourcebook on the Radical Racist Right'' (Rowman Altamira, 2000), pp. 1–3.</ref>

The ], formed in 1978, is a ] body associated with neo-Nazism.<ref name="ADL"> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115233810/https://www.adl.org/Learn/ext_us/historical_review.asp?LEARN_Cat=Extremism&LEARN_SubCat=Extremism_in_America&xpicked=3&item=ihr|date=15 January 2013}}, ]. Retrieved 28 February 2007.</ref>

In 2022, famous rapper ] stated that he identifies as a Nazi, denying the Holocaust and praising the policies of Adolf Hitler.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Levin |first=Bess |date=December 1, 2022 |title=Kanye West, Donald Trump's Dining Companion, Tells Alex Jones, "I'm a Nazi," Lists Things He Loves About Hitler |url=https://www.vanityfair.com/news/2022/12/kanye-west-alex-jones-donald-trump-hitler |access-date=December 5, 2022 |magazine=Vanity Fair}}</ref>

'''Between freedom of speech and national security threats'''

The ] guarantees ], which the courts have interpreted very broadly to include ], severely limiting the government's authority to suppress it.<ref>{{cite web |last=Liptak |first=Adam |date=11 June 2008 |title=Hate speech or free speech? What much of West bans is protected in U.S. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/11/world/americas/11iht-hate.4.13645369.html |url-access=limited |access-date=February 21, 2023 |work=]}}</ref> This allows political organizations great latitude in expressing Nazi, racist, and antisemitic views. A landmark First Amendment case was '']'', in which neo-Nazis threatened to march in a predominantly Jewish suburb of Chicago. The march never took place in Skokie, but the court ruling allowed the neo-Nazis to stage a series of demonstrations in Chicago.

Organizations which report upon neo-Nazi activities in the U.S., which may involve attacking and harassing minorities, include the American organizations ] and the ].<ref>''American Swastika: Inside the White Power Movement's Hidden Spaces of Hate'' By Pete Simi, Robert Futrell, p. 137</ref>

In 2020, the ] reclassified neo-Nazis to the same threat level as ISIS. ], the ], stated "Not only is the terror threat diverse, it's unrelenting."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/3a8awn/the-fbi-just-put-white-nationalists-and-neo-nazis-on-the-same-threat-level-as-isis|title=The FBI Just Put White Nationalists and Neo-Nazis on the Same Threat Level as ISIS|last=Owen|first=Tess|date=2020-02-06|website=Vice|language=en|access-date=2020-02-07|archive-date=7 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200207000119/https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/3a8awn/the-fbi-just-put-white-nationalists-and-neo-nazis-on-the-same-threat-level-as-isis|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/fbi-neo-nazi-isis-us-terror-threat-level-trump-a9323786.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220618/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/fbi-neo-nazi-isis-us-terror-threat-level-trump-a9323786.html |archive-date=18 June 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=FBI raises neo-Nazi threat level to same as Isis
|author=Alex Woodward|date=2020-02-07|work=The Independent}}</ref>

==== Uruguay ====
In 1998, a group of people belonging to the "Joseph Goebbels Movement" tried to burn down a synagogue, which also served as a Hebrew school, in the Pocitos neighborhood of ] in Uruguay; an ] pamphlet signed by the group was found in the building after the quick action of firefighters saved it. Another group, the racist and antisemitic neo-Nazi {{lang|de|Euroamerikaners}} group, founded in 1996, said when they were interviewed by the newspaper ''La República de Montevideo'' that they had no involvement with the attack on the synagogue, but revealed that they maintain contacts with a group called {{lang|es|Poder Blanco}} ("White Power"), also Uruguayan, as well as with neo-Nazi groups from ] and several European countries. Through the Internet they have received the solidarity of the ''Patria'' pro-fascist group, based in Spain. They also said that in the city of ], fifty kilometers from Montevideo, there is a clandestine "]" which uses rituals taken from the ]. The {{lang|de|Euroamerikaners}} declared that they did not tolerate interracial or gay couples. One of the militants said in the interview that "... if we see a black man with a white woman, we break them up ...". Other neo-Nazi incidents in Uruguay in 1998 included the bombing of a Jewish-owned small business in February, which injured two people, and the appearance of posters celebrating the anniversary of Hitler's birthday in April.<ref name=clarin>{{cite news|author=<!--Not stated-->|title=Preocupa un avance neonazi en Uruguay|url=https://www.clarin.com/ediciones-anteriores/preocupa-avance-neonazi-uruguay_0_SJXbmp1J8hx.html|date=23 June 1998|newspaper=Clarín|access-date=19 July 2019|archive-date=28 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028004717/https://www.clarin.com/ediciones-anteriores/preocupa-avance-neonazi-uruguay_0_SJXbmp1J8hx.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Africa ===
==== South Africa ====
Several groups in South Africa, such as {{Lang|af|]|italic=no}} and ], have often been described as neo-Nazi.<ref name="afrikaner">{{cite news|url=https://www.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/africa/04/05/south.africa.terreblanche/|title=South Africa's neo-Nazis drop revenge vow|publisher=CNN|access-date=21 May 2016|archive-date=6 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160206053338/https://www.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/africa/04/05/south.africa.terreblanche/|url-status=live}}</ref>
] was a prominent South African neo-Nazi leader who was murdered in 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/eugegravene-terreblanche-leader-of-the-far-right-awb-party-who-led-the-resistance-to-majority-rule-1936550.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220618/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/eugegravene-terreblanche-leader-of-the-far-right-awb-party-who-led-the-resistance-to-majority-rule-1936550.html |archive-date=18 June 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Eugène Terre'Blanche: Leader of the far-right AWB party who led|website=]|date=6 April 2010}}</ref>

=== Oceania ===
] doing ] on 18 March 2023]]
There were a number of now-defunct Australian neo-Nazi groups, such as the ] (ANSP), which was formed in 1962 and merged into the ] (1968–1970s), originally a splinter group, in 1968,<ref name="Henderson 76">{{cite journal|jstor=27516076|title=Frank Browne and the Neo-Nazis|last=Henderson|first=Peter|journal=Labour History|date=November 2005|number=89|page=76|doi=10.2307/27516076}}</ref> and ]'s Australian Nationalist Movement.<ref name="Henderson 76"/>

The ] (NSN) is an Australian neo-Nazi political organisation formed from two far-right organisations, the ] and the ], in 2020.

White supremacist organisations active in Australia as of 2016 included local chapters of the Aryan Nations.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.com.au/national/crime/murder-shines-spotlight-on-australias-white-supremacist-subculture/news-story/0243f471b2174953d839946f85bab29b|title=Subculture of hate turns deadly|date=16 May 2016|access-date=21 February 2022|archive-date=21 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220221114302/https://www.news.com.au/national/crime/murder-shines-spotlight-on-australias-white-supremacist-subculture/news-story/0243f471b2174953d839946f85bab29b|url-status=live}}</ref> ], former leader of the ], has tried to distance himself from neo-Nazism, but he has nevertheless been accused of expressing "pro-Nazi views".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.smh.com.au/national/blair-cottrell-leader-of-aussie-patriots-upf-wanted-hitler-in-the-classroom-20151016-gkbbvz.html|title=Blair Cottrell, rising anti-Islam movement leader, wanted Hitler in the classroom|work=The Sydney Morning Herald|access-date=13 March 2016|archive-date=20 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210220161935/https://www.smh.com.au/national/blair-cottrell-leader-of-aussie-patriots-upf-wanted-hitler-in-the-classroom-20151016-gkbbvz.html|url-status=live}}</ref> ] director ] said in February 2020 that neo-Nazis pose a "real threat" to Australia's security. Burgess maintained that there is a growing threat from the extreme right, and that its supporters "regularly meet to salute Nazi flags, inspect weapons, train in combat and share their hateful ideology".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-australia-51621679|title=Australia intelligence chief warns of neo-Nazi threat|publisher=BBC News|access-date=25 February 2020|archive-date=28 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200228042047/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-australia-51621679|url-status=live}}</ref> In June 2022, the Australian state ] banned display of the swastika symbol. Under the new law, individuals who intentionally exhibit the symbol may face up to a year in jail or a A$22,000 (£12,300; $15,000) fine. The state of Victoria already has laws against hate speech, but they have been criticized for having weaknesses. The call for reform of these laws grew stronger in 2020 when a couple flew a swastika flag over their home, causing outrage in the community."<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-06-22 |title=Swastika: Victoria bans display of Nazi symbol in Australian first |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-australia-61890577 |access-date=2023-01-06}}</ref>

In New Zealand, historical neo-Nazi organisations include ]<ref>Mager, Darrel (29 June 2000) {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122032930/https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/klan-claims-to-have-room-for-maori/4HBLLMVOFSLZKZJSMG7P2L5WEQ/ |date=22 January 2021 }} '']''</ref> and the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.teara.govt.nz/en/ephemera/28190/national-socialist-party-poster|title=National Socialist Party poster|publisher=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu Taonga|website=teara.govt.nz|access-date=28 January 2017|archive-date=29 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129053518/https://teara.govt.nz/en/ephemera/28190/national-socialist-party-poster|url-status=live}}</ref> White nationalist organisations such as the ] and ] have faced accusations of neo-Nazism.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/PO0504/S00213.htm|title=National Front Cannot Deny Nazi Links Anymore (press release)|date=18 April 2005|author=Fight Dem Back|publisher=]|access-date=28 January 2017|archive-date=22 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170522050151/https://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/PO0504/S00213.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{div col}}
* {{Annotated link |Alt-right}}
* '']''{{snd}}2001 film by Henry Bean
* '']''{{snd}}US neo-Nazi commentary & message board
* {{Annotated link |Far-right subcultures}}
* {{Annotated link |Nipster}}
* {{Annotated link |Skinhead}}
* {{Annotated link |White nationalism}}
* {{Annotated link |White supremacy}}
* ]{{snd}}Apartheid-type ideology
* ]
* ]
* ]
{{div col end}} {{div col end}}


==Notes== == References ==
'''Informational notes'''
{{Reflist|2}}
{{Reflist|group=nb}}


'''Citations'''
==Bibliography==
{{Reflist}}
===Primary sources===
*'']'' by ] (using the pen name Ulick Varange, 1947, ISBN 0-911038-10-8)
*'']'' by ], (1958 (written 1948–56; ISBN 0-937944-14-9)
* ''White Power'' by ] (1967; John McLaughlin, 1996, ISBN 0-9656492-8-8)
*''This Time The World'' by ] (1961; ], 2004, ISBN 1-59364-014-5)
*''], Selected Writings of ]'' (ISBN 87-87063-40-9)
*''Merrie England– 2000'' by ]
*'']'' by ] (under the pseudonym Andrew Macdonald), novel (1978, ISBN 1-56980-086-3) .
* '']: The Collected Writings of ]'' edited and introduced by ] (Storm Books, 1992) or introduced by Ryan Schuster (], ISBN 0-9724408-0-1)
*'']'' by ] (under the pseudonym Andrew Macdonald), novel (National Vanguard Books, 1984, ISBN 0-937944-09-2)
*''Faith of the Future'' by ] (]; Rev edition, 1995, ISBN 0-9648533-0-2)
*'']'' by Randolph D. Calverhall (]), ] (National Vanguard Books, 1991, ISBN 0-937944-05-X)
*'']'' periodical edited by ]
*''Deceived, Damned & Defiant– The Revolutionary Writings of David Lane'' by ], foreword by Ron McVan, preface by ] (Fourteen Word Press, 1999, ISBN 0-9678123-2-1)
*''Resistance Magazine'' published by National Vanguard Books


'''Bibliography'''
===Academic surveys===
{{refbegin}}
* '']'' by Martin A. Lee, (New York: Little, Brown and Company, 1997, ISBN 0-316-51959-6)
::'''Primary sources'''
* '']'' (Oxford Readers) by ] (1995, ISBN 0-19-289249-5)
* '']'' by ] (using the pen name Ulick Varange, 1947, {{ISBN|0-911038-10-8}})
*'']: German nationalism since 1945'' by Kurt P. Tauber (] Press; edition, 1967)
* '']'' edited by ], (1991, ISBN 0-13-089301-3) * '']'' by ], (1958 (written 1948–56); {{ISBN|0-937944-14-9}})
* ''White Power'' by ] (1967; John McLaughlin, 1996, {{ISBN|0-9656492-8-8}})
* '']: ], the Hindu-Aryan Myth, and Neo-Nazism'' by ] (1998, ISBN 0-8147-3111-2 and ISBN 0-8147-3110-4)
* ''This Time The World'' by ] (1961; Liberty Bell Publications, 2004, {{ISBN|1-59364-014-5}})
* '']: ] and the Postwar Fascist International'' by ], (Autonomedia, Brooklyn, NY 1998, ISBN 1-57027-039-2)
* ''], Selected Writings of ]'' ({{ISBN|87-87063-40-9}})
*''Hate: George Lincoln Rockwell and the American Nazi Party'' by William H. Schmaltz (Potomac Books, 2000, ISBN 1-57488-262-7)
* ''Merrie England – 2000'' by ]
*''American Fuehrer: George Lincoln Rockwell and the American Nazi Party'' by Frederick J. Simonelli (], 1999, ISBN 0-252-02285-8)
* '']'' by ] (under the pseudonym Andrew Macdonald), novel (1978, {{ISBN|1-56980-086-3}}) .
*''Fascism in Britain: A History, 1918–1985'' by Richard C. Thurlow (Olympic Marketing Corp, 1987, ISBN 0-631-13618-5)
* '']: The Collected Writings of ]'' edited and introduced by ] (Storm Books, 1992) or introduced by Ryan Schuster (Black Sun Publications, {{ISBN|0-9724408-0-1}})
*'']: A World Survey'' by Angelo Del Boca and Mario Giovana (Pantheon Books, 1st American edition, 1969)
* '']'' by ] (under the pseudonym Andrew Macdonald), novel (National Vanguard Books, 1984, {{ISBN|0-937944-09-2}})
*''Swastika and the Eagle: Neo-Naziism in America Today'' by Clifford L Linedecker (A & W Pub, 1982, ISBN 0-89479-100-1)
*''The Silent Brotherhood: Inside America's Racist Underground'' by ] and Gary Gerhardt (Signet Book; Reprint edition, 1995, ISBN 0-451-16786-4) * ''Faith of the Future'' by ] (]; Rev edition, 1995, {{ISBN|0-9648533-0-2}})
* ''Serpent's Walk'' by Randolph D. Calverhall (pseudonym), novel (National Vanguard Books, 1991, {{ISBN|0-937944-05-X}})
*''"White Power, White Pride!": The White Separatist Movement in the United States'' by Betty A. Dobratz with Stephanie L. Shanks-Meile (hardcover, Twayne Publishers, 1997, ISBN 0-8057-3865-7); a.k.a. ''The White Separatist Movement in the United States: White Power White Pride'' (paperback, Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 2000, ISBN 0-8018-6537-9)
* '']'' periodical edited by ]
* '']: A Sourcebook on the Radical Racist Right'' by ] (Rowman & Littlefield Pub Inc, 2000, ISBN 0-7425-0340-2)
*''Blood in the Face: The ], ], ], and the Rise of a New White Culture'' by ] (Thunder's Mouth Press; 2nd edition, 1995, ISBN 1-56025-100-X) * ''Deceived, Damned & Defiant – The Revolutionary Writings of David Lane'' by ], foreword by Ron McVan, preface by ] (Fourteen Word Press, 1999, {{ISBN|0-9678123-2-1}})
* ''Resistance Magazine'' published by National Vanguard Books
*''A Hundred Little Hitlers: The Death of a Black Man, the Trial of a White Racist, and the Rise of the Neo-Nazi Movement in America'' by Elinor Langer (Metropolitan Books, 2003, ISBN 0-8050-5098-1)
{{refend}}
*'']: Portraits of American Neo-Nazis and Klansmen'' by Raphael S. Ezekiel (Penguin (Non-Classics); Reprint edition, 1996, ISBN 0-14-023449-7)

* '']: Aryan Cults, Esoteric Nazism and the Politics of Identity'' by ] (2001, ISBN 0-8147-3155-4)
{{refbegin|35em}}
*''Free to Hate: The Rise of the Right in Post-Communist Eastern Europe'' by Paul Hockenos (Routledge; Reprint edition, 1994, ISBN 0-415-91058-7)
::'''Academic surveys'''
*''The Dark Side of Europe: The Extreme Right Today'' by Geoff Harris, (] Press; New edition, 1994, ISBN 0-7486-0466-9)
* '']'' by Martin A. Lee, (New York: Little, Brown and Company, 1997, {{ISBN|0-316-51959-6}})
*''The Far Right in Western and Eastern Europe'' by Luciano Cheles, Ronnie Ferguson, and Michalina Vaughan (Longman Publishing Group; 2nd edition, 1995, ISBN 0-582-23881-1)
* '']'' (Oxford Readers) by ] (1995, {{ISBN|0-19-289249-5}})
*'']: A Comparative Analysis'' by Herbert Kitschelt (University of Michigan Press; Reprint edition, 1997, ISBN 0-472-08441-0)
* '']: German nationalism since 1945'' by Kurt P. Tauber (] Press; edition, 1967)
*''Shadows Over Europe: The Development and Impact of the Extreme Right in Western Europe'' edited by Martin Schain, Aristide Zolberg, and Patrick Hossay (Palgrave Macmillan; 1st edition, 2002, ISBN 0-312-29593-6)
* '']'' edited by ], (1991, {{ISBN|0-13-089301-3}})
*''The Fame of a Dead Man's Deeds: An Up-Close Portrait of White Nationalist William Pierce'' by ] (Authorhouse, 2001, ISBN 0-7596-0933-0)
* '']: ], the Hindu-Aryan Myth, and Neo-Nazism'' by ] (1998, {{ISBN|0-8147-3111-2}} and {{ISBN|0-8147-3110-4}})
*'']: The Developing Euro-American Racist Subculture'' by Jeffrey Kaplan, Tore Bjorgo (Northeastern University Press, 1998, ISBN 1-55553-331-0)
*''Gods of the Blood: The Pagan Revival and White Separatism'' by Mattias Gardell (Duke University Press, 2003, ISBN 0-8223-3071-7) * ''Dreamer of the Day: ] and the Postwar Fascist International'' by ], (Autonomedia, Brooklyn, NY 1998, {{ISBN|1-57027-039-2}})
* ''Hate: George Lincoln Rockwell and the American Nazi Party'' by William H. Schmaltz (Potomac Books, 2000, {{ISBN|1-57488-262-7}})
* ''American Fuehrer: George Lincoln Rockwell and the American Nazi Party'' by Frederick J. Simonelli (], 1999, {{ISBN|0-252-02285-8}})
* ''Fascism in Britain: A History, 1918–1985'' by Richard C. Thurlow (Olympic Marketing Corp, 1987, {{ISBN|0-631-13618-5}})
* '']: A World Survey'' by Angelo Del Boca and Mario Giovana (Pantheon Books, 1st American edition, 1969)
* ''Germany's New Nazis'' by the ] (Jewish Chronicle Publications, 1951)
* ''The New Germany and the Old Nazis'' by ] (Random House, 1961)
* ''Swastika and the Eagle: Neo-Naziism in America Today'' by Clifford L Linedecker (A & W Pub, 1982, {{ISBN|0-89479-100-1}})
* ''The Silent Brotherhood: Inside America's Racist Underground'' by ] and Gary Gerhardt (Signet Book; Reprint edition, 1995, {{ISBN|0-451-16786-4}})
* ''"White Power, White Pride!": The White Separatist Movement in the United States'' by Betty A. Dobratz with Stephanie L. Shanks-Meile (hardcover, Twayne Publishers, 1997, {{ISBN|0-8057-3865-7}}); a.k.a. ''The White Separatist Movement in the United States: White Power White Pride'' (paperback, Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 2000, {{ISBN|0-8018-6537-9}})
* '']: A Sourcebook on the Radical Racist Right'' by ] (Rowman & Littlefield Pub Inc, 2000, {{ISBN|0-7425-0340-2}})
* '']: The ], ], ], and the Rise of a New White Culture'' by ] (Thunder's Mouth Press; 2nd edition, 1995, {{ISBN|1-56025-100-X}})
* ''A Hundred Little Hitlers: The Death of a Black Man, the Trial of a White Racist, and the Rise of the Neo-Nazi Movement in America'' by Elinor Langer (Metropolitan Books, 2003, {{ISBN|0-8050-5098-1}})
* '']: Portraits of American Neo-Nazis and Klansmen'' by Raphael S. Ezekiel (Penguin (Non-Classics); Reprint edition, 1996, {{ISBN|0-14-023449-7}})
* '']: Aryan Cults, Esoteric Nazism and the Politics of Identity'' by ] (2001, {{ISBN|0-8147-3155-4}})
* ''Free to Hate: The Rise of the Right in Post-Communist Eastern Europe'' by Paul Hockenos (Routledge; Reprint edition, 1994, {{ISBN|0-415-91058-7}})
* ''The Dark Side of Europe: The Extreme Right Today'' by Geoff Harris, (] Press; New edition, 1994, {{ISBN|0-7486-0466-9}})
* ''The Far Right in Western and Eastern Europe'' by Luciano Cheles, Ronnie Ferguson, and Michalina Vaughan (Longman Publishing Group; 2nd edition, 1995, {{ISBN|0-582-23881-1}})
* '']: A Comparative Analysis'' by Herbert Kitschelt (University of Michigan Press; Reprint edition, 1997, {{ISBN|0-472-08441-0}})
* ''Shadows Over Europe: The Development and Impact of the Extreme Right in Western Europe'' edited by Martin Schain, Aristide Zolberg, and Patrick Hossay (Palgrave Macmillan; 1st edition, 2002, {{ISBN|0-312-29593-6}})
* ''The Fame of a Dead Man's Deeds: An Up-Close Portrait of White Nationalist William Pierce'' by ] (Authorhouse, 2001, {{ISBN|0-7596-0933-0}})
* '']: The Developing Euro-American Racist Subculture'' by Jeffrey Kaplan, Tore Bjorgo (Northeastern University Press, 1998, {{ISBN|1-55553-331-0}})
* ''Gods of the Blood: The Pagan Revival and White Separatism'' by Mattias Gardell (Duke University Press, 2003, {{ISBN|0-8223-3071-7}})
* ''The Nazi conception of law (Oxford pamphlets on world affairs)'' by J. Walter Jones, Clarendon (1939) * ''The Nazi conception of law (Oxford pamphlets on world affairs)'' by J. Walter Jones, Clarendon (1939)
*Hearst, Ernest, Chip Berlet, and Jack Porter. “Neo-Nazism.” Encyclopaedia Judaica. Eds. Michael Berenbaum and Fred Skolnik. Vol. 15. 2nd ed. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2007. 74–82. 22 vols. Thomson Gale. * {{cite EJ |author=Hearst, Ernest |author2=Chip Berlet |author3=Jack Porter|title=Neo-Nazism|volume=15|pages=74–82}}
* {{cite book |author=Goodrick-Clark, Nicholas |author-link=Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke |title=Black Sun: Aryan Cults, Esoteric Nazism and the Politics of Identity|year=2002 |publisher=] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8147-3155-0 |oclc = 47665567 |title-link=Black Sun (Goodrick-Clarke book)}}
*{{cite book
* {{cite book |author=Blee, Kathleen |author-link=Kathleen M. Blee |title=Inside Organized Racism: Women in the Hate Movement |url=https://archive.org/details/insideorganizedr00kath |url-access=registration |year=2002 |publisher=] |location=Berkeley, California; London |isbn=978-0-520-24055-1 |oclc=52566455 }}
|author=Goodrick-Clark, Nicholas
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*{{cite book
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{{Neo-Nazism}}
==External links==
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* a collection of monitored neo-Nazi web sites

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Latest revision as of 04:43, 21 December 2024

Movement to revive Nazi ideologies This article is about Nazism after World War II. For fascist movements after World War II, see Neo-fascism.

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Neo-Nazism comprises the post-World War II militant, social, and political movements that seek to revive and reinstate Nazi ideology. Neo-Nazis employ their ideology to promote hatred and racial supremacy (often white supremacy), to attack racial and ethnic minorities (often antisemitism and Islamophobia), and in some cases to create a fascist state.

Neo-Nazism is a global phenomenon, with organized representation in many countries and international networks. It borrows elements from Nazi doctrine, including antisemitism, ultranationalism, racism, xenophobia, ableism, homophobia, anti-communism, and creating a "Fourth Reich". Holocaust denial is common in neo-Nazi circles.

Neo-Nazis regularly display Nazi symbols and express admiration for Adolf Hitler and other Nazi leaders. In some European and Latin American countries, laws prohibit the expression of pro-Nazi, racist, antisemitic, or homophobic views. Nazi-related symbols are banned in many European countries (especially Germany) in an effort to curtail neo-Nazism.

Definition

The term neo-Nazism describes any post-World War II militant, social or political movements seeking to revive the ideology of Nazism in whole or in part.

The term 'neo-Nazism' can also refer to the ideology of these movements, which may borrow elements from Nazi doctrine, including ultranationalism, anti-communism, racism, ableism, xenophobia, homophobia, antisemitism, up to initiating the Fourth Reich. Holocaust denial is a common feature, as is the incorporation of Nazi symbols and admiration of Adolf Hitler.

Neo-Nazism is considered a particular form of far-right politics and right-wing extremism.

Hyperborean racial doctrine

See also: Esoteric Nazism

Neo-Nazi writers have posited a spiritual, esoteric doctrine of race, which moves beyond the primarily Darwinian-inspired materialist scientific racism popular mainly in the Anglosphere during the 20th century. Figures influential in the development of neo-Nazi racism, such as Miguel Serrano and Julius Evola (writers who are described by critics of Nazism such as the Southern Poverty Law Center as influential within what it presents as parts of "the bizarre fringes of National Socialism, past and present"), claim that the Hyperborean ancestors of the Aryans were in the distant past, far higher beings than their current state, having suffered from "involution" due to mixing with the "Telluric" peoples; supposed creations of the Demiurge. Within this theory, if the "Aryans" are to return to the Golden Age of the distant past, they need to awaken the memory of the blood. An extraterrestrial origin of the Hyperboreans is often claimed. These theories draw influence from Gnosticism and Tantrism, building on the work of the Ahnenerbe. Within this racist theory, Jews are held up as the antithesis of nobility, purity and beauty.

Ecology and environmentalism

Neo-Nazism generally aligns itself with a blood and soil variation of environmentalism, which has themes in common with deep ecology, the organic movement and animal protectionism. This tendency, sometimes called "ecofascism", was represented in the original German Nazism by Richard Walther Darré who was the Reichsminister of Food from 1933 until 1942.

History

Germany and Austria, 1945–1950s

Following the defeat of Nazi Germany, the political ideology of the ruling party, Nazism, was in complete disarray. The final leader of the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP) was Martin Bormann. He died on 2 May 1945 during the Battle of Berlin, but the Soviet Union did not reveal his death to the rest of the world, and his ultimate fate remained a mystery for many years. Conspiracy theories emerged about Hitler himself, that he had secretly survived the war and fled to South America or elsewhere.

The Allied Control Council officially dissolved the NSDAP on 10 October 1945, marking the end of "Old" Nazism. A process of denazification began, and the Nuremberg trials took place, where many major leaders and ideologues were condemned to death by October 1946, others committed suicide.

Otto Ernst Remer, Wehrmacht general and leader of the postwar Socialist Reich Party

In both the East and West, surviving ex-party members and military veterans assimilated to the new reality and had no interest in constructing a "neo-Nazism". However, during the 1949 West German elections a number of Nazi advocates such as Fritz Rössler had infiltrated the national conservative Deutsche Rechtspartei, which had five members elected. Rössler and others left to found the more radical Socialist Reich Party (SRP) under Otto Ernst Remer. At the onset of the Cold War, the SRP favoured the Soviet Union over the United States.

In Austria, national independence had been restored, and the Verbotsgesetz 1947 explicitly criminalised the NSDAP and any attempt at restoration. West Germany adopted a similar law to target parties it defined as anti-constitutional; Article 21 Paragraph 2 in the Basic Law, banning the SRP in 1952 for being opposed to liberal democracy.

As a consequence, some members of the nascent movement of German neo-Nazism joined the Deutsche Reichspartei of which Hans-Ulrich Rudel was the most prominent figure. Younger members founded the Wiking-Jugend modelled after the Hitler Youth. The Deutsche Reichspartei stood for elections from 1953 until 1961 fetching around 1% of the vote each time. Rudel befriended French-born Savitri Devi, who was a proponent of Esoteric Nazism. In the 1950s she wrote a number of books, such as Pilgrimage (1958), which concerns prominent Third Reich sites, and The Lightning and the Sun (1958), in which she claims that Adolf Hitler was an avatar of the God Vishnu. She was not alone in this reorientation of Nazism towards its Thulean-roots; the Artgemeinschaft, founded by former SS member Wilhelm Kusserow, attempted to promote a new paganism. In the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) a former member of SA, Wilhelm Adam, founded the National Democratic Party of Germany. It reached out to those attracted by the Nazi Party before 1945 and provide them with a political outlet, so that they would not be tempted to support the far-right again or turn to the anti-communist Western Allies. Joseph Stalin wanted to use them to create a new pro-Soviet and anti-Western strain in German politics. According to top Soviet diplomat Vladimir Semyonov, Stalin even suggested that they could be allowed to continue publishing their own newspaper, Völkischer Beobachter. While in Austria, former SS member Wilhelm Lang founded an esoteric group known as the Vienna Lodge; he popularised Nazism and occultism such as the Black Sun and ideas of Third Reich survival colonies below the polar ice caps.

Otto Strasser, leader of the German Social Union, returned from exile to Germany in the mid-1950s.

With the onset of the Cold War, the allied forces had lost interest in prosecuting anyone as part of the denazification. In the mid-1950s this new political environment allowed Otto Strasser, an NS activist on the left of the NSDAP, who had founded the Black Front to return from exile. In 1956, Strasser founded the German Social Union as a Black Front successor, promoting a Strasserite "nationalist and socialist" policy, which dissolved in 1962 due to lack of support. Other Third Reich associated groups were the HIAG and Stille Hilfe dedicated to advancing the interests of Waffen-SS veterans and rehabilitating them into the new democratic society. However, they did not claim to be attempting to restore Nazism, instead functioning as lobbying organizations for their members before the government and the two main political parties (the conservative CDU/CSU and the Nazis' one-time archenemies, the Social Democratic Party)

Many bureaucrats who served under the Third Reich continued to serve in German administration after the war. According to the Simon Wiesenthal Center, many of the more than 90,000 Nazi war criminals recorded in German files were serving in positions of prominence under Chancellor Konrad Adenauer. Not until the 1960s were the former concentration camp personnel prosecuted by West Germany in the Belzec trial, Frankfurt Auschwitz trials, Treblinka trials, Chełmno trials, and the Sobibór trial. However, the government had passed laws prohibiting Nazis from publicly expressing their beliefs.

"Universal National Socialism", 1950s–1970s

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Neo-Nazism found expression outside of Germany, including in countries who fought against the Third Reich during the Second World War, and sometimes adopted pan-European or "universal" characteristics, beyond the parameters of German nationalism. The two main tendencies, with differing styles and even worldviews, were the followers of the American Francis Parker Yockey, who was fundamentally anti-American and advocated for a pan-European nationalism, and those of George Lincoln Rockwell, an American conservative.

Yockey, a neo-Spenglerian author, had written Imperium: The Philosophy of History and Politics (1949) dedicated to "the hero of the twentieth century" (namely, Adolf Hitler) and founded the European Liberation Front. He was interested more in the destiny of Europe; to this end, he advocated a National Bolshevik-esque red-brown alliance against American culture and influenced 1960s figures such as SS-veteran Jean-François Thiriart. Yockey was also fond of Arab nationalism, in particular Gamal Abdel Nasser, and saw Fidel Castro's Cuban Revolution as a positive, visiting officials there. Yockey's views impressed Otto Ernst Remer and the radical traditionalist philosopher Julius Evola. He was constantly hounded by the FBI and was eventually arrested in 1960, before committing suicide. Domestically, Yockey's biggest sympathisers were the National Renaissance Party, including James H. Madole, H. Keith Thompson and Eustace Mullins (protégé of Ezra Pound) and the Liberty Lobby of Willis Carto.

Rockwell, an American conservative, was first politicised in the anti-communism and anti-racial integration movements before becoming anti-Jewish. In response to his opponents calling him a "Nazi", he theatrically appropriated the aesthetic elements of the NSDAP, to "own" the intended insult. In 1959, Rockwell founded the American Nazi Party and instructed his members to dress in imitation SA-style brown shirts, while flying the flag of the Third Reich. In contrast to Yockey, he was pro-American and cooperated with FBI requests, despite the party being targeted by COINTELPRO due to the mistaken belief that they were agents of Nasser's Egypt during a brief intelligence "brown scare". Later leaders of American white nationalism came to politics through the ANP, including a teenage David Duke and William Luther Pierce of the National Alliance, although they soon distanced themselves from explicit self-identification with neo-Nazism.

In 1961, the World Union of National Socialists was founded by Rockwell and Colin Jordan of the British National Socialist Movement, adopting the Cotswold Declaration. French socialite Françoise Dior was involved romantically with Jordan and his deputy John Tyndall and a friend of Savitri Devi, who also attended the meeting. The National Socialist Movement wore quasi-SA uniforms, was involved in streets conflicts with the Jewish 62 Group. In the 1970s, Tyndall's earlier involvement with neo-Nazism would come back to haunt the National Front, which he led, as they attempted to ride a wave of anti-immigration populism and concerns over British national decline. Televised exposes on This Week in 1974 and World in Action in 1978, showed their neo-Nazi pedigree and damaged their electoral chances. In 1967, Rockwell was killed by a disgruntled former member. Matthias Koehl took control of the ANP, and strongly influenced by Savitri Devi, gradually transformed it into an esoteric group known as the New Order.

In Franco's Spain, certain SS refugees most notably Otto Skorzeny, Léon Degrelle and the son of Klaus Barbie became associated with CEDADE (Círculo Español de Amigos de Europa), an organisation which disseminated Third Reich apologetics out of Barcelona. They intersected with neo-Nazi advocates from Mark Fredriksen in France to Salvador Borrego in Mexico. In the post-fascist Italian Social Movement splinter groups such as Ordine Nuovo and Avanguardia Nazionale, involved in the "Years of Lead" considered Nazism a reference. Franco Freda created a "Nazi-Maoism" synthesis.

In Germany itself, the various Third Reich nostalgic movements coalesced around the National Democratic Party of Germany in 1964 and in Austria the National Democratic Party in 1967 as the primary sympathisers of the NSDAP past, although more publicly cautious than earlier groups.

Holocaust denial and subcultures, 1970s–1990s

Holocaust denial, the claim that six million Jews were not deliberately and systematically exterminated as an official policy of the Third Reich and Adolf Hitler, became a more prominent feature of neo-Nazism in the 1970s. Before this time, Holocaust denial had long existed as a sentiment among neo-Nazis, but it had not yet been systematically articulated as a theory with a bibliographical canon. Few of the major theorists of Holocaust denial (who call themselves "revisionists") can be uncontroversially classified as outright neo-Nazis (though some works such as those of David Irving forward a clearly sympathetic view of Hitler and the publisher Ernst Zündel was deeply tied to international neo-Nazism), however, the main interest of Holocaust denial to neo-Nazis was their hope that it would help them rehabilitate their political ideology in the eyes of the general public. Did Six Million Really Die? (1974) by Richard Verrall and The Hoax of the Twentieth Century (1976) by Arthur Butz are popular examples of Holocaust denial material.

The radicalisation of Flemish activist group Vlaamse Militanten Orde in the 1970s energised international neo-Nazism.

Key developments in international neo-Nazism during this time include the radicalisation of the Vlaamse Militanten Orde under former Hitler Youth member Bert Eriksson. They began hosting an annual conference; the "Iron Pilgrimage"; at Diksmuide, which drew kindred ideologues from across Europe and beyond. As well as this, the NSDAP/AO under Gary Lauck arose in the United States in 1972 and challenged the international influence of the Rockwellite WUNS. Lauck's organisation drew support from the National Socialist Movement of Denmark of Povl Riis-Knudsen and various German and Austrian figures who felt that the "National Democratic" parties were too bourgeois and insufficiently Nazi in orientation. This included Michael Kühnen, Christian Worch, Bela Ewald Althans and Gottfried Küssel of the 1977-founded ANS/NS which called for the establishment of a Germanic Fourth Reich. Some ANS/NS members were imprisoned for planning paramilitary attacks on NATO bases in Germany and planning to liberate Rudolf Hess from Spandau Prison. The organisation was officially banned in 1983 by the Minister of the Interior.

During the late 1970s, a British subculture came to be associated with neo-Nazism; the skinheads. Portraying an ultra-masculine, crude and aggressive image, with working-class references, some of the skinheads joined the British Movement under Michael McLaughlin (successor of Colin Jordan), while others became associated with the National Front's Rock Against Communism project which was meant to counter the SWP's Rock Against Racism. The most significant music group involved in this project was Skrewdriver, led by Ian Stuart Donaldson. Together with ex-BM member Nicky Crane, Donaldson founded the international Blood & Honour network in 1987. By 1992 this network, with input from Harold Covington, had developed a paramilitary wing; Combat 18, which intersected with football hooligan firms such as the Chelsea Headhunters. The neo-Nazi skinhead movement spread to the United States, with groups such as the Hammerskins. It was popularised from 1986 onwards by Tom Metzger of the White Aryan Resistance. Since then it has spread across the world. Films such as Romper Stomper (1992) and American History X (1998) would fix a public perception that neo-Nazism and skinheads were synonymous.

Serrano identified Aryan-Hyperborean blood as the "light of the Black Sun", a symbol found at SS-cult site Wewelsburg Castle.

New developments also emerged on the esoteric level, as former Chilean diplomat Miguel Serrano built on the works of Carl Jung, Otto Rahn, Wilhelm Landig, Julius Evola and Savitri Devi to bind together and develop already existing theories. Serrano had been a member of the National Socialist Movement of Chile in the 1930s and from the early days of neo-Nazism, he had been in contact with key figures across Europe and beyond. Despite this, he was able to work as an ambassador to numerous countries until the rise of Salvador Allende. In 1984 he published his book Adolf Hitler: The Ultimate Avatar. Serrano claimed that the Aryans were extragalactic beings who founded Hyperborea and lived the heroic life of Bodhisattvas, while the Jews were created by the Demiurge and were concerned only with coarse materialism. Serrano claimed that a new Golden Age can be attained if the Hyperboreans repurify their blood (supposedly the light of the Black Sun) and restore their "blood-memory." As with Savitri Devi before him, Serrano's works became a key point of reference in neo-Nazism.

Lifting of the Iron Curtain, 1990s–present

With the fall of the Berlin Wall and the collapse of the Soviet Union during the early 1990s, neo-Nazism began to spread its ideas in the East, as hostility to the triumphant liberal order was high and revanchism a widespread feeling. In Russia, during the chaos of the early 1990s, an amorphous mixture of KGB hardliners, Orthodox neo-Tsarist nostalgics (i.e., Pamyat) and explicit neo-Nazis found themselves strewn together in the same camp. They were united by opposition to the influence of the United States, against the liberalising legacy of Mikhail Gorbachev's perestroika and on the Jewish question, Soviet Zionology merged with a more explicit anti-Jewish sentiment. The most significant organisation representing this was Russian National Unity under the leadership of Alexander Barkashov, where black-uniform clad Russians marched with a red flag incorporating the Swastika under the banner of Russia for Russians. These forces came together in a last gasp effort to save the Supreme Soviet of Russia against Boris Yeltsin during the 1993 Russian constitutional crisis. As well as events in Russia, in newly independent ex-Soviet states, annual commemorations for SS volunteers now took place; particularly in Latvia, Estonia and Ukraine.

Members of the National Bolshevik Party. "Nazbols" tailor ultra-nationalist themes to a native Russian environment while still employing Nazi aesthetics.

The Russian developments excited German neo-Nazism who dreamed of a Berlin–Moscow alliance against the supposedly "decadent" Atlanticist forces; a dream which had been thematic since the days of Remer. Zündel visited Russia and met with ex-KGB general Aleksandr Stergilov and other Russian National Unity members. Despite these initial aspirations, international neo-Nazism and its close affiliates in ultra-nationalism would be split over the Bosnian War between 1992 and 1995, as part of the breakup of Yugoslavia. The split would largely be along ethnic and sectarian lines. The Germans and the French would largely back the Western Catholic Croats (Lauck's NSDAP/AO explicitly called for volunteers, which Kühnen's Free German Workers' Party answered and the French formed the "Groupe Jacques Doriot"), while the Russians and the Greeks would back the Orthodox Serbs (including Russians from Barkashov's Russian National Unity, Eduard Limonov's National Bolshevik Front and Golden Dawn members joined the Greek Volunteer Guard). Indeed, the revival of National Bolshevism was able to steal some of the thunder from overt Russian neo-Nazism, as ultra-nationalism was wedded with veneration of Joseph Stalin in place of Adolf Hitler, while still also flirting with Nazi aesthetics.

Analogous European movements

Outside Germany, in other countries which were involved with the Axis powers and had their own native ultra-nationalist movements, which sometimes collaborated with the Third Reich but were not technically German-style National Socialists, revivalist and nostalgic movements have emerged in the post-war period which, as neo-Nazism has done in Germany, seek to rehabilitate their various loosely associated ideologies. These movements include neo-fascists and post-fascists in Italy; Vichyites, Pétainists and "national Europeans" in France; Ustaše sympathisers in Croatia; neo-Chetniks in Serbia; Iron Guard revivalists in Romania; Hungarists and Horthyists in Hungary and others.

Issues

Ex-Nazis in mainstream politics

The 1980s dispute between Austrian president Kurt Waldheim and the World Jewish Congress caused an international incident.

The most significant case on an international level was the election of Kurt Waldheim to the Presidency of Austria in 1986. It came to light that Waldheim had been a member of the National Socialist German Students' League, the SA and served as an intelligence officer during the Second World War. Following this he served as an Austrian diplomat and was the Secretary-General of the United Nations from 1972 until 1981. After revelations of Waldheim's past were made by an Austrian journalist, Waldheim clashed with the World Jewish Congress on the international stage. Waldheim's record was defended by Bruno Kreisky, an Austrian Jew who served as Chancellor of Austria. The legacy of the affair lingers on, as Victor Ostrovsky has claimed the Mossad doctored the file of Waldheim to implicate him in war crimes.

Contemporary right-wing populism

Some critics have sought to draw a connection between Nazism and modern right-wing populism in Europe, but the two are not widely regarded as interchangeable by most academics. In Austria, the Freedom Party of Austria (FPÖ) served as a shelter for ex-Nazis almost from its inception. In 1980, scandals undermined Austria's two main parties and the economy stagnated. Jörg Haider became leader of the FPÖ and offered partial justification for Nazism, calling its employment policy effective. In the 1994 Austrian election, the FPÖ won 22 percent of the vote, as well as 33 percent of the vote in Carinthia and 22 percent in Vienna; showing that it had become a force capable of reversing the old pattern of Austrian politics.

Historian Walter Laqueur writes that even though Haider welcomed former Nazis at his meetings and went out of his way to address Schutzstaffel (SS) veterans, the FPÖ is not a fascist party in the traditional sense, since it has not made anti-communism an important issue, and it does not advocate the overthrow of the democratic order or the use of violence. In his view, the FPÖ is "not quite fascist", although it is part of a tradition, similar to that of 19th-century Viennese mayor Karl Lueger, which involves nationalism, xenophobic populism, and authoritarianism. Haider, who in 2005 left the Freedom Party and formed the Alliance for Austria's Future, was killed in a traffic accident in October 2008.

Barbara Rosenkranz, the Freedom Party's candidate in Austria's 2010 presidential election, was controversial for having made allegedly pro-Nazi statements. Rosenkranz is married to Horst Rosenkranz, a key member of a banned neo-Nazi party, who is known for publishing far-right books. Rosenkranz says she cannot detect anything "dishonourable" in her husband's activities.

Around the world

Europe

Armenia

The Armenian-Aryan Racialist Political Movement is a National Socialist movement in Armenia. It was founded in 2021 and supports Aryanism, Antisemitism, and White supremacy.

Belgium

Main article: Bloed, Bodem, Eer en Trouw

A Belgian neo-Nazi organization, Bloed, Bodem, Eer en Trouw (Blood, Soil, Honour and Loyalty), was created in 2004 after splitting from the international network (Blood and Honour). The group rose to public prominence in September 2006, after 17 members (including 11 soldiers) were arrested under the December 2003 anti-terrorist laws and laws against racism, antisemitism and supporters of censorship. According to Justice Minister Laurette Onkelinx and Interior Minister Patrick Dewael, the suspects (11 of whom were members of the military) were preparing to launch terrorist attacks in order to "destabilize" Belgium. According to the journalist Manuel Abramowicz, of the Resistances, the extremists of the radical right have always had as its aim to "infiltrate the state mechanisms," including the army in the 1970s and the 1980s, through Westland New Post and the Front de la Jeunesse.

A police operation, which mobilized 150 agents, searched five military barracks (in Leopoldsburg near the Dutch border, Kleine-Brogel, Peer, Brussels (Royal military school) and Zedelgem) as well as 18 private addresses in Flanders. They found weapons, munitions, explosives and a homemade bomb large enough to make "a car explode". The leading suspect, B.T., was organizing the trafficking of weapons and was developing international links, in particular with the Dutch far-right movement De Nationale Alliantie.

Bosnia and Herzegovina

The neo-Nazi white nationalist organization Bosanski Pokret Nacionalnog Ponosa (Bosnian Movement of National Pride) was founded in Bosnia and Herzegovina in July 2009. Its model is the Waffen-SS Handschar Division, which was composed of Bosniak volunteers. It proclaimed its main enemies to be "Jews, Roma, Serbian Chetniks, the Croatian separatists, Josip Broz Tito, Communists, homosexuals and blacks". Its ideology is a mixture of Bosnian nationalism, National Socialism and white nationalism. It says "Ideologies that are not welcome in Bosnia are: Zionism, Islamism, communism, capitalism. The only ideology good for us is Bosnian nationalism because it secures national prosperity and social justice..." The group is led by a person nicknamed Sauberzwig, after the commander of the 13th SS Handschar. The group's strongest area of operations is in the Tuzla area of Bosnia.

Bulgaria

The primary neo-Nazi political party to receive attention in post-WWII Bulgaria is the Bulgarian National Union – New Democracy.

On 13 February of every year since 2003, Bulgarian neo-Nazis and like-minded far-right nationalists gather at Sofia to honor Hristo Lukov, a late World War II general known for his antisemitic and pro-Nazi stance. From 2003 to 2019, the annual event was hosted by Bulgarian National Union.

Croatia

See also: Far-right politics in Croatia
Young boy wearing a shirt with a Black Legion sign at a Thompson concert
Graffiti depicting the U symbol of the Ustashe during the Anti-Cyrillic protests in Croatia

Neo-Nazis in Croatia base their ideology on the writings of Ante Pavelić and the Ustaše, a fascist anti-Yugoslav separatist movement. The Ustaše regime committed a genocide against Serbs, Jews and Roma. At the end of World War II, many Ustaše members fled to the West, where they found sanctuary and continued their political and terrorist activities (which were tolerated due to Cold War hostilities).

In 1999, Zagreb's Square of the Victims of Fascism was renamed Croatian Nobles Square, provoking widespread criticism of Croatia's attitude towards the Holocaust. In 2000, the Zagreb City Council again renamed the square into Square of the Victims of Fascism. Many streets in Croatia were renamed after the prominent Ustaše figure Mile Budak, which provoked outrage amongst the Serbian minority. Since 2002, there has been a reversal of this development, and streets with the name of Mile Budak or other persons connected with the Ustaše movement are few or non-existent. A plaque in Slunj with the inscription "Croatian Knight Jure Francetić" was erected to commemorate Francetić, the notorious Ustaše leader of the Black Legion. The plaque remained there for four years, until it was removed by the authorities.

In 2003, Croatian penal code was amended with provisions prohibiting the public display of Nazi symbols, the propagation of Nazi ideology, historical revisionism and holocaust denial but the amendments were annulled in 2004 since they were not enacted in accordance with a constitutionally prescribed procedure. Nevertheless, since 2006 Croatian penal code explicitly prohibits any type of hate crime based on race, color, gender, sexual orientation, religion or national origin.

There have been instances of hate speech in Croatia, such as the use of the phrase Srbe na vrbe! (" Serbs on the willow trees!"). In 2004, an Orthodox church was spray-painted with pro-Ustaše graffiti. During some protests in Croatia, supporters of Ante Gotovina and other at the time suspected war criminals (all acquitted in 2012) have carried nationalist symbols and pictures of Pavelić. On 17 May 2007, a concert in Zagreb by Thompson, a popular Croatian singer, was attended by 60,000 people, some of them wearing Ustaše uniforms. Some gave Ustaše salutes and shouted the Ustaše slogan "Za dom spremni" ("For the homeland – ready!"). This event prompted the Simon Wiesenthal Center to publicly issue a protest to the Croatian president. Cases of displaying Ustashe memorabilia have been recorded at the Bleiburg commemoration held annually in Austria.

Czech Republic

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The government of the Czech Republic strictly punishes neo-Nazism (Czech: Neonacismus). According to a report by the Ministry of the Interior of the Czech Republic, neo-Nazis committed more than 211 crimes in 2013. The Czech Republic has various neo-Nazi groups. One of them is the group Wotan Jugend, based in Germany.

Denmark

The National Socialist Movement of Denmark was formed in 1991, and was formally a neo nazi party, that would actively promote the nazi ideology in Denmark. The party did not gain any political influence, and were regarded as a failed political project by neo nazi expert Frede Farmand. Long time party leader Johnni Hansen was replaced by Esben Rohde Kristensen in 2010, which resulted in a large amount of party members leaving the party. While the party never has been formally dissolved, there has been very little activity from its core member since 2010. Former neo nazi Daniel Carlsen formed the small national party Party of the Danes in 2011, which officially rejected nazism, but were none the less categorized as such by professor in politics Peter Nedergaard.It was dissolved in 2017 after its founder Daniel Stockholm announced retirement from politics.

Estonia

In 2006, Roman Ilin, a Jewish theatre director from St. Petersburg, Russia, was attacked by neo-Nazis when returning from a tunnel after a rehearsal. Ilin subsequently accused Estonian police of indifference after filing the incident. When a dark-skinned French student was attacked in Tartu, the head of an association of foreign students claimed that the attack was characteristic of a wave of neo-Nazi violence. An Estonian police official, however, stated that there were only a few cases involving foreign students over the previous two years. In November 2006, the Estonian government passed a law banning the display of Nazi symbols.

The 2008 United Nations Human Rights Council Special Rapporteur's Report noted that community representatives and non-governmental organizations devoted to human rights had pointed out that neo-Nazi groups were active in Estonia—particularly in Tartu—and had perpetrated acts of violence against non-European minorities.

The neo-Nazi terrorist organization Feuerkrieg Division was found and operates in the country, with some members of the Conservative People's Party of Estonia having been linked to the Feuerkrieg Division.

Finland

Further information: Nazism in Finland
NRM Finnish independence day demonstration, 2018.
Pekka Siitoin, Finnish neo-Nazi and occultist.

In Finland, neo-Nazism is often connected to the 1930s and 1940s fascist and pro-Nazi Patriotic People's Movement (IKL), its youth movement Blues-and-Blacks and its predecessor Lapua Movement. Post-war fascist groups such as Patriotic People's Movement (1993), Patriotic People's Front, Patriotic National Movement, Blue-and-Black Movement and many others consciously copy the style of the movement and look up to its leaders as inspiration. A Finns Party councillor and police officer in Seinäjoki caused small scandal wearing the fascist blue-and-black uniform.

During the Cold War, all partied deemed fascist were banned according to the Paris Peace Treaties and all former fascist activists had to find new political homes. Despite Finlandization, many continued in public life. Three former members of the Waffen SS served as ministers; the Finnish SS Battalion officers Sulo Suorttanen (Centre Party) and Pekka Malinen (People's Party) as well as Mikko Laaksonen (Social Democrat), a soldier in the Finnish SS-Company, formed of pro-Nazi defectors. Neo-Nazi activism was limited to small illegal groups like the clandestine Nazi occultist group led by Pekka Siitoin who made headlines after arson and bombing of the printing houses of the Communist Party of Finland. His associates also sent letter bombs to leftists, including to the headquarters of the Finnish Democratic Youth League. Another group called the "New Patriotic People's Movement" bombed the left-wing Kansan Uutiset newspaper and the embassy of communist Bulgaria. Member of the Nordic Realm Party Seppo Seluska was convicted of the torture and murder of a gay Jewish person.

The skinhead culture gained momentum during the late 1980s and peaked during the late 1990s. In 1991, Finland received a number of Somali immigrants who became the main target of Finnish skinhead violence in the following years, including four attacks using explosives and a racist murder. Asylum seeker centres were attacked, in Joensuu skinheads would force their way into an asylum seeker centre and start shooting with shotguns. At worst Somalis were assaulted by 50 skinheads at the same time.

The most prominent neo-Nazi group is the Nordic Resistance Movement, which is tied to multiple murders, attempted murders and assaults of political enemies was found in 2006 and proscribed in 2019. The second biggest Finnish party, the Finns Party politicians have frequently supported far-right and neo-Nazi movements such as the Finnish Defense League, Soldiers of Odin, Nordic Resistance Movement, Rajat Kiinni (Close the Borders), and Suomi Ensin (Finland First). In the 1990s and 2000s, before the breakthrough of the Finns Party, a few neo-Nazi candidates enjoyed success, like Janne Kujala of Finland - Fatherland (founded as Aryan Germanic Brotherhood) and Jouni Lanamäki who was previously associated with the Nordic Reich Party. Pekka Siitoin of the National Democracy Party was the fifth most popular candidate in Naantali city council elections.

The NRM, Finns party and other far-right nationalist parties organize an annual torch march demonstration in Helsinki in memory of the Finnish SS-battalion on the Finnish independence day which ends at the Hietaniemi cemetery where members visit the tomb of Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim and the monument to the Finnish SS Battalion. The event is protested by antifascists, leading to counterdemonstrators being violently assaulted by NRM members who act as security. The demonstration attracts close to 3,000 participants according to the estimates of the police and hundreds of officers patrol Helsinki to prevent violent clashes.

France

Main article: History of far-right movements in France
French neo-fascist groups adopted the Celtic cross as an ambiguous "Christian and pagan" symbol in the 1940s.

In France, the most enthusiastic collaborationists during the German occupation of France had been the National Popular Rally of Marcel Déat (former SFIO members) and the French Popular Party of Jacques Doriot (former French Communist Party members). These two groups, like the Germans, saw themselves as combining ultra-nationalism and socialism. In the south there existed the vassal state of Vichy France under the military "Hero of the Verdun", Marshal Philippe Pétain whose Révolution nationale emphasised an authoritarian Catholic conservative politics. Following the liberation of France and the creation of the Fourth French Republic, collaborators were prosecuted during the épuration légale and nearly 800 put to death for treason under Charles de Gaulle.

In the aftermath of the Second World War, the main concern of the French radical right was the collapse of the French Empire, in particular the Algerian War, which led to the creation of the OAS. Outside of this, individual fascistic activists such as Maurice Bardèche (brother-in-law of Robert Brasillach), as well as SS-veterans Saint-Loup and René Binet, were active in France and involved in the European Social Movement and later the New European Order, alongside similar groups from across Europe. Early neo-fascist groups included Jeune Nation, which introduced the Celtic cross into use by radical right groups (an association which would spread internationally). A "neither East, nor West" pan-Europeanism was most popular among French fascistic activists until the late 1960s, partly motivated by feelings of national vulnerability following the collapse of their empire; thus the Belgian SS-veteran Jean-François Thiriart's group Jeune Europe also had a considerable French contingent.

It was the 1960s, during the Fifth French Republic, that a considerable upturn in French neo-fascism occurred; some of it in response to the Protests of 1968. The most explicitly pro-Nazi of these was the FANE of Mark Fredriksen. Neo-fascist groups included Pierre Sidos' Occident, the Ordre Nouveau (which was banned after violent clashes with the Trotskyist LCR) and the student-based Groupe Union Défense. A number of these activists such as François Duprat were instrumental in founding the Front National under Jean-Marie Le Pen; but the FN also included a broader selection from the French hard-right, including not only these neo-fascist elements, but also Catholic integrists, monarchists, Algerian War veterans, Poujadists and national-conservatives. Others from these neo-fascist micro-groups formed the Parti des forces nouvelles working against Le Pen.

Within the FN itself, Duprat founded the FANE-backed Groupes nationalistes révolutionnaires faction, until his 1978 assassination. The subsequent history of the French hard right has been the conflict between the national-conservative controlled FN and "national revolutionary" (fascistic and National Bolshevik) splinter or opposition groups. The latter include groups in the tradition of Thiriart and Duprat, such as the Parti communautaire national-européen, Troisième voie, the Nouvelle Résistance of Christian Bouchet, Unité Radicale and most recently Bloc identitaire. Direct splits from the FN include the 1987 founded FANE-revival Parti nationaliste français et européen, which was disbanded in 2000. Neo-Nazi organizations are outlawed in the Fifth French Republic, yet a significant number of them still exist.

Germany

Further information: Far-right politics in Germany (1945–present)
Neo-Nazi demonstration in Leipzig, Germany, in October 2009

Following the failure of the National Democratic Party of Germany in the election of 1969, small groups committed to the revival of Nazi ideology began to emerge in Germany. The NPD splintered, giving rise to paramilitary Wehrsportgruppe. These groups attempted to organize under a national umbrella organization, the Action Front of National Socialists/National Activists. Neo-Nazi movements in East Germany began as a rebellion against the Communist regime; the banning of Nazi symbols helped neo-Nazism to develop as an anti-authoritarian youth movement. Mail order networks developed to send illegal Nazi-themed music cassettes and merchandise to Germany.

Turks in Germany have been victims of neo-Nazi violence on several occasions. In 1992, two young girls were killed in the Mölln arson attack along with their grandmother; nine others were injured. In 1993, five Turks were killed in the Solingen arson attack. In response to the fire Turkish youth in Solingen rioted chanting "Nazis out!" and "We want Nazi blood". In other parts of Germany police had to intervene to protect skinheads from assault. The Hoyerswerda riots and Rostock-Lichtenhagen riots targeting migrants and ethnic minorities living in Germany also took place during the 1990s.

Between 2000 and 2007, eight Turkish immigrants, one Greek German and a German policewoman were murdered by the neo-Nazi National Socialist Underground. The NSU has its roots in the former East German area of Thuringia, which The Guardian identified as "one of the heartlands of Germany's radical right". The German intelligence services have been criticized for extravagant distributions of cash to informants within the far-right movement. Tino Brandt publicly boasted on television that he had received around €100,000 in funding from the German state. Though Brandt did not give the state "useful information", the funding supported recruitment efforts in Thuringia during the early 1990s. (Brandt was eventually sentenced to five and a half years in prison on for 66 counts of child prostitution and child sexual abuse).

Police were only able to locate the killers when they were tipped off following a botched bank robbery in Eisenach. As the police closed in on them, the two men committed suicide. They had evaded capture for 13 years. Beate Zschäpe, who had been living with the two men in Zwickau, turned herself in to the German authorities a few days later. Zschäpe's trial began in May 2013; she was charged with nine counts of murder. She pleaded "not guilty". According to The Guardian, the NSU may have enjoyed protection and support from certain "elements of the state". Anders Behring Breivik, a fan of Zschäpe's, reportedly sent her a letter from prison in 2012.

According to the annual report of Germany's interior intelligence service (Verfassungsschutz) for 2012, at the time there were 26,000 right-wing extremists living in Germany, including 6,000 neo-Nazis. In January 2020, Combat 18 was banned in Germany, and raids directed against the organization were made across the country. In March 2020, United German Peoples and Tribes, which is part of Reichsbürger, a neo-Nazi movement that rejects the German state as a legal entity, was raided by the German police. Holocaust denial is a crime, according to the German Criminal Code (Strafgesetzbuch § 86a) and § 130 (public incitement).

Greece

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Flag of the Golden Dawn

The far-right political party Golden Dawn (Χρυσή Αυγή – Chrysi Avyi) is generally labelled neo-Nazi, although the group rejects this label. A few Golden Dawn members participated in the Bosnian War in the Greek Volunteer Guard (GVG) and were present in Srebrenica during the Srebrenica massacre. The party has its roots in Papadopoulos' regime.

There is often collaboration between the state and neo-Nazi elements in Greece. In 2018, during the trial of sixty-nine members of the Golden Dawn party, evidence was presented of the close ties between the party and the Hellenic Police.

Golden Dawn has spoken out in favour of the Assad regime in Syria, and the Strasserist group Black Lily have claimed to have sent mercenaries to Syria to fight alongside the Syrian regime, specifically mentioning their participation in the Battle of al-Qusayr. In the 6 May 2012 legislative election, Golden Dawn received 6.97% of the votes, entering the Greek parliament for the first time with 21 representatives, but when the elected parties were unable to form a coalition government a second election was held in June 2012. Golden Dawn received 6.92% of the votes in the June election and entered the Greek parliament with 18 representatives.

Since 2008, neo-Nazi violence in Greece has targeted immigrants, leftists and anarchist activists. In 2009, certain far-right groups announced that Agios Panteleimonas in Athens was off limits to immigrants. Neo-Nazi patrols affiliated with the Golden Dawn party began attacking migrants in this neighborhood. The violence continued escalating through 2010. In 2013, after the murder of anti-fascist rapper Pavlos Fyssas, the number of hate crimes in Greece declined for several years until 2017. Many of the crimes in 2017 have been attributed to other groups like the Crypteia Organisation and Combat 18 Hellas.

Hungary

"Hungaria Skins" with a flag evoking the Arrow Cross in 1997

In Hungary, the historical political party which allied itself ideologically with German National Socialism and drew inspiration from it, was the Arrow Cross Party of Ferenc Szálasi. They referred to themselves explicitly as National Socialists and within Hungarian politics this tendency is known as Hungarism. After the Second World War, exiles such as Árpád Henney kept the Hungarist tradition alive. Following the fall of the Hungarian People's Republic in 1989, which was a Marxist–Leninist state and a member of the Warsaw Pact, many new parties emerged. Amongst these was the Hungarian National Front of István Győrkös, which was a Hungarist party and considered itself the heirs of Arrow Cross-style National Socialism (a self-description they explicitly embraced). In the 2000s, Győrkös' movement moved closer to a national bolshevist and neo-Eurasian position, aligned with Aleksandr Dugin, cooperating with the Hungarian Workers' Party. Some Hungarists opposed this and founded the Pax Hungarica Movement.

In modern Hungary, the ultranationalist Jobbik is regarded by some scholars as a neo-Nazi party; for example, it has been termed as such by Randolph L. Braham. The party denies being neo-Nazi, although "there is extensive proof that the leading members of the party made no effort to hide their racism and anti-Semitism." Rudolf Paksa, a scholar of the Hungarian far-right, describes Jobbik as "anti-Semitic, racist, homophobic and chauvinistic" but not as neo-Nazi because it does not pursue the establishment of a totalitarian regime. Historian Krisztián Ungváry writes that "It is safe to say that certain messages of Jobbik can be called open neo-Nazi propaganda. However, it is quite certain that the popularity of the party is not due to these statements."

Italy

The Italian group Ordine Nuovo, banned in 1974, drew influence from the Waffen-SS and Guénonian Traditionalism via Julius Evola.

During the 1950s, the neo-fascist Italian Social Movement moved closer to bourgeois conservative politics on the domestic front, which led to radical youths founding hardline splinter groups, such as Pino Rauti's Ordine Nuovo (later succeeded by Ordine Nero) and Stefano Delle Chiaie's Avanguardia Nazionale. These organisations were influenced by the esotericism of Julius Evola and considered the Waffen-SS and Romanian leader Corneliu Zelea Codreanu a reference, moving beyond Italian fascism. They were implicated in paramiliary attacks during the late 1960s to the early 1980s, such as the Piazza Fontana bombing. Delle Chiaie had even assisted Junio Valerio Borghese in a failed 1970 coup attempt known as the Golpe Borghese, which attempted to reinstate a fascist state in Italy.

Ireland

The National Socialist Irish Workers Party, a small party, was active between 1968 and the late 1980s, producing neo-Nazi propaganda pamphlets and sending threatening messages to Jews and Black people living in Ireland.

Netherlands

Noteworthy neo-Nazi movements and parties in the Netherlands include the National European Social Movement (NESB), the Dutch People's Union (NVU), the National Alliance (NA), and the Nationalist People's Movement (NVB). Individuals of note have included Waffen-SS volunteer and NESB founder Paul van Tienen, war-time collaborator and NESB co-founder Jan Wolthuis, former NVU member Bernhard Postma, the "Black Widow" Florentine Rost van Tonningen, former NVU leader Joop Glimmerveen, CP/CP'86 member and NVB leader Wim Beaux, former CP/CP'86 member and NA leader Jan Teijn, former NVU member and "Hitler-lookalike" Stefan Wijkamp, former CP'86 member and current NVU leader Constant Kusters, and former NVU member and NA leader Virginia Kapić.

Both the General Intelligence and Security Service and non-governmental initiatives such as the far-left anti-fascist research group Kafka research neo-Nazism and other forms of political extremism and have attested to the local presence of international movements such as Blood & Honour, Combat 18, the Racial Volunteer Force, and The Base, and expressed concern at the online dissemination of alt-right and far-right accelerationist thought in the Netherlands.

Poland

ONR march in Poznań in November 2015

Under the Polish Constitution promoting any totalitarian system such as Nazism, fascism, or communism, as well as inciting violence and/or racial hatred is illegal. This was further re-enforced in the Polish Penal Code where discrediting any group or persons on national, religious, or racial grounds carries a sentence of 3 years.

Although several small far-right and anti-semitic organisations exist, most notably NOP and ONR (both of which exist legally), they frequently adhere to Polish nationalism and National Democracy, in which Nazism is generally considered to be against ultra-nationalist principles, and although they are classed as nationalist and fascist movements, they are at the same time considered anti-Nazi. Some of their elements may resemble neo-Nazi features, but these groups frequently dissociate themselves from Nazi elements, claiming that such acts are unpatriotic and they argue that Nazism misappropriated or slightly altered several pre-existing symbols and features, such as distinguishing the Roman salute from the Nazi salute.

Self-declared neo-Nazi movements in Poland frequently treat Polish culture and traditions with contempt, are anti-Christian and translate various texts from German, meaning they are considered movements favouring Germanisation.

According to several reporter investigations, the Polish government turns a blind eye to these groups, and they are free to spread their ideology, frequently dismissing their existence as conspiracy theories, dismissing acts political provocations, deeming them too insignificant to pose a threat, or attempting to justify or diminish the seriousness of their actions.

Russia

Main article: Neo-Nazism in Russia Further information: Racism in Russia, Radical nationalism in Russia, Rashism, and Antisemitism in the Soviet Union § Right-wing movements
A neo-Nazi in Russia. The photograph was taken at an anti-gay demonstration in Moscow in October 2010.

Some observers have noted a subjective irony of Russians embracing Nazism, because one of Hitler's ambitions at the start of World War II was the Generalplan Ost (Master Plan East) which envisaged to exterminate, expel, or enslave most or all Slavs from central and eastern Europe (e.g., Russians, Ukrainians, Poles etc.). At the end of the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union, over 25 million Soviet citizens had died.

The first reports of neo-Nazi organizations in the USSR appeared in the second half of the 1950s. In some cases, the participants were attracted primarily by the aesthetics of Nazism (rituals, parades, uniforms, the cult of physical fitness, architecture). Other organizations were more interested in the ideology of the Nazis, their program, and the image of Adolf Hitler. The formation of neo-Nazism in the USSR dates back to the turn of the 1960s and 1970s; during this period, these organizations still preferred to operate underground.

Modern Russian neo-paganism took shape in the second half of the 1970s and is associated with the activities of supporters of antisemitism, especially the Moscow Arabist Valery Yemelyanov (also known as "Velemir") and the former dissident and neo-Nazi activist Alexey Dobrovolsky (also known as "Dobroslav").

In Soviet times, the founder of the movement of Peterburgian Vedism (a branch of Slavic neopaganism) Viktor Bezverkhy (Ostromysl) revered Hitler and Heinrich Himmler and propagated racial and antisemitic theories in a narrow circle of his students, calling for the deliverance of mankind from "inferior offspring", allegedly arising from interracial marriages. He called such "inferior people" "bastards", referred to them as "Zhyds, Indians or gypsies and mulattoes" and believed that they prevent society from achieving social justice.

The first public manifestations of neo-Nazis in Russia took place in 1981 in Kurgan, and then in Yuzhnouralsk, Nizhny Tagil, Sverdlovsk, and Leningrad.

In 1982, on Hitler's birthday, a group of Moscow high school students held a Nazi demonstration on Pushkinskaya Square.

Russian National Unity (RNE) was a Neo-Nazi group founded in 1990 and was led by Alexander Barkashov, who claimed to have members in 250 cities. RNE adopted the swastika as its symbol, and sees itself as the avant-garde of a coming national revolution. It is critical of other major far-right organizations, such as the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia (LDPR). As of 1997, the members RNE were called Soratnik (comrades in arms), receive combat training at locations near Moscow, and many of them work as security officers or armed guards. RNE was banned in 1999 by Moscow's court in 1999, after which the group faded away.

In 2007, it was claimed that Russian neo-Nazis accounted for "half of the world's total".

On 15 August 2007, Russian authorities arrested a student for allegedly posting a video on the Internet which appears to show two migrant workers being beheaded in front of a red and black swastika flag. Alexander Verkhovsky, the head of a Moscow-based center that monitors hate crime in Russia, said, "It looks like this is the real thing. The killing is genuine ... There are similar videos from the Chechen war. But this is the first time the killing appears to have been done intentionally."

Atomwaffen Division Russland is a neo-Nazi terrorist group in Russia found by Russian officials to have been tied to multiple mass murder plots. AWDR was founded by former members of defunct National Socialist Society responsible for 27 murders and AWDR is connected to local chapter of the Order of Nine Angles responsible for rapes, ritual murders and drug trafficking. The Russian authorities raided an Atomwaffen compound in Ulan-Ude and uncovered illegal weapons and explosives.

Serbia

An example of neo-Nazism in Serbia is the group Nacionalni stroj. In 2006 charges were brought against 18 leading members. Besides political parties, there are a few militant neo-Nazi organizations in Serbia, such as Blood & Honour Serbia and Combat 18.

Slovakia

Main article: Kotlebists – People's Party Our Slovakia § Ties to fascism and far-right extremism

The Slovak political party Kotlebists – People's Party Our Slovakia, which is represented in the National Council and European Parliament, is widely characterized as neo-Nazi. Kotleba has softened its image over time and now disputes that is fascist or neo-Nazi, even suing a media outlet that described it as neo-Nazi. As of 2020, the party spokesperson was Ondrej Durica, a former member of the neo-Nazi band Biely Odpor (White Resistance). 2020 candidate Andrej Medvecky was convicted of attacking a black man while shouting racial slurs; another candidate, Anton Grňo, was fined for making a fascist salute. The party still celebrates 14 March, the anniversary of the founding of the fascist first Slovak Republic. In 2020, party leader Marian Kotleba was facing trial for writing checks for 1,488 euros, alleged to be a reference to Fourteen Words and Heil Hitler.

Spain

Neo-Nazi skinheads in Spain

Spanish neo-Nazism is often connected to the country's Francoist and Falangist past, and nurtured by the ideology of the National Catholicism.

According to a study by the newspaper ABC, black people are the ones who have suffered the most attacks by neo-Nazi groups, followed by Maghrebis and Latin Americans. They have also caused deaths in the anti-fascist group, such as the murder of the Madrid-born sixteen-year-old Carlos Palomino on 11 November 2007, stabbed with a knife by a soldier in the Legazpi metro station (Madrid).

There have been other neo-Nazi cultural organizations such as the Spanish Circle of Friends of Europe (CEDADE) and the Circle of Indo-European Studies (CEI).

The extreme right has little electoral support, with the presence of these groups of 0.36% (if the Plataforma per Catalunya (PxC) party is excluded with 66007 votes (0.39%), according to the voting data of the European elections of 2014. The first extreme right party FE de las JONS obtains 0.13% of the votes (21 577 votes), after doubling its results after the crisis; this is followed by the far-right party La España en Marcha (LEM) with 0.1% of the votes, National Democracy (DN) of the far-right with 0.08%, Republican Social Movement (MSR) (far-right) with 0.05% of the votes.

Sweden

Neo-Nazi activities in Sweden have previously been limited to white supremacist groups, few of which have a membership over a few hundred members. The main neo-Nazi organization is the Nordic Resistance Movement, a political movement which engages in martial arts training and paramilitary exercises and which has been called a terrorist group. They are also active in Norway and Denmark; the branch in Finland was banned in 2019.

Switzerland

See also: Far-right politics in Switzerland

The neo-Nazi and white power skinhead scene in Switzerland has seen significant growth in the 1990s and 2000s. It is reflected in the foundation of the Partei National Orientierter Schweizer in 2000, which resulted in an improved organizational structure of the neo-Nazi and white supremacist scene.

Ukraine

Main article: Far-right politics in Ukraine See also: Racism and discrimination in Ukraine and Ukrainian nationalism

In 1991, the Social-National Party of Ukraine (SNPU) was founded. The party combined radical nationalism and neo-Nazi features. The SNPU was characterized as a radical right-wing populist party that combined elements of ethnic ultranationalism and anti-communism. During the 1990s, it was accused of neo-Nazism due to the party's recruitment of skinheads and usage of neo-Nazi symbols. When Oleh Tyahnybok was elected party leader in 2004, he made efforts to moderate the party's image by changing the party's name to All-Ukrainian Association "Svoboda", changing its symbols and expelling neo-Nazi and neofascist groups. Some commentators continued to consider it neo-Nazi: in 2016, The Nation reported that "in Ukrainian municipal elections held , the neo-Nazi Svoboda party won 10 percent of the vote in Kyiv and placed second in Lviv. The Svoboda party's candidate won the mayoral election in the city of Konotop." In 2015, the Svoboda party mayor in Konotop reportedly had the number "14/88" displayed on his car and refused to display the city's official flag because it contains a star of David, and has implied that Jews were responsible for the Holodomor.

The topic of Ukrainian nationalism and its alleged relationship to neo-Nazism came to the fore in polemics about the more radical elements involved in the Euromaidan protests and subsequent Russo-Ukrainian War from 2014 onward. Some Russian, Latin American, U.S. and Israeli media have portrayed the Ukrainian nationalists in the conflict as neo-Nazi.

The Azov Battalion, founded in 2014, has been described as a far-right militia, with connections to neo-Nazism and members wearing neo-Nazi and SS symbols and regalia, as well as expressing neo-Nazi views.

According to Vyacheslav Likhachev of the Institut français des relations internationales, members of far-right (including neo-Nazi) groups played an important role on the pro-Russian side, arguably more so than on the Ukrainian side, especially during early 2014. Members and former members of the National Bolshevik Party, Russian National Unity (RNU), Eurasian Youth Union, and Cossack groups participated in recruitment of the separatists. A former RNU member, Pavel Gubarev, was founder of the Donbas People's Militia and first "governor" of the Donetsk People's Republic. RNU is particularly linked to the Russian Orthodox Army, one of a number of separatist units described as "pro-Tsarist" and "extremist" Orthodox nationalists. 'Rusich' is part of the Wagner Group, a Russian mercenary group in Ukraine which has been linked to far-right extremism. Afterward, the pro-Russian far-right groups became less important in Donbas and the need for Russian radical nationalists started to disappear.

The radical nationalist group С14, whose members openly expressed neo-Nazi views, gained notoriety in 2018 for being involved in violent attacks on Romany camps.

United Kingdom

See also: Far-right politics in the United Kingdom and List of British fascist parties
British National Front (UK) marchers in the 1970s. It is a far-right, fascist political party in the United Kingdom.

In 1962, the British neo-Nazi activist Colin Jordan formed the National Socialist Movement (NSM) which later became the British Movement (BM) in 1968.

John Tyndall, a long-term neo-Nazi activist in the UK, led a break-away from the National Front to form an openly neo-Nazi party named the British National Party. In the 1990s, the party formed a group for protecting its meetings named Combat 18, which later grew too violent for the party to control and began to attack members of the BNP who were not perceived as supportive of neo-Nazism. Under the subsequent leadership of Nick Griffin, the BNP distanced itself from neo-Nazism, although many members (including Griffin himself) have been accused of links to other neo-Nazi groups.

Sonnenkrieg Division is a neo-Nazi terrorist organization in the United Kingdom, linked to international Atomwaffen Division network. Multiple members have been jailed for plotting terror attacks against minorities. Sonnenkrieg Division has been proscribed as a terrorist organization in United Kingdom and Australia. Sonnenkrieg Division is also closely tied with the Order of Nine Angles linked to the Murders of Bibaa Henry and Nicole Smallman.

The UK has also been a source of neo-Nazi music, such as the band Skrewdriver.

Asia

Iran

See also: SUMKA, Aria Party, and Azure Party
Flag of the SUMKA

Several neo-Nazi groups were active in Iran, although they are now defunct. Advocates of Nazism continue to exist in Iran and are mainly based on the Internet.

Israel

See also: Fascism in Israel

Neo-Nazi activity is not common or widespread in Israel, and the few reported activities have all been the work of extremists, who were punished severely. One notable case is that of Patrol 36, a cell in Petah Tikva made up of eight teenage immigrants from the former Soviet Union who had been attacking foreign workers and gay people, and vandalizing synagogues with Nazi images. These neo-Nazis were reported to have operated in cities across Israel, and have been described as being influenced by the rise of neo-Nazism in Europe; mostly influenced by similar movements in Russia and Ukraine, as the rise of the phenomenon is widely credited to immigrants from those two states, the largest sources of emigration to Israel. Widely publicized arrests have led to a call to reform the Law of Return to permit the revocation of Israeli citizenship for—and the subsequent deportation of—neo-Nazis.

Japan

Since 1982, the neo-Nazi National Socialist Japanese Workers' Party has operated in Japan, currently under the leadership of Kazunari Yamada, who has praised Hitler and denied the Holocaust.

Mongolia

Flag of the Dayar Mongol, a neo-Nazi party in Mongolia

From 2008, Mongolian neo-Nazi groups have defaced buildings in Ulaanbaatar, smashed Chinese shopkeepers' windows, and killed Chinese immigrants. The neo-Nazi Mongols' targets for violence are Chinese, Koreans, Mongol women who have sex with Chinese men, and LGBT people. They wear Nazi uniforms and revere the Mongol Empire and Genghis Khan. Though Tsagaan Khass leaders say they do not support violence, they are self-proclaimed Nazis. "Adolf Hitler was someone we respect. He taught us how to preserve national identity," said the 41-year-old co-founder, who calls himself Big Brother. "We don't agree with his extremism and starting the Second World War. We are against all those killings, but we support his ideology. We support nationalism rather than fascism." Some have ascribed it to poor historical education.

Taiwan

Main article: National Socialism Association

The National Socialism Association (NSA) is a neo-Nazi political organisation founded in Taiwan in September 2006 by Hsu Na-chi (Chinese: 許娜琦), at that time a 22-year-old female political science graduate of Soochow University. The NSA has an explicit stated goal of obtaining the power to govern the state. The Simon Wiesenthal Centre condemned the National Socialism Association on 13 March 2007 for championing the former Nazi dictator and blaming democracy for social unrest in Taiwan.

Turkey

See also: Turkish nationalism

A neo-Nazi group existed in 1969 in İzmir, when a group of former Republican Villagers Nation Party members (precursor party of the Nationalist Movement Party) founded the association "Nasyonal Aktivite ve Zinde İnkişaf" (National Activity and Vigorous Development). The club maintained two combat units. The members wore SA uniforms and used the Hitler salute. One of the leaders (Gündüz Kapancıoğlu) was re-admitted to the Nationalist Movement Party in 1975.

Apart from neo-fascist Grey Wolves and the Turkish ultranationalist Nationalist Movement Party, there are some neo-Nazi organizations in Turkey such as the Turkish Nazi Party or the National Socialist Party of Turkey, which are mainly based on the Internet.

National Front Party (Ulusal Cephe Partisi) adheres to neo-Nazism, spreads Nazi material translated into Turkish and targets Jews, Arabs and Africans. National Front Party has about 1000 members and is affiliated with the racist Victory Party (Turkey).

The neo-Nazi Ataman Brotherhood (Ataman Kardeşliği) patrols streets in Turkey and attacks Syrian and Afghan refugees.

Americas

Brazil

Main article: Nazism in Brazil

Several Brazilian neo-Nazi gangs appeared in the 1990s in Southern and Southeastern Brazil, regions with mostly white people, with their acts gaining more media coverage and public notoriety in the 2010s. Some members of Brazilian neo-Nazi groups have been associated with football hooliganism. Their targets have included African, South American and Asian immigrants; Jews, Muslims, Catholics and atheists; Afro-Brazilians and internal migrants with origins in the northern regions of Brazil (who are mostly brown-skinned or Afro-Brazilian); homeless people, prostitutes; recreational drug users; feminists and—more frequently reported in the media—gay people, bisexuals, and transgender and third-gender people. News of their attacks has played a role in debates about anti-discrimination laws in Brazil (including to some extent hate speech laws) and the issues of sexual orientation and gender identity.

Canada

Neo-Nazism in Canada began with the formation of the Canadian Nazi Party in 1965. In the 1970s and 1980s, neo-Nazism continued to spread in the country as organizations including the Western Guard Party and Church of the Creator (later renamed Creativity) promoted white supremacist ideals. Founded in the United States in 1973, Creativity calls for white people to wage racial holy war (Rahowa) against Jews and other perceived enemies.

Don Andrews founded the Nationalist Party of Canada in 1977. The purported goals of the unregistered party are "the promotion and maintenance of European Heritage and Culture in Canada," but the party is known for anti-Semitism and racism. Many influential neo-Nazi Leaders, such as Wolfgang Droege, were affiliated with the party, but many of its members left to join the Heritage Front, which was founded in 1989.

Droege founded the Heritage Front in Toronto at a time when leaders of the white supremacist movement were "disgruntled about the state of the radical right" and wanted to unite unorganized groups of white supremacists into an influential and efficient group with common objectives. Plans for the organization began in September 1989, and the formation of the Heritage Front was formally announced a couple of months later in November. In the 1990s, George Burdi of Resistance Records and the band Rahowa popularized the Creativity movement and the white power music scene.

On September 18, 2020, Toronto Police arrested 34-year-old Guilherme "William" Von Neutegem and charged him with the murder of Mohamed-Aslim Zafis. Zafis was the caretaker of a local mosque who was found dead with his throat cut. The Toronto Police Service said the killing is possibly connected to the stabbing murder of Rampreet Singh a few days prior a short distance from the spot where Zafis' murder took place. Von Neutegem is a member of the Order of Nine Angles and social media accounts established as belonging to him promote the group and included recordings of Von Neutegem performing satanic chants. In his home there was also an altar with the symbol of the O9A adorning a monolith. According to Evan Balgord of the Canadian Anti-Hate Network, they are aware of more O9A members in Canada and their affiliated organization Northern Order. Northern Order is a proscribed neo-Nazi terrorist organization in Canada. NO members have been arrested for trafficking explosives and firearms, and NO has active members of the Canadian Armed Forces as its members and even a member of the CJIRU was identified as a member.

Controversy and dissention has left many Canadian neo-Nazi organizations dissolved or weakened.

Chile

Main article: Nazism in Chile
Flag of the National Socialist Movement of Chile

After the dissolution of the National Socialist Movement of Chile (MNSCH) in 1938, notable former members of MNSCH migrated into Partido Agrario Laborista (PAL), obtaining high positions. Not all former MNSCH members joined the PAL; some continued to form parties that followed the MNSCH model until 1952. A new old-school Nazi party was formed in 1964 by school teacher Franz Pfeiffer. Among the activities of this group were the organization of a Miss Nazi beauty contest and the formation of a Chilean branch of the Ku Klux Klan. The party disbanded in 1970. Pfeiffer attempted to restart it in 1983 in the wake of a wave of protests against the Augusto Pinochet regime.

Nicolás Palacios considered the "Chilean race" to be a mix of two bellicose master races: the Visigoths of Spain and the Mapuche (Araucanians) of Chile. Palacios traces the origins of the Spanish component of the "Chilean race" to the coast of the Baltic Sea, specifically to Götaland in Sweden, one of the supposed homelands of the Goths. Palacios claimed that both the blonde-haired and the bronze-coloured Chilean Mestizo share a "moral physonomy" and a masculine psychology. He opposed immigration from Southern Europe, and argued that Mestizos who are derived from south Europeans lack "cerebral control" and are a social burden.

Costa Rica

Several fringe neo-Nazi groups have existed in Costa Rica, some with online presence since around 2003. The groups normally target Jewish Costa Ricans, Afro-Costa Ricans, Communists, gay people and especially Nicaraguan and Colombian immigrants. In 2012 the media discovered the existence of a neo-Nazi police officer inside the Public Force of Costa Rica, for which he was fired and would later commit suicide in April 2016 due to lack of job opportunities and threats from anti-fascists.

In 2015, the Simon Wiesenthal Center asked the Costa Rican government to shut down a store in San José that sells Nazi paraphernalia, Holocaust denial books and other products associated with Nazism.

In 2018, a series of pages on the social network Facebook of neo-Nazi inclination openly or discreetly carried out a vast campaign instigating xenophobic hatred by recycling old news or posting fake news to take advantage of an anti-immigrant sentiment after three homicides of tourists allegedly committed by migrants (although from one of the homicides the suspect is Costa Rican). A rally against the country's migration policy was held on 19 August 2018, in which neo-Nazi and hooligans took part. Although not all participants were linked these groups and the majority of participants were peaceful, the protest turned violent and the Public Force intervened with 44 arrested (36 Costa Ricans and the rest Nicaraguans). Authorities confiscated sharp weapons, Molotov cocktails and other items from the neo-Nazis, who also carried swastika flags. A subsequent anti-xenophobic march and solidarity with the Nicaraguan refugees was organized a week later with more assistance. A second anti-migration demonstration, with the explicit exclusion of neo-Nazis and hooligans, was carried out in September with similar assistance. In 2019 Facebook pages of extreme right-wing tendencies and anti-immigration position as Deputy 58, Costa Rican Resistance and Salvation Costa Rica called an anti-government demonstration on 1 May with small attendance.

Peru

Peru has been home to a handful of neo-Nazi groups, most notably the National Socialist Movement "Peru Awake", the National Socialist Tercios of New Castile, and the Peruvian National Socialist Union.

United States

See also: Radical right (United States) and Racism in the United States
National Socialist Movement rally on the west lawn of the US Capitol, Washington, DC, 2008

Statistics

In 2017, following the Charlottesville car attack, an ABC News/Washington Post poll found out that 9% of all Americans supported the neo-Nazi ideology, which back then amounted to some 22 million Americans.

Ideology

The ideology of James H. Madole, leader of the National Renaissance Party, was influenced by Blavatskian Theosophy. Helena Blavatsky developed a racial theory of evolution, holding that the white race was the "fifth rootrace" called the Aryan Race. According to Blavatsky, Aryans had been preceded by Atlanteans who had perished in the flood that sunk the continent Atlantis. The three races that preceded the Atlanteans, in Blavatsky's view, were proto-humans; these were the Lemurians, Hyperboreans and the first Astral rootrace. It was on this foundation that Madole based his claims that the Aryan Race has been worshiped as "White Gods" since time immemorial and proposed a governance structure based on the Hindu Laws of Manu and its hierarchical caste system.

Organizations and individuals

There are several neo-Nazi groups in the United States. The National Socialist Movement (NSM), with about 400 members in 32 states, is currently the largest neo-Nazi organization in the US. After World War II, new organizations formed with varying degrees of support for Nazi principles. The National States' Rights Party, founded in 1958 by Edward Reed Fields and J. B. Stoner, countered racial integration in the Southern United States with Nazi-inspired publications and iconography. The American Nazi Party, founded by George Lincoln Rockwell in 1959, achieved high-profile coverage in the press through its public demonstrations.

The Institute for Historical Review, formed in 1978, is a Holocaust denial body associated with neo-Nazism.

In 2022, famous rapper Kanye West stated that he identifies as a Nazi, denying the Holocaust and praising the policies of Adolf Hitler.

Between freedom of speech and national security threats

The First Amendment to the United States Constitution guarantees freedom of speech, which the courts have interpreted very broadly to include hate speech, severely limiting the government's authority to suppress it. This allows political organizations great latitude in expressing Nazi, racist, and antisemitic views. A landmark First Amendment case was National Socialist Party of America v. Village of Skokie, in which neo-Nazis threatened to march in a predominantly Jewish suburb of Chicago. The march never took place in Skokie, but the court ruling allowed the neo-Nazis to stage a series of demonstrations in Chicago.

Organizations which report upon neo-Nazi activities in the U.S., which may involve attacking and harassing minorities, include the American organizations Anti-Defamation League and the Southern Poverty Law Center.

In 2020, the FBI reclassified neo-Nazis to the same threat level as ISIS. Chris Wray, the Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, stated "Not only is the terror threat diverse, it's unrelenting."

Uruguay

In 1998, a group of people belonging to the "Joseph Goebbels Movement" tried to burn down a synagogue, which also served as a Hebrew school, in the Pocitos neighborhood of Montevideo in Uruguay; an antisemitic pamphlet signed by the group was found in the building after the quick action of firefighters saved it. Another group, the racist and antisemitic neo-Nazi Euroamerikaners group, founded in 1996, said when they were interviewed by the newspaper La República de Montevideo that they had no involvement with the attack on the synagogue, but revealed that they maintain contacts with a group called Poder Blanco ("White Power"), also Uruguayan, as well as with neo-Nazi groups from Argentina and several European countries. Through the Internet they have received the solidarity of the Patria pro-fascist group, based in Spain. They also said that in the city of Canelones, Uruguay, fifty kilometers from Montevideo, there is a clandestine "Aryan church" which uses rituals taken from the Ku Klux Klan. The Euroamerikaners declared that they did not tolerate interracial or gay couples. One of the militants said in the interview that "... if we see a black man with a white woman, we break them up ...". Other neo-Nazi incidents in Uruguay in 1998 included the bombing of a Jewish-owned small business in February, which injured two people, and the appearance of posters celebrating the anniversary of Hitler's birthday in April.

Africa

South Africa

Several groups in South Africa, such as Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging and Blanke Bevrydingsbeweging, have often been described as neo-Nazi. Eugène Terre'Blanche was a prominent South African neo-Nazi leader who was murdered in 2010.

Oceania

Members of the National Socialist Network doing Nazi salutes on 18 March 2023

There were a number of now-defunct Australian neo-Nazi groups, such as the Australian National Socialist Party (ANSP), which was formed in 1962 and merged into the National Socialist Party of Australia (1968–1970s), originally a splinter group, in 1968, and Jack van Tongeren's Australian Nationalist Movement.

The National Socialist Network (NSN) is an Australian neo-Nazi political organisation formed from two far-right organisations, the Lads Society and the Antipodean Resistance, in 2020.

White supremacist organisations active in Australia as of 2016 included local chapters of the Aryan Nations. Blair Cottrell, former leader of the United Patriots Front, has tried to distance himself from neo-Nazism, but he has nevertheless been accused of expressing "pro-Nazi views". Australian Security Intelligence Organisation director Mike Burgess said in February 2020 that neo-Nazis pose a "real threat" to Australia's security. Burgess maintained that there is a growing threat from the extreme right, and that its supporters "regularly meet to salute Nazi flags, inspect weapons, train in combat and share their hateful ideology". In June 2022, the Australian state Victoria banned display of the swastika symbol. Under the new law, individuals who intentionally exhibit the symbol may face up to a year in jail or a A$22,000 (£12,300; $15,000) fine. The state of Victoria already has laws against hate speech, but they have been criticized for having weaknesses. The call for reform of these laws grew stronger in 2020 when a couple flew a swastika flag over their home, causing outrage in the community."

In New Zealand, historical neo-Nazi organisations include Unit 88 and the National Socialist Party of New Zealand. White nationalist organisations such as the New Zealand National Front and Action Zealandia have faced accusations of neo-Nazism.

See also

References

Informational notes

  1. Some of the fascistic old-guard from the pre-war ultra-nationalist movements were more skeptical of the benefits of the Rockwell-Jordan uniform scene. Oswald Mosley of the Union Movement described Jordan as, "a midget trying to walk in the boots of giants." Meanwhile, Yockeyism leaned more to the left than the "official" fascistic Pan-Europeanism of those which would become the European Social Movement. The latter associated with Mosley, Maurice Bardèche and others upheld a strictly "neither East, nor West", third position in regards to Soviet and American power.
  2. While the intelligence claims in regards to the Rockwell's American costume group proved unfounded, a number of actual German Nazis did relocate to the Middle East, some converted to Islam and changed their names; particularly Egypt and Syria. This includes Johann von Leers, Alois Brunner, Aribert Heim, Franz Stangl, Gerhard Mertins, Hans Eisele, Walter Rauff, Artur Schmitt and others. The father of Neo-Nazism, Otto Ernst Remer, also fled to Egypt, then Syria during the 1950s.

Citations

  1. Gay, Kathlyn (1997) Neo-Nazis: A Growing Threat. Enslow. p. 114. ISBN 978-0894909016. Quote: "Neo-Nazis ... use fear and violence in their efforts to destroy minorities. Their goal is to establish a "superior" society."(emphasis added)
  2. Staff (ndg) "Ideologies: Neo Nazi" Archived 12 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine Southern Poverty Law Center. Quote: "While some neo-Nazi groups emphasize simple hatred, others are more focused on the revolutionary creation of a fascist political state." (emphasis added)
  3. * Werner Bergmann; Rainer Erb (1997). Anti-Semitism in Germany: The Post-Nazi Epoch Since 1945. Transaction Publishers. p. 91. ISBN 978-1-56000-270-3. OCLC 35318351. Archived from the original on 20 February 2021. Retrieved 14 August 2015. In contrast to today, in which rigid authoritarianism and neo-Nazism are characteristic of marginal groups, open or latent leanings toward Nazi ideology in the 1940s and 1950s
    • Martin Polley (2000). A–Z of Modern Europe Since 1789. Routledge. pp. 103. ISBN 978-0-415-18597-4. OCLC 49569961. Neo-Nazism, drawing heavily both on the ideology and aesthetics of the NSDAP, emerged in many parts of Europe and elsewhere in the economic crises of the 1970s, and has continued to influence a number of small political groups.
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Bibliography

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