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{{Short description|Ethnic group native to Turkey}} | |||
{{dablink|For other uses of "Turkish", see ].}} | |||
{{distinguish|Turkic peoples}} | |||
{{dablink|For the broader concept of Turkic-speaking ethnic groups, see ].}} | |||
{{pp|small=yes}} | |||
{{Infobox Ethnic group | |||
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}} | |||
|group = Turkish people<br/>Türkler | |||
{{Infobox ethnic group | |||
|image =] | |||
| group = Turks | |||
|caption = <small> 1<sup>st</sup> row: ] •] • ] • ] • ] • ] • ] • ]<br /> 2<sup>nd</sup> row: ] • ] • ] •] • ] • ] • ] • ]<br /> 3<sup>rd</sup> row: ] • ] • ] • ] • ] • ] • ] • ] </small><small> | |||
| native_name = '''''Türkler''''' | |||
|pop = 70 million+ <br/> (1.04% of the world's population) <br/> | |||
| image = Map of the Turkish Diaspora in the World.svg | |||
{{smaller|(see also ] & ])}} | |||
| caption = Map of the Turkish people around the world | |||
|region1 = {{flagcountry|Turkey}} | |||
| native_name_lang = tr | |||
|pop1 = 58,000,000 | |||
| pop = {{circa}} '''80 million''' | |||
|ref1 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web |author=Library of Congress – Federal Research Division |title=Country Profile: Turkey |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Turkey.pdf |accessdate=2010-02-06}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=The Guardian|title=Country Profile: Turkey |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/country-profile/turkey|accessdate=2010-03-16}}</ref><ref>Helen Chapin Metz, ed. ''Turkey: A Country Study.'' Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1995. </ref>}} | |||
| popplace = {{flagcountry|Turkey}} 60,000,000 to 65,000,000<ref name=Garibova2011>{{citation|last=Garibova|first=Jala|year=2011|chapter=A Pan-Turkic Dream: Language Unification of Turks|title=Handbook of Language and Ethnic Identity: The Success-Failure Continuum in Language and Ethnic Identity Efforts|editor1-last=Fishman|editor1-first=Joshua|editor2-last=Garcia|editor-first2=Ofelia|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oUydX_3rG0AC&dq=60+million+ethnic+Turks+living+in+its+territories&pg=PA268|publisher=]|page=268|quote=Approximately 200 million people,... speak nearly 40 Turkic languages and dialects. Turkey is the largest Turkic state, with about 60 million ethnic Turks living in its territories.|isbn=9780199837991}}</ref><ref name=Hobbs2017>{{citation|last=Hobbs|first=Joseph J.|year=2017|title=Fundamentals of World Regional Geography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0rUaCgAAQBAJ&dq=The+greatest+are+the+65+million+Turks+of+Turkey&pg=PA223|publisher=]|quote=The greatest are the 65 million Turks of Turkey, who speak Turkish, a Turkic language...|page=223|isbn=9781305854956}}</ref> <br/> {{flagcountry|Northern Cyprus}} 315,000{{smallsup|a}}<ref>{{cite web |title=KKTC 2011 NÜFUS VE KONUT SAYIMI |url=http://www.devplan.org/Nufus-2011/nufus%20son_.pdf |access-date=14 February 2014 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927104440/http://www.devplan.org/Nufus-2011/nufus%20son_.pdf |archive-date=27 September 2013}}</ref> | |||
|region2 = {{flagcountry|Iraq}} | |||
| |
| region3 = '''Modern Turkish diaspora:''' | ||
| pop3 = <!-- needed to force display of the header --> | |||
|ref2 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web |author=News World Communications, Inc.|title= Turkmen Should Be Given Human-Rights Protections|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1571/is_37_16/ai_65913589|accessdate=2010-03-06}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=UNPO|title= Iraqi Turkmen|url=http://www.unpo.org/content/view/7878/117/|accessdate=2010-03-06}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=KerkukNet|title= Turkish Settlement Areas In Iraq|url=http://www.kerkuk.net/kurumsal/?dil=2057&metin=20|accessdate=2010-03-06}}</ref><ref>http://merryabla64.wordpress.com/turkmens-of-iraq/</ref><ref>Turkey: Facing a New Millennium : Coping with Intertwined Conflicts, By Amikam Nachmani, page 11, Published 2003, Manchester University Press, 264 pages, ISBN 0719063701</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=The JamesTown Foundation|title= Iraqi Turkmen Announce Formation of New Jihadi Group|url=http://www.jamestown.org/single/?no_cache=1&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=4795|accessdate=2010-03-06}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Ibrahim Sirkeci PHD| title= Turkmen in Iraq and International Migration of Turkmen|url=http://www.migrationletters.com/turkmen/turkmeneng.pdf|format=PDF|accessdate=2010-03-06}}</ref><ref>http://arabicpress.wordpress.com/2008/01/31/iraqi-turkmen-seek-protection-from-possible-collective-genocide/</ref>}} | |||
| |
| region4 = {{flagcountry|Germany}} | ||
| |
| pop4 = 3,000,000 to over 7,000,000 | ||
| ref4 = <ref>{{cite book |last1=Orvis|first1=Stephen|last2=Drogus|first2=Carol Ann|year=2018|title=Introducing Comparative Politics: Concepts and Cases in Context |publisher=CQ Press|quote=Today, nearly three million ethnic Turks live in Germany, and many have raised children there.|isbn=978-1-5443-7444-4|page=305|language=en}}</ref><ref name=Engstrom2021>{{citation|last=Engstrom|first=Aineias|title=Turkish-German "dream team" behind first COVID-19 vaccine|url=https://psuvanguard.com/turkish-german-dream-team-behind-first-covid-19-vaccine/|journal=]|date=12 January 2021 |publisher=]|quote=The German census does not gather data on ethnicity, however according to estimates, somewhere between 4–7 million people with Turkish roots, or 5–9% of the population, live in Germany.|access-date=27 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210327134346/https://psuvanguard.com/turkish-german-dream-team-behind-first-covid-19-vaccine/|archive-date=27 March 2021}}</ref><ref name=Zestos&Cooke2020>{{citation|last1=Zestos|first1=George K.|last2=Cooke|first2=Rachel N.|year=2020|title=Challenges for the EU as Germany Approaches Recession |publisher=]|pages=22|url=http://www.levyinstitute.org/pubs/wp_948.pdf|quote=Presently (2020) more than seven million Turks live in Germany.}}</ref><ref>{{citation|last=]|year=2005|chapter=Germany|title=Europe Confronts Terrorism|editor-last=Von Hippel|editor-first=Karin|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|pages=53|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pyx-DAAAQBAJ&q=It+is+a+little+late+to+start+the+debate+about+being+an+immigrant+country+now%2C+when+already+seven+million+Turks+live+in+Germany&pg=PA53|isbn=978-0230524590|quote=It is a little late to start the debate about being an immigrant country now, when already seven million Turks live in Germany.}}</ref> | |||
|ref3 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web|author=Berlin-Institut|title= Zur Lage der Integration in Deutschland|url=http://www.berlin-institut.org/fileadmin/user_upload/Zuwanderung/Integration_RZ_online.pdf|accessdate=2009-07-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Deutsche Welle|title=German Interior Minister Pledges to Improve Turkish Integration |url=http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,,3994814,00.html?maca=en-kalenderblatt_topthema_englisch-347-rdf|accessdate=2009-02-18}}</ref>}} | |||
| |
| region5 = {{flagcountry|United States}} | ||
| |
| pop5 = 1,000,000–3,000,000 | ||
| ref5 = <ref name=Bryson>{{citation|author=]|year=2012|title =Remarks by Commerce Secretary Bryson, April 5, 2012|journal=Foreign Policy Bulletin|volume=22|issue=3|page=137|quote=Here in the U.S., you can see our person-to-person relationships growing stronger each day. You can see it in the 13,000 Turkish students that are studying here in the U.S. You can see it in corporate leaders like Muhtar Kent, the CEO of Coca-Cola, and you can see it in more than one million Turkish-Americans who add to the rich culture and fabric of our country.|publisher=]}} The citation is also available on {{citation|year=2012|title =Remarks at Center for American Progress & Confederation of Businessmen and Industrialists of Turkey (TUSKON) Luncheon| url=https://2010-2014.commerce.gov/news/secretary-speeches/2012/04/05/remarks-center-american-progress-confederation-businessmen-and-in.html|publisher =]|access-date =13 November 2020}}</ref><ref name="Feldman2022">{{citation|author=]|year=2022|url=https://www.facebook.com/BrianJeffreyFeldman/photos/a.205098992924823/3565112543590101/|publisher=]|title=The District 15 Delegation will be making an appearance Thursday on a TV show which reaches over 2 million Turkish Americans as well as viewers in Turkey!|access-date=3 November 2022}}</ref><ref name=Şafak2009/><ref name="Lucena2022">{{citation|last=Lucena|first=Jorge|year=2022|title=MEET MURAD ISLAMOV: THE FOUNDER AND CEO OF MAYA BAGEL EXPRESS|url=https://flaunt.com/content/murad-islamov|publisher=Flaunt|quote=Over 3 million Turkish Americans live in various states across the united states. They have had a significant impact on the united states' culture, achievements, and history. |access-date=26 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220326175348/https://flaunt.com/content/murad-islamov|archive-date=26 March 2022}}</ref> | |||
|ref4 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web|title= Bulgarian 2001 census|url=http://www.nsi.bg/Census_e/Ethnos.htm|accessdate=2010-01-25}}</ref>}} | |||
| |
| region6 = {{flagcountry|Netherlands}} | ||
| |
| pop6 = 500,000 to over 2,000,000 | ||
| ref6 = <ref name="Aalberseetal2019">{{citation|last1=Aalberse|first1=Suzanne|last2=Backus|first2=Ad|author3-link=:nl:Pieter Muysken|last3=Muysken, Pieter |year=2019|title=Heritage Languages: A language Contact Approach|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ab-9DwAAQBAJ&q=the+Dutch+Turkish+community+over+the+years+must+have+numbered+half+a+million.&pg=PA90|page=90|publisher=]|quote=the Dutch Turkish community... out of a population that over the years must have numbered half a million.|isbn=978-9027261762}}</ref><ref name="Tocci">{{citation|author-link=Nathalie Tocci|last=Tocci, Nathalie|year=2004|title=EU Accession Dynamics and Conflict Resolution: Catalysing Peace Or Consolidating Partition in Cyprus?|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ndWzAAAAIAAJ&q=%22two+million+Turks+in+Holland%22|page=130|publisher=]|quote=The Dutch government was concerned about Turkey's reaction to the European Council's conclusions on Cyprus, keeping in mind the presence of two million Turks in Holland and the strong business links with Turkey.|isbn=9780754643104}}</ref><ref name="vanVeen2007">{{citation|last=van Veen|first=Rita|year=2007|title='De koningin heeft oog voor andere culturen'|url=https://www.trouw.nl/nieuws/de-koningin-heeft-oog-voor-andere-culturen~be1cbe71/?referrer=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2F|publisher=]|quote=Erol kan niet voor alle twee miljoen Turken in Nederland spreken, maar hij denkt dat Beatrix wel goed ligt bij veel van zijn landgenoten.|access-date=25 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412080206/https://www.trouw.nl/nieuws/de-koningin-heeft-oog-voor-andere-culturen~be1cbe71/?referrer=https://www.google.com/|archive-date=12 April 2021}}</ref><ref name="Baker2021">{{citation|last=Baker|first=Rauf|year=2021|title=The Netherlands: The EU's "New Britain"?|url=https://besacenter.org/netherlands-eu-gateway/|publisher=], ]|quote=The Netherlands, which has a total population of 17 million, contains around two million Turks,...}}</ref> | |||
|ref5 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite book |last=Hunter |first=Shireen |title=Islam, Europe's Second Religion: The New Social, Cultural, and Political Landscape |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |date=2002 |page=6 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=mamiop8TPxYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Islam,+Europe%27s+Second+Religion:+The+New+Social,+Cultural,+and+Political+Landscape#PPA6,M1|isbn = 978-0275976088}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Todays ZAMAN|title= Ankara Continues to Criticize Genocide Bill |url=http://www.todayszaman.com/tz-web/detaylar.do?load=detay&link=37334|accessdate=2008-12-18}}</ref>}} | |||
| |
| region7 = {{flagcountry|France}} | ||
| |
| pop7 = over 1,000,000 | ||
| ref7 = <ref name=Hentz&Hasselmann2010>{{cite book|last1=Hentz|first1=Jean-Gustave|last2=Hasselmann|first2=Michel|year=2010|title=Transculturalité, religion, traditions autour de la mort en réanimation|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-2-287-99072-4_33|quote=La France d’aujourd’hui est une société multiculturelle et multiethnique riche de 4,9 millions de migrants représentant environ 8 % de la population du pays. L’immigration massive de populations du sud de l’Europe de culture catholique après la deuxième guerre mondiale a été suivie par l’arrivée de trois millions d’Africains du Nord, d’un million de Turcs et de contingents importants d’Afrique Noire et d’Asie qui ont implanté en France un islam majoritairement sunnite (Maghrébins et Africains de l’Ouest) mais aussi chiite (Pakistanais et Africains de l’Est).|publisher=]|doi=10.1007/978-2-287-99072-4_33|isbn=978-2-287-99072-4}}</ref><ref name=Gallard&Nguyen2020>{{citation|last1=Gallard|first1= Joseph|last2=Nguyen|first2=Julien|year=2020|title="Il est temps que la France appelle à de véritables sanctions contre le jeu d'Erdogan"|url=https://www.marianne.net/agora/tribunes-libres/il-est-temps-que-la-france-appelle-a-de-veritables-sanctions-contre-le-jeu-derdogan|publisher=]|quote=... et ce grâce à la nombreuse diaspora turque, en particulier en France et en Allemagne. Ils seraient environ un million dans l'Hexagone, si ce n’est plus...es raisons derrière ne sont pas difficiles à deviner : l’immense population turque en Allemagne, estimée par Merkel elle-même aux alentours de sept millions et qui ne manquerait pas de se faire entendre si l’Allemagne prenait des mesures allant à l’encontre de la Turquie. |access-date=25 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210214154041/https://www.marianne.net/agora/tribunes-libres/il-est-temps-que-la-france-appelle-a-de-veritables-sanctions-contre-le-jeu-derdogan|archive-date=14 February 2021}}</ref><ref name=Garriaud-Maylam2021>{{citation|year=2021|title=Contrat d'objectifs et de moyens (COM) 2020-2022 de France Médias Monde: Mme Joëlle Garriaud-Maylam, co-rapporteur|url=http://www.senat.fr/rap/r20-308/r20-3087.html|quote=Enfin, comme vous l'avez dit au sujet de la Turquie, il est essentiel que la France investisse davantage dans les langues qui sont parlées sur le territoire national. On recense plus d'un million de Turcs en France. Ils ne partagent pas toujours nos objectifs et nos valeurs, parce qu'ils subissent l'influence d'une presse qui ne nous est pas toujours très favorable. Il est donc très utile de les prendre en compte dans le développement de nos médias.|publisher=]|access-date=7 May 2021}}</ref> | |||
|ref6 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web |author=Federation of Turkish Associations UK|title=BRIEF HISTORY OF THE FEDERATION OF TURKISH ASSOCIATIONS IN UK |url=http://www.turkishfederationuk.com/en/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=26&Itemid=31|accessdate=2008-12-19}}</ref>}} | |||
| |
| region8 = {{nowrap|{{flagcountry|United Kingdom}}}} | ||
| |
| pop8 = 500,000{{smallsup|b}} | ||
| ref8 = <ref>{{cite news|work=The Guardian |title=UK immigration analysis needed on Turkish legal migration, say MPs|date=1 August 2011 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2011/aug/01/turkish-immigration-possibilities-assessed|access-date=1 August 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=]|title=Short history of the Federation of Turkish Associations in UK |url=http://www.turkishfederationuk.org/en/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=26&Itemid=31|date=19 June 2008|access-date=13 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120110204634/http://www.turkishfederationuk.org/en/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=26&Itemid=31|archive-date=10 January 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> | |||
|ref7 = {{lower|0.2em|<ref name="encyclopedia1">{{cite web |author=Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |title=Immigration and Ethnicity: Turks |url=http://ech.case.edu/ech-cgi/article.pl?id=TIC |accessdate=2010-02-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=TURKISH SOCIETY OF ROCHESTER, NEW YORK|title=About Turkish Society of Rochester|url=http://www.tsor.org/aboutus.html|accessdate=2010-02-07}}</ref>}} | |||
| |
| region9 = {{flagcountry|Austria}} | ||
| |
| pop9 = 360,000–500,000 | ||
| ref9 = <ref name="InitiativeMinderheiten">{{citation|year=2011|title=Warum die Türken?|url=https://homepage.univie.ac.at/sabine.strasser/stimme_78_editorial.pdf|publisher=]|volume=78|quote=Was sind die Gründe für dieses massive Unbehagen angesichts von rund 360.000 Menschen türkischer Herkunft?|access-date=17 August 2021|archive-date=18 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210118011455/https://homepage.univie.ac.at/sabine.strasser/stimme_78_editorial.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Mölzer">{{cite web|last=]|title=In Österreich leben geschätzte 500.000 Türken, aber kaum mehr als 10–12.000 Slowenen|url=http://www.andreas-moelzer.at/index.php?id=24|access-date=30 October 2020|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225063611/http://www.andreas-moelzer.at/|archive-date=25 December 2018}}</ref> | |||
|ref8 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web |author= Netherlands Info Services|title=Dutch Queen Tells Turkey "First Steps Taken" On EU Membership Road|url=http://www.nisnews.nl/public/010307_2.htm|accessdate=2008-12-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author= Dutch News|title=Dutch Turks swindled, AFM to investigate|url=http://www.dutchnews.nl/news/archives/2007/03/dutch_turks_swindled_afm_to_in.php|accessdate=2008-12-16}}</ref>}} | |||
| |
| region10 = {{flagcountry|Belgium}} | ||
| |
| pop10 = 250,000–500,000 | ||
| ref10 = <ref>{{citation |last1=Manço|first1=Altay|last2=Taş|first2=Ertugrul|year=2019|title=Migrations Matrimoniales: Facteurs de Risque en Sante´ Mentale|page=444|url= |journal=]|volume=64|issue=6|publisher=]|doi=10.1177/0706743718802800|pmid=30380909|pmc=6591757}}</ref><ref name="Debels2021">{{citation|author=]|year=2021|title=Operatie Rebel: toen de Belgische heroïnehandel in Turkse handen was|url=https://pnws.be/operatie-rebel-toen-de-belgische-heroinehandel-in-turkse-handen-was/|quote=Volgens diverse bronnen zouden eerst een half miljoen Turken die toen in Belgie verbleven – Belgen van Turkse afkomst en aanverwanten – gescreend zijn.|publisher=PMagazine|access-date=16 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816145656/https://pnws.be/operatie-rebel-toen-de-belgische-heroinehandel-in-turkse-handen-was/|archive-date=16 August 2021}}</ref> | |||
|ref9 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web |author=SundaysZaman|title=Austria signals policy changes for better relations with Turkey |url=http://www.sundayszaman.com/sunday/detaylar.do?load=detay&link=186277|accessdate=2010-03-16}}</ref>}} | |||
| |
| region11 = {{flagcountry|Australia}} | ||
| |
| pop11 = 320,000{{smallsup|c}} | ||
| ref11 = <ref name=Lennie>{{cite web|last=Lennie|first=Soraya|year=2017|title=Turkish diaspora in Australia vote in referendum|url=https://www.trtworld.com/turkey/turkish-diaspora-in-australia-vote-in-referendum-327290|publisher=]|quote=An estimated 200,000 Turks live in Australia with most of them based in Melbourne's northern suburbs.|page=28|access-date=14 November 2020}}</ref><ref name=Vahdettinetal>{{citation|last1=Vahdettin|first1=Levent|last2=Aksoy|first2=Seçil|last3=Öz|first3=Ulaş|last4=Orhan|first4=Kaan|year=2016|title=Three-dimensional cephalometric norms of Turkish Cypriots using CBCT images reconstructed from a volumetric rendering program in vivo|publisher=]|quote=Recent estimates suggest that there are now 500,000 Turkish Cypriots living in Turkey, 300,000 in the United Kingdom, 120,000 in Australia, 5000 in the United States, 2000 in Germany, 1800 in Canada, and 1600 in New Zealand with a smaller community in South Africa.}}</ref> | |||
|ref10 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web |author=Nusfus Ayimi |title=The press statement of Prime Minister Ferdi Sabit Soyer on the tentative results of 2006 population and housing census (5 May 2006) |url=http://nufussayimi.devplan.org/population%20%20and%20housing%20%20census.pdf |accessdate=2008-07-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Association of Turkish Cypriots Abroad |title=ATCA news: National census held on 01/05/06 records a population of 264,172 |url=http://www.atcanews.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=161&Itemid=27 |accessdate=2008-07-09}}</ref>}} | |||
| |
| region12 = {{flagcountry|Kazakhstan}} | ||
| |
| pop12 = 250,000{{smallsup|d}} | ||
| ref12 = <ref name="Karcı2018">{{citation|last=Karcı|first=Durmuş|year=2018|title=The Effects of Language Characters and Identity of Meskhetian Turkish in Kazakhstan|url=https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/1519899|journal=The Journal of Kesit Academy|volume=4|issue=13|pages=301–303}}</ref> | |||
|ref11 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web |author=King Baudouin Foundation|title=Belgian-Turks A Bridge or a Breach between Turkey and the European Union?|format=PDF|url=http://www.kbs-frb.be/uploadedFiles/KBS-FRB/05)_Pictures,_documents_and_external_sites/09)_Publications/%20KBS%E2%80%A2Belgian-Turks%20GB_All%20in(1).pdf|accessdate=2008-12-26}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=King Baudouin Foundation|title=Turkish communities and the EU|format=PDF|url=http://www.kbs-frb.be/uploadedFiles/KBS-FRB/18)_Website_static_Content/Enews/International_newsletter_7_(May_2008).pdf|accessdate=2008-12-26}}</ref>}} | |||
| |
| region13 = {{flagcountry|Sweden}} | ||
| |
| pop13 = 185,000{{smallsup|e}} | ||
| ref13 = <ref name="Sayıner">{{cite web|last=Sayıner|first=Arda|year=2018|title=Swedish touch in Turkey|url=https://www.dailysabah.com/history/2018/06/25/swedish-touch-in-turkey|publisher=]|access-date=6 September 2021}}</ref><ref name="Laczko">{{citation|last1= Laczko|first1= Frank|last2=Stacher|first2=Irene|last3=Klekowski von Koppenfels|first3=Amanda|year=2002|title= New challenges for Migration Policy in Central and Eastern Europe|page=187|publisher= Cambridge University Press|isbn= 978-90-6704-153-9 }}</ref><ref name="Widding">{{cite web|last=Widding|first=Lars|title=Historik|url=http://www.prespabirlik.se/f%C3%B6reningen/historik|publisher=KSF Prespa Birlik|access-date=17 November 2020}}</ref> | |||
|ref12 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web |author=Sydney Morning Herald|title=Old foes, new friends|url=http://www.smh.com.au/news/World/Old-foes-new-friends/2005/04/22/1114152326767.html |accessdate=2008-12-26}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Turkish Embassy AU|title=Turkish National Day|format=PDF|url=http://www.turkishembassy.org.au/assets/docs/National_day.pdf|accessdate=2008-12-26}}</ref>}} | |||
| |
| region14 = {{flagcountry|Russia}} | ||
| |
| pop14 = 109,883–150,000 | ||
| ref14 = <ref name=Russian2010census>{{cite web |author=Демоскоп Weekly |script-title=ru:Всероссийская перепись населения 2010 г. Национальный состав населения Российской Федерации |url=http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_nac_10.php |access-date=30 January 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120521170119/http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_nac_10.php |archive-date=21 May 2012}}</ref>{{sfn|Ryazantsev|2009|p=172}} | |||
|ref13 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web |author=Western Thrace Minority University Graduates Association|title=Western Thrace Turkish Minority|url=http://www.pekem.org/userfiles/Western_Thrace_Turkish_Minority_WTMUGA_July_2009.pdf|accessdate=2010-03-16}}</ref>}} | |||
| |
| region15 = {{flagcountry|Azerbaijan}} | ||
| |
| pop15 = 130,000{{smallsup|d}} | ||
| ref15 = <ref name="Karcı2018"/> | |||
|ref14 = {{lower|<ref>Gerald Robbins. . ''American Outlook'', Spring 2002 issue.</ref>}} | |||
| |
| region16 = {{flagcountry|Switzerland}} | ||
| |
| pop16 = 120,000 | ||
| ref16 = <ref>{{citation|year=2009|title=Schweizer Nein könnte Europa-Skeptiker stärken|url=https://www.tagesspiegel.de/politik/tuerkei-schweizer-nein-koennte-europa-skeptiker-staerken/1836640.html|quote=Dabei erwarten Vertreter der rund 120.000 Türken in der Schweiz nach dem Referendum keine gravierenden Änderungen in ihrem Alltag.|publisher=]|access-date=26 May 2021}}</ref> | |||
|ref15 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web |author=The Federal Authorities of the Swiss Confederation|title=Bilateral relations between Switzerland and Turkey|url=http://www.eda.admin.ch/eda/en/home/reps/eur/vtur/biltur.html | |||
| region17 = {{flagcountry|Canada}} | |||
|accessdate=2008-12-16}}</ref>}} | |||
| pop17 = over 100,000 | |||
|region16 = {{flagcountry|Russia}} | |||
| ref17 = <ref name="Aytac2018">{{citation|last=Aytaç|first=Seyit Ahmet|year=2018|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/life/shared-issues-stronger-ties-canadas-envoy-to-turkey/1332258#|title=Shared issues, stronger ties: Canada's envoy to Turkey|quote=Turkish diaspora of some 100,000 Turks largely in Toronto is growing, says Canadian Ambassador Chris Cooter{{nbsp}}... We have a growing Turkish diaspora and they're doing very well in Canada. We think it's 100,000, largely in Toronto. We have several thousand Turkish students in Canada as well.|publisher=]|access-date=7 February 2021}}</ref> | |||
|pop16 = 100,000 {{smallsup|f}} | |||
| region18 = {{flagcountry|Denmark}} | |||
|ref16 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web |author=Centre For Russian Studies |title=2002 Nationality report |url=http://www2.nupi.no/cgi-win//Russland/etnisk.exe?total |accessdate=2008-07-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Демоскоп Weekly |title=Всероссийская перепись населения 2002 года.|url=http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_nac_02.php|accessdate=2009-08-04}}</ref>}} | |||
| pop18 = 70,000–75,000 | |||
|region17 = {{flagcountry|Republic of Macedonia}} | |||
| ref18 = <ref name=Larsen2008>{{citation|last=Larsen|first=Nick Aagaard|year=2008|title=Tyrkisk afstand fra Islamisk Trossamfund|url=https://www.dr.dk/nyheder/indland/tyrkisk-afstand-fra-islamisk-trossamfund|publisher=]|quote=Ud af cirka 200.000 muslimer i Danmark har 70.000 tyrkiske rødder, og de udgør dermed langt den største muslimske indvandrergruppe.|access-date=1 November 2020}}</ref><ref name=Milliyet2015>{{citation|last=|first=|year=2015|title=Türk kadınının derdi Danimarka'da da aynı|url=https://www.milliyet.com.tr/gundem/turk-kadininin-derdi-danimarka-da-da-ayni-2046656|publisher=]|quote=Danimarka’da yaşayan 75 bin Türk nüfusunda,...|access-date=7 September 2021}}</ref> | |||
|pop17 = 80,000 {{smallsup|g}} | |||
| region19 = {{flagcountry|Kyrgyzstan}} | |||
|ref17 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web |author=Central Intelligence Agency |title=The World Factbook; Macedonia |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/print/MK.html |accessdate=2008-07-09}}</ref>}} | |||
| |
| pop19 = 55,000{{smallsup|d}} | ||
| ref19 = <ref name="Karcı2018"/> | |||
|pop18 = 80,000 | |||
| region20 = {{flag|Italy}} | |||
|ref18 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web |author=Ahmed Rashid |title=Taliban: Islam, Oil and the New Great Game in Central Asia |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=kIBgqHWq658C&pg=PA150&dq=Turkmen+population+Iraq&lr=#PPA150,M1 |accessdate=2010-02-07}}</ref>}} | |||
| pop20 = 50,000 | |||
|region19 = {{flagcountry|Sweden}} | |||
| ref20 = <ref>{{citation|last=Seçkin|first=Barış|year=2020|title=İtalya'daki Türk vatandaşları Kovid-19 nedeniyle kayıp vermedi|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/dunya/italyadaki-turk-vatandaslari-kovid-19-nedeniyle-kayip-vermedi-/1813990|publisher=]|quote=İtalya’da yaşayan 50 bin kadar Türk vatandaşının|access-date=6 September 2021}}</ref> | |||
|pop19 = 70,000 | |||
| region21 = {{flagcountry|Uzbekistan}} | |||
|ref19 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web |author=ZAMAN |title=Erdoğan’s visit to Stockholm and Turkish-Swedish relations |url=http://www.todayszaman.com/tz-web/yazarDetay.do?haberno=138098|accessdate=2008-07-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cumhuriyet.edu.tr/edergi/makale/90.pdf |title=Immigrant Turks and their socio-economic structure in European countries |accessdate=2008-07-09 |last=Murat |first=Sedat |date=2000 |work= |publisher=İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi}}</ref>}} | |||
| |
| pop21 = 25,000{{smallsup|d}} | ||
| ref21 = <ref name="Karcı2018"/> | |||
|pop20 = 70,000 | |||
| region22 = {{flagcountry|Norway}} | |||
|ref20 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web |author=DR Online|title=Tyrkisk afstand fra Islamisk Trossamfund|url=http://www.dr.dk/Nyheder/Indland/2008/02/21/071316.htm|accessdate=2009-02-08}}</ref>}} | |||
| pop22 = 16,500 | |||
|region21 = {{flagcountry|Azerbaijan}} | |||
| ref22 = <ref>{{citation|year=2013|title=Norwegian-Turkish cooperation|url=https://www.royalcourt.no/nyhet.html?tid=118715|publisher=The Royal House of Norway|access-date=6 September 2021}}</ref> | |||
|pop21 = 50,000 | |||
| region23 = {{flagcountry|Ukraine}} | |||
|ref21 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web |author=The Statistical Committee of the Republic Of Azerbaijan |title=Population by ethnic groups (based on population census) |url=http://www.azstat.org/statinfo/demoqraphic/en/007.shtml#s7 |accessdate=2008-07-09}}</ref>}} | |||
| pop23 = 8,844–15,000 | |||
|region22 = {{flagcountry|Canada}} | |||
| ref23 = <ref name=census>{{cite web |author=State Statistics Service of Ukraine |title=Ukrainian Census (2001):The distribution of the population by nationality and mother tongue |url=http://www.ukrcensus.gov.ua/eng/results/nationality_population/nationality_1/ |access-date=16 January 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080501100907/http://www.ukrcensus.gov.ua/eng/results/nationality_population/nationality_1/ |archive-date=1 May 2008}}</ref><ref name="Karcı2018"/> | |||
|pop22 = 50,000 {{smallsup|h}} | |||
| region24 = {{flagcountry|Turkmenistan}} | |||
|ref22 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web |author=Canada's National Statistical Agency |title=Statistics Canada |url=http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/topics/RetrieveProductTable.cfm?ALEVEL=3&APATH=3&CATNO=&DETAIL=0&DIM=&DS=99&FL=0&FREE=0&GAL=0&GC=99&GK=NA&GRP=1&IPS=&METH=0&ORDER=1&PID=92333&PTYPE=88971&RL=0&S=1&ShowAll=No&StartRow=1&SUB=801&Temporal=2006&Theme=80&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF= |accessdate=2008-07-09}}</ref><ref></ref>}} | |||
| pop24 = 13,000 | |||
|region23 = {{flagcountry|Romania}} | |||
| ref24 = <ref name=2012Turkmencensus>{{cite web|author=Asgabat|title=Национальный и религиозный состав населения Туркменистана сегодня|url=http://asgabat.net/stati/obschestvo/nacionalnyi-i-religioznyi-sostav-naselenija-turkmenistana-segodnja.html|access-date=27 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624062134/http://asgabat.net/stati/obschestvo/nacionalnyi-i-religioznyi-sostav-naselenija-turkmenistana-segodnja.html|archive-date=24 June 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> | |||
|pop23 = 44,500 | |||
| region25 = {{flagcountry|Finland}} | |||
|ref23 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web |author=Central Intelligence Agency |title=The World Factbook; Romania |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/print/RO.html |accessdate=2008-07-09}}</ref>}} | |||
| pop25 = 10,000 | |||
|region24 = {{flagcountry|Egypt}} | |||
| ref25 = <ref>{{citation|last=Kütük|first=Zeki|year=2010|title=Finlandiya'da Yabancı Düşmanlığı, Sosyal Dışlanma ve Türk Diasporası|url=https://tasam.org/tr-TR/Icerik/4448/finlandiyada_yabanci_dusmanligi_sosyal_dislanma_ve_turk_diasporasi|quote=Toplam sayılarının 10 000 civarında olduğu tahmin edilen Türklerin...|publisher=]|access-date=8 November 2020}}</ref> | |||
|pop24 = 40,000 | |||
| region26 = {{flagcountry|Poland}} | |||
|ref24 = {{lower|<ref></ref>}} | |||
| pop26 = 5,000 | |||
|region25 = {{flagcountry|Kyrgyzstan}} | |||
| ref26 = <ref>{{citation|last=Pawłowska-Salińska|first=Katarzyna|year=2013|title=Nie pytaj Turka o kebab i język arabski|url=https://wyborcza.pl/1,75398,13642657,Nie_pytaj_Turka_o_kebab_i_jezyk_arabski.html?disableRedirects=true|publisher=]|quote=Turków jest w Polsce ok. 5 tys. – wynika z danych opracowanych przez Instytut Spraw Publicznych. |access-date=3 November 2020}}</ref> | |||
|pop25 = 36,700 | |||
| region27 = {{flagcountry|New Zealand}} | |||
|ref25 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web |author=Kyrgyzstan Statistics|title=Ethnic composition of the population in Kyrgyzstan 1999-2009|url=http://www.stat.kg/stat.files/din.files/census/5010003.pdf|accessdate=2009-11-15}}</ref>}} | |||
| pop27 = 3,600–4,600{{smallsup|f}} | |||
|region26 = {{flagcountry|Israel}} | |||
| ref27 = <ref name=pif>{{cite web|url=http://pif.org.nz/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=73:question-how-many-turks-living-in-new-zealand-&catid=46:turkish-community&Itemid=79|title=How many Turks living in New Zealand?|publisher=Pearl of the Islands Foundation|access-date=29 October 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100513092537/http://pif.org.nz/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=73:question-how-many-turks-living-in-new-zealand-&catid=46:turkish-community&Itemid=79|archive-date=13 May 2010}}</ref><ref name=Vahdettinetal/> | |||
|pop26 = 30,000 | |||
| region28 = {{flagcountry|Ireland}} | |||
|ref26 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web |author=Rep. of Turkey Ministry of Labour and Social Security|title=YURTDISINDAKI VATANDASLARIMIZLA ILGILI SAYISAL BILGILER|url=http://www.calisma.gov.tr/article.php?article_id=371|accessdate=2009-10-27}}</ref>}} | |||
| pop28 = 2,000–3,000 | |||
|region27 = {{flagcountry|Kosovo}} | |||
| ref28 = <ref>{{citation|last=Lacey|first=Jonathan|year=2007|url=http://www.translocations.ie/volume1issue2-8.pdf|title=Exploring the Transnational Engagements of a Turkic Religio-Cultural Community in Ireland|journal=Translocations: The Irish Migration, Race and Social Transformation Review|volume=1|issue=2|access-date=6 September 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721140752/http://www.translocations.ie/volume1issue2-8.pdf|archive-date=21 July 2011}}</ref> | |||
|pop27 = 20,000 | |||
| region29 = {{flagcountry|Brazil}} | |||
|ref27 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ks-gov.net/esk/esk/pdf/english/general/kosovo_figures_05.pdf |title=Kosovo in figures 2005 |accessdate=2008-07-09 |work=Statistical Office of Kosovo |publisher=Provisional Institutions of Self Government |date=2005}}</ref>}} | |||
| pop29 = 2,000-6,300 | |||
|region28 = {{flagcountry|Italy}} | |||
| ref29 = <ref>{{Cite web|title=Imigrantes internacionais registrados no Brasil|url=https://www.nepo.unicamp.br/observatorio/bancointerativo/numeros-imigracao-internacional/sincre-sismigra/|access-date=20 August 2021|website=www.nepo.unicamp.br}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Imigrantes internacionais registrados no Brasil|url=https://joshuaproject.net/people_groups/18274|access-date=7 July 2022}}</ref> | |||
|pop28 = 16,255 | |||
| region30 = {{flagcountry|Liechtenstein}} | |||
|ref28 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web |author=Statistiche Demografiche ISTAT |title=Resident Population by sex and citizenship (Middle-East Europe)|url=http://demo.istat.it/str2008/index_e.html|accessdate=2009-10-20}}</ref>}} | |||
| pop30 = 1,000 | |||
|region29 = {{flagcountry|Norway}} | |||
| ref30 = <ref>{{citation|year=2009|title=Bir masal ülkesinde yaşam öğretisi.|url=http://blog.milliyet.com.tr/bir-masal-ulkesinde-yasam-ogretisi/Blog/?BlogNo=166707|quote= Bu küçücük ülkede yaşayan 1000 Türk'ten...|publisher=]|access-date=6 September 2021}}</ref> | |||
|pop29 = 15,500 | |||
| region31 = '''Turkish minorities in the MENA:''' | |||
|ref29 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web |author=Statistics Norway|title=Population 1 January 2008 and 2009 and changes in 2008, by immigrant category and country background|url=http://www.ssb.no/innvbef_en/tab-2009-04-30-01-en.html|accessdate=2009-04-04}}</ref>}} | |||
| pop31 = <!-- needed to force display of the header --> | |||
|region30 = {{flagcountry|Uzbekistan}} | |||
| |
| region32 = {{flagcountry|Iraq}} | ||
| pop32 = 3,000,000–5,000,000 | |||
|ref30 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web |author=Refworld|title=World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples - Uzbekistan : Meskhetian Turks|url=http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/refworld/rwmain?page=search&docid=49749c843c&skip=0&query=turks|accessdate=2009-04-04}}</ref>}} | |||
| ref32 = <ref name=Triana2017>{{citation |last=Triana|first=María|year=2017|title=Managing Diversity in Organizations: A Global Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VC4lDwAAQBAJ&dq=Iraqi+citizens+of+Turkish+origin&pg=PA168|publisher=]|isbn=978-1-317-42368-3|page=168 |quote=Turkmen, Iraqi citizens of Turkish origin, are the third largest ethnic group in Iraq after Arabs and Kurds and they are said to number about 3 million of Iraq's 34.7 million citizens according to the Iraqi Ministry of Planning.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Bassem|first=Wassim|year=2016|title=Iraq's Turkmens call for independent province|url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2016/10/turkmens-iraq-mosul-tal-afar.html|publisher=]|quote=Turkmens are a mix of Sunnis and Shiites and are the third-largest ethnicity in Iraq after Arabs and Kurds, numbering about 3 million out of the total population of about 34.7 million, according to 2013 data from the Iraqi Ministry of Planning.|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161017222707/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2016/10/turkmens-iraq-mosul-tal-afar.html|archive-date=17 October 2016}}</ref><ref name=Tastekin2018>{{cite web|last=Tastekin|first=Fehim|year=2018|title=Why Iraqi Turkmens are excluded from the new government|url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2018/10/turkey-iraq-new-administration-excludes-turkmens.html|publisher=]|quote=Turkmens are said to be 10-13% of the overall Iraqi population , but that ratio is not reflected in parliament.|access-date=12 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210912125910/https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2018/10/turkey-iraq-new-administration-excludes-turkmens.html|archive-date=12 September 2021}}</ref> | |||
|region31 = {{flagcountry|Japan}} | |||
| region33 = {{flag|Syria|revolution}} | |||
|pop31 = 10,000 | |||
| pop33 = 1,000,000–1,700,000{{smallsup|g}} | |||
|ref31 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.turkey.jp/tr/konsoloslukjaptoplum.htm |title=Japonya Türk Toplumu (Turkish Community of Japan) |accessdate=2008-06-11 |publisher=Embassy of Turkey in Japan |language=Turkish}}</ref>}} | |||
| ref33 = <ref name=Taef2005>{{cite journal |last=Taef |first=El-Azhari |year=2005 |title=The Turkmen Identity Crisis in the fifteenth-century Middle East: The Turkmen-Turkish Struggle for Supremacy |url=http://acta.bibl.u-szeged.hu/5799/1/chronica_005_097-107.pdf|quote=The Turkmen were always the forgotten minority in the area despite their large population. In the absence of official records, their numbers cannot be calculated, but it is widely accepted that they exceed three millions in Iraq, and one million in Syria and other countries.|journal=Chronica |volume=5 |access-date=9 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612143728/http://acta.bibl.u-szeged.hu/5799/1/chronica_005_097-107.pdf |archive-date=12 June 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Aikman">{{citation |last=Aikman|first=David|year=2014|title=The Mirage of Peace: Understand The Never-Ending Conflict in the Middle East|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EIwXBQAAQBAJ&dq=There+is+also+about+1.7+million+Turks+in+Syria&pg=PT35|publisher=]|quote=There is also about 1.7 million Turks in Syria, and about 800,000 Druze,...|isbn=9781441223555}}</ref> | |||
|region32 = {{flagcountry|Lebanon}} | |||
| |
| region34 = {{flagcountry|Libya}} | ||
| pop34 = 1,000,000–1,400,000{{smallsup|h}} | |||
|ref32 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.todayszaman.com/tz-web/detaylar.do?load=detay&link=142491|title=Turkish migrants grieve for Beirut from exile| accessdate=2008-09-29|publisher=Todays Zaman|language=English}}</ref>}} | |||
| ref34 = <ref>{{cite web|last=Rashad|first=Sarah|year=2020|title=Kouloughlis: Turkey's bridge to intervention in Libya|url=https://www.thereference-paris.com/9263|publisher=Centre d'Etudes Moyen-Orient (CEMO)|access-date=19 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{citation|last=Scipione|first=Alessandro|year=2019|title=Libia, la mappa dei combattenti stranieri|url=https://it.insideover.com/guerra/libia-la-mappa-dei-combattenti-stranieri.html|publisher=Inside Over|access-date=26 September 2019|quote=La Turchia peraltro può vantare in Livia una numerosa comunità dei “Koroglu” (i libici di discendenza turca) che conterrebbe ben 1,4 milioni di individui, concentrati soprattutto a Misurata, la “città-Stato” situata circa 180 chilometri a est di Tripoli: praticamente meno un libico su quattro in Libia ha origini turche.}}</ref> | |||
|region33 = {{flagcountry|Ukraine}} | |||
| region35 = {{flagcountry|Egypt}} | |||
|pop33 = 8,844 | |||
| pop35 = 100,000–1,500,000 | |||
|ref33 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web |author=State Statistics Committee of Ukraine|title= The distribution of the population by nationality and mother tongue|url=http://www.ukrcensus.gov.ua/eng/results/nationality_population/nationality_1/s5/?botton=cens_db&box=5.1W&k_t=00&p=100&rz=1_1&rz_b=2_1%20%20%20%20%20%20%20&n_page=6 |accessdate=2008-07-09}}</ref>}} | |||
| ref35 = <ref>{{citation|last=Gamal|first=Gamal|title=Did the Turks sweeten Egypt's kitty? |publisher=]|url=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/News/16549.aspx|quote=Today, the number of ethnic Turks in Egypt varies considerably, with estimates ranging from 100,000 to 1,500,000. Most have intermingled in Egyptian society and are almost indistinguishable from non-Turkish Egyptians, even though a considerable number of Egyptians of Turkish origin are bilingual.|access-date=1 May 2018}}</ref> | |||
|languages = ] | |||
| region36 = {{flagcountry|Lebanon}} | |||
|religions = ]<br/>] | |||
| pop36 = 280,000{{smallsup|i}} | |||
|footnotes = {{smallsup|a}} Some sources believe the figure to be as high as 5 million.<ref>{{cite book |author= David Nissman|title=THE IRAQI TURKOMANS: WHO THEY ARE AND WHAT THEY WANT. |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/library/news/iraq/1999/9-050399.html}}</ref><br /> | |||
| ref36 = <ref name=Al-Akhbar> | |||
{{smallsup|b}} Estimates suggest there are now over 4 million people of Turkish descent living in Germany.<ref>{{cite book |last=C. Zouboulis|first=Christos|title=Behçet's disease in Patients of German and Turkish Origin|publisher=Springer|date=2003|page=55|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q1nbF-Q-V_wC&pg=PA56&lpg=PA56&dq=turks+living+in+germany&source=web&ots=y8y4zH0x2Z&sig=djCIkYgFOcGRdBcunK5wMfVpvB0&hl=en#PPA55,M1|isbn=0306477572}}</ref> | |||
{{cite web|author=Al-Akhbar|title=Lebanese Turks Seek Political and Social Recognition|url=http://english.al-akhbar.com/content/lebanese-turks-seek-political-and-social-recognition|access-date=2 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620232105/https://english.al-akhbar.com/content/lebanese-turks-seek-political-and-social-recognition|publisher=]|quote=Erdogan's envoys were surprised to find out that Turks who immigrated 100 years ago today number nearly 80,000.|archive-date=20 June 2018|url-status=dead}} | |||
<br /> | |||
</ref><ref name=tbmm>{{cite web|year=2018|title=Suriye Türkmenlerinin sorunlarına ilişkin gündem dışı konuşması|url=https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/develop/owa/genel_kurul.cl_getir?pEid=68928|quote= Yaklaşık olarak 200 bin Türkmen'in Lübnan'da yaşadığı tahmin edilmektedir.|publisher=]|access-date=17 December 2020}}</ref> | |||
{{smallsup|c}} Some sources believe the figure to be as high as 1.5 million.<ref>{{cite book|title=The other languages of Europe: demographic, sociolinguistic and educational perspectives|first=Guus|last=Extra|coauthors=Gorter, Durk|publisher=Multilingual Matters|location=|year=2001|isbn=1-8535-9509-8|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=hvmy_skUPNYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+other+languages+of+Europe&hl=tr&cd=1#v=onepage&q=There%20are%20still%201.5%20million%20ethnic%20Turks%20in%20Bulgaria.&f=false}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Karpat|first=Kemal|title=Studies on Ottoman Social and Political History |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |date=2002 |page=424 |url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=082osLxyBDgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Studies+on+Ottoman+social+and+political+history&hl=tr&cd=1#v=onepage&q=Turkish%20in%20Bulgaria&f=false |isbn = 9789004121010}}</ref> | |||
| region37 = {{flagcountry|Saudi Arabia}} | |||
<br /> | |||
| pop37 = 270,000–350,000 | |||
{{smallsup|d}} A further 10,000-30,000 people from Bulgaria live in the Netherlands. The majority are ] and are the fastest-growing group of immigrants in the Netherlands.<ref>{{cite web|author=TheSophiaEcho|title=Turkish Bulgarians fastest-growing group of immigrants in The Netherlands|url=http://www.sofiaecho.com/2009/07/21/758628_turkish-bulgarians-fastest-growing-group-of-immigrants-in-the-netherlands|accessdate=2009-07-26}}</ref> | |||
| ref37 = {{sfn|Akar|1993|p=95}}{{sfn|Karpat|2004|p=12}} | |||
<br /> | |||
| region38 = {{flagcountry|Yemen}} | |||
{{smallsup|e}} This figure only includes ]. A further 5,000 live in the Dodecanese. In addition to this, 8,297 '''immigrants''' live in Greece.<ref>{{cite web |author=MigrantsInGreece|title=Data on immigrants in Greece, from Census 2001, Legalization applications 1998, and valid Residence Permits, 2004|url=http://www.migrantsingreece.org/transpartner/Tables.pdf |accessdate=2009-03-26}}</ref> | |||
| pop38 = 10,000-100,000 | |||
<br /> | |||
| ref38 = <ref name="NGOs">{{citation|publisher= Union of NGOs of The Islamic World|year=2014|title=Yemen Raporu|page=26|quote=Bu noktadan hareketle, bölgede yaklaşık 10 bin ila 100 bin arasında Türk asıllı vatandaş bulunduğu tahmin edilmektedir.}}</ref> | |||
{{smallsup|f}} Including 3,257 ]. | |||
| region39 = {{flagcountry|Jordan}} | |||
<br /> | |||
| pop39 = 50,000 | |||
{{smallsup|g}} Estimates vary to as high as 200,000.<ref>{{cite web |author=University College London|title=Religion and Politics of Sufi Turks in Macedonia A pre-field proposal|format=PDF|url=http://www.ucl.ac.uk/mariecuriesocanth/research_files/Poster_Oustinova.pdf|accessdate=2009-03-26}}</ref> | |||
| ref39 = <ref>{{cite web|last=Alaca|first=Mehmet |year=2019 |title='Ürdün'de Kadim Türk Varlığı ve Akraba Topluluklar' raporu tanıtıldı|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/turkiye/urdunde-kadim-turk-varligi-ve-akraba-topluluklar-raporu-tanitildi/1515642|publisher=]|access-date=6 September 2021}}</ref> | |||
<br /> | |||
| region40 = '''Turkish minorities in the Balkans:''' | |||
{{smallsup|h}} | |||
| pop40 = <!-- needed to force display of the header --> | |||
An estimated 100,000-140,000 claim Turkish descent.<ref>{{cite web |author=The Federation of Canadian Turkish Associations |title=Kanada-Türk Toplumu İstatistikleri|url=http://www.canturkfed.net/tr/kanadaTurk_toplum_tr.html |accessdate=2009-02-24}}</ref> | |||
| region41 = {{flagcountry|Bulgaria}} | |||
| pop41 = 588,318–800,000 | |||
| ref41 = <ref>{{cite web|author=National Statistical Institute of Bulgaria|year=2011|title=2011 Population Census in the Republic of Bulgaria (Final data)|publisher=National Statistical Institute of Bulgaria |url=http://www.nsi.bg/census2011/PDOCS2/Census2011final_en.pdf}}</ref><ref name=Karakulaketal2018>{{citation|last1=Aydinli-Karakulak|first1=Arzu|last2=Baylar|first2=Ayben|last3=Keleş|first3=Seray Çağla|last4=Dimitrova|first4=Radosveta |year=2018|chapter=Positive Affect and School Related Outcomes: Feeling Good Facilitates School Engagement Among Turkish-Bulgarian Minority Adolescents|title=Well-Being of Youth and Emerging Adults across Cultures: Novel Approaches and Findings from Europe, Asia, Africa and America|editor1-last=Dimitrova|editor1-first=Radosveta|chapter-url=|publisher=]|page=149|quote=Turks in Bulgaria represent the largest ethnic minority group in the country, constituting almost 10% of Bulgaria's seven million total population,...|isbn=9783319683638}}</ref>{{sfn|Bokova|2010|p=170}} | |||
| region42 = {{flagcountry|North Macedonia}} | |||
| pop42 = 77,959–200,000 | |||
| ref42 = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stat.gov.mk/pdf/kniga_13.pdf|title=Census of Population, Households and Dwellings in the Republic of Macedonia, 2002|year=2005|publisher=Republic of Macedonia – State Statistical Office |access-date=12 December 2017}}</ref><ref name=Knowlton2020>{{citation|last1=Knowlton|first1=MaryLee|last2=Nevins|first2=Debbie|year=2020|title=North Macedonia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7j0mEAAAQBAJ&dq=turks+in+macedonia+second+largest&pg=PA63|publisher=Cavendish Square Publishing|quote=The Turks are the second largest national minority in Macedonia. Like other ethnic groups, they claim higher numbers than the census shows, somewhere between 170,000 and 200,000.|isbn=9781502655905}}</ref> | |||
| region43 = {{flagcountry|Greece}} | |||
| pop43 = 49,000–130,000 | |||
| ref43 = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.minelres.lv/reports/greece/greece_NGO.htm|title=GREEK HELSINKI MONITOR|website=Minelres.lv|access-date=12 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eurfedling.org/Greece.htm|title=Demographics of Greece|work=European Union National Languages|access-date=19 December 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/pdfs/g/greece/greece908.pdf|title=Destroying Ethnic Identity: The Turks of Greece|publisher=]|access-date=3 January 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/1999/greece/Greec991-04.htm|title=Turks Of Western Thrace|publisher=]|access-date=3 January 2018}}</ref> | |||
| region44 = {{flagcountry|Romania}} | |||
| pop44 = 28,226–80,000 | |||
| ref44 = <ref>{{citation|last=National Institute of Statistics|year=2011|url=http://www.recensamantromania.ro/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/Comunicat_DATE_PROVIZORII_RPL_2011.pdf|title=Comunicat de presă privind rezultatele provizorii ale Recensământului Populaţiei şi Locuinţelor – 2011|publisher=Romania-National Institute of Statistics|page=10|access-date=14 May 2012|archive-date=2 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190802060014/http://www.recensamantromania.ro/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/Comunicat_DATE_PROVIZORII_RPL_2011.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last=Phinnemore |first=David|year=2006|title=The EU and Romania: accession and beyond |publisher=The Federal Trust for Education & Research|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HU1pAAAAMAAJ&q=Today,+there+are+around+55,000+Turks+living+in+Romania|quote=Today, there are around 55,000 Turks living in Romania and they are represented as a minority in parliament.|isbn= 978-1-903403-78-5|page=157}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last1=Constantin |first1=Daniela L.|last2=Goschin |first2=Zizi|last3=Dragusin |first3=Mariana|year=2008|title=Ethnic entrepreneurship as an integration factor in civil society and a gate to religious tolerance. A spotlight on Turkish entrepreneurs in Romania|quote=The significant Turkish population living in Romania (nearly 80,000 members, including immigrants)...|journal=Journal for the Study of Religions and Ideologies|volume=7 |issue=20|page=59}}</ref> | |||
| region45 = {{flagcountry|Kosovo}} | |||
| pop45 = 18,738–60,000 | |||
| ref45 = <ref>2011 census in the Republic of Kosovo.{{full citation needed|date=July 2021}}</ref><ref name=OSCE2010>{{citation |last=OSCE|year=2010|chapter-url=http://www.osce.org/kosovo/75450|chapter=Community Profile: Kosovo Turks|title=Kosovo Communities Profile|page=3|quote=Approximately 30,000 Kosovo Turks live in Kosovo today, while up to 250,000 people from different Kosovo communities speak or at least understand the Turkish language...The Turkish language has been granted official language status in the municipalities of Prizren and Vushtrri/ Vučitrn.|publisher=Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe}}</ref><ref>{{citation|last1=Kibaroğlu|first1= Mustafa|last2=Kibaroğlu|first2=Ayșegül|year=2009|title=Global Security Watch—Turkey: A Reference Handbook|url=|page=107|publisher=]|quote=Turks themselves are also an important ethnic minority in the region... In Kosovo, their number is estimated to be around 60,000... |isbn=9780313345609}}</ref> | |||
| region46 = {{flagcountry|Bosnia}} | |||
| pop46 = 1,108 | |||
| ref46 = <ref name="popis">" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620181203/http://www.popis.gov.ba/popis2013/knjige.php?id=2 |date=20 June 2018 }}". ''Popis.gov.ba''.</ref> | |||
| region47 = {{flagcountry|Serbia}} | |||
| pop47 = 850 | |||
| ref47 = <ref name="2022Serbiancensus">{{Cite web |title=Population by ethnicity |url=https://data.stat.gov.rs/Home/Result/3104020102?languageCode=en-US |access-date=2023-09-03 |website=Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia}}</ref> | |||
| region48 = {{flagcountry|Albania}} | |||
| pop48 = 714 | |||
| ref48 = <ref name="2011Albaniancensus">{{cite web|year=2012|title=Population and Housing Census 2011|url=http://www.instat.gov.al/media/177354/main_results__population_and_housing_census_2011.pdf|page=72|publisher=] |access-date=2 November 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141114073838/http://www.instat.gov.al/media/177354/main_results__population_and_housing_census_2011.pdf |archive-date=14 November 2014 }}</ref> | |||
| region49 = {{flagcountry|Croatia}} | |||
| pop49 = 367 | |||
| ref49 = <ref>{{Croatian Census 2011 |url=http://web.dzs.hr/Hrv/censuses/census2011/results/htm/usp_03_HR.htm |title=Stanovništvo prema narodnosti, popisi 1971. – 2011. |access-date=22 November 2015}}</ref> | |||
| region50 = {{flagcountry|Montenegro}} | |||
| pop50 = 1,816 | |||
| ref50 = <ref name="2023MontenegroCensus">{{cite web |author=Statistical Office of Montenegro|title=Population of Montenegro by sex, type of settlement, etnicity<!--sic-->, religion and mother tongue, per municipalities|url= https://monstat.org/uploads/files/popis%202021/saopstenja/SAOPSTENJE_Popis%20stanovnistva%202023%20II_cg.pdf}}</ref> | |||
| languages = ] | |||
| religions = Predominantly ]<ref name=Mayer2010/><br />(], ], ])<ref>https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/turkey/</ref><ref>https://turkeytravelplanner.com/Religion/index.html</ref><ref>https://is.muni.cz/th/gmgyv/Sects_and_Meaning_in_the_Contemporary_Turkish_Society.docx?lang=cs;stahnout=1;dk=c4J9awIh</ref><ref>https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/travel/heres-what-you-should-know-before-attending-a-whirling-dervish-ceremony-in-turkey/2019/04/11/1af4bbac-57af-11e9-9136-f8e636f1f6df_story.html</ref><br />Minority ]<ref>{{cite news |last=Girit |first=Selin |date=10 May 2018 |title=Losing their religion: The young Turks rejecting Islam |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-43981745 |url-status=live |work=] |location=] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211206105549/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-43981745 |archive-date=6 December 2021 |access-date=17 January 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=McKernan |first=Bethan |date=29 April 2020 |title=Turkish students increasingly resisting religion, study suggests |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/29/turkish-students-increasingly-resisting-religion-study-suggests |url-status=live |work=] |location=] |issn=1756-3224 |oclc=60623878 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211122171105/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/29/turkish-students-increasingly-resisting-religion-study-suggests |archive-date=22 November 2021 |access-date=17 January 2022}}</ref> | |||
| footnotes = {{smallsup|a}} Approximately 200,000 are ] and the remainder are ].<ref name=Mayer2010/><br/>{{smallsup|b}} Turkish Cypriots form 300,000<ref>{{citation|last1=Freeman|first1=Michael|last2=Ellena|first2=Katherine|last3=Kator-Mubarez|first3=Amina|year=2021|title=The Global Spread of Islamism and the Consequences for Terrorism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0uAMEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA83|quote=there are now around 300,000 Turkish Cypriots in the United Kingdom.|page=83|publisher=]|isbn=9781640124165}}</ref> to 400,000<ref>{{citation|last=Scott-Geddes|first=Arthur|year=2019|title=London's Turkish restaurants take a hit in uncertain times|url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/world/europe/london-s-turkish-restaurants-take-a-hit-in-uncertain-times-1.930386|quote=Almost 90 per cent of the UK's Turkish population lives in London, including as many as 400,000 Turkish Cypriots concentrated in areas of north and north-east London including Hackney, Enfield and Haringey.|publisher=]|access-date=10 January 2021}}</ref> of the ] population. Mainland Turks are the next largest group, followed by ] and ].<ref>{{cite web |author=Home Affairs Committee|date=1 August 2011|title=Implications for the Justice and Home Affairs area of the accession of Turkey to the European Union|url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201012/cmselect/cmhaff/789/789.pdf|publisher=The Stationery Office|page=Ev 34|access-date=11 April 2012}}</ref> Turkish minorities have also settled from Iraq,<ref name="International Organization for Migration loc=5">{{cite web|author=International Organization for Migration|url=http://www.iomlondon.org/doc/mapping/IOM_IRAQ.pdf|title=Iraq: Mapping exercise|location=London|date=2007|access-date=3 July 2010|publisher=International Organization for Migration|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716163637/http://www.iomlondon.org/doc/mapping/IOM_IRAQ.pdf|archive-date=16 July 2011|page=5}}</ref> Greece,<ref name="ABTTF">{{citation|title=Avrupa'da Batı Trakya Batı Trakya Türkleri Gerçeği ve Avrupa Batı Trakya Türk Federasyonu|url=https://www.abttf.org/about.php?id=79|quote=Avustralya ve Amerika Birleşik Devletleri, Kanada gibi uzak ülkelerin dışında aralarında Hollanda, İngiltere, İsveç, Fransa, Belçika ve Avusturya gibi ülkelerde de sayısı yadsınamayacak bir Batı Trakyalı Türk kitlesi yaşamaktadır.|publisher=Avrupa Batı Trakya Türk Federasyonu|access-date=8 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511122835/https://www.abttf.org/about.php?id=79|archive-date=11 May 2021}}</ref> etc.<br/>{{smallsup|c}} ] include 200,000 mainland Turks,<ref name=Lennie/> 120,000 Turkish Cypriots,<ref name=Vahdettinetal /> and smaller Turkish groups from Bulgaria,<ref name="Maeva2008">{{citation|last=Maeva|first=Mila|year=2008|chapter=Modern Migration Waves of Bulgarian Turks|title=Dynamics of National Identity and Transnational Identities in the Process of European Integration|editor-last=Marushiakova|editor-first=Elena|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|pages=227–229|isbn=9781847184719}}</ref> Greece,<ref name="Inglisetal">{{citation |last=Inglis|first=K. S.|year=2008|title=Sacred Places: War Memorials in the Australian Landscape|page=108|publisher=The Miegunyah Press|isbn=978-0-522-85479-4}}</ref> North Macedonia,<ref name="Inglisetal" /> Syria,<ref name="Crowe 2015">{{cite news |last=Crowe |first=David |year=2015 |title=First Syrian refugees here for Christmas: Tony Abbott |url=https://www.theaustralian.com.au/in-depth/europes-migrant-crisis/first-syrian-refugees-here-for-christmas-tony-abbott/news-story/ea0107b2fe83cb96c9f8367457c99ffd |publisher=] |access-date=15 July 2018}}</ref> and Western Europe.<ref name="Inglisetal" /><br/>{{smallsup|d}} These figures only include ]. Official censuses are considered unreliable because many Turks have incorrectly been registered as "Azeri",<ref>{{citation |mode=cs1 |title=Meskhetian Turks: Solutions and Human Security |chapter=Chapter Two: Contemporary Conditions and Dilemmas |chapter-url=http://www.osi.hu/fmp/html/mesktwo.html |first=Arthur C. |last=Helton |publisher=Open Society Institute |year=1998 |access-date=17 January 2012|quote=An estimated 20,000 to 25,000 Meskhetian Turks settled in Azerbaijan between 1958 and 1962. The inflow continued over the years, although pinpointing precise numbers is difficult because many were officially registered as Azerbaijani. Vatan leaders in Azerbaijan asserted that close to 40,000 Meskhetian Turks were living in the republic in 1989, the time of the last Soviet census. Those numbers were then augmented by the more than 45,000 who arrived in Azerbaijan to escape the Uzbekistan troubles. Up to 5,000 more have come to Azerbaijan from Russia during the 1990s, according to some estimates.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070415043834/http://www.osi.hu/fmp/html/mesktwo.html |archive-date=15 April 2007}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last=UNHCR|year=1999|title=Background Paper on Refugees and Asylum Seekers from Azerbaijan|url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/pdfid/3ae6a6504.pdf|publisher=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|page=14}}</ref> "Kazakh",<ref name="Khazanov202">{{citation |last=Khazanov|first=Anatoly Michailovich|year=1995|title=After the USSR: Ethnicity, Nationalism and Politics in the Commonwealth of Independent States|quote=Because of the high birthrates their number is constantly increasing and, according to sources, has already reached 400,000. ... It is true that the last Soviet census of 1989 gives a lower figure – 207,369; however, one should take into account that far from all Meskhetian Turks have been registered as such. For years many were even denied the right to register their nationality in legal documents. Thus, by 1988 in Kazakhstan, only one third of them were recorded as Turks on their passports. The rest had been arbitrarily declared members of other ethnic groups.|page=202|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-299-14894-2}}</ref> "Kyrgyz",<ref name="Aydıngün1">{{harvnb|Aydıngün|Harding|Hoover|Kuznetsov|2006}}: This figure, however, does not reflect the real population of Meskhetian Turks, because Soviet authorities recorded many of them as belonging to other nationalities such as Azeri, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, and Uzbek."</ref> and "Uzbek".<ref name="Aydıngün1" /><br/>{{smallsup|e}} The ] community includes 150,000 mainland Turks,<ref name="Sayıner" /> 30,000 Turkish Bulgarians,<ref name="Laczko" /> 5,000 Turkish Macedonians,<ref name="Widding" /> and smaller groups from Iraq and Syria.<br/>{{smallsup|f}} Including 2,000–3,000 mainland Turks<ref name=pif /> and 1,600 Turkish Cypriots.<ref name=Vahdettinetal/><br/>{{smallsup|g}} This includes the Turkish-speaking minority only (i.e. 30% of ]).<ref name=Khalifa2013 /> Estimates including the ] Turks range between 3.5 to 6 million.<ref name="Piccinin">{{citation |author=]|year=2011|title=Après avoir été sur le terrain|publisher=]|quote=Les Turcomans pratiquant exclusivement leur dialecte turc sont 1 500 000. L'ensemble des Turcomans de Syrie (y compris ceux qui ont adopté l'arabe comme langue usuelle), sont estimés entre 3,5 et 6 millions, soit de 15 à 20 % de la population. C'est le troisième groupe de population en importance.}}</ref><br/>{{smallsup|h}} Includes the ] who are descendants of the old Turkish ruling class.<ref name=Ahmida2011>{{citation|last=Ahmida|first= Ali Abdullatif|year=2011|title=The Making of Modern Libya: State Formation, Colonization, and Resistance, Second Edition|quote=The majority of the population came from Turkish, Arab Berber, or black backgrounds, in addition to the religious minorities... Some inhabitants, like the Cologhli, were descendants of the old Turkish ruling class...|page=44|publisher=]|isbn=9781438428932}}</ref><br/>{{smallsup|i}} Includes 80,000 ]<ref name=Al-Akhbar/> and 200,000 recent refugees from Syria.<ref name=tbmm /> | |||
| related = ]<ref name=barthold>{{harvp|Barthold|1962}}""The book of my grandfather Korkut" ("Kitab-i dedem Korkut") is an outstanding monument of the medieval Oghuz heroic epic. Three modern Turkic-speaking peoples - Turkmens, Azerbaijanis and Turks - are ethnically and linguistically related to the medieval Oghuzes. For all these peoples, the epic legends deposited in the "Book of Korkut" represent an artistic reflection of their historical past."</ref> and ]<ref name="barthold"/> | |||
}} | }} | ||
{{Turkish people}} | |||
'''Turkish people''' or '''Turks''' ({{langx|tr|Türkler}}) are the largest ] who speak ] of the ] and form a majority in ] and ]. In addition, centuries-old ] still live across other former territories of the ]. Article 66 of the ] defines a ''Turk'' as anyone who is a citizen of Turkey.<ref>{{cite book |title=CONSTITUTION OF THE REPUBLIC OF TURKEY |publisher=Grand National Assembly of Turkey, Department of Laws and Resolutions |date=May 2019 |access-date=20 February 2024 |url=https://www.anayasa.gov.tr/media/7258/anayasa_eng.pdf}}</ref> While the legal use of the term ''Turkish'' as it pertains to a ] of Turkey is different from the term's ethnic definition,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Akgönül|first1=Samim|translator=Sila Okur|title=The minority concept in the Turkish context: practices and perceptions in Turkey, Greece, and France |date=2013|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden |isbn=978-9004222113|page=136|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a87kwv3fzicC}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bayir|first1=Derya|title=Minorities and Nationalism in Turkish Law|isbn=978-1317095798 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_skFDAAAQBAJ|date=22 April 2016|publisher=Routledge }}</ref> the majority of the Turkish population (an estimated 70 to 75 percent) are of Turkish ethnicity.<ref name="CIATurkey">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/turkey/|title=Turkey|work=]|publisher=]|access-date=12 December 2017|archive-date=10 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110073821/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/turkey/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Turkey Demographics |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/turkey-population |website=World Population Review |access-date=26 September 2022}}</ref> The vast majority of Turks are ] and follow the ] faith.<ref name="Mayer2010" /> | |||
The '''Turkish people''' ({{lang-tr|Türk ulusu}}), also known as the "'''Turks'''" (''Türkler'') are defined mainly as citizens of the ]. An early historic text provided the definition of being a Turk as ''"any individual within the Republic of Turkey; whatever his/her faith or racial/ethnic background; who speaks Turkish, grows up with Turkish culture and adopts the Turkish ideal, is a Turk."'' This ideal came from the beliefs of ].<ref>{{cite book|last=van Schendel|first=Willem|coauthors=Erik Jan Zürcher|title=Identity Politics in Central Asia and the Muslim World|publisher=I.B. Tauris|year=2001}}</ref> Today, the word is primarily used for the inhabitants of Turkey, but may also refer to the members of sizeable Turkish-speaking populations of the former lands of the ] and large Turkish communities which have been established in Europe (particularly in Germany, France, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands), as well as in North America and Australia. | |||
The ethnic Turks can therefore be distinguished by a number of cultural and regional variants, but do not function as separate ethnic groups.<ref name="Nyropetal1973">{{citation|last1=Nyrop|first1=Richard F.|last2=Benderly|first2=Beryl Lieff |last3=Cover|first3=Willian W.|last4=Cutter|first4=Melissa J.|last5=Evin|first5=Ahmet Ö.|last6=Parker|first6=Newton B.|last7=Teleki|first7=Suzanne|year=1973|title=Area Handbook for the Republic of Turkey|journal=Pamphlet|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qHUsAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22Anatolian+Turks%22+%22Rumelian+Turks%22+%22Black+Sea+Turks%22&pg=PA102|publisher=]|quote=Among the Turks may be distinguished a number of regional variants that do not function as ethnic groups but merely reflect differing historical and ecological circumstances. To some extent, differences of accent, customs, and outlook distinguish the regions and are popularly expressed in regional stereotypes. Three of the most important of these variants are Anatolian Turks, the peasantry of central core of Asiatic Turkey, whose culture is said to underlie Turkish nationalism; Rumelian Turks, primarily immigrants from Balkan territories of the empire of their descendants; and central Asian Turks, the assorted Turkic tibesmen from Asia who have come to Turkey. Others, such as the Black Sea Turks, whose speech largely lacks the vowel harmony valued elsewhere and whose natural predilections are thought to be toward extremely devout religion and the sea, are also distinguished.|volume=550|issue=80|issn=0892-8541}}</ref><ref name="Mayer2010">{{citation|author=]|year=2010|chapter=Turks|title=The Contemporary Middle East: A Westview Reader|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KHM7AQAAIAAJ&q=%22Turkish+Cypriots%22+%22rumelian+turks%22|publisher=]|quote=Generally, they speak Turkish as a primary language, are Muslims (90% are Sunni), claim a Turkish heritage... Four groups of Turks can be identified through cultural and geographic differences. First, the Anatolian Turks in Asia Minor...Second, the Rumelian Turks (from Rum, meaning "Roman", or European) are European Turks who remained in Europe after the Ottoman days... Third are descendants of Turks who stayed in various parts of the Middle East separated from the Ottoman Empire after World War I. Fourth are some 200,000 Turkish Cypriots...|page=27|isbn=9780813344652}}</ref> In particular, the culture of the Anatolian Turks in ] has underlain and influenced the ] ideology.<ref name="Nyropetal1973" /> Other Turkish groups include the ] (also referred to as Balkan Turks) historically located in the ];<ref name="Mayer2010" /><ref name="Şimşir1989">{{citation|last=Şimşir|first=Bilal|year=1989|title=The Turks of Bulgaria, 1878–1985|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QJM_wkv41icC&q=%22Balkan+Turks%22+%22Anatolian+Turks%22|journal=Turkish Quarterly Review Digest|volume=3|issue=15|quote=The Balkan Turks and the Anatolian Turks together constituted the core of the Ottoman Empire and its founding element.|page=6|publisher=]}}</ref> ] on the island of Cyprus, ] originally based in ], ];<ref name="Cornell2005">{{citation|last=Cornell|first=Svante E.|year=2005|title=Small Nations and Great Powers: A Study of Ethnopolitical Conflict in the Caucasus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G_qQAgAAQBAJ&dq=Rather%2C+Turkey+wants+these+minority+groups%2C+perhaps+for+strategic+reasons%2C+to+remain+in+or+return+to+their+ancestral+lands.&pg=PA171|page=171|publisher=]|quote=Many Georgians have advocated that the Meskhetian Turks should be sent to Turkey, 'where they belong'. The Turkish authorities have, nevertheless, been reluctant to accept them, probably as they are afraid of experiencing a massive migration of ethnic Turks from different parts of the Balkans, the Middle East and the CIS. Other examples are that Turks in Western Thrace and Bulgaria, as well as Turkish Cypriots, face difficulties in obtaining Turkish citizenship. Rather, Turkey wants these minority groups, perhaps for strategic reasons, to remain in or return to their ancestral lands.|isbn=9781135796693}}</ref> and ethnic Turkish people across the ],<ref name="Mayer2010" /> where they are also called Turkmen or Turkoman in the ] (e.g. ], ], ], etc.).<ref name="Saatçi 2018 loc=331">{{citation|last=Saatçi|first=Suphi|year=2018|chapter=The Turkman of Iraq|title=Linguistic Minorities in Turkey and Turkic-Speaking Minorities of the Periphery|editor1-last=Bulut|editor1-first=Christiane|page=331|publisher=]|isbn=978-3447107235}}</ref> Consequently, the Turks form the largest minority group in ],<ref name="Karakulaketal2018" /> the second largest minority group in ],<ref name=Triana2017>{{citation |last=Triana|first=María|year=2017|title=Managing Diversity in Organizations: A Global Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VC4lDwAAQBAJ&dq=Iraqi+citizens+of+Turkish+origin&pg=PA168|publisher=]|isbn=978-1-317-42368-3|page=168 |quote=Turkmen, Iraqi citizens of Turkish origin, are the third largest ethnic group in Iraq after Arabs and Kurds and they are said to number about 3 million of Iraq's 34.7 million citizens according to the Iraqi Ministry of Planning.}}</ref> ],<ref name="Pan 1949">{{citation |last=Pan|first=Chia-Lin|year=1949|title=The Population of Libya|journal=Population Studies|volume=3|issue=1|pages=100–125|doi=10.1080/00324728.1949.10416359}}</ref> ],<ref name="Knowlton2020" /> and ],<ref name="Khalifa2013">{{citation|last=Khalifa|first=Mustafa|year=2013|title=The impossible partition of Syria|url=https://www.arab-reform.net/en/node/510|pages=3–5|journal=]|quote=Turkmen are the third largest ethnic group in Syria, making up around 4–5% of the population. Some estimations indicate that they are the second biggest group, outnumbering Kurds, drawing on the fact that Turkmen are divided into two groups: the rural Turkmen who make up 30% of the Turkmen in Syria and who have kept their mother tongue, and the urban Turkmen who have become Arabized and no longer speak their mother language.|access-date=27 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327091448/https://www.arab-reform.net/en/node/510|archive-date=27 March 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> and the third largest minority group in ].<ref name="OSCE2010" /> They also form substantial communities in the ] region of ], the ] region of ], the ] region in ], as well as minority groups in other post-Ottoman Balkan and Middle Eastern countries. The mass immigration of Turks also led to them forming the largest ethnic minority group in ],<ref>{{citation|year=2008|chapter=Austria|title=Annual Report on International Religious Freedom 2007, February 2008, 110–2 Report|page=253|publisher=]|quote=By far the largest ethnic group is Turkish, of which 123,000 have Turkish citizenship, Many more ethnic Turks are Austrian citizens.}}</ref> ],<ref name="Liversage2013">{{citation|last=Liversage|first=Anika|year=2013|chapter=Transnational Families Breaking Up: Divorce among Turkish Immigrants in Denmark|editor-last=Charsley|editor-first=Katharine|title=Transnational Marriage: New Perspectives from Europe and Beyond|page=146|publisher=]|quote=Turkish immigrants began arriving in Denmark in the late 1960s. After subsequent family migration, people of Turkish descent now make up the largest ethnic minority group in Denmark.|isbn=9781136279744}}</ref> ],<ref name="Friedrichsetal2012">{{citation|last1=Friedrichs|first1=Jürgen|last2=Klöckner|first2=Jennifer|last3=Şen|first3=Mustafa|last4=de Witte|first4=Nynke|year=2012|chapter=Turkish Islamic Organisations: A Comparative Study in Germany, the Netherlands and Turkey|title=Faith-based Organisations and Exclusion in European Cities|editor1-last=Beaumon|editor1-first=Justin|editor2-last=Cloke|editor-first2=Paul J.|page=219|quote=Turks are the largest immigrant group in both Germany and the Netherlands.|publisher=]|isbn=9781847428349}}</ref> and the ].<ref name="Friedrichsetal2012" /> There are also ] as well as in ], ] and the ]. Turks are the 13th largest ethnic group in the world. | |||
==Etymology== | |||
Turks from ] settled in ] in the 11th century, through the conquests of the ]. This began the transformation of the region, which had been a largely Greek-speaking region after previously being ], into a Turkish Muslim one.<ref name="Davison2013">{{cite book |last1=Davison |first1=Roderic H. |title=Essays in Ottoman and Turkish History, 1774–1923: The Impact of the West |date=2013 |publisher=University of Texas Press |isbn=978-0292758940 |pages=3–4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NQvUAAAAQBAJ |access-date=22 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180806173413/https://books.google.com/books?id=NQvUAAAAQBAJ |archive-date=6 August 2018 |url-status=live |quote=So the Seljuk sultanate was a successor state ruling part of the medieval Greek empire, and within it the process of Turkification of a previously Hellenized Anatolian population continued. That population must already have been of very mixed ancestry, deriving from ancient Hittite, Phrygian, Cappadocian, and other civilizations as well as Roman and Greek.}}</ref><ref name="Leonard2006">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Turkey |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Developing World, Volume 3 |year=2006 |last=Leonard |first=Thomas M. |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781579583880 |page=1576 |quote=Turkey’s diversity is derived from its central location near the world’s earliest civilizations as well as a history replete with population movements and invasions. The Hattite culture was prominent during the Bronze Age prior to 2000 BCE, but was replaced by the Indo-European Hittites who conquered Anatolia by the second millennium ... Subsequently, Hellenization of the elites transformed Anatolia into a largely Greek-speaking region}}</ref><ref name="Sahadeo_and_Zanca2007">{{cite book|last1=Sahadeo|first1=Jeff|last2=Zanca|first2=Russell|title=Everyday life in Central Asia : past and present|date=2007|publisher=Indiana University Press|location=Bloomington |isbn=978-0253013538|pages=22–23 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AbnwAAAAQBAJ}}</ref> The Ottoman Empire expanded into parts of ], ], and ] over the course of several centuries. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, ] and ] resulted in large-scale loss of life and ] into modern-day Turkey from the Balkans, ], and ]; the immigrants were both Turkish and non-Turkish people, and overwhelmingly Muslim.<ref> | |||
] in 600.]] | |||
* {{harvnb|Kaser|2011|p=336}}: "The emerging Christian nation states justified the prosecution of their Muslims by arguing that they were their former “suppressors”. The historical balance: between about 1820 and 1920, millions of Muslim casualties and refugees back to the remaining Ottoman Empire had to be registered; estimations speak about 5 million casualties and the same number of displaced persons" | |||
* {{harvnb|Gibney|Hansen|2005|p=437}}: ‘Muslims had been the majority in Anatolia, the Crimea, the Balkans, and the Caucasus and a plurality in southern Russia and sections of Romania. Most of these lands were within or contiguous with the Ottoman Empire. By 1923, “only Anatolia, eastern Thrace, and a section of the southeastern Caucasus remained to the Muslim land....Millions of Muslims, most of them Turks, had died; millions more had fled to what is today Turkey. Between 1821 and 1922, more than five million Muslims were driven from their lands. Five and one-half million Muslims died, some of them killed in wars, others perishing as refugees from starvation and disease” (McCarthy 1995, 1). Since people in the Ottoman Empire were classified by religion, Turks, Albanians, Bosnians, and all other Muslim groups were recognized—and recognized themselves—simply as Muslims. Hence, their persecution and forced migration is of central importance to an analysis of “Muslim migration.”’ | |||
* {{harvnb|Karpat|2001|p=343}}: "The main migrations started from Crimea in 1856 and were followed by those from the Caucasus and the Balkans in 1862 to 1878 and 1912 to 1916. These have continued to our day. The quantitative indicators cited in various sources show that during this period a total of about 7 million migrants from Crimea, the Caucasus, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean islands settled in Anatolia. These immigrants were overwhelmingly Muslim, except for a number of Jews who left their homes in the Balkans and Russia in order to live in the Ottoman lands. By the end of the century the immigrants and their descendants constituted some 30 to 40 percent of the total population of Anatolia, and in some western areas their percentage was even higher." ... "The immigrants called themselves Muslims rather than Turks, although most of those from Bulgaria, Macedonia, and eastern Serbia descended from the Turkish Anatolian stock who settled in the Balkans in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries." | |||
* {{harvnb|Karpat|2004|pp=5–6}}: "Migration was a major force in the social and cultural reconstruction of the Ottoman state in the nineteenth century. While some seven to nine million, mostly Muslim, refugees from lost territories in the Caucasus, Crimea, Balkans and Mediterranean islands migrated to Anatolia and Eastern Thrace, during the last quarter of the nineteenth and the early part of the twentieth centuries..." | |||
* {{harvnb|Pekesen|2012}}: "The immigration had far-reaching social and political consequences for the Ottoman Empire and Turkey." ... "Between 1821 and 1922, some 5.3 million Muslims migrated to the Empire.50 It is estimated that in 1923, the year the republic of Turkey was founded, about 25 per cent of the population came from immigrant families.51" | |||
* {{harvnb|Biondich|2011|p=93}}: "The road from Berlin to Lausanne was littered with millions of casualties. In the period between 1878 and 1912, as many as two million Muslims emigrated voluntarily or involuntarily from the Balkans. When one adds those who were killed or expelled between 1912 and 1923, the number of Muslim casualties from the Balkan far exceeds three million. By 1923 fewer than one million remained in the Balkans" | |||
* {{harvnb|Armour|2012|p=213}}: "To top it all, the Empire was host to a steady stream of Muslim refugees. Russia between 1854 and 1876 expelled 1.4 million Crimean Tartars, and in the mid-1860s another 600,000 Circassians from the Caucasus. Their arrival produced further economic dislocation and expense."</ref> The empire lasted until the end of the First World War, when it was defeated by the ] and ]. Following the ] that ended with the ] retaking much of the territory lost to the Allies, the Movement ] on 1 November 1922 and proclaimed the ] on 29 October 1923. | |||
==Etymology and definition== | |||
The name ''Turk'' (]: 突厥, ]: tu jue; ]: duk kyut) was first applied to a clan of tribal chieftains (known as '']'') who overthrew the ruling ] confederency, and founded the nomadic ] ("Celestial Turks")<ref> - "An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples,'' p. 121-122</ref> These nomads roamed in the ] (and thus are known as ]) in northern Mongolia and on the steppes of ].<ref Name="Deny">{{cite book| last =Deny| first =| authorlink =| coauthors =Jean Deny, Louis Bazin, Hans Robert Roemer, György Hazai , Wolfgang-Ekkehard Scharlipp| title =History of the Turkic Peoples in the Pre-Islamic Period| publisher =Schwarz| year =2000| location =| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=86g2AAAAIAAJ&q=Taspar+Khan&dq=Taspar+Khan&client=firefox-a&pgis=1| doi =| id =| page =108 }}</ref> The Göktürks were ruled by ] whose influences extended during the sixth to eighth centuries from the ] to the ] in the land bridge known as ]. In the eighth century, some Turkic tribes, among them the ], moved south of the ], while others migrated west to the northern shore of the ].<ref></ref> | |||
{{see also|Turkic peoples#Etymology}} | |||
===Etymology=== | |||
The name ''Türk'' spread as a political designation during the period of Göktürk imperial hegemony to their subject Turkic and non-Turkic peoples. Subsequently, it was adopted as a generic ethnonym designating most if not all of the ] tribes in Central Asia by the Muslim peoples with whom they came into contact. The imperial era also provided a legacy of political and social organisation (with deep roots in pre-Türk Inner Asia) that in its ''Türk'' form became the common inheritance of the ] of Central Asia.<ref>Ambros/Andrews/Balim/Golden/Gökalp/Karamustafa, ''Turks'', in ], online ed., ret. 2009</ref> | |||
As an ], the etymology of ''Turk'' is still unknown.<ref>{{harvnb|Tasar|Frank|Eden|2021|pp=6–7}}</ref> In ] sources, ''Turk'' appears as ''Tujue'' ({{zh|c={{linktext|突|厥}}|w=T’u-chüe|mc=*duət̚ kɨut̚}}), which referred to the ].{{sfn|Stokes|Gorman|2010a|p=707}}{{sfn|Findley|2005|p=21}} The earliest mention of ''Turk'' ({{lang|otk|𐱅𐰇𐰺𐰜}}, {{transliteration|otk|türü̲k̲}}; or {{lang|otk|𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰚}}, {{transliteration|otk|türk/tẄrk}}) in ] comes from the ].<ref>{{harvnb|Tasar|Frank|Eden|2021|pp=9, 16}}</ref> In ], {{transliteration|otk|kök türü̲k̲}} ({{lang|otk|𐰚𐰇𐰚 𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰜}}) is also mentioned, potentially referring to "]-led Turks" or "Ashinas and Turks".<ref>{{harvnb|Tasar|Frank|Eden|2021|p=10}}</ref> | |||
There are several theories regarding the origin of the ethnonym ''Turk''. There is a claim that it may be connected to ]'s ({{Circa|484|425 BC}}) reference to ''Targitaos'', ({{lang|grc|Ταργιτάος}}), a king of the ];{{sfn|Leiser|2005|p=837}} however, ] (apud Lincoln) assigned Iranian etymology for Targitaos: from ] *''darga-tavah'', meaning "he whose strength is long-lasting".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lincoln |first1=Bruce |title=Once again 'the Scythian' myth of origins (Herodotus 4.5–10) |journal=Nordlit |date=2014 |volume=33 |issue=33 |pages=19–34 |doi=10.7557/13.3188|doi-access=free}}</ref> During the first century A.D., ] refers to the ''Turcae'' in the forests north of the ], and ] lists the ''Tyrcae'' among the people of the same area;{{sfn|Leiser|2005|p=837}} yet English archaeologist ] contended that ''Tyrcae'' is "a false correction" for ''Iurcae''/''Iurkai'' ({{lang|grc|Ἱύρκαι}}), a people who dwelt beyond the ], according to Herodotus (], IV. 22)<ref>{{cite EB1911|wstitle=Iyrcae |page= 102 |volume= 15 |last= Minns|first= Ellis Hovell}}</ref> There are references to certain groups in antiquity whose names might have been foreign transcriptions of ''Tür(ü)k'' such as ], ''Turukha''/''Turuška'', ] and so on; but according to American historian ], while any connection of some of these ancient peoples to Turks is possible, it is rather unlikely.<ref>{{cite book|title=An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples:Ethnogenesis and State-Formation in Medieval and Early Modern Eurasia and the Middle East|page=116|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz|location=Wiesbaden, Germany|year=1992}}</ref> | |||
==History== | |||
As a word in Turkic languages, ''Turk'' may mean "strong, strength, ripe" or "flourishing, in full strength".<ref>{{harvnb|Tasar|Frank|Eden|2021|p=30}}</ref> It may also mean ripe as for a fruit or "in the prime of life, young, and vigorous" for a person.<ref>{{harvnb|Clauson|1972|pp=542–543}}</ref> | |||
{{main|History of the Turkish people}} | |||
=== |
===Definition=== | ||
In the 19th century, the word ''Türk'' referred to ]n peasants. The Ottoman ruling class identified themselves as ], not as Turks.{{sfn|Kushner|1997|p=219}}{{sfn|Meeker|1971|p=322}} In the late 19th century, as the Ottoman upper classes adopted European ideas of ], the term ''Türk'' took on a more positive connotation.{{sfn|Kushner|1997|pp=220–221}} | |||
During Ottoman times, the '']'' system defined communities on a religious basis. In the early 20th century, the ] abandoned ] in favor of ], while adopting the name ''Turks'', which was finally used in the name of the new Turkish Republic. | |||
{{main|Great Seljuq Empire}} | |||
] defined the Turkish nation as the "people (''halk'') who established the Turkish republic". Further, "the natural and historical facts which effected the establishment (''teessüs'') of the Turkish nation" were "(a) unity in political existence, (b) unity in language, (c) unity in homeland, (d) unity in race and origin (''menşe''), (e) to be historically related and (f) to be morally related".<ref>{{cite book|title=Minorities and Nationalism in Turkish Law|page=110|author=Derya Bayir|year=2013}}</ref> | |||
] at its zenith upon the death of ] in 1092.]] | |||
] of the ] defines a ''Turk'' as anyone who is "bound to the Turkish state through the bond of ]."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/pdfid/4a9d204d2.pdf |title=Turkish Citizenship Law |date=29 May 2009 |access-date=17 June 2012}}</ref> | |||
The Seljuks (] ''Selçuklular''; {{lang-fa|سلجوقيان}} ''Ṣaljūqīyān''; ] سلجوق ''Saljūq'', or السلاجقة ''al-Salājiqa'') were a Turkish tribe from Central Asia.<ref>Concise Britannica Online article</ref> In 1037, they entered ] and established their first powerful state, called by historians the ]. They captured Baghdad in 1055 and a relatively small contingent of warriors (around 5,000 by some estimates) moved into eastern Anatolia. In 1071, the Seljuks engaged the armies of the Byzantine Empire at ] (Malazgirt), north of ]. The Byzantines experienced minor casualties despite the fact that Emperor ] was captured. With no potent ] force to stop them, the Seljuks took control of most of Eastern and Central Anatolia.<ref>The History of the Seljuq Turks: From the Jami Al-Tawarikh ()</ref> They established their capital at ] and ruled what would be known as the ]. The success of the Seljuk Turks stimulated a response from ] in the form of the ].<ref name="OHC">Riley-Smith, Jonathan. ''The Oxford History of the Crusades'' New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. ISBN 0192853643.</ref> A counteroffensive launched in 1097 by the ] with the aid of the Crusaders dealt the Seljuks a decisive defeat. Konya fell to the Crusaders, and after a few years of campaigning, Byzantine rule was restored in the western third of Anatolia. Although a Turkish revival in the 1140s nullified much of the Christian gains, greater damage was done to Byzantine security by dynastic strife in ] in which the largely ] contingents of the Fourth Crusade and their ] allies intervened. In 1204, these Crusaders conquered Constantinople and installed ] in the Byzantine capital as emperor of the so-called ], dismembering the old realm into tributary states where West European ] institutions were transplanted intact. Independent Greek kingdoms were established at ] (present-day ]), ] (present-day ]), and ] from remnant Byzantine provinces. Turks allied with ] in Anatolia against the Latins, and Greeks with Turks against the ]. In 1261, ] of Nicaea drove the Latins from Constantinople and restored the ]. Seljuk Rum survived in the late 13th century as a vassal state of the Mongols, who had already subjugated the Great Seljuk sultanate at ]. Mongol influence in the region had disappeared by the 1330s, leaving behind ] emirates competing for supremacy. From the chaotic conditions that prevailed throughout the Middle East, however, a new power was to emerge in Anatolia, the Ottoman Turks. <ref>{{cite paper|url=http://digital.sabanciuniv.edu/tezler/tezler/ssbf/master/gurpinard/ana.pdf|title=THE SELJUKS OF RUM IN TURKISH REPUBLICAN NATIONALIST HISTORIOGRAPH|author=Gürpınar, Doğan|publisher=Sabancı University|format=PDF|accessdate=2008-06-11|year=2004}}</ref> | |||
== |
==History== | ||
{{see also|History of Turkey}} | |||
===Prehistory, Ancient era, and Early Middle Ages=== | |||
{{main|Anatolian Turkish Beyliks}} | |||
{{further|Turkic peoples|Oghuz Turks|Anatolian peoples}} | |||
] was first inhabited by hunter-gatherers during the ] era, and was inhabited by various civilizations such as ]<ref name="Leonard2006"/> and ].{{sfn|Stokes|Gorman|2010b|p=721}}{{Cref|a}} After ]'s conquest in 334 BC, the area was culturally ], and by the first century BC it is generally thought that the native ], themselves earlier newcomers to the area, following the ], became extinct.<ref name="Davison2013"/><ref name="Leonard2006"/><ref name="Sahadeo_and_Zanca2007"/><ref>{{cite book|author=Theo van den Hout|title=The Elements of Hittite|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C&pg=PA1|access-date=24 March 2013 |date=27 October 2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-50178-1|page=1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Sharon R. Steadman|author2=Gregory McMahon |title=The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia: (10,000–323 BCE) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7ND_CE9If3kC|access-date=23 March 2013|date=15 September 2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-537614-2}}</ref> | |||
According to historians and linguists, the ] originated in Central-East Asia,<ref>{{harvnb|Uchiyama|Gillam|Savelyev|Ning|2020}}: "Most linguists and historians agree that Proto-Turkic, the common ancestor of all ancient and contemporary Turkic languages, must have been spoken somewhere in Central-East Asia (e.g. Róna-Tas, Reference Róna-Tas1991, p. 35; Golden, Reference Golden1992, pp. 124–127; Menges, Reference Menges1995, pp. 16–19)."</ref> potentially in ], ] or ].<ref name="Golden 2011">{{cite book | last=Golden | first=Peter B. | title=Studies on the Peoples and Cultures of the Eurasian Steppes | date=2011 | isbn=978-973-27-2152-0 | pages=37–38| publisher=Editura Academiei Române }}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Uchiyama|Gillam|Savelyev|Ning|2020}}: "The ultimate Proto-Turkic homeland may have been located in a more compact area, most likely in Eastern Mongolia"</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Lee|Kuang|2017}}: "The best candidate for the Turkic Urheimat would then be northern and western Mongolia and Tuva, where all these haplogroups could have intermingled, rather than eastern and southern Mongolia..."</ref> Initially, Proto-Turkic speakers were potentially both hunter-gatherers and farmers; they later became ] ].<ref>{{harvnb|Uchiyama|Gillam|Savelyev|Ning|2020}}:"To sum up, the palaeolinguistic reconstruction points to a mixed subsistence strategy and complex economy of the Proto-Turkic-speaking community. It is likely that the subsistence of the Early Proto-Turkic speakers was based on a combination of hunting–gathering and agriculture, with a later shift to nomadic pastoralism as an economy basis, partly owing to the interaction of the Late Proto-Turkic groups with the Iranian-speaking herders of the Eastern Steppe."</ref> Early and ] Turkic groups exhibited a wide range of both East Asian and West-Eurasian physical appearances and genetic origins, in part through long-term contact with neighboring peoples such as ], ], ], ] and ] peoples.<ref> | |||
Anatolian Beyliks (]: Anadolu Beylikleri, ]: Tevâif-i mülûk) were small Turkish ] governed by ]s, which were founded across ] at the end of the 11th century. Political unity in ] was disrupted from the time of the collapse of the Anatolia ] State at the beginning of the 14th century, when until the beginning of the 16th century each of the regions in the country fell under the domination of ] (principalities). Eventually, the ] principality, which subjugated the other principalities and restored political unity in the larger part of Anatolia, was established in the ], ] and ] areas.<ref>{{cite paper|url=http://assets.cambridge.org/97805216/42217/sample/9780521642217wsc00.pdf|title=European and Islamic Trade in the Early Ottoman State|author=Fleet, Kate|publisher=Cambridge University Press|format=PDF|accessdate=2008-06-11|year=1999}}</ref> On the other hand, the area in central Anatolia east of the ]-] line as far as the area of ] remained under the administration of the Ilhani General Governor until 1336. The infighting in Ilhan gave the principalities in Anatolia their complete independence. In addition to this, new Turkish ] were formed in the localities previously under Ilhan occupation. | |||
* {{harvnb|Lee|2023|p=4}}: "It should also be noted that even the early Turkic peoples, including the Tiele and the Türks, were made up of heterogeneous elements. Importantly, DNA studies demonstrate that the expansion process of the Turkic peoples involved the Turkicization of various non-Turkic-speaking groups. The “Turks” intermixed with and Turkicized various indigenous groups across Eurasia: Uralic hunter-gatherers in northern Eurasia; Mongolic nomads in Mongolia; Indo-European-speaking nomads and sedentary populations in Xinjiang, Transoxiana, Iran, Kazakhstan, and South Siberia; and Indo-European elements (the Byzantine subjects, among others) in Anatolia and the Balkans.11" | |||
* {{harvnb|Findley|2005|p=18}}: "Moreover, Turks do not all physically look alike. They never did. The Turks of Turkey are famous for their range of physical types. Given the Turks' ancient Inner Asian origins, it is easy to imagine that they once presented a uniform Mongoloid appearance. Such traits seem to be more characteristic in the eastern Turkic world; however, uniformity of type can never have prevailed there either. Archeological evidence indicates that Indo-Europeans, or certainly Europoid physical types, inhabited the oases of the Tarim basin and even parts of Mongolia in ancient times. In the Tarim basin, persistence of these former inhabitants' genes among the modern Uyghurs is both observable and scientifically demonstrable.32 Early Chinese sources describe the Kirghiz as blue-eyed and blond or red-haired. The genesis of Turkic ethnic groups from earliest times occurred in confederations of diverse peoples. As if to prove the point, the earliest surviving texts in Turkic languages are studded with terms from other languages." | |||
* {{Cite journal |last=Golden |first=Peter B. |date=25 July 2018|title=The Ethnogonic Tales of the Türks |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0971945818775373 |journal=The Medieval History Journal |language=en |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=291–327 |doi=10.1177/0971945818775373 |s2cid=166026934 |issn=0971-9458}}"Some DNA tests point to the Iranian connections of the Ashina and Ashide,133 highlighting further that the Turks as a whole 'were made up of heterogeneous and somatically dissimilar populations'.134 Geographically, the accounts cover the regions of Inner Mongolia, Gansu, Xinjiang, the Yenisei zone and the Altay, regions with Turkic, Indo-European (Iranian and Tokharian), Yeniseic, Uralic and other populations. Wusun elements, like most steppe polities of an ethno-linguistic mix, may have also played a substratal role." | |||
* {{harvnb|Lee|Kuang|2017}}: "Both Chinese histories and modern dna studies indicate that the early and medieval Turkic peoples were made up of heterogeneous populations"</ref> In Central Asia, the earliest surviving ] texts, found on the eighth-century ], were erected by the ] in the sixth century CE, and include words not common to Turkic but found in unrelated Inner Asian languages.{{sfn|Findley|2005|p=39}} Although the ancient Turks were ]ic, they traded wool, leather, carpets, and horses for grain, silk, wood, and vegetables, and also had large ironworking stations in the south of the ] during the 600s CE. Most of the Turkic peoples were followers of ], sharing the cult of the sky god ], although there were also adherents of ], ], and ].<ref>{{cite book |first=Frederik |last=Coene |title=The Caucasus-An Introduction |page=77 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2009}}</ref>{{sfn|Leiser|2005|p=837}} However, during the ], the Turks entered the ] proper as ], the booty of Arab raids and conquests.{{sfn|Leiser|2005|p=837}} The Turks began converting to ] after the ] through the efforts of ], ], and merchants. Although initiated by the ], the ] of the Turks to Islam was filtered through ] and Central Asian culture. Under the ], most were domestic servants, whilst under the ], increasing numbers were trained as soldiers.{{sfn|Leiser|2005|p=837}} By the ninth century, Turkish commanders were leading the ]’ Turkish troops into battle. As the Abbasid Caliphate declined, Turkish officers assumed more military and political power by taking over or establishing provincial dynasties with their own corps of Turkish troops.{{sfn|Leiser|2005|p=837}} | |||
===Seljuk era=== | |||
During the 14th century, the ], who made up the western ], started to re-establish their previous political sovereignty in the ]. Rapid developments in the ] and culture took place during the time of the Anatolian principalities. In this period, the Turkish language began to be used in the sciences and in literature, and became the official language of the principalities. New medreses were established and progress was made in the medical sciences during this period. | |||
{{Main|Seljuk dynasty}} | |||
{{See also|Seljuk Empire|Sultanate of Rum}} | |||
], the ] chieftain who founded the ]]] | |||
During the 11th century, the ], who were influenced by Persian civilization in many ways, grew in strength and succeeded in taking the eastern province of the ]. By 1055, the ] captured ] and began to make their first incursions into ].{{sfn|Duiker|Spielvogel|2012|p=192}} When they won the ] against the ] in 1071, it opened the gates of Anatolia to them.{{sfn|Darke|2011|p=16}} Although ethnically Turkish, the Seljuk Turks appreciated and became carriers of ] rather than ].{{sfn|Chaurasia|2005|p=181}}{{sfn|Bainbridge|2009|p=33}} Nonetheless, the ] and ] were introduced and gradually spread over the region and the slow transition from a predominantly ] and ]-speaking Anatolia to a predominantly ] and Turkish-speaking one was underway.{{sfn|Darke|2011|p=16}} | |||
In dire straits, the Byzantine Empire turned to the West for help, setting in motion the pleas that led to the ].{{sfn|Duiker|Spielvogel|2012|p=193}} Once the ] took ], the Seljuk Turks established the ] from their new capital, ], in 1097.{{sfn|Darke|2011|p=16}} By the 12th century, Europeans had begun to call the Anatolian region {{lang|la|Turchia}} or ''Turkey'', the land of the Turks.{{sfn|Ágoston|2010|p=574}} The Turkish society in Anatolia was divided into urban, rural and nomadic populations;{{sfn|Delibaşı|1994|p=7}} other ] (Turkmen) tribes who had arrived into Anatolia at the same time as the Seljuks kept their nomadic ways.{{sfn|Darke|2011|p=16}} These tribes were more numerous than the Seljuks, and rejecting the sedentary lifestyle, adhered to an Islam impregnated with ] and ] from their ]n steppeland origins, which then mixed with new Christian influences. From this popular and syncretist Islam, with its mystical and revolutionary aspects, sects such as the ] and ] emerged.{{sfn|Darke|2011|p=16}} Furthermore, ] between the Turks and local inhabitants, as well as the ] of many to Islam, also increased the Turkish-speaking Muslim population in Anatolia.{{sfn|Darke|2011|p=16}}<ref>{{cite book|year=2004|title=Turkey Foreign Policy And Government Guide|publisher=International Business Publications|isbn=978-0739762820 |page=64}}</ref> | |||
===Ottoman era=== | |||
By 1243, at the ], the ] defeated the Seljuk Turks and became the new rulers of Anatolia, and in 1256, the second Mongol invasion of Anatolia caused widespread destruction. Particularly after 1277, political stability within the Seljuk territories rapidly disintegrated, leading to the strengthening of Turkoman principalities in the western and southern parts of Anatolia called the "]".{{sfn|Somel|2003|p=266}} | |||
{{main|Ottoman Empire}} | |||
===Beyliks era=== | |||
] effectively started the modernization of the ] and paved the way for the ] reforms which also influenced the modern ].]] | |||
{{Main|Anatolian beyliks}} | |||
] in Anatolia during the early 1300s.]] | |||
The Ottoman Empire (]: دولت عالیه عثمانیه ''Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye'', ]: ''Osmanlı Devleti'' or ''Osmanlı İmparatorluğu''), was a Turkish state. The state was known as the Turkish Empire or Turkey by its contemporaries. (See ].) Starting as a small tribe whose territory bordered on the Byzantine frontier, the ] built an empire that at the height of its power (16th–17th century), ], controlling much of ], the ] and ]. | |||
When the Mongols defeated the Seljuk Turks and ], the Turks became the ]s of the ] who established their own empire in the vast area which stretched from present-day ] to present-day ].{{sfn|Ágoston|2010|p=xxv}} As the Mongols occupied more lands in Asia Minor, the Turks moved further into western Anatolia and settled in the Seljuk-Byzantine frontier.{{sfn|Ágoston|2010|p=xxv}} By the last decades of the 13th century, the Ilkhans and their Seljuk vassals lost control over much of Anatolia to these ].{{sfn|Ágoston|2010|p=xxv}} A number of Turkish lords managed to establish themselves as rulers of various ], known as "]" or ]s. Amongst these beyliks, along the ] coast, from north to south, stretched the beyliks of ], ], ], ], and ]. Inland from Teke was ] and east of Karasi was the beylik of ]. | |||
To the northwest of Anatolia, around ], was the small and, at this stage, insignificant, Ottoman beylik. It was hemmed into the east by other more substantial powers like ] on ], which ruled from the ] to the ]. Although the ] was only a small principality among the numerous Turkish beyliks, and thus posed the smallest threat to the Byzantine authority, their location in north-western Anatolia, in the former Byzantine province of ], became a fortunate position for their future conquests. The ], who had conquered the city of ] in 1204 during the ], established a ] (1204–1261), divided the former Byzantine territories in the ] and the ] among themselves, and forced the Byzantine Emperors into exile at ] (present-day ]). From 1261 onwards, the Byzantines were largely preoccupied with regaining their control in the Balkans.{{sfn|Ágoston|2010|p=xxv}} Toward the end of the 13th century, as Mongol power began to decline, the Turkoman chiefs assumed greater independence.{{sfn|Kia|2011|p=1}} | |||
As the power of the ] weakened in the late 1200s, warrior chieftains claimed the lands of Northwestern ], along the ]'s borders. ] ruled the lands around ], a town between ] and ]. Upon his death in 1281, his son, ], from whom the ] and the Empire took its name, expanded the territory to 16,000 square kilometers. ], who was given the nickname "Kara" (] for black) for his courage,<ref>{{tr}} , Turkish Ministry of Culture website.</ref> extended the frontiers of Ottoman settlement towards the edge of the ]. He shaped the early political development of the state and moved the Ottoman capital to ]. | |||
===Ottoman Empire=== | |||
] ] – ]]] | |||
{{Main|Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks}} | |||
] was a Turkish empire that lasted from 1299 to 1922.]] | |||
By 1452 the ] controlled almost all of the former ] lands except ]. On May 29, 1453, ] ] Constantinople after a 53-day ] and proclaimed that the city was now the new capital of his Ottoman Empire.<ref name="popu3">D. Nicolle, ''Constantinople 1453: The end of Byzantium'', 32</ref> Sultan Mehmed's first duty was to rejuvenate the city economically, creating the ] and inviting the fleeing Orthodox and Catholic inhabitants to return. Captured prisoners were freed to settle in the city whilst provincial governors in Rumelia and Anatolia were ordered to send four thousand families to settle in the city, whether Muslim, Christian or Jew, to form a unique ] ]. | |||
] | |||
Under its founder, ], the nomadic Ottoman beylik expanded along the ] and westward towards the ]. Thus, the population of western ] had largely become ]-speaking and ] in religion.{{sfn|Ágoston|2010|p=xxv}} It was under his son, ], who had attacked and conquered the important urban center of ] in 1326, proclaiming it as the Ottoman capital, that the ] developed considerably. In 1354, the Ottomans crossed into ] and established a foothold on the ] while at the same time pushing east and taking ].{{sfn|Fleet|1999|p=5}}{{sfn|Kia|2011|p=2}} Many Turks from Anatolia began to settle in the region which had been abandoned by the inhabitants who had fled ] before the Ottoman invasion.{{sfn|Köprülü|1992|p=110}} However, the Byzantines were not the only ones to suffer from the Ottoman advance for, in the mid-1330s, Orhan annexed the Turkish beylik of ]. This advancement was maintained by ] who more than tripled the territories under his direct rule, reaching some {{convert|100,000|sqmi}}, evenly distributed in ] and ].{{sfn|Ágoston|2010|p=xxvi}} Gains in Anatolia were matched by those in Europe; once the Ottoman forces took ] (]), which became the capital of the Ottoman Empire in 1365, they opened their way into ] and ] in 1371 at the ].{{sfn|Fleet|1999|p=6}} With the conquests of ], Macedonia, and Bulgaria, significant numbers of Turkish emigrants settled in these regions.{{sfn|Köprülü|1992|p=110}} This form of Ottoman-Turkish ] became a very effective method to consolidate their position and power in the ]. The settlers consisted of soldiers, nomads, farmers, artisans and ], ], ] and other religious functionaries, and administrative personnel.{{sfn|Eminov|1997|p=27}} | |||
In 1453, Ottoman armies, under Sultan ], conquered ].{{sfn|Ágoston|2010|p=xxvi}} Mehmed reconstructed and repopulated the city, and made it the new Ottoman capital.{{sfn|Kermeli|2010|p=111}} After the ], the Ottoman Empire entered a long period of ] with its borders eventually going deep into ], the ], and ].{{sfn|Kia|2011|p=5}} ] dramatically expanded the empire's eastern and southern frontiers in the ] and gained recognition as the guardian of the holy cities of ] and ].{{sfn|Quataert|2000|p=21}} His successor, ], further expanded the conquests after capturing ] in 1521 and using its territorial base to conquer ], and other Central European territories, after his victory in the ] as well as also pushing the frontiers of the empire to the east.{{sfn|Kia|2011|p=6}} Following Suleiman's death, Ottoman victories continued, albeit less frequently than before. The island of ] was conquered, in 1571, bolstering Ottoman dominance over the sea routes of the eastern ].{{sfn|Quataert|2000|p=24}} However, after its defeat at the ], in 1683, the Ottoman army was met by ambushes and further defeats; the 1699 ], which granted Austria the provinces of Hungary and ], marked the first time in history that the Ottoman Empire actually relinquished territory.{{sfn|Levine|2010|p=28}} | |||
During the growth of the ] (also known as the ]), ] extended Ottoman sovereignty southward, conquering ], ], and ]. He also gained recognition as guardian of the holy cities of ] and ]; he accepted pious the title of ''The Servant of The Two Holy Shrines''.<ref> Retrieved on 2007-09-16</ref><ref> Retrieved on 2007-09-16</ref> | |||
] territories during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and the establishment of the ], in 1923, produced waves of Turkish refugees, who were known as "]s", who fled from hostile regions of the ], the ], the ], the island of ], the ], the ], and the ] to migrate to ] and ].]] | |||
] was known in ] as '''Suleiman the Magnificent'''<ref>Merriman.</ref> and in ], as '''the Lawgiver''' (in Turkish ''Kanuni''; {{lang-ar|القانونى}}, ''al‐Qānūnī''), for his complete restructuring of the Ottoman legal system. The reign of Suleiman the Magnificent is known as the '''Ottoman golden age'''. The brilliance of the ]'s court and the might of his armies outshone those of England's ], France's ], and Holy Roman Emperor ]. When Suleiman died in 1566, the Ottoman Empire was a world power. Most of the great cities of Islam (], ], ], ], ], ], and ]) were under the sultan's crescent flag. After Suleiman, however, the empire's power gradually diminished due to poor leadership; many successive Sultans largely depended upon their ] to run the state affairs. | |||
By the 19th century, the empire began to ] when ] uprisings occurred across the empire. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, ] and ] resulted in estimated 5 million deaths,<ref>{{harvnb|Kaser|2011|p=336}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gibney|Hansen|2005|p=437}}</ref> with the casualties including Turks.<ref>{{harvnb|Gibney|Hansen|2005|p=437}}</ref> Five to seven or seven to nine million ] migrated into modern-day Turkey from the ], ], ], and ] islands,<ref> | |||
The Ottoman sultanate lasted for 624 years, but its last three centuries were marked by stagnation and eventual decline. By the 19th century, the Ottomans had fallen well behind the rest of Europe in science, technology, and industry. Reformist Sultans such as ] and ] succeeded in pushing Ottoman bureaucracy, society and culture ahead, but were unable to cure all of the empire's ills. Despite its collapse, the Ottoman empire has left an indelible mark on Turkish culture and ]. ] has given the Turkish people a splendid legacy of art, architecture and domestic refinement, as a visit to Istanbul's ] readily shows. | |||
* {{harvnb|Pekesen|2012}} | |||
* {{harvnb|Kaser|2011|p=336}} | |||
* {{harvnb|Karpat|2001|p=343}} | |||
* {{harvnb|Karpat|2004|pp=5–6}}</ref> shifting the center of the Ottoman Empire to Anatolia.<ref>{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=70}}</ref> In addition to a small number of Jews, the refugees were overwhelmingly Muslim; they were both Turkish and non-Turkish people, such as ] and ].<ref>{{harvnb|Karpat|2001|p=343}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Armour|2012|p=213}}</ref> ] has called the Balkan Wars an "unrecognized genocide", where multiple sides were both victims and perpetrators.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Mojzes|first=Paul|date=November 2013|title=Ethnic cleansing in the Balkans, why did it happen and could it happen again|url=https://www.cicerofoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/Paul_Mojzes_Ethnic_Cleansing_In_The_Balkans.pdf|website=Cicero Foundation|access-date=23 February 2024|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20240223191938/https://www.cicerofoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/Paul_Mojzes_Ethnic_Cleansing_In_The_Balkans.pdf|archive-date=23 February 2024|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
By 1913, the government of the ] started a program of forcible ] of non-Turkish minorities.<ref>{{cite book |title=Century of Genocide|year=2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1135245504|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EDZa0zZ-XCAC|editor=Samuel Totten, William S. Parsons|pages=118–124|quote=By 1913 the advocates of ] had lost out to radicals in the party who promoted a program of forcible Turkification.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Jwaideh|first=Wadie|title=The Kurdish national movement: its origins and development|year=2006 |publisher=Syracuse Univ. Press|location=Syracuse, NY|isbn=978-0815630937|page=104|edition=1st |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FCbspX-dGPYC|quote=With the crushing of opposition elements, the Young Turks simultaneously launched their program of forcible Turkification and the creation of a highly centralized administrative system."}}</ref> By 1914, the ] broke out, and the Turks scored some success in ] during the ] in 1915. During World War I, the government of the Committee of Union and Progress continued to implement its Turkification policies, which affected non-Turkish minorities, such as the ] during the ] and the ] during ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Akçam|first=Taner|title=The Young Turks' crime against humanity: the Armenian genocide and ethnic cleansing in the Ottoman Empire|year=2012|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton, N.J.|isbn=978-0691153339|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xdBKN1j-QhMC|page=29}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Bjornlund|first=Matthias|s2cid=72975930|title=The 1914 cleansing of Aegean Greeks as a case of violent Turkification|journal=Journal of Genocide Research |date=March 2008|volume=10|issue=1|pages=41–57 |issn=1462-3528|quote=In 1914, the aim of Turkification was not to exterminate but to expel as many Greeks of the Aegean region as possible as not only a "security measure," but as an extension of the policy of economic and cultural boycott, while at the same time creating living space for the muhadjirs that had been driven out of their homes under equally brutal circumstances.|doi=10.1080/14623520701850286}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Akçam |first=Taner|title=From Empire to Republic: Turkish Nationalism and the Armenian Genocide|year=2005|publisher=Zed Books |location=London|isbn=9781842775271|page=115|author-link=Taner Akçam|quote=...the initial stages of the Turkification of the Empire, which affected by attacks on its very heterogeneous structure, thereby ushering in a relentless process of ethnic cleansing that eventually, through the exigencies and opportunities of the First World War, culminated in the Armenian Genocide.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Rummel|first=Rudolph J.|title=Death By Government|year=1996|publisher=Transaction Publishers |isbn=9781412821292|page=235|author-link=Rudolph Rummel |quote=Through this genocide and the forced deportation of the Greeks, the nationalists completed the Young Turk's program-the Turkification of Turkey and the elimination of a pretext for Great Power meddling.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=America and the Armenian Genocide of 1915|editor=J.M. Winter|year=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York|isbn=9780511163821|page=60|quote=The devising of a scheme of a correlative Turkification of the Empire, or what was left of it, included the cardinal goal of the liquidation of that Empire's residual non-Turkish elements. Given their numbers, their concentration in geo-strategic locations, and the troublesome legacy of the Armenian Question, the Armenians were targeted as the prime object for such a liquidation.}}</ref> In 1918, the Ottoman Government agreed to the ] with the ]. | |||
===The Republic of Turkey=== | |||
The ] —signed in 1920 by the government of ]— dismantled the Ottoman Empire. The Turks, under Mustafa Kemal Pasha, rejected the treaty and fought the ], resulting in the abortion of that text, never ratified,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lEFSI-qJHSEC&q=Treaty+S%C3%A8vres+was+never+ratified&pg=PA91|title=The Turkish Straits|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=978-9024734641 |last1=Rozakēs|first1=Chrēstos L|date=31 August 1987|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers }}</ref> and the ]. Thus, the 623-year-old Ottoman Empire ended.{{sfn|Levine|2010|p=29}} | |||
{{main|Turkey}} | |||
===Modern era=== | |||
] visits the reorganized ] on December 15, 1930.]] | |||
{{See also|History of the Republic of Turkey}} | |||
] in the 1950s]] | |||
Once Mustafa Kemal led the ] against the ] that occupied the former ], he united the Turkish Muslim majority and successfully led them from 1919 to 1922 in overthrowing the occupying forces out of what the ] considered the Turkish homeland.{{sfn|Göcek|2011|p=22}} The Turkish identity became the unifying force when, in 1923, the ] was signed and the newly founded ] was formally established. Atatürk's presidency was marked by a series of ] that transformed Turkey into a ], modern republic with civil and political equality for sectarian minorities and women.{{sfn|Göcek|2011|p=23}} | |||
Throughout the 1920s and the 1930s, Turks, as well as other ], from the ], the ], the ], the island of ], the ] (]), the ], and the ] continued to arrive in ], most of whom settled in urban north-western Anatolia.{{sfn|Çaǧaptay|2006|p=82}}{{sfn|Bosma|Lucassen|Oostindie|2012|p=17}} The bulk of these immigrants, known as "]s", were the Balkan Turks who faced harassment and discrimination in their homelands.{{sfn|Çaǧaptay|2006|p=82}} However, there were still remnants of a Turkish population in many of these countries because the Turkish government wanted to preserve these communities so that the Turkish character of these neighbouring territories could be maintained.{{sfn|Çaǧaptay|2006|p=84}} One of the last stages of ethnic Turks immigrating to Turkey was between 1940 and 1990 when about 700,000 Turks arrived from Bulgaria. Today, between a third and a quarter of Turkey's population are the descendants of these immigrants.{{sfn|Bosma|Lucassen|Oostindie|2012|p=17}} | |||
] in 1935, at a time when women in a significant number of other European countries ].]] | |||
The Republic of Turkey was born from the disastrous ] defeat of the ]. The Ottoman war hero, Mustafa Kemal Pasha (who was later given the surname ] by the ] with the ] of 1934), sailed from ] to ] in May 1919 to start the Turkish liberation movement; he organized the remnants of the ] in ] into an effective fighting force, and rallied the people to the nationalist cause. Under the leadership of ] ], a military commander who had distinguished himself during the ], the ] was waged with the aim of revoking the terms of the ].<ref name="Atatürk">{{cite book|title=Ataturk|first=Andrew|last=Mango|publisher=Overlook|location=|year=2000|isbn=1-5856-7011-1}}</ref> By 1923 the nationalist government had driven out the invading armies; replaced the Treaty of Sèvres with the ] and abolished the Ottoman State; promulgated a republican ]; and established Turkey's new capital in ].<ref name=feroz50>Ahmad, ''The Making of Modern Turkey'', 50</ref> | |||
During a meeting in the early days of the new republic, ] proclaimed: | |||
{{Quote|'''To the women''': ''Win for us the battle of education and you will do yet more for your country than we have been able to do. It is to you that I appeal''.<br /> '''To the men''': ''If henceforward the women do not share in the social life of the nation, we shall never attain to our full development. We shall remain irremediably backward, incapable of treating on equal terms with the civilizations of the West''.<ref>Kinross, Ataturk, The Rebirth of a Nation, p. 343</ref>|Mustafa Kemal}} | |||
'''Chronology of Major ] Reforms:''' <ref>Webster, ''The Turkey of Atatürk: social process in the Turkish reformation''</ref> | |||
{| class="ambox" style="font-size:90%;width:60%;border:0;line-height:120%;" | |||
|- | |||
| style="background:#fcfcfc;" height="17" align=left| November 1, 1922 | |||
| Abolition of the office of the ]. | |||
|- | |||
| style="background:#fcfcfc;" height="17" | October 29, 1923 | |||
| Proclamation of the ]. | |||
|- | |||
| style="background:#fcfcfc;" height="17" | March 3, 1924 | |||
| Abolition of the office of ] held by the ]. | |||
|- | |||
| style="background:#fcfcfc;" height="17" align=left| November 25, 1925 | |||
| Change of headgear and dress | |||
|- | |||
| style="background:#fcfcfc;" height="17" align=left| November 30, 1925 | |||
| Closure of religious convents and ] lodges. | |||
|- | |||
| style="background:#fcfcfc;" height="17" align=left| March 1, 1926 | |||
| Introduction of the new ]. | |||
|- | |||
| style="background:#fcfcfc;" height="17" align=left| October 4, 1926 | |||
| Introduction of the new ]. | |||
|- | |||
| style="background:#fcfcfc;" height="17" align=left| November 1, 1928 | |||
| Adoption of the new ] | |||
|- | |||
| style="background:#fcfcfc;" height="17" align=left| June 21, 1934 | |||
| Law on family names. | |||
|- | |||
| style="background:#fcfcfc;" height="17" align=left| November 26, 1934 | |||
| Abolition of titles and by-names. | |||
|- | |||
| style="background:#fcfcfc;" height="17" align=left| December 5, 1934 | |||
| Full political rights, to vote and be elected, to women. | |||
|- | |||
| style="background:#fcfcfc;" height="17" align=left| February 5, 1937 | |||
| The inclusion of the principle of ] in the constitution. | |||
|} | |||
The ] aimed to create a Turkish ] ({{lang-tr|ulus devlet}}) on the territory of the former Ottoman Empire that had remained within the boundaries of the Republic of Turkey in 1923. The meaning of ] ({{lang-tr|Türklük}}) implies a "citizenship" (of the Republic of Turkey) and "cultural identity" (speaking the Turkish language and growing up with the mainstream Turkish culture) rather than an ethno-genetical background. The Turkish-speaking Muslim citizens of the Ottoman Empire had been called "Turks" for centuries by the Europeans, and the Ottoman Empire was alternatively called ] by its contemporaries. However, the ] system and intermarriages with people in the former Ottoman territories of ], the ] and ] ensured a largely ] ] that makes up the fabric of the present-day Turkish nation. The Turks of today, in short, are the descendants of the Turkish-speaking Muslims in the former Ottoman Empire. | |||
] notoriously made it a legal offense to "insult Turkishness" prior to its amendment in 2008. | |||
"Turkishness" (citizenship of Turkey) is the cornerstone of the Republic of Turkey, according to the Turkish Constitution.<ref name="osmansdream">Finkel, Caroline, Osman's Dream, 549-550</ref> Kemalist ideology defines the "Turkish people" as "those who protect and promote the moral, spiritual, cultural and humanistic values of the Turkish nation."<ref name="TurkishNational">{{cite web |url = http://www.meb.gov.tr/Stats/apk2001ing/Section_1/1Generalprincipals.htm |title = Turkish National Education System |accessdate = 2008-02-20 |author = Republic Of Turkey Ministry Of National Education |publisher = T.C. Government }}</ref> Kemalist ideology defines the "Turkish nation" as "a nation of Turkish people who always love and seek to exalt their family, country, and nation; who know their duties and responsibilities towards the democratic, secular and social state governed by the rule of law and founded on human rights, and on the tenets laid down in the preamble to the constitution of the Republic of Turkey."<ref name="TurkishNational" /> | |||
{{rquote|right|'''Ne Mutlu Türküm Diyene''' (''How happy is he/she who calls himself/herself a ]'').|]}} | |||
==Geographic distribution== | ==Geographic distribution== | ||
{{main|Turkish population}} | |||
===Traditional areas of Turkish settlement=== | |||
{{seealso|Turkish population|Turkish diaspora}} | |||
====Turkey==== | |||
Turks primarily live in ]; however, when the borders of the ] became smaller after ] and the new Turkish Republic was founded, many Turks chose to stay outside of Turkey's borders. Since then, some of them have migrated to ] but there are still significant minorities of Turks living in different countries such as in ] (]), ], ], ], ], the ], the ] region of ], ], the ] region of ], ], ] and ]. | |||
] in the capital city of ] supporting the principle of ].]] | |||
The ethnic Turks are the largest ethnic group in ] and number approximately 60 million<ref name=Garibova2011/> to 65 million.<ref name=Hobbs2017/> Due to differing historical Turkish migrations to the region, dating from the Seljuk conquests in the 11th century to the continuous Turkish migrations which have persisted to the present day (especially Turkish refugees from neighboring countries), there are various accents and customs which can distinguish the ethnic Turks by geographic sub-groups.<ref name=Nyropetal1973/> For example, the most significant are the Anatolian Turks in the central core of ] whose culture was influential in underlining the roots of the Turkish nationalist ideology.<ref name=Nyropetal1973 /> There are also nomadic Turkic tribes who descend directly from ], such as the ];<ref name=Nyropetal1973/> the ] Turks in the north whose "speech largely lacks the vowel harmony valued elsewhere";<ref name=Nyropetal1973/> the descendants of '']s'' (Turkish refugees) who fled persecution from former Ottoman territories in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries;<ref name=Nyropetal1973/> and more recent refugees who have continued to flee discrimination and persecution since the mid-1900s. | |||
Initially, ''muhacirs'' who arrived in ] and ] came fleeing from former Ottoman territories which had been annexed by ] (such as ] in ] or ] in ]); however, the largest waves of ethnic Turkish migration came from the ] during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, when the ] led to most of the region becoming independent from Ottoman control.{{sfn|Bosma|Lucassen|Oostindie|2012}} The largest waves of ''muhacirs'' came from the Balkans (especially ], ], ] and ]); however, substantial numbers also came from Cyprus,<ref name=Cagaptay200682 /> the ],<ref name=Cagaptay200682 /> the ] (including ]<ref name=Cagaptay200682 /> and ]<ref name=Cagaptay200682 />) ] (such as ]<ref name="Kateb 2001 loc=50-51">{{citation |last=Kateb|first=Kamel |year=2001 |title=Européens: "Indigènes" et juifs en Algérie (1830-1962) : Représentations et Réalités des Populations|publisher=] |isbn=273320145X |pages=50–53}}</ref> and ]<ref name=Tastekin>{{cite web|last=Tastekin|first=Fehim|year=2019|title=Are Libyan Turks Ankara's Trojan horse?|url=https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2019/08/turkey-libya-are-libyan-turks-ankaras-trojan-horse.html|publisher=]|access-date=15 September 2019}}</ref>) and the ] (especially from ]).<ref name=Cagaptay200682>{{citation |last=Cagaptay|first=Soner|year=2011|title=Islam, Secularism and Nationalism in Modern Turkey: Who is a Turk?|page=82 |publisher=]|isbn=9781134174485}}</ref> | |||
The three most important Turkish groups are the Anatolian Turks, the Rumelian Turks (primarily immigrants from former Ottoman territories in the Balkans and their descendants), and the Central Asian Turks (Turkic-speaking immigrants from the Caucasus region, southern Russia, and Central Asia and their descendants). | |||
The Turks who remained in the former Ottoman territories continued to face discrimination and persecution thereafter leading many to seek refuge in Turkey, especially ] deported by ] in 1944; Turkish minorities in ] (i.e., ], ], ], ], ] and ]) fleeing ]'s regime in the 1950s;<ref>{{citation |last=Cohen|first=Robin|year=1995|title=The Cambridge Survey of World Migration|quote=During the 1950s some 300,000 ethnic Turks left Bosnia, Macedonia and other south-eastern parts of Yugoslavia for Turkey.|page=476|publisher=]|isbn=9780521444057}}</ref> ] fleeing the ] of 1955–74;<ref>{{citation |last=Bilge|first=Ali Suat|year=1961|title= Le Conflit de Chypre et les Chypriotes Turcs|page=5|publisher=Ajans Türk}}</ref> ] fleeing discrimination during the rise of Arab nationalism in the 1950s and 1970s followed by the ] of 1980–88;<ref name="Çataloğlu&Bulut">{{citation|last1=Çataloğlu|first1=Seher|last2=Bulut|first2=Meryem|year=2016|chapter=Artificial Borders and Nationalism: Turkmen Migration from Iraq to Istanbul |title=Anthropological Perspectives on Transnational Encounters in Turkey: War, Migration and Experiences of Coexistence|editor1-last=Bulut|editor1-first=Meryem|editor2-last=Şahin|editor2-first=Kadriye|publisher=Transnational Press London|pages=21|isbn=9781912997268}}</ref> ] fleeing the ] policies of the so-called "]" under the communist ruler ] in the 1980s;<ref name="Maeva2008">{{citation|last=Maeva|first=Mila|year=2008|chapter=Modern Migration Waves of Bulgarian Turks|title=Dynamics of National Identity and Transnational Identities in the Process of European Integration|editor-last=Marushiakova|editor-first=Elena|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|pages=227–229|isbn=9781847184719}}</ref> and ] fleeing the ] of 1998–99.<ref>{{citation|last=Binet|first=Laurence|year=2014|title=Violence against Kosovar Albanians, NATO's intervention 1998-1999|url=https://www.msf.org/sites/msf.org/files/2019-04/SOCSKosovoEnglish.pdf|quote=UNHCR notes that a number of members of the Turkish Kosovar community – around 60,000 people before the war - left for Turkey. This community is under increasing pressure, notably from the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA), who seek to ‘Albanianise’ them, and make them relinquish their language, stated the AFP.|publisher=]|pages=261}}</ref> | |||
<center> | |||
{| class="toccolours sortable" border="1" cellpadding="3" style="border-collapse:collapse" | |||
|+ | |||
|- style="background:#fe2712;" | |||
!Country or Region | |||
!Turkish population | |||
!Total Population | |||
!% Turkish | |||
!Notes | |||
|- | |||
|style="text-indent: 2em"|''']''' | |||
|style="text-align: right"|55,400,000 | |||
|style="text-align: right"|71,517,100 | |||
|style="text-align: right"|70%-75% | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|style="text-indent: 2em"|] | |||
|style="text-align: right"|6,500,000 <br/> '''including Turkey: 76,500,000''' | |||
|style="text-align: right"|631,000,000 | |||
|style="text-align: right"|0.9% <br/> '''including Turkey: 12,1%''' | |||
|The majority of Turks (3 million) ]. | |||
|- | |||
|style="text-indent: 2em"|] | |||
|style="text-align: right"|5,000,000 <br/> '''including Turkey: 75,000,000''' | |||
|style="text-align: right"|4,050,404,000 | |||
|style="text-align: right"|0.1% <br/> '''including Turkey: 1.8%''' | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|style="text-indent: 2em"|Total of ] | |||
|style="text-align: right"|69,500,000 | |||
|style="text-align: right"|4,510,000,000 | |||
|style="text-align: right"|1.5% | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|style="text-indent: 2em"|] | |||
|style="text-align: right"|600,000 | |||
|style="text-align: right"|890,000,000 | |||
|style="text-align: right"|0.07% | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|style="text-indent: 2em"|] | |||
|style="text-align: right"|150,000 | |||
|style="text-align: right"|32,000,000 | |||
|style="text-align: right"|0.4% | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|style="text-indent: 2em"|] | |||
|style="text-align: right"|65,000 | |||
|style="text-align: right"|922,011,000 | |||
|style="text-align: right"|0.000070498074318% | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
|] ''' World Total''' | |||
|style="text-align: right"|70,000,000 | |||
|style="text-align: right"|6,733,415,000 | |||
|style="text-align: right"|1.18% | |||
| | |||
|} | |||
</center> | |||
Today, approximately 15–20 million Turks living in Turkey are the descendants of refugees from the Balkans;<ref name=Reinkowski>{{citation |last=Reinkowski|first=Maurus|year=2011 |chapter=The Ottoman Empire and South Eastern Europe from a Turkish perspective|title=Images of Imperial Legacy: Modern Discourses on the Social and Cultural Impact of Ottoman and Habsburg Rule in Southeast Europe|page=27|publisher=]|isbn=978-3643108500|quote=Given the strong demographic growth in Turkey, today 15-20 million Turks could be descendants of immigrants from South East Europe.}}</ref> there are also 1.5 million descendants from ]<ref>{{citation|year=2018|title=Bursa'da Ahıskalıların vatandaşlık kuyruğu!|url=https://www.bursadabugun.com/haber/bursa-da-ahiskalilarin-vatandaslik-kuyrugu-934666.html|publisher=Bursada Bugün|access-date=30 August 2021}}</ref> and over 600,000 descendants from ].<ref name=Kanlı>{{cite web |last=Kanlı|first=Yusuf|year=2018|title=Bridging the population gap in Cyprus|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/opinion/yusuf-kanli/bridging-the-population-gap-in-cyprus-128756|work=]|access-date=8 April 2018|quote=It is often said that if the descendants of those who migrated from Cyprus to Turkey back in 1931 are included, the number of Turkish Cypriots living in the "motherland" might exceed 600,000.}}</ref> The Republic of Turkey continues to be a land of migration for ethnic Turkish people fleeing persecution and wars. For example, there are approximately 1 million ] living in Turkey due to the current ].<ref name="VOA">{{Cite web |last=Erkılıç |first=Orhan |year=2020 |title=Türkiye'deki Suriyeli Türkmenler de Vatandaşlık İstiyor |url=https://www.amerikaninsesi.com/a/turkiyedeki-suriyeli-turkmenler-de-vatandaslik-istiyor/5536622.html |access-date=17 December 2020 |publisher=] |quote=1 Milyon Suriyeli Türkmen Vatandaşlık Hakkından Yararlanmak İstiyor.}}</ref> | |||
===Turks in Turkey=== | |||
====Cyprus==== | |||
{{see also|Regions of Turkey|Provinces of Turkey|Districts of Turkey|List of cities in Turkey}} | |||
{{see also|Turkish Cypriots|List of Turkish Cypriots}} | |||
<!-- The census figure cited at the end of the section covers all the numbers cited in this section --> | |||
The ] are the ethnic Turks whose Ottoman Turkish forebears colonized the island of ] in 1571. About 30,000 Turkish soldiers were given land once they settled in Cyprus, which bequeathed a significant Turkish community. In 1960, a census by the new Republic's government revealed that the Turkish Cypriots formed 18.2% of the island's population.{{sfn|Hatay|2007|p=22}} However, once inter-communal fighting and ethnic tensions between 1963 and 1974 occurred between the Turkish and ], known as the "]", the Greek Cypriot government conducted a census in 1973, albeit without the Turkish Cypriot populace. A year later, in 1974, the Cypriot government's Department of Statistics and Research estimated the Turkish Cypriot population was 118,000 (or 18.4%).{{sfn|Hatay|2007|p=23}} A ] in Cyprus on ] by Greeks and Greek Cypriots favoring union with ] (also known as "]") was followed by ] by ] whose troops established Turkish Cypriot control over the northern part of the island.<ref>{{cite web |work=United Nations|title=UNFICYP: United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus|url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/unficyp/background.shtml}}</ref> Hence, census's conducted by the Republic of Cyprus have excluded the Turkish Cypriot population that had settled in the unrecognized ].{{sfn|Hatay|2007|p=23}} Between 1975 and 1981, ] encouraged its own citizens to settle in Northern Cyprus; a report by ] suggests that 200,000 of the residents of Cyprus are Turkish. | |||
====Balkans==== | |||
People who identify themselves as ethnic Turks comprise 80-88% of Turkey's population.<ref></ref> ] with the largest populations are ] (+12 million), ] (+4.4 million), ] (+3.7 million), ] (+2.4 million), ] (+2.0 million) and ] (+1.9 million). <ref>{{cite web|author=Turkish Statistical Institute|authorlink=Turkish Statistical Institute|publisher=Turkish Statistical Institute|url=http://report.tuik.gov.tr/reports/rwservlet?adnks=&report=turkiye_il_koy_sehir.RDF&p_kod=1&desformat=html&ENVID=adnksEnv |title=2007 Census, population by provinces|accessdate=2008-01-21|year=2008}}</ref> | |||
] speaking standard Turkish]] | |||
Ethnic Turks continue to inhabit certain regions of ], ], ], ], and ] since they first settled there during the Ottoman period. As of 2019, the Turkish population in the Balkans is over 1 million.<ref name="Dursun-Özkanca">{{citation |last=Dursun-Özkanca|first=Oya|year=2019|title=Turkey–West Relations: The Politics of Intra-alliance Opposition|page=40|publisher=]|isbn=978-1108488624|quote=One-fifth of the Turkish population is estimated to have Balkan origins. Additionally, more than one million Turks live in Balkan countries, constituting a bridge between these countries and Turkey.}}</ref> Majority of Balkan Turks were killed or deported in the ] and arrived to Turkey as ]s.<ref name="Northumberland Press">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_KttAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Turks+were+massacred%22|title=The Middle East, Abstracts and Index|date=1999|publisher=Northumberland Press|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Biondich|2011}}</ref> | |||
The biggest city and the pre-Republican capital ] is the financial, economic and cultural heart of the country. Other important cities include ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ]. An estimated 70.5% of the Turkish population live in urban centers.<ref>{{cite web|author=Turkish Statistical Institute|authorlink=Turkish Statistical Institute|publisher=Turkish Statistical Institute|url=http://www.turkstat.gov.tr/PreHaberBultenleri.do?id=3894 |title=2007 Census,population living in cities |accessdate=2008-01-21|year=2008}}</ref> In all, 18 provinces have populations that exceed 1 million inhabitants, and 21 provinces have populations between 1 million and 500,000 inhabitants. Only two provinces have populations less than 100,000. | |||
{{Turkey Labelled Map|float=right}} | |||
'''Age structure:''' | |||
*0–14 years: 24.4% (male 8,937,515/ female 8,608,375) | |||
*15–64 years: 68.6% (male 25,030,793/ female 24,253,312) | |||
*65 years and over: 7% (male 2,307,236/ female 2,755,576) (2008 est.) | |||
The majority of the Rumelian/Balkan Turks are the descendants of Ottoman settlers. However, the first significant wave of Anatolian Turkish settlement to the Balkans dates back to the mass migration of sedentary and nomadic subjects of the Seljuk sultan ] (b. 1237 – d. 1279/80) who had fled to the court of ] in 1262.<ref>{{citation |last=Shukurov|first=Rustam |year=2016|title=The Byzantine Turks, 1204-1461|page=99|publisher=]|isbn=9789004307759}}</ref> | |||
'''Median age:''' | |||
=====Albania===== | |||
* total: 29 years | |||
The Turkish Albanians are one of the smallest Turkish communities in the Balkans. Once ], Turkish colonization was scarce there; however, some Anatolian Turkish settlers did arrive in 1415–30 and were given '']'' estates.<ref>{{citation |last=Madgearu|first=Alexandru|year=2008|title=The Wars of the Balkan Peninsula: Their Medieval Origins|page=38|publisher=]|isbn=9780810858466}}</ref> According to the 2011 census, the ] was the sixth most spoken language in the country (after ], ], ], ], and ]).<ref name="2011Albaniancensus"/> | |||
* male: 28.8 years | |||
* female: 29.2 years (2008 est.) | |||
=====Bosnia and Herzegovina===== | |||
'''Population growth rate:''' | |||
{{see also|Turks in Bosnia and Herzegovina}} | |||
The ] have lived in the region since the ]. Thus, the Turks form the oldest ] in the country.<ref name=coe>{{cite web|author=Council of Europe|title=European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages: Bosnia and HerzegovinaLANGUAGES|url=http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/education/minlang/report/PeriodicalReports/Bosnia%20and%20HerzegovinaPR1_en.pdf|access-date=16 October 2011}}</ref> The Turkish Bosnian community decreased dramatically due to mass emigration to ] when Bosnia and Herzegovina came under ] rule.<ref name=coe/> | |||
In 2003 the Parliamentary Assembly of Bosnia and Herzegovina adopted the "Law on the Protection of Rights of Members of National Minorities" which officially protected the Turkish minority's cultural, religious, educational, social, economic, and political freedoms.<ref>{{cite web|author=OSCE|title=National Minorities in BiH|url=http://www.oscebih.org/default.aspx?id=53&lang=EN|access-date=29 December 2013|archive-date=11 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160711214038/http://www.oscebih.org/Default.aspx?id=53&lang=EN|url-status=dead}}</ref> | |||
* 1.013% (2008 est.) | |||
=====Bulgaria===== | |||
''(Figures are given according to the 2008 Central Intelligence Agency)'' <ref>{{cite web | author = Central Intelligence Agency | title = The World Factbook; Turkey | url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/print/tu.html| accessdate = 2008-07-09 }}</ref> | |||
{{see also|Turks in Bulgaria|List of Bulgarian Turks}} | |||
] | |||
The ] form the largest Turkish community in the Balkans as well as the largest ethnic minority group in ]. According to the 2011 census, they form a majority in the ] (66.2%) and the ] (50.02%), as well as substantial communities in the ] (36.09%), the ] (35.80%), and the ] (30.29%). They were ethnically cleansed during the ] and subsequently targeted during the ] that aimed to assimilate them into a Bulgarian identity.<ref name="Northumberland Press"/><ref>{{harvnb|Biondich|2011}}</ref> | |||
=== |
=====Croatia===== | ||
{{ |
{{see also|Turks in Croatia|Turkish Croatia}} | ||
The ] began to settle in the region during the various ]. Despite being a small minority, the Turks are among the 22 officially recognized national minorities in Croatia.<ref>{{citation |last=Farley|first=Brigit|year=2013|chapter=Croatia|title=Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities|editor-last=Skutsch|editor-first=Carl|volume=1|page=344|publisher=]|isbn=9781135193881}}</ref> | |||
=====Greece===== | |||
As a legacy of the Ottoman Turkish Empire, there are significant Turkish minorities in Europe such as the Turks in ], ], ], ] and the ]. | |||
{{see also|Turks in Greece|Turks of Western Thrace|Turks of the Dodecanese|Cretan Turks}} | |||
=====Kosovo===== | |||
The post-] migration of Turks to Europe began with ‘guest workers’ who arrived under the terms of a Labour Export Agreement with ] in October 1961, followed by a similar agreement with the ], ] and ] in 1964; ] in 1965 and ] in 1967. As one Turkish observer noted, ‘it has now been over 40 years and a Turk who went to Europe at the age of 25 has nearly reached the age of 70. His children have reached the age of 45 and their children have reached the age of 20’. <ref name="Turks in Europe">{{cite paper|url=http://fpc.org.uk/fsblob/597.pdf|title=Turks in Europe: Why are we afraid?|author=Gogolin, Ingrid|publisher=The Foreign Policy Centre|format=PDF|accessdate=2008-06-10|year=2005}}</ref> | |||
{{see also|Turks in Kosovo}} | |||
The ] are the third largest ethnic minority in Kosovo (after the ] and ]). They form a majority in the town and municipality of ]. | |||
=====Montenegro===== | |||
Despite the ] not being part of the Labour Export Agreement, it is still a major hub for Turkish emigrants, and with a population of half a million Turks<ref>{{cite web |author=Federation of Turkish Associations UK|title=BRIEF HISTORY OF THE FEDERATION OF TURKISH ASSOCIATIONS IN UK |format=PDF |url=http://www.turkishfederationuk.com/en/index2.php?option=com_content&do_pdf=1&id=26|accessdate=2009-01-14}}</ref> (an estimated 100,000 Turkish nationals and 130,000 nationals of the ] currently live in the UK. These figures, however, do not include the much larger numbers of Turkish speakers who have been born or have obtained British nationality),<ref></ref> it is home to Europe's third largest Turkish community. High immigration has resulted in the ] being the seventh most commonly spoken language in the United Kingdom. <ref>{{cite web|author=BBC Voices Multilingual Nation|title=Turkish today by Viv Edwards|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/voices/multilingual/turkish.shtml |accessdate= 2008-10-29}}</ref> | |||
{{see also|Turks in Montenegro}} | |||
The ] form the smallest Turkish minority group in the Balkans. They began to settle in the region following the ]. A historical event took place in 1707 which involved the killing of the Turks in Montenegro as well as the murder of all Muslims. This early example of ethnic cleaning features in the epic poem '']'' (1846).<ref>{{citation |last=Larsen|first=Mogens Trolle|year=2014|title=The Conquest of Assyria: Excavations in an Antique Land|page=42|publisher=]|isbn=9781317949954}}</ref> After the Ottoman withdrawal, the majority of the remaining Turks emigrated to ] and ].<ref>{{cite web |year=2011|title=Adriyatik'te unutulan Türkler|url=http://www.milliyet.com.tr/adriyatik-te-unutulan-turkler-gundem-1441439/|publisher=]|access-date=25 November 2017}}</ref> Today, the remaining Turkish Montenegrins predominantly live in the coastal town of ]. | |||
=====North Macedonia===== | |||
Due to the high rate of Turks in Europe, the Turkish language is also now home to one of the largest group of pupils after German-speakers, and the largest non-European language (Turkish originated in Asia Minor) spoken in the European Union. Turkish in Germany is often used not only by members of its own community but also by people with a non-Turkish background. Especially in urban areas, it functions as a peer group vernacular for children and adolescents. <ref>{{cite paper|url=http://www.coe.int/T/DG4/Linguistic/Source/GogolinEN.pdf|title=LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY AND NEW MINORITIES IN EUROPE|author=Twigg, Stephen|publisher=Language Policy Division|format=PDF|accessdate=2008-06-10|year=2002}}</ref> | |||
{{see also|Turks in North Macedonia|List of Macedonian Turks}} | |||
] in ] is labelled with ] and Turkish writing in its central banner]] | |||
The ] form the second largest Turkish community in the Balkans as well as the second largest minority ethnic group in ]. They form a majority in the ] and the ] as well as substantial communities in the ], the ], the ], the ], and the ]. | |||
===Turks in the Americas=== | |||
According to The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History there is an estimated 500,000 Turks living in the United States;<ref name="encyclopedia1">{{cite web |author=Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |title=Immigration and Ethnicity: Turks |url=http://ech.case.edu/ech-cgi/article.pl?id=TIC |accessdate=2008-07-09}}</ref> the largest Turkish communities are found in ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ]. Since the 1970s, the number of Turkish immigrants has risen to more than 4,000 per year. There is also a growing Turkish population in ], Turkish immigrants have settled mainly in ] and ], although there are small Turkish communities in ], ], ], ], and ]. The population of ] in Metropolitan Toronto may be as large as 5,000.<ref></ref> | |||
== |
=====Romania===== | ||
{{see also|Turks of Romania|Ada Kaleh}} | |||
The ] are centered in the ] region. The only settlement which still has a Turkish majority population is in ] located in the ]. Historically, Turkish Romanians also formed a majority in other regions, such as the island of ] which was destroyed and flooded by the Romanian government for the construction of the ]. | |||
=====Serbia===== | |||
{{main|Culture of Turkey}} | |||
{{see also|Turks in Serbia}} | |||
The ] have lived in Serbia since the ]. They have traditionally lived in the urban areas of Serbia. In 1830, when the ] was granted autonomy, most Turks emigrated as "]s" (refugees) to ], and by 1862 almost all of the remaining Turks left ], including 3,000 from ].<ref name="Vuletić">{{citation |last=Vuletić|first=Aleksandra|year=2012|url=http://www.demogr.mpg.de/papers/working/wp-2012-018.pdf|title=Censuses in 19th century Serbia: inventory of preserved microdata|publisher=Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research|page=7}}</ref> Today, the remaining community mostly live in ] and ]. | |||
====Caucasus==== | |||
] is ubiquitous in Turkish homes]] | |||
=====Azerbaijan===== | |||
Turkish people have a very diverse culture that is a blend of various elements of the ] and ]n, ], and ] and traditions which started with the ] of the Ottoman Empire and continues today. This mix is a result of the encounter of Turks and their culture with those of the peoples who were in their path during ] from Central Asia to the West.<ref name="TR_culture" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.turks.org.uk/index.php?pid=8 |title=Turks - A Journey of a Thousand Years: 600–1600|author=Royal Academy of Arts|authorlink=Royal Academy of Arts|publisher=Royal Academy of Arts|accessdate=2006-12-12|year=2005}}</ref> As Turkey successfully transformed from the religion-based former Ottoman Empire into a modern nation-state with a very strong separation of state and religion, an increase in the methods of artistic expression followed. During the first years of the republic, the government invested a large amount of resources into fine arts, such as ], theatres, and architecture. Because of different historical factors playing an important role in defining the modern Turkish identity, Turkish culture is a product of efforts to be "modern" and Western, combined with the necessity felt to maintain traditional religious and historical values.<ref name="TR_culture">{{cite book|title=Social Theory and Later Modernities: The Turkish Experience|first=İbrahim|last=Kaya|publisher=Liverpool University Press|location=|year=2003|isbn=0-8532-3898-7|url=http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0853238987&id=0Iy7pJBRgjYC&pg=PA58&lpg=PA58&dq=Turkish+culture&sig=vfMN32AjbkM6idjKsbT7JR4zfWg#PPA49,M1}}</ref> | |||
{{see also|Turks in Azerbaijan}} | |||
The ] began to settle in the region during the Ottoman rule, which lasted between 1578 and 1603. By 1615, the Safavid ruler, ], solidified control of the region and then deported thousands of people from Azerbaijan.<ref name="Kaeter">{{citation|last=Kaeter|first=Margaret|year=2004|title=The Caucasian Republics|publisher=Infobase Publishing|page=15|isbn=9780816052684}}</ref> In 1998, there was still approximately 19,000 Turks living in Azerbaijan who descended from the original Ottoman settlers; they are distinguishable from the rest of Azeri society because they practice Sunni Islam (rather than the dominant Shia sect in the country).<ref name="Minahan">{{citation |last=Minahan|first=James|year=1998|title=Miniature Empires: A Historical Dictionary of the Newly Independent States|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=0313306109|page=19}}</ref> | |||
Since the ], the Turkish Azerbaijani community has increased significantly due to the mass wave of ] refugees who arrived during the ]. | |||
===Language=== | |||
=====Georgia===== | |||
{{main|Turkish language}} | |||
======Abkhazia====== | |||
] introducing the new ] to the people of ]. September 20, 1928. (Cover of the French ''L'Illustration'' magazine)]] | |||
{{see also|Turks in Abkhazia}} | |||
The ] is a member of the ancient ] subdivision of ], which in turn is a branch of the proposed ] family.<ref>Georg, S., Michalove, P.A., Manaster Ramer, A., Sidwell, P.J.: "Telling general linguists about Altaic", ''Journal of Linguistics'' 35 (1999): 65-98 </ref><ref></ref><ref></ref> About 40% of ] speakers are Turkish speakers.<ref name="LanguagesOfTheWorld">Katzner</ref> Turkish is for the most part, mutually intelligible with other Oghuz languages like ], ], ], ] and ], and to a lesser extent with other Turkic languages. | |||
The Turkish Abkhazians began to live in ] during the sixteenth century under Ottoman rule.<ref name=TodaysZaman>{{cite web|author=Today's Zaman|title=Abkhazian President Bagapsh in Ankara|url=http://www.todayszaman.com/columnist-240558-abkhazian-president-bagapsh-in-ankara.html|access-date=6 March 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110410205847/http://www.todayszaman.com/columnist-240558-abkhazian-president-bagapsh-in-ankara.html|archive-date=10 April 2011}}</ref> Today, there are still Turks who continue to live in the region.<ref name="Gogia2011">{{cite book|last=Gogia|first=Giorgi|url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/georgia0711LR.pdf|title=Georgia/Abkhazia: Living in Limbo – The Rights of Ethnic Georgian Returnees to the Gali District of Abkhazia|publisher=Human Rights Watch|location=New York, NY|year=2011|access-date=29 November 2016|isbn=978-1-56432-790-1|page=9|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171017202339/https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/georgia0711LR.pdf|archive-date=17 October 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
======Meskheti====== | |||
With the ] during ] (c. 6th–11th centuries), peoples speaking Turkic languages spread across ], covering a vast geographical region stretching from ] to ] and the ]. The ] of the ], in particular, brought their language, ]—the direct ancestor of today's Turkish language—into ] during the 11th century.<ref name="Findley">Findley</ref> Also during the 11th century, an early ] of the Turkic languages, ] from the ], published the first comprehensive Turkic language dictionary and map of the geographical distribution of Turkic speakers in the ''Compendium of the Turkic Dialects'' (Arabic: ''Dīwānu'l-Luġat at-Turk'').<ref name="Soucek">Soucek</ref> In 1277 ] declared Turkish as the sole official language of the ] in ]. | |||
{{see also|Meskhetian Turks}} | |||
Prior to the Ottoman conquest of ] in Georgia, hundreds of thousands of Turkic invaders had settled in the region from the thirteenth century.<ref name=Tomlinson2005p110>{{citation|last=Tomlinson|first=Kathryn|year=2005|chapter=Living Yesterday in Today and Tomorrow: Meskhetian Turks in Southern Russia|title=Writing History, Constructing Religion|editor1-last=Crossley|editor1-first=James G.|editor2-last=Karner|editor2-first=Christian |pages=110–111|publisher=]|isbn=9781351142748}}</ref> At this time, the main town, ], was mentioned in sources by the Turkish name "Ak-sika", or "White Fortress". Thus, this accounts for the present day Turkish designation of the region as "Ahıska".<ref name=Tomlinson2005p110/> Local leaders were given the Turkish title "Atabek" from which came the fifteenth century name of one of the four kingdoms of what had been Georgia, ], "the land of the Atabek called Samtskhe ".<ref name=Tomlinson2005p110/> In 1555 the Ottomans gained the western part of Meskheti after the ] treaty, whilst the ] took the eastern part.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mikaberidze|first1=Alexander|title=Historical Dictionary of Georgia|date=2015|page=|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1442241466|edition=2}}</ref> Then in 1578 the Ottomans attacked the Safavid controlled area which initiated the ]. Meskheti was fully secured into the Ottoman Empire in 1639 after a treaty signed with Iran brought an end to Iranian attempts to take the region. With the arrival of more Turkish colonizers, the ] community increased significantly.<ref name=Pirtskhalava2019>{{citation|last=Pirtskhalava|first=Ekaterine|year=2019|chapter=The Reshaping Identity of Deported people in a New Environment|title=Bridging Differences: Understanding Cultural Interaction in Our Globalized World|editor1-last=Johnson|editor1-first=Newtona (Tina) |editor2-last=Simpson|editor2-first=Shawn|page=|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9781848883680}}</ref> | |||
However, once the Ottomans lost control of the region in 1883, many Turkish Meskhetians migrated from Georgia to Turkey. Migrations to Turkey continued after the ] followed by the ] (1917), and then after Georgia was incorporated into the ].<ref name=Pirtskhalava2019/> During this period, some members of the community also relocated to other Soviet borders, and those who remained in Georgia were targeted by the ] campaigns.<ref name=Pirtskhalava2019/> Thereafter, during ], the Soviet administration initiated a mass deportation of the remaining 115,000 Turkish Meskhetians in 1944,{{sfn|UNHCR|1999b|p=20}} forcing them to resettle in the Caucasus and the Central Asian Soviet republics.<ref name=Pirtskhalava2019/> | |||
After the foundation of the ] and the ], the ] (TDK) was established in 1932 under the patronage of ], with the aim of conducting research on Turkish. One of the tasks of the newly-established association was to initiate a ] to replace ]s of Arabic and Persian origin with Turkish equivalents.<ref>See Lewis (2002) for a thorough treatment of the Turkish language reform.</ref> By banning the usage of imported words in the press, the association succeeded in removing several hundred foreign words from the language. While most of the words introduced to the language by the TDK were newly derived from ] roots, it also opted for reviving Old Turkish words which had not been used for centuries. | |||
Thus, today hundreds of thousands of Turkish Meskhetians are scattered throughout the ] (especially in ], ], ], ], ] and ]). Moreover, many have settled in Turkey and the ]. Attempts to repatriate them back to Georgia saw Georgian authorities receive applications covering 9,350 individuals within the two-year application period (up until 1 January 2010).<ref>{{citation|last=|first=|year=2015|title=The repatriation question of the Meskhetian Turks to their homeland in Georgia|url=https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/1236549/1930_1443084042_g1520228.pdf|page=2|publisher=]|access-date=8 September 2021}}</ref> | |||
] Turkish is established as the official ] of Turkey. Turkish is the official language of ] and is one of the official languages of ]. It also has official (but not primary) status in the ] of ] and several municipalities of ], depending on the concentration of Turkish-speaking local population. | |||
====Levant and the Middle East==== | |||
===Architecture=== | |||
=====Iraq===== | |||
{{main|Ottoman architecture}} | |||
{{see also|Iraqi Turkmen|Turkmeneli}} | |||
] girl in traditional Turkish costume.]] | |||
Commonly referred to as the ], the Turks are the second largest ethnic minority group in ] (i.e. after the ]). The majority are the descendants of Ottoman settlers (e.g. soldiers, traders and civil servants) who were brought into Iraq from ].<ref name="Taylor 2004">{{citation |last=Taylor|first=Scott|year=2004|title=Among the Others: Encounters with the Forgotten Turkmen of Iraq|publisher=]|isbn=1-895896-26-6|pages=31–32}}</ref> Today, most Iraqi Turkmen live in a region they refer to as "]" which stretches from the northwest to the east at the middle of Iraq with ] placed as their cultural capital. | |||
Historically, Turkic migrations to Iraq date back to the 7th century when Turks were recruited in the ] armies of ] followed by thousands more Turkmen warriors arriving under the ] rule. However, most of these Turks became assimilated into the local Arab population.<ref name="Taylor 2004"/> The next large scale migration occurred under the ] after Sultan ]'s invasion in 1055.<ref name="Taylor 2004"/> For the next 150 years, the Seljuk Turks placed large Turkmen communities along the most valuable routes of northern Iraq.<ref name="Anderson & Stansfield 2009">{{citation |last1=Anderson|first1=Liam D.|last2=Stansfield|first2=Gareth R. V.|year=2009|title=Crisis in Kirkuk: The Ethnopolitics of Conflict and Compromise|pages=16–17|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=978-0-8122-4176-1}}</ref> Yet, the largest wave of Turkish migrations occurred under the four centuries of ] rule (1535–1919).<ref name="Taylor 2004"/><ref name="Stansfield 2007">{{citation|last=Stansfield|first=Gareth R. V.|year=2007|title=Iraq: People, History, Politics|pages=70–72|publisher=Polity|isbn=978-0-7456-3227-8|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/iraqpeoplehistor0000stan}}</ref> In 1534, ] secured ] within the Ottoman Empire and it became the chief province (]) responsible for administrative districts in the region. The Ottomans encouraged migration from Anatolia and the settlement of Turks along northern Iraq.<ref>{{citation|last1=Fattah|first1=Hala|last2=Caso|first2=Frank|year=2009|chapter=Turkish Tribal Migrations and the Early Ottoman State|title=A Brief History of Iraq|page=116|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-5767-2|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofir0000fatt}}</ref> After 89 years of peace, the ] saw ] recapturing ] and taking permanent control over Iraq which resulted in the influx of continuous Turkish settlers until Ottoman rule came to an end in 1919.<ref name="Stansfield 2007"/><ref name="Anderson & Stansfield 2009"/><ref>{{citation |last=Talabany|first=Nouri|year=2007|title=Who Owns Kirkuk? The Kurdish Case|journal=Middle East Quarterly|url=http://www.meforum.org/1075/who-owns-kirkuk-the-kurdish-case|publisher=Middle East Quarterly, Winter 2007|page=75}}</ref> | |||
]]] | |||
] was added to the list of ] in 1994 due to its well-preserved Ottoman era houses and architecture.]] | |||
Turkish architecture reached its peak during the ] period. ], influenced by ], ] and ], came to develop a style all of its own.<ref name=muqarnas12>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN9004103147&id=RtbeBrAHhxgC&pg=PA60&lpg=PA60&dq=Ottoman+Architecture&sig=kyV4nY9UeDi9IGq9BmnLwqfDCpg|title=Muqarnas: An Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture. Volume 12|last=Necipoğlu|first=Gülru|oclc=33228759|year=1995|publisher= Leiden : E.J. Brill|accessdate= 2008-07-07|page=60}}</ref> Overall, Ottoman architecture has been described as a synthesis of the architectural traditions of the Mediterranean and the Middle East.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN9004076115&id=Xu_L_FJRvUIC&pg=PA92&lpg=PA92&dq=Ottoman+Architecture&sig=hZkjw1K4jYaKqrq6MIHXCuVrIAs |title= Muqarnas: An Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture. Volume 3|last=Grabar |first=Oleg |isbn= 9004076115| year=1985 |publisher= Leiden : E.J. Brill,|pages=|accessdate= 2008-07-07}}</ref> | |||
After the establishment of the ] in 1923, the Iraqi Turkmens initially sought for Turkey to annex the ].<ref name="Stansfield 2007" /> However, they participated in elections for the ] with the condition of preserving the Turkish character in Kirkuk's administration and the recognition of ] as the liwa's official language.<ref>{{citation |last=Lukitz|first=Liora|year=1995|title=Iraq: The Search for National Identity|page=41|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0-7146-4550-8}}</ref> Although they were recognized as a constitutive entity of Iraq, alongside the ] and ], in the constitution of 1925, the Iraqi Turkmen were later denied this status.<ref name="Stansfield 2007" /> Thereafter, the Iraqi Turkmen found themselves increasingly discriminated against from the policies of successive regimes, such as the Kirkuk Massacre of 1923, 1947, 1959 and in 1979 when the ] discriminated against the community.<ref name="Stansfield 2007" /> | |||
During the zenith of the ], ] architects undertook extensive public works projects. Using the abundant Anatolian stone and clay, they built ], ]s, and ]s. To safeguard their profitable trade in silks, spices and to provide rest for merchants, the Seljuk’s built over 100 ''kervansarays'' along Anatolian highways, each spaced a day’s ride away from the next. These rest stops featured mosques, storage rooms, stables, coffeehouses, ], private rooms and dormitories. The most impressive of its kind is the ] outside ]. Seljuk buildings were characterised by their elaborate stone carvings. In addition to carvings, the Seljuk’s enhanced their mosques with glazed ] (]) which was used to cover walls and ] with the best examples at ] in the ].<ref>{{cite book|title = Let's Go Turkey |first = Ben | last = Davis|publisher = Macmillan|year = 2002|isbn = 9780312305970}}</ref> | |||
Thus, the position of the Iraqi Turkmens has changed from historically being administrative and business classes of the Ottoman Empire to an increasingly discriminated minority.<ref name="Stansfield 2007" /> ] and ] policies have seen Iraqi Turkmens pushed out of their homeland and thus various degrees of suppression and assimilation have ranged from political persecution and exile to terror and ].<ref>{{Harvnb|Anderson|Stansfield|2009|loc=62}}.</ref> Many Iraqi Turkmen have consequently sought refuge in Turkey whilst there has also been increasing migration to Western Europe (especially ], ], the ], ] and the ]) as well as ], the ], ] and ]. | |||
], on the ]]] | |||
The first Ottoman capital, ], is a museum of 14th and 15th century ]. With the capital of ] in ], Ottoman architects were challenged to exceed the vaults and pendentives of the ] dome. Ottoman architecture reached its peak under the unprecedented benefaction of ]. During his rule alone, over 80 major mosques and hundreds of other buildings were constructed. ''Divan Yolu'', Istanbul’s processional avenue, boasts a collection of these structural wonders. The master architect, ] served Suleyman and his sons as Chief Court Architect from 1538-1588, during which time he created a unified style for all Istanbul and for much of the empire. <ref>{{cite book|title = Frommer's Turkey |first = Lynn | last = Levine|publisher = John Wiley and Sons|year = 2006|isbn = 9780471785569}}</ref> | |||
=====Egypt===== | |||
Many Ottoman mosques stand at the centre of a ‘]’ (complex) designed to serve all of a community’s needs. Külliyes often included a school, markets, soup kitchens and a medical centre, all integrated architecturally into a single whole. The most impressive külliyes are those of the ] in ], and the ] Mosque and Hospital in ]. Most külliyes were established as charitable foundations, although economic instability has jeopardised these institutions financially, many of them still function today. | |||
{{see also|Turks in Egypt}} | |||
The ] are mostly the descendants of Turkish settlers who arrived during the Ottoman rule of Egypt (1517–1867 and 1867–1914). However, with the exception of the ] rule of Egypt, the region was ruled from the ] period (868–905) until 1952 by a succession of individuals who were either of Turkish origin or who had been raised according to the traditions of the Turkish state.<ref name="İhsanoğlu 2012">{{citation|last=İhsanoğlu|first=Ekmeleddin|year=2012|title=The Turks in Egypt and Their Cultural Legacy|translator-last=Davies|translator-first=Humphrey|page=1|publisher=]|isbn=9789774163975}}</ref> Hence, during the ], Arabic sources show that the ] period referred to its dynasty as the State of the Turks ({{langx|ar|دولة الاتراك}}, ''Dawlat al-Atrāk''; {{lang|ar|دولة الترك}}, ''Dawlat al-Turk'') or the State of Turkey ({{lang|ar|الدولة التركية}}, ''al-Dawla al-Turkiyya'').<ref>{{cite book|last1=Nicolle|first1=David|year=2014|title=Mamluk 'Askari 1250–1517|page=4|publisher=Osprey Publishing|isbn=9781782009290}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Petry|first1=Carl F.|editor1-last=Petry|editor1-first=Carl F.|title=The Cambridge History of Egypt, Vol. 1: Islamic Egypt, 640-1517|date=1998|page=250|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521068857|chapter=The Military Institution and Innovation in the Late Mamluk Period}}</ref> Nonetheless, the Ottoman legacy has been the most significance in the preservation of the Turkish culture in Egypt which still remains visible today.<ref name="Eren 2012">{{citation|last=Eren|first=Halit|year=2012|chapter=Foreword|title=The Turks in Egypt and Their Cultural Legacy|translator-last=Davies|translator-first=Humphrey|page=xv|publisher=]|isbn=9789774163975}}</ref> | |||
=====Jordan===== | |||
16th century Ottoman architects set a powerful precedent for future structures. Buildings such as the ] were mere imitations of the Sinan blueprint. During the 18th, 19th and early 20th centuries, Ottoman architecture was influenced by European styles. The first examples of ] architecture appeared in the 18th century, in buildings such as the Harem section of the ], the ] and the ], the latter also having a famous Baroque fountain. Numerous buildings were built in the 19th century with an ] of various European styles such as Baroque, ] and ], including the ], ], ] and the ]. Some mosques were even designed with an Ottoman adaptation of the ] style, such as the ] in the Aksaray quarter, and the ] in the Yıldız quarter of Beşiktaş, close to the ] and the Barbaros Boulevard. Towards the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Istanbul became one of the leading centers of the ] movement, with architects such as ] and ] designing a number of prominent buildings in this style. In the early 20th century, Turkish architects such as Mimar Kemaleddin Bey and Mimar Vedat Bey (Vedat Tek) pioneered a "Turkish neoclassical" architectural style (]: ''Birinci Ulusal Mimarlık Akımı''), using many elements from the Turkish buildings of the past centuries. The most important examples of this style include the ''Büyük Postane'' (Grand Post Office) and ''Vakıf Han'' office buildings in Istanbul's ] quarter. | |||
{{see also|Turks in Jordan}} | |||
=== |
=====Lebanon===== | ||
{{see also|Turks in Lebanon}} | |||
The ] are the ethnic Turks who constitute one of the ethnic groups in ]. The historic rule of several Turkic dynasties in the region saw continuous Turkish migration waves to Lebanon during the ] rule (868–905), ] rule (935–969), ] rule (1037–1194), ] rule (1291–1515), and ] rule (1516–1918). Today, most of the Turkish Lebanese community are the descendants of the Ottoman Turkish settlers to Lebanon from ]. However, with the declining territories of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century, ethnic ] from other parts of the former Ottoman territories found refuge in Ottoman Lebanon, especially ] after the ] in 1830,<ref name="Kateb 2001 loc=50-51" /> and ] in 1897 due to unrest in Greece.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=The Cretan Rebellion of 1897 and the Emigration of the Cretan Muslims |url=https://refugeehistory.org/blog/2017/7/20/the-cretan-rebellion-of-1897-and-the-emigration-of-the-cretan-muslims |access-date=2024-10-29 |website=Refugee History. |language=en-US}}</ref> | |||
=====Palestine===== | |||
{{main|Turkish art}} | |||
{{see also|Turks in Palestine|Israeli Turkmen}} | |||
Palestine was under Ottoman rule for over four centuries, from 1517 until 1922. Consequently, many Palestinian families have Turkish origins.<ref name="Al Gherbawi 2022">{{citation |last=Al Gherbawi|first=Hadeel|year=2022|title=Palestinian, Turkish ethnic mixture persists over times|url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2022/01/palestinian-turkish-ethnic-mixture-persists-over-times|publisher=]|access-date=3 November 2022}}</ref> However, Turkish migration did not simply come to a halt after the Ottoman period. Rather, during the British rule of Cyprus (1878-1960), many ] families struggling during the ] and its aftermath were forced to marry off their daughters to ] in ] with hopes that they would have a better life there.<ref name="Andreou 2018">{{cite web|last1=Andreou|first1=Evie|access-date=2019-09-10|title=Searching for the missing brides of Cyprus|url=https://cyprus-mail.com/2018/07/29/searching-for-the-missing-brides-of-cyprus/|date=29 July 2018}}</ref> Thousands of Turkish Cypriot women and girls were thus sent to Palestine until the late 1950s.<ref name="Sabah">{{cite web |author=Sabah|title=Küçük adanın talihsiz kızları|url=http://www.sabah.com.tr/fotohaber/yasam/kucuk_adanin_talihsiz_kizlari/28151|access-date=26 October 2015}}</ref> | |||
Turkish family surnames in Palestine often end with the letter's "ji" (e.g., al-Batniji and al-Shorbaji) whilst other common names include al-Gharbawi, Tarzi, Turk, Birkdar, Jukmadar, Radwan, Jasir and al-Jamasi.<ref name="Al Gherbawi 2022"/> | |||
{{see also|Culture of the Ottoman Empire|Turquerie}} | |||
As of 2022, there are still thousands of Palestinian families in ] who are of Turkish origin.<ref name="Al Gherbawi 2022"/> | |||
] of ] ].]] | |||
===== Saudi Arabia ===== | |||
A transition from Islamic artistic traditions under the ] to a more secular, Western orientation has taken place in ]. ] today are striving to find their own art forms, free from Western influence. Sculpture is less developed, and public monuments are usually heroic representations of Atatürk and events from the war of independence. Literature is considered the most advanced of contemporary Turkish arts. | |||
{{Main articles|Turks in Saudi Arabia}} | |||
The reign of the early ] ] in the 16th and early 17th centuries introduced the Turkish form of ]. This art form reached the height of its popularity during the reign of ] (1520–66). As decorative as it was communicative, ] was distinguished by the complexity of the line within the letter and the close juxtaposition of the letters within the word. | |||
As of today, the total estimate of ethnic Turks in Saudi Arabia numbered up to 270,000-350,000.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Akar, Metin (1993), "Fas Arapçasında Osmanlı Türkçesinden Alınmış Kelimeler", Türklük Araştırmaları Dergisi, 7: 94–95}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Harzig, Juteau & Schmitt 2006, 67}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Koslowski 2004, 41}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Karpat 2004, 12}}</ref> After waves of ] migration to the Saudi states, the Turks have made themselves one of the largest ethnic minorities in the country. | |||
<center></center> | |||
=== |
=====Syria===== | ||
{{see also|Syrian Turkmen|Turkmen Mountain}} | |||
The Turkish-speaking ] form the second largest ethnic minority group in Syria (i.e., after the ]);<ref name=Khalifa2013 /> however, some estimates indicated that if ] Turks who no longer speaking Turkish are taken into account then they collectively form the largest ethnic minority in the country.<ref name=Khalifa2013 /> The majority of Syrian Turkmen are the descendants of Anatolian Turkish settlers who arrived in the region during the Ottoman rule (1516–1918). Today, they mostly live near the ], stretching from the northwestern governorates of ] and ] to the ]. Many also reside in the ] near ], the city of ] and its vicinity until ], ], and the southwestern governorates of ] (bordering ]) and ] (bordering ]).<ref name=Khalifa2013 /> | |||
Turkic migrations to Syria began in the 11th century, especially after the ] opened the way for mass migration of Turkish nomads once they entered northern Syria in 1071 and after they took ] in 1078 and Aleppo in 1086.<ref>{{cite book |last=Commins |first=David Dean |year=2004 |title=Historical Dictionary of Syria|page=231 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-8108-4934-1}}</ref> By the 12th century the Turkic ] continued to settle Turkmes in ] to confront attacks from the ].<ref>{{cite book |last=Ziadeh |first=Nicola A. |year=1953 |title=Urban life in Syria under the early Mamlūks|page=45|publisher=] |isbn=978-0-8371-3162-7}}</ref> Further migrations occurred once the Mamluks entered Syria in 1260. However, the largest Turkmen migrations occurred after the Ottoman sultan ] conquered Syria in 1516. Turkish migration from ] to ] was continuous for almost 400 years, until Ottoman rule ended in 1918.<ref>{{citation|last1=Öztürkmen|first1=Ali|last2=Duman|first2=Bilgay|last3=Orhan|first3=Oytun|year=2015|title=Suriye'de Değişimin Ortaya Çıkardığı Toplum: Suriye Türkmenleri|url=http://suriyeturkmenmeclisi.org/files/file1.pdf|journal=Ortadoğu Stratejik Araştırmalar Merkezi (ORSAM)|page=5|volume=83|access-date=6 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160616202939/http://suriyeturkmenmeclisi.org/files/file1.pdf|archive-date=16 June 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> | |||
{{main article|Music of Turkey}} | |||
In 1921 the ] established ] (present-day ]) under an autonomous regime under ]. Article 7 declared that the ] would be an officially recognized language.<ref>{{citation|year=1921|title=Franco-Turkish Agreement signed at Angora on October 20, 1921|url=http://www.hri.org/docs/FT1921/Franco-Turkish_Pact_1921.pdf|pages=6–7|publisher=]|access-date=16 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116200547/http://www.hri.org/docs/FT1921/Franco-Turkish_Pact_1921.pdf|archive-date=16 January 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> However, once France announced that it would grant full independence to Syria, Mustafa Kemal demanded that Alexandretta be given its independence. Consequently, the ] was established in 1938 and then petitioned for ] to unify Hatay with the Republic of Turkey. France agreed to the Turkish annexation on 23 July 1939.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Shaw |first1=Stanford J. |last2=Shaw |first2=Ezel Kural |year=1977 |title=History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey: Volume 2, Reform, Revolution, and Republic: The Rise of Modern Turkey 1808–1975|page=377 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-521-29166-8 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofottoman00stan}}</ref> | |||
{{see also|Turkish music (style)}} | |||
Thereafter, ] policies saw the names of Turkish villages in Syria renamed with Arabic names and some Turkmen lands were nationalized and resettled with Arabs near the Turkish border.<ref name="Y2015">{{citation|last=Yılmaz|first=Meşküre|year=2015|title=Suriye Türkleri|url=https://21yyte.org/tr/suriye/suriye-turkleri-2|publisher=21. Yüzyıl Türkiye Enstitüsü}}</ref> A mass exodus of Syrian Turkmen took place between 1945 and 1953, many of which settled in southern Turkey.<ref name="enabbaladi2019">{{citation|year=2019|title=Complex nationalities: the stories of Syria's Turkmen|url=https://english.enabbaladi.net/archives/2019/11/complex-nationalities-the-stories-of-syrias-turkmen/|publisher=]}}</ref> Since the ] (2011–present), many Syrian Turkmen have been internally displaced and many have sought asylum in ], ], ] and northern ],<ref>{{citation|last1=Wahby|first1=Sarah |last2=Ahmadzadeh|first2=Hashem|last3=Çorabatır|first3=Metin|last4=Hashem|first4=Leen|last5=Al Husseini|first5=Jalal|year=2014 |title=Ensuring quality education for you refugees from Syria (12-25 year): a mapping exercise|url=https://www.rsc.ox.ac.uk/publications/ensuring-quality-education-for-young-refugees-from-syria-12-25-years-a-mapping-exercise-executive-summary|publisher=], ] |access-date=25 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180425184330/https://www.rsc.ox.ac.uk/publications/ensuring-quality-education-for-young-refugees-from-syria-12-25-years-a-mapping-exercise-executive-summary|archive-date=25 April 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> as well as several ]an countries<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hatahet |first1=Sinan |last2=Aldassouky |first2=Ayman |year=2017 |title=Forced Demographic Changes in Syria |url=http://www.sharqforum.org/2017/09/26/forced-demographic-changes-in-syria/ |publisher=] |access-date=7 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612141648/http://www.sharqforum.org/2017/09/26/forced-demographic-changes-in-syria/ |archive-date=12 June 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> and ].<ref name="Crowe 2015" /> | |||
{{listen | |||
| filename = KatibimUskudaraGiderIken-SafiyeAyla.ogg | |||
====Maghreb==== | |||
| title = " Katibim (Üsküdar'a Gider iken)" | |||
{{see also|Ottoman Algeria|Ottoman Tunisia|Ottoman Tripolitania|Kouloughlis}} | |||
The Ottomans took control of Algeria in 1515 and Tunisia in 1534 (but took full control of the latter in 1574) which lead to the settlement of Turks in the region, particularly around the coastal towns. Once these regions came under ], the French classified the populations under their rule as either "Arab" or "Berber", despite the fact that these countries had diverse populations, which were also composed of ethnic Turks and ] (i.e., people of partial Turkish origin). Jane E Goodman has said that: | |||
{{blockquote|From early on, the French viewed North Africa through a Manichean lens. Arab and Berber became the primary ethnic categories through which the French classified the population (Lorcin 1995: 2). This occurred despite the fact that a diverse and fragmented populace comprised not only various Arab and Berber tribal groups but also Turks, Andalusians (descended from Moors exiled from Spain during the Crusades), Kouloughlis (offspring of Turkish men and North African women), blacks (mostly slaves or former slaves), and Jews.<ref>{{citation |last=Goodman|first=Jane E.|year=2005|title=Berber Culture on the World Stage: From Village to Video|publisher=]|isbn=0253111455|page=7}}</ref>}} | |||
| description = An example of Turkish classical music. | |||
=====Algeria===== | |||
| format = ] | |||
{{see also|Turks in Algeria}} | |||
According to the ] "Algeria's population, a mixture of Arab, Berber, and Turkish in origin";<ref name=US>{{citation |year=1984|title=Algeria: Post Report, Foreign Service Series 256|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sslkr1dMV78C&pg=PA1|publisher=] (9209)|page=1|quote=Algeria's population, a mixture of Arab, Berber, and Turkish in origin, numbers nearly 21 million and is almost totally Moslem.}}</ref> meanwhile, ] has reported that the demographics of Algeria (as well as that of ]) includes a "strong Turkish admixture".<ref name=Australia>{{citation |year=1954|title=Current Notes on International Affairs|publisher=]|volume=25|issue=7–12|page=613|quote=In Algeria and Tunisia, however, the Arab and Berber elements have become thoroughly mixed, with an added strong Turkish admixture.}}</ref> | |||
Today, Turkish descended families in Algeria continue to practice the ] of ] (in contrast to the ethnic ] and ] who practice the ]); moreover, many retain their ] — which mostly expresses a provenance or ethnic Turkish origin from Anatolia.<ref name=Parzymies1985>{{citation |last=Parzymies|first=Anna|year=1985|title=Anthroponymie Algérienne: Noms de Famille Modernes d'origine Turque|publisher=Éditions scientifiques de Pologne|page=109|isbn=83-01-03434-3|quote=Parmi les noms de famille d'origine turque, les plus nombreux sont ceux qui expriment une provenance ou une origine ethnique, c.-à-d., les noms qui sont dérivés de toponymes ou d'ethnonymes turcs.}}</ref><ref name=Amari2012>{{citation|last=Amari|first=Chawki|year=2012|title=Que reste-t-il des Turcs et des Français en Algérie?|url=http://www.slateafrique.com/81641/turcs-francais-algerie-colonisation-histoire|publisher=]|quote=Les Turcs ou leurs descendants en Algérie sont bien considérés, ont même une association (Association des Turcs algériens), sont souvent des lettrés se fondant naturellement dans la société...Les Kouloughlis (kulughlis en Turc) sont des descendants de Turcs ayant épousé des autochtones pendant la colonisation (la régence) au XVIème et XVIIème siècle...Ce qu'il reste des Turcs en Algérie? De nombreux éléments culturels, culinaires ou architecturaux, de la musique,... Des mots et du vocabulaire, des noms patronymiques comme Othmani ou Osmane (de l'empire Ottoman), Stambouli (d'Istambul), Torki (Turc) ou des noms de métiers ou de fonctions, qui sont devenus des noms de famille avec le temps.}}</ref> | |||
| filename2 = Emre aydin dayan yalnizligim.ogg | |||
| title2 = "Dayan Yalnızlığım" (Emre Aydın) | |||
=====Libya===== | |||
| description2 = An example of Turkish rock music. | |||
{{see also|Turks in Libya}} | |||
The ] form the second largest ethnic minority group in ] (i.e. after the ]) and mostly live in ], ], ], ] and ].<ref name="Pan 1949"/> Some Turkish Libyans also live in more remote areas of the country, such as the Turkish neighborhood of Hay al-Atrak in the town of ].<ref>{{cite web|year=2015|title=REPORT ON THE HUMAN RIGHTS SITUATION IN LIBYA|url=https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Countries/LY/UNSMIL_OHCHRJointly_report_Libya_16.11.15.pdf|publisher=Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights|access-date=27 September 2019|page=13}}</ref> They are the descendants of Turkish settlers who were encouraged to migrate from Anatolia to Libya during the Ottoman rule which lasted between 1555 and 1911.<ref>{{citation |last1=Malcolm|first1=Peter|last2=Losleben|first2=Elizabeth|year=2004|title=Libya|page=62|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|isbn=0-7614-1702-8}}</ref> | |||
Today, the city of ] is considered to be the "main center of the Turkish-origin community in Libya";<ref>{{cite web|last=De Giovannangeli|first= Umberto|year=2019|title=Al-Sarraj vola a Milano per incontrare Salvini, l'uomo forte d'Italia|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.it/entry/al-sarraj-vola-a-milano-per-incontrare-salvini-luomo-forte-in-italia_it_5d19fac3e4b082e5536cafc1|publisher=Huffington Post|access-date=26 September 2019|quote= ... Misurata (centro principale della comunità di origine turca in Libia e città-chiave nella determinazione dei nuovi equilibri di potere nel Paese)}}</ref> in total, the Turks form approximately two-thirds (est. 270,000<ref name=Rossi/>) of Misrata's 400,000 inhabitants.<ref name=Rossi>{{cite web|last=Rossi|first= David |year=2019|title=PERCHÉ NESSUNO PARLA DELLA LIBIA?|url=http://www.difesaonline.it/evidenza/editoriale/perché-nessuno-parla-della-libia|publisher=Difesa Online|access-date=26 September 2019|quote=Chi conosce appena la situazione demografica di quella parte di Libia sa che Misurata con i suoi 270.000 abitanti (su 400.000) di origine turca e tuttora turcofoni non perderà mai il sostegno di Ankara e non cesserà un attimo di resistere, con o senza Sarraj.}}</ref> Consequently, since the ] erupted in 2011, Misrata became "the bastion of resistance" and Turkish Libyans figured prominently in the war.<ref name=Tastekin /> In 2014 a former ] officer reported to the '']'' that the civil war was now an "ethnic struggle" between Arab tribes (like the ]) against those of Turkish ancestry (like the Misuratis), as well as against the Berbers and Circassians.<ref name=Kirkpatrick>{{cite web|last=Kirkpatrick|first=David D.|year=2014 |title=Strife in Libya Could Presage Long Civil War|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/25/world/africa/libyan-unrest.html|work=]|access-date=18 September 2019}}</ref> | |||
| format2 = ] | |||
=====Tunisia===== | |||
| filename3 = 3-Mandalinalar.ogg | |||
{{see also|Turks in Tunisia}} | |||
Tunisia's population is made up "mostly of people of Arab, Berber, and Turkish descent".<ref name="Rotarian">{{citation|last=|first=|year=1969|title=Focus on Tunisia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TTUEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA56|page=56|quote=The population of more than 4.6 million is made up mostly of people of Arab, Berber, and Turkish descent.|volume=December (1969)|work=]}}</ref> The ] began to settle in the region in 1534, with about 10,000 Turkish soldiers, when the ] answered the calls of Tunisia's inhabitants who sought the help of the Turks due to fears that the ] would invade the country.<ref>{{Harvnb|UNESCO|2009|loc=12}}.</ref> During the Ottoman rule, the Turkish community dominated the political life of the region for centuries; as a result, the ethnic mix of Tunisia changed considerably with the continuous migration of Turks from ], as well as other parts of the Ottoman territories, for over 300 years. In addition, some Turks intermarried with the local population and their male offspring were called "]".<ref>{{cite web|author=Tunisia Today|title=Vient de paraître "Tribus : des origines à la dislocation"|url=http://www.tunisia-today.com/archives/21374|access-date=18 April 2012|archive-date=7 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200407192019/http://www.tunisia-today.com/archives/21374|url-status=dead}}</ref> | |||
===Modern diaspora=== | |||
| title3 = ''Mandalinalar'' (Işın Karaca) | |||
{{main|Turkish diaspora}} | |||
====Europe==== | |||
| description3 = An example of Turkish pop music. | |||
{{see also|Turks in Europe}} | |||
Modern immigration of Turks to ] began with ] migrating to the ] in the early 1920s when the ] annexed ] in 1914 and the residents of Cyprus became subjects of the Crown. However, Turkish Cypriot migration increased significantly in the 1940s and 1950s due to the ]. Conversely, in 1944, Turks who were forcefully deported from ] in ] during the ], known as the ], settled in ] (especially in ] and ]). By the early 1960s, migration to Western and ] increased significantly from ] when Turkish "]" arrived under a "Labour Export Agreement" with ] in 1961, followed by a similar agreement with the ], ] and ] in 1964; ] in 1965; and ] in 1967.{{sfn|Akgündüz|2008|p=61}}{{sfn|Kasaba|2008|p=192}}{{sfn|Twigg|Schaefer|Austin|Parker|2005|p=33}} More recently, ], ], and ] have also migrated to ]. | |||
In 1997 Professor Servet Bayram and Professor Barbara Seels said that there was 10 million Turks living in Western Europe and the Balkans (excluding Cyprus and Turkey).<ref>{{citation|last1=Bayram|first1=Servet|last2=Seels|first2=Barbara|year=1997|title=The Utilization of Instructional Technology in Turkey|journal=Educational Technology Research and Development|volume=45|issue=1|page=112|publisher=]|doi=10.1007/BF02299617|s2cid=62176630|quote=There are about 10 million Turks living in the Balkan area of southeastern Europe and in western Europe at present.}}</ref> By 2010, Boris Kharkovsky from the Center for Ethnic and Political Science Studies said that there was up to 15 million Turks living in the ].<ref>{{citation|year=2010|title=52% of Europeans say no to Turkey's EU membership|url=https://www.aysor.am/en/news/2010/02/02/turkey-europe/106730?__cf_chl_jschl_tk__=5cadc325e9d6de274da7044b445bd172c7b2029e-1604753955-0-AVhYEz2aOybvH-qEPBsvvTpaib38A35FbqAgn6teGWuWeh48U9WebMfgeB7pDyti835gLNeS-jECj7JcmXfoYgHhsVqp5x66C2BKTSFGiVGxiw5PqhftOHz7nsSSjTFeaTP0PCXi7AWAmZmQvPS_UAXOWa5sA89tJ0mQObkZjZs3YvMe4mPkL3GRVgW7lkY67Wbd2ObEVwY8WkH8mjSEmlh2nN0XPKt9uF4ez2dmVArsQ-OEeET6EbYl19R6K6OB_o1zllMxypQhTFvwELlCScPf432jttv_ho4iUHZPKOqyXiG_TqKXWttoh6QAbveQgyOmNvsevk84nDkqw_NQhUo|publisher=]|quote=This is not all of a sudden, says expert at the Center for Ethnic and Political Science Studies, Boris Kharkovsky. “These days, up to 15 million Turks live in the EU countries...|access-date=7 November 2020}}</ref> According to Dr Araks Pashayan 10 million "Euro-Turks" alone were living in ], ], the ] and ] in 2012.<ref name=Pashayan>{{citation |last=Pashayan|first=Araks|year=2012|chapter=Integration of Muslims in Europe and the Gülen|title=European Muslims, Civility and Public Life: Perspectives On and From the Gülen Movement|editor1-last=Weller|editor1-first=Paul|editor2-last=Ihsan|editor2-first=Yilmaz|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BtMmIs4NmqIC&q=There+are+around+10+million+Euro-Turks+living+in+the+European+Union+countries+of+Germany%2C+France%2C+the+Netherlands+and+Belgium.&pg=PA82|publisher=]|isbn=978-1-4411-0207-2|quote=There are around 10 million Euro-Turks living in the European Union countries of Germany, France, the Netherlands and Belgium.}}</ref> Yet, there are also significant Turkish communities living in ], the ], ], ], ], the ]n countries, and the ]. | |||
| format3 = ] | |||
====North America==== | |||
| filename4 = Tarkan dudu.ogg | |||
{{Main|Turkish Americans|Turkish Canadians}} | |||
In the ] 117,575 Americans voluntarily declared their ethnicity as Turkish.<ref>{{cite web|author=United States Census Bureau|title=Ancestry: 2000|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/c2kbr-35.pdf|access-date=16 May 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040920132346/http://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/c2kbr-35.pdf|archive-date=20 September 2004}}</ref> However, the actual number of ] is considerably larger with most choosing not to declare their ethnicity. Thus, Turkish Americans have been considered to be a "hard to count" community.<ref name=WashingtonDiplomat>{{cite web |author=The Washington Diplomat|title=Census Takes Aim to Tally'Hard to Count' Populations|url=http://www.washdiplomat.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=6036:census-takes-aim-to-tallyhard-to-count-populations-&catid=205:april-2010&Itemid=239|access-date=5 May 2011}}</ref> In 1996 Professor John J. Grabowski had estimated the number of Turks to be 500,000.<ref name=Grabowski1996>{{citation|first=John J.|last=Grabowski|year=1996|editor-last1=Van Tassel|editor-first1=David Dirck|editor-last2=Grabowski|editor-first2=John J.|chapter=Turks in Cleveland|title=Encyclopedia of Cleveland History|publisher=]|quote=Currently, the Turkish population of northeast Ohio is estimated at about 1,000 (an estimated 500,000 Turks live in the United States).|isbn=0253330564}}</ref> By 2009, official institutions placed the number between 850,000 and 900,000; however, Turkish non-governmental organizations in the USA had claimed at least 3 million Turks in the USA.<ref name=Şafak2009>{{citation|first=Şafak|last=Erdal|year=2009|title=ABD'de kaç Türk var?|url=https://www.sabah.com.tr/yazarlar/safak/2009/05/08/abdde_kac_turk_var|publisher=]|quote=Biraz bilmece gibi mi oldu; açalım. Resmi kurumlarımıza göre ABD'de "Tahmini" 850 ile 900 bin arası Türk yaşıyor. Bu sayı öğrenci trafiğine göre her yıl ya biriki bin kişi artıyor veya bir o kadar eksiliyor. Buna karşılık ABD'deki Türk sivil toplum örgütlerinin Yeni Dünya'daki varlığımız üstüne yaptıkları araştırmalardan elde ettikleri sonuçlar, resmi kurumların verilerinin çok ama çok üstünde. Onlara göre, ABD'de halen en az 3 milyon Türk var. Okuyan, çalışan veya yaşayan.|access-date=30 November 2020}}</ref> More recently, in 2012, the ], ], stated that the Turkish American community was over 1,000,000.<ref name=Bryson/> Meanwhile, in 2021, Senator ] said that there was "over 2 million Turkish Americans".<ref name="Feldman2022"/> The largest concentration of Turkish Americans are in ], and ]; ]; and ]. In addition, the ], are an Anglicized and isolated community identifying as Turkish in ] were they have lived for over 200 years.<ref>{{citation|last1=Ognibene|first1=Terri Ann|last2=Browder|first2=Glen|year=2018|title=South Carolina's Turkish People: A History and Ethnology|publisher=]|page=103|isbn=9781611178593}}</ref> | |||
| title4 = ''Dudu'' (Tarkan) | |||
Regarding the ] community, ] reports that 63,955 Canadians in the 2016 census listed ''Turk'' as an ethnic origin, including those who listed more than one origin.<ref name="statcan1">{{cite web |url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/hlt-fst/imm/Table.cfm?Lang=E&T=31&Geo=01&SO=4D|title=Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity Highlight Tables |date=25 October 2017 |publisher=statcan.gc.ca}}</ref> However, the Canadian Ambassador to Turkey, Chris Cooter, said that there was over 100,000 Turkish Canadians in 2018.<ref name="Aytac2018" /> The majority live in ], mostly in ], and there is also a sizable Turkish community in ]. | |||
| description4 = An example of Turkish pop music. | |||
====Oceania==== | |||
| format4 = ] | |||
{{See also|Turkish Australian}} | |||
}} | |||
A notable scale of Turkish migration to ] began in the late 1940s when ] began to leave the island of ] for economic reasons, and then, during the ], for political reasons, marking the beginning of a Turkish Cypriot immigration trend to Australia.{{sfn|Hüssein|2007|p=17}} The Turkish Cypriot community were the only ] acceptable under the ];{{sfn|Cleland|2001|p=24}} many of these early immigrants found jobs working in factories, out in the fields, or building national infrastructure.{{sfn|Hüssein|2007|p=19}} In 1967, the governments of Australia and Turkey signed an agreement to allow Turkish citizens to immigrate to Australia.{{sfn|Hüssein|2007|p=196}} Prior to this recruitment agreement, there were fewer than 3,000 people of Turkish origin in Australia.{{sfn|Hopkins|2011|p=116}} According to the ], nearly 19,000 Turkish immigrants arrived from 1968 to 1974.{{sfn|Hüssein|2007|p=196}} They came largely from ] areas of Turkey, approximately 30% were skilled and 70% were unskilled workers.{{sfn|Saeed|2003|p=9}} However, this changed in the 1980s when the number of skilled Turks applying to enter Australia had increased considerably.{{sfn|Saeed|2003|p=9}} Over the next 35 years the Turkish population rose to almost 100,000.{{sfn|Hopkins|2011|p=116}} More than half of the Turkish community settled in ], mostly in the north-western suburbs of ].{{sfn|Hopkins|2011|p=116}} According to the ], 59,402 people claimed Turkish ancestry;<ref>{{cite web|author=Australian Bureau of Statistics |title=20680-Ancestry (full classification list) by Sex Australia |url=http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/ABSNavigation/prenav/ViewData?breadcrumb=POLTD&method=Place%20of%20Usual%20Residence&subaction=-1&issue=2006&producttype=Census%20Tables&documentproductno=0&textversion=false&documenttype=Details&collection=Census&javascript=true&topic=Ancestry&action=404&productlabel=Ancestry%20(full%20classification%20list)%20by%20Sex&order=1&period=2006&tabname=Details&areacode=0&navmapdisplayed=true&|access-date=13 July 2011}}</ref> however, this does not show a true reflection of the ] community as it is estimated that between 40,000 and 120,000 Turkish Cypriots<ref>{{cite web|author=TRNC Ministry of Foreign Affairs |title=Briefing Notes on the Cyprus Issue |url=http://www.trncinfo.com/tanitma/en/index.asp?sayfa=cms&dmid=0&cmsid=214&ssid=556095671|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927002327/http://www.trncinfo.com/tanitma/en/index.asp?sayfa=cms&dmid=0&cmsid=214&ssid=556095671|url-status=usurped|archive-date=27 September 2011|access-date=3 October 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Kibris Gazetesi|title=Avustralya'daki Kıbrıslı Türkler ve Temsilcilik... |url=http://www.kibrisgazetesi.com/printa.php?col=119&art=9711|access-date=31 May 2011|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721144320/http://www.kibrisgazetesi.com/printa.php?col=119&art=9711 |archive-date=21 July 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |work=BRT|title=AVUSTURALYA'DA KIBRS TÜRKÜNÜN SESİ |url=http://www.brtk.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=31316:avusturalyada-kibrs-tuerkuenuen-ses&catid=1:kktc&Itemid=3 |access-date=18 July 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |work=Star Kıbrıs|title=Sözünüzü Tutun |url=http://www.starkibris.net/index.asp?haberID=125704|access-date=10 September 2012}}</ref> and 150,000 to 200,000 mainland Turks<ref>{{cite news|work=The Sydney Morning Herald|title=Old foes, new friends|url=http://www.smh.com.au/news/World/Old-foes-new-friends/2005/04/22/1114152326767.html |access-date=26 December 2008 |date=23 April 2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |work=Milliyet |title=Avustralyalı Türkler'den, TRT Türk'e tepki |url=http://www.milliyet.com.tr/Dunya/SonDakika.aspx?aType=SonDakika&ArticleID=1094744&Date=14.05.2009&Kategori=dunya&b=Avustralyali%20Turklerden,%20TRT%20Turke%20tepki|access-date=16 May 2012}}</ref> live in Australia. Furthermore, there has also been ethnic Turks who have migrated to Australia from ],<ref>{{cite web|author=Department of Immigration and Citizenship|year=2006|title=Community Information Summary:Bulgaria|publisher=Australian Government|page=2|url=http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/statistics/comm-summ/_pdf/bulgaria.pdf|access-date=16 May 2012|archive-date=16 March 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110316054847/http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/statistics/comm-summ/_pdf/bulgaria.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> ],<ref name=2006AustralianCensusEMP>{{cite web|author=Australian Bureau of Statistics|title=2006 Census Ethnic Media Package |date=27 June 2007 |url=http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/DetailsPage/2914.0.55.0022006?OpenDocument|access-date=13 July 2011}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite web |author=Department of Immigration and Citizenship |year=2006 |title=Community Information Summary:Iraq |url=http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/statistics/comm-summ/_pdf/iraq.pdf |publisher=Australian Government |page=1 |access-date=16 May 2012 |archive-date=13 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140213070534/https://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/statistics/comm-summ/_pdf/iraq.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> and ].<ref name=2006AustralianCensusEMP /> | |||
]]] | |||
====Post-Soviet states==== | |||
The roots of traditional music in Turkey span centuries to a time when the ] colonized ] and ] in the 11th century and contains elements of both Turkic and pre-Turkic influences. Much of its modern popular music can trace its roots to the emergence in the early 1930s drive for Westernization. <ref name="soundsofanatolia">{{cite book|author=Stokes, Martin|title=Sounds of Anatolia|publisher=Penguin Books|year=2000|isbn=1-85828-636-0}}, pp 396-410.</ref> | |||
Due to the ordered deportation of over 115,000 ] from their homeland in 1944, during the ], the majority were settled in the ] in the ] and ].{{sfn|UNHCR|1999b|p=20}} According to the ], which was the last Soviet Census, 106,000 Meskhetian Turks lived in ], 50,000 in ], and 21,000 in ].{{sfn|UNHCR|1999b|p=20}} However, in 1989, the Meshetian Turks who had settled in Uzbekistan became the target of a ] in the ], which was the principal destination for Meskhetian Turkish deportees, after an uprising of nationalism by the ].{{sfn|UNHCR|1999b|p=20}} The riots had left hundreds of Turks dead or injured and nearly 1,000 properties were destroyed; thus, thousands of Meskhetian Turks were forced into renewed ].{{sfn|UNHCR|1999b|p=20}} Soviet authorities recorded many Meskhetian Turks as belonging to other nationalities such as "]", "]", "]", and "]".{{sfn|UNHCR|1999b|p=20}}{{sfn|Aydıngün|Harding|Hoover|Kuznetsov|2006|p=1}} | |||
==Culture== | |||
Traditional music in Turkey falls into two main genres; classical art music and folk music. ] is characterized by an ] culture and influenced lyrically by neighbouring regions and Ottoman provinces.<ref name="medieval">{{cite web|url=http://www.medieval.org/music/world/turkish.html|title=Traditional Music in Turkey|work=Medieval.org|dateformat=mdy |accessdate=May 20 2004}} The Ottoman Empire included substantial territory which had been under Byzantine or Arabic control, and the substratum of traditional music in Turkey was conditioned by that history.</ref> Earlier forms are sometimes termed as ''saray'' music in Turkish, meaning royal court music, indicating the source of the genre comes from Ottoman royalty as patronage and composer.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hyperhistory.net/apwh/bios/b1suleyman.htm|title=Suleyman the Magnificent|work=HyperHistory Biographies |accessdate=April 3, 2006}} During his rule as sultan, the Ottoman Empire reached its peak in power and prosperity. ] filled his palace with music and poetry and came to write many compositions of his own.</ref> Neo-classical or postmodern versions of this traditional genre are termed as art music or ''sanat musikisi'', though often it is unofficially termed as ''alla turca''. In addition, from the ''saray'' or royal courts came the ], ''Mehter takımı'' in Turkish, considered to be the oldest type of military marching band in the world. It was also the forefather of modern Western percussion bands and has been described as the father of Western military music.<ref name="military">{{cite web|url=http://www.militarymusic.com/200302.htm#anchor5|title=Ottoman Military Music|work=MilitaryMusic.com|accessdate=February 11, 2003}}</ref> | |||
{{Further|Culture of Turkey|Turkey#Culture}} | |||
===Language=== | |||
] is the music of Turkish-speaking rural communities of Anatolia, the ], and ]. While Turkish folk music contains definitive traces of the Central Asian ] cultures, it has also strongly influenced and been influenced by many other indigenous cultures. ] in Turkey is sometimes grouped with folk music due to the tradition of the wandering minstrel or ] (pronounced ''ashuk''), but its influences on ] due to the spritiual ] sect arguably grants it special status.<ref name="alevi">{{cite web|url=http://www.alevibektasi.org/xsufi_music.htm|title=Introduction to Sufi Music and Ritual in Turkey|work=Middle East Studies Association of North America|dateformat=mdy |accessdate=December 18 1995}} The tradition of regional variations in the character of folk music prevails all around Anatolia and Thrace even today. The troubadour or minstrel (singer-poets) known as ''aşık'' contributed anonymously to this genre for ages.</ref> It has been suggested the distinction between the two major genres comes during the '']'' period of Ottoman era, when Turkish classical music was the music played in the Ottoman palaces and folk music was played in the villages.<ref name="ottomu">{{cite web|url=http://www.turkmusikisi.com/osmanli_musikisi/the_ottoman_music.htm|title=The Ottoman Music|work=Tanrıkorur, Cinuçen (Abridged and translated by Dr. Savaş Ş. Barkçin) |accessdate=June 26, 2000}}</ref> | |||
{{Main|Turkish language}} | |||
] to the people of ] in 1928]] | |||
Based on geographic variants, the ethnic Turks speak ] of the ]. As of 2021, Turkish remains "the largest and most vigorous ], spoken by over 80 million people".<ref name=Johanson2021>{{citation|author=]|year=2021|title=Turkic |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=huk9EAAAQBAJ&dq=Turkish+is+the+largest+and+most+vigorous+Turkic+language%2C+spoken+by+over+80+million+people&pg=PT134 |quote=Turkish is the largest and most vigorous Turkic language, spoken by over 80 million people, a third of the total number of Turkic-speakers... Turkish is a recognized regional minority language in North Macedonia, Kosovo, Romania, and Iraq.|pages=98–99|publisher=]|isbn=9781009038218}}</ref> | |||
Musical relations between the Turks and Europe can be traced back many centuries,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.musicaltimes.co.uk/archive/0203/arac.html|title=A Levantine life: Giuseppe Donizetti at the Ottoman court|work=Araci, Emre. The Musical Times|accessdate=October 3, 2002}} Famous opera composer Gaetano ]'s brother, ], was invited to become Master of Music to Sultan ] in 1827.</ref> and the first type of musical Orientalism was the ].<ref>{{cite book|author=Bellman, Jonathan|title=The Style Hongrois in the Music of Western Europe|publisher=Northeastern University Press|year=1993|isbn=1-55553-169-5}} pp.13-14; see also pp.31-2. According to Jonathan Bellman, it was "evolved from a sort of battle music played by Turkish military bands outside the walls of Vienna during the siege of that city in 1683."</ref> European ] composers in the 18th century were fascinated by Turkish music, particularly the strong role given to the ] and ]s in ] bands. ] wrote his ''Military Symphony'' to include Turkish instruments, as well as some of his operas. Turkish instruments were also included in ]'s '']''. ] wrote the "Ronda alla turca" in his '']'' and also used Turkish themes in his operas, such as the ''Chorus of Janissaries'' from his ] (1782). This Turkish influence introduced the ]s, ], and ]s into the symphony orchestra, where they remain. ] musician ] wrote his "Blue Rondo á la Turk" as a tribute to Mozart and Turkish music. | |||
Historically, ] was the official language and '']'' throughout the ] territories and the ] used the Perso-Arabic script. However, Turkish intellectuals sought to simplify the written language during the rise of Turkish nationalism in the nineteenth century.<ref>{{citation|last=Kushner|first=David|year=1977|title=The Rise of Turkish Nationalism, 1876–1908|publisher=Cass|isbn=9780714630755}}</ref> | |||
===Literature=== | |||
By the twentieth century, intensive language reforms were thoroughly practiced; most importantly, Mustafa Kemal changed the written script to a ]-based modern ] in 1928.<ref>{{citation|last=Lewis|first=Geoffrey|year=1999|title=The Turkish Language Reform: A Catastrophic Success|publisher=]|isbn=9780191583223}}</ref> Since then, the regulatory body leading the reform activities has been the ] which was founded in 1932.<ref name=Johanson2021/> | |||
{{main|Turkish literature}} | |||
The modern standard Turkish is based on the dialect of ].<ref>{{cite book|author=George L. Campbell|title=Concise Compendium of the World's Languages |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A_BIVmjpzmYC&pg=PA547|access-date=28 July 2013|date=1 September 2003 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-415-11392-2|pages=547–}}</ref> However, dialectal variation persists, in spite of the ] influence of the standard used in mass media and the ] since the 1930s.{{sfn|Johanson|2001|p=16}} The terms ''ağız'' or ''şive'' often refer to the different types of Turkish dialects. | |||
The literature of the Turkish Republic emerged largely from the pre-independence National Literature movement, with its roots simultaneously in the Turkish folk tradition and in the Western notion of progress. One important change to Turkish literature was enacted in 1928, when Mustafa Kemal initiated the creation and dissemination of a ] of the ] to replace the Arabic alphabet based Ottoman script. Over time, this change, together with changes in Turkey's system of education, would lead to more widespread ] in the country.<ref>Lester 1997; Wolf-Gazo 1996</ref> | |||
] | |||
====Prose==== | |||
====Official status==== | |||
{{Main|Prose of the Republic of Turkey}} | |||
Today, the modern Turkish language is used as the official language of ] and ]. It is also an official language in the ] (alongside ]).<ref>{{cite web|author=Presidency of the Republic of Cyprus|title=The Constitution of the Republic of Cyprus|url=http://www.presidency.gov.cy/presidency/presidency.nsf/all/1003AEDD83EED9C7C225756F0023C6AD/$file/CY_Constitution.pdf|access-date=26 April 2016|quote=Article 1...the Greek and the Turkish Communities of Cyprus respectively...Article 3 (4) Judicial proceedings shall be conducted or made and judgements shall be drawn up in the Greek language if the parties are Greek, in the Turkish language if the parties are Turkish, and in both the Greek and the Turkish languages if the parties are Greek and Turkish. The official language or languages to be used for such purposes in all other cases shall be specified by the Rules of Court made by the High Court under Article 163.|archive-date=3 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203001544/http://www.presidency.gov.cy/presidency/presidency.nsf/all/1003AEDD83EED9C7C225756F0023C6AD/$file/CY_Constitution.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> In ], Turkish is recognized as an official language in the municipalities of ], ], ], ], ], and ],<ref>{{citation|year=2014|title=Municipal language compliance in Kosovo|page=10|quote=The Turkish language is currently official in Prizren and Mamuşa/Mamushë/Mamuša municipalities. In 2007 and 2008, the municipalities of Gjilan/Gnjilane, southern Mitrovicë/Mitrovica, Prishtinë/Priština and Vushtrri/Vučitrn also recognized Turkish asa language in official use. |publisher=]}}</ref> whilst elsewhere in the country it is recognized as a ].<ref name=Johanson2021/> Similarly, in ] Turkish is an official language where they form at least 20% of the population (which includes the ], the ], and the ]),<ref>{{citation |last=Dzankic|first=Jelena|year=2016|title=Citizenship in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia and Montenegro: Effects of Statehood and Identity Challenges|page=81|quote=With the 2001 amendments, in those municipalities where minorities constituted 20 per cent of the overall population, minority languages became official|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1317165798}}</ref> whilst elsewhere in the country it remains a minority language only.<ref name=Johanson2021/> ] recognizes Turkish as an official language in all regions where Turks constitute the majority of the population,<ref>{{citation|year=2017|title=History and Legal Dimension of Turkish Education in Iraq|url=https://www.orsam.org.tr/en/history-and-legal-dimension-of-turkish-education-in-iraq/|publisher=]|access-date=25 August 2021}}</ref> and as a minority language elsewhere.<ref name=Johanson2021/> In several countries, Turkish is officially recognized as a ] only, including in ],<ref>{{citation|year=2010|chapter=Bosnia and Herzegovina|title=The European Charter for Regional Or Minority Languages: Collected Texts|pages=107–108|publisher=]|isbn=9789287166715}}</ref> ],<ref>{{citation|year=2012|chapter=The Croatian Language in the European Information Society|title=The Croatian Language in the Digital Age|editor1-last=Rehm|editor1-first=Georg|editor2-last=Uszkoreit|editor2-first=Hans|page=51|publisher=]|isbn=9783642308826}}</ref><ref name="Franceschini546">{{cite book|last=Franceschini|first=Rita|chapter=Italy and the Italian-Speaking Regions|editor-last=Fäcke|editor-first=Christiane|title=Manual of Language Acquisition|year=2014|quote=In Croatia, Albanian, Bosnian, Bulgarian, Czech, German, Hebrew, Hungarian, Italian, Macedonian, Polish, Romanian, Romany, Rusyn, Russian, Montenegrin, Slovak, Slovenian, Serbian, Turkish, and Ukrainian are recognized (EACEA 2012, 18, 50s) |publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH|isbn=9783110394146|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zM_mBQAAQBAJ&q=Croatia+Albanian&pg=PA1|pages=546}}</ref> and ].<ref name=Johanson2021/><ref>{{citation|year=2010|chapter=Romania|title=The European Charter for Regional Or Minority Languages: Collected Texts|pages=135–136|publisher=]|isbn=9789287166715}}</ref> However, in ] the right to use the Turkish language is only recognized in ]; the sizable and longstanding minorities elsewhere in the country (i.e. ] and ]) do not benefit from this same recognition.<ref>{{citation |last1=Trudgill|first1=Peter|last2=Schreier|first2=Daniel|year=2006|chapter=Greece and Cyprus / Griechenland und Zypern|title=Sociolinguistics / Soziolinguistik|editor-last=Ulrich|editor-first=Ammon|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|quote=Hundreds of thousands of Turkish speakers left Greece in the period 1821–1923. In the Peloponnese, they had constituted more than 10 % of the population in 1820 (Clogg 1979, 35). Today most Turkish speakers in Greece are in western (Greek) Thrace (SellaMazi 1992). Here, alone of all Greek minorities, they have protected status, with rights to practise their religion and to use their language, including in the education system, as a result of the Treaty of Lausanne. They also elect members to the national parliament in Athens. It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between Turks and the Slavic-speaking Pomaks, who tend to be able to speak Turkish as well. Census returns give figures for native Turkish speakers of 190000 in 1928, 230000 in 1940, and 180000 in 1951. They look to Istanbul rather than Athens for many purposes, and young people go there to study rather than to universities in Greece. There are also sizeable and longstanding but officially unrecognised communities of Moslem Turkish-speakers on the islands of Rhodes and Kos.|isbn=3110199874|pages=1885–1886}}</ref> | |||
There are also several post-Ottoman nations which do not officially recognize the Turkish language but give rights to Turkish minorities to study in their own language (alongside the compulsory study of the official language of the country); this is practiced in ]<ref>{{citation |last=Schwartz|first=Herman|year=2002|title=The Struggle for Constitutional Justice in Post-Communist Europe|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=0226741966|page=184}}</ref> and ].<ref>{{citation |last=Benrabah|first=Mohamed|year=2013 |title=Language Conflict in Algeria: From Colonialism to Post-Independence|quote=As a result of this, the Tunisian authorities decreed in June 2012 the introduction of the Turkish language in all Tunisian secondary schools, as of September 2012. |page=186|publisher=Multilingual Matters|isbn=978-1847699664}}</ref> | |||
Various variants of Turkish are also used by millions of Turkish immigrants and their descendants in ], however, there is no official recognition in these countries.<ref name=Johanson2021 /> | |||
====Turkish dialects==== | |||
Stylistically, the prose of the early years of the Republic of Turkey was essentially a continuation of the National Literature movement, with Realism and Naturalism predominating. This trend culminated in the 1932 novel ''Yaban'' ("''The Wilds''"), by Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoğlu. This novel can be seen as the precursor to two trends that would soon develop: ], and the "village novel" (''köy romanı'').<ref>Bezirci, 105–108</ref> '']'' ("''The Wren''") by ] addresses a similar theme with the works of Karaosmanoğlu. Güntekin's narrative has a detailed and precise style, with a realistic tone. | |||
{{see also|Turkish dialects|Cypriot Turkish}} | |||
{{listen | |||
| filename = Kibrisim-cropped.ogg | |||
| title = Kıbrısım | |||
| description = An example of folk music in the Cypriot Turkish dialect. | |||
| format = ] | |||
}} | |||
There are three major Anatolian Turkish dialect groups spoken in ]: the West Anatolian dialect (roughly to the west of the ]), the East Anatolian dialect (to the east of the Euphrates), and the North East Anatolian group, which comprises the dialects of the Eastern Black Sea coast, such as ], ], and the littoral districts of ].{{sfn|Brendemoen|2002|p=27}}{{sfn|Brendemoen|2006|p=227}} | |||
]]] | |||
The Balkan Turkish dialects, also called the Rumelian Turkish dialects, are divided into two main groups: "Western Rumelian Turkish" and "Eastern Rumelian Turkish".<ref name=Johanson2021dialects>{{citation|author=]|year=2021|chapter=4.3.1.1 Turkish Dialect Areas|title=Turkic|pages=44–49|publisher=]|isbn=9781009038218}}</ref> The Western dialects are spoken in ], ], western ], northern ], ] and ]. The Eastern dialects are spoken in ], northeastern/southern Bulgaria and southeastern Romania.<ref name=Johanson2021dialects /> This division roughly follows through a borderline between west and east Bulgaria, which starts east of ] and proceeds southwards to the east of ], ] and ], and turns west reaching south of ] close to the borders with Serbia and North Macedonia.<ref name=Johanson2021dialects /> The eastern dialects lacks some of the phonetic peculiarities found in the western area; thus, its dialects are close to the central Anatolian dialects. The Turkish dialects spoken near the western ] region (e.g., ], ], and ]) show analogies with northeastern Anatolian Black Sea dialects.<ref name=Johanson2021dialects /> | |||
The social realist movement is perhaps best represented by the short-story writer ] (1906–1954), whose work sensitively and realistically treats the lives of cosmopolitan Istanbul's ] and ], subjects which led to some criticism in the contemporary nationalistic atmosphere.<ref>Paskin 2005</ref> The tradition of the "village novel", on the other hand, arose somewhat later. As its name suggests, the "village novel" deals, in a generally realistic manner, with life in the villages and small towns of Turkey. The major writers in this tradition are Kemal Tahir (1910–1973), Orhan Kemal (1914–1970), and Yaşar Kemal (1923– ). Yaşar Kemal, in particular, has earned fame outside of Turkey not only for his novels; many of which, such as 1955's ''İnce Memed'' ("''Memed, My Hawk''"), elevate local tales to the level of epic; but also for his firmly leftist political stance. In a very different tradition, but evincing a similar strong political viewpoint, was the ] short-story writer ] (1915–1995) and ] (1911-1993). | |||
The ] maintained features of the respective local varieties of the Ottoman settlers who mostly came from the Konya-Antalya-Adana region;<ref name=Johanson2021dialects/> furthermore, Cypriot Turkish was also influenced by ].<ref name=Johanson2021dialects /> Today, the varieties spoken in Northern Cyprus are increasingly influenced by standard Turkish.The Cypriot Turkish dialect is being exposed to increasing standard Turkish through immigration from ], new mass media, and new educational institutions.{{sfn|Johanson|2011|p=738}} | |||
Another novelist contemporary to, but outside of, the social realist and "village novel" traditions is ] (1901–1962). In addition to being an important ]ist and poet, Tanpınar wrote a number of novels; such as ''Huzur'' ("''Tranquillity''", 1949) and ''Saatleri Ayarlama Enstitüsü'' ("''The Time Regulation Institute''", 1961); which dramatize the clash between East and West in modern Turkish culture and society. Similar problems are explored by the novelist and short-story writer ] (1934–1977). Unlike Tanpınar, however, Atay—in such works as his long novel '']'' ("''The Disconnected''", 1971–1972) and his short story "''Beyaz Mantolu Adam''" (, 1975)—wrote in a more ] and ] vein. On the other hand, ]'s ''İshak'' ("''Isaac''", 1959), composed of nine short stories which are written mainly from a child's ] and are often surrealistic and mystical, represent a very early example of ]. | |||
]]] | |||
The tradition of literary modernism also informs the work of novelist ] (1929– ). Her trilogy of novels collectively entitled ''Dar Zamanlar'' ("''Tight Times''", 1973–1987), for instance, examines the changes that occurred in Turkish society between the 1930s and the 1980s in a formally and technically innovative style. ] (1952– ), winner of the 2006 ], is another such innovative novelist, though his works—such as 1990's ''Beyaz Kale'' ("'']''") and ''Kara Kitap'' ("'']''") and 1998's ''Benim Adım Kırmızı'' ("'']''")—are influenced more by ] than by modernism. This is true also of ] (1957– ), whose first novel ''Sevgili Arsız Ölüm'' ("''Dear Shameless Death''", 1983) shows the influence not only of postmodernism, but also of magic realism. | |||
The ] have similarities with certain ]n dialects around the region of ] and ].<ref>{{citation|last=Bulut|first=Christiane|year=1999|title=Klassifikatorische Merkmale des Iraktürkischen|pages=5–27|journal=Orientalia Suecana|volume=48}}</ref> Some linguists have described the Iraqi Turkish dialects as an "]n"<ref name="Gülensoy 1981 loc=7">{{citation|last=Gülensoy|first=Tuncer|year=1981|title=Anadolu ve Rumeli Ağızları Bibliyografyası: Anadolu, Kıbrıs, Suriye, Irak, Bulgaristan, Yunanistan, ve Romanya Türk Ağızları|page=7|publisher=Kültür Bakanlığı}}</ref> or an "]n dialect".<ref>{{citation|last=Brendemon|first=Bernt|year=2005|chapter=Consonant Assimilations: A possible Parameter for the Classification of Turkish dialects|title=Turkic Languages|editor1-last=Johanson|editor1-first=Lars|page=178|volume=9|publisher=]|title-link=Turkic Languages (journal)}}</ref> Historically, Iraqi Turkish was influenced by ] and neighboring ].<ref name="Bulut 2007 loc=167">{{citation|last=Bulut|first=Christiane|year=2007|chapter=Iraqi Turkman|title=Languages of Iraq: Ancient and Modern|chapter-url=http://www.bisi.ac.uk/sites/bisi.localhost/files/languages_of_iraq.pdf|editor1-last=Postgate|editor1-first=J.N.|page=167|publisher=]|isbn=978-0903472210|access-date=24 August 2021|archive-date=2 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190802015917/http://www.bisi.ac.uk/sites/bisi.localhost/files/languages_of_iraq.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> However, ] is now a ] which exerts a profound influence on their dialects.{{sfn|Johanson|2001}} The ] in Iraqi Turkish therefore ''differs sharply'' from neighboring Irano-Turkic varieties,{{sfn|Johanson|2001}} and shares characteristics which are similar with Turkish dialects in Turkey.<ref>{{citation|last=Stein|first=Heidi|year=2010|chapter=Optativ versus Voluntativ-Imperativ in irantürkischen Texten |title=Turcology in Mainz|editor1-last=Boeschoten|editor1-first=Hendrik|author-link1=Hendrik Boeschoten|editor2-last=Rentzsch|editor2-first=Julian |author-link2=Julian Rentzsch|page=244|publisher=]|isbn=978-3447061131|quote=Damit weist das Iraktürkische hier - wie auch bei einigen anderen Merkmalen - eine großere Nähe zum Türkeitürkischen auf.}}</ref> Collectively, the Iraqi Turkish dialects also show similarities with ] and Balkan Turkish regarding ].<ref>{{citation|last=Johanson|first=Lars|year=2009|chapter=Modals in Turkic|title=Modals in the Languages of Europe: A Reference Work|editor1-last=Hansen|editor1-first=Björn|editor2-last=de Haan|editor2-first= Ferdinand|pages=502–504|publisher=]|isbn=978-3110219203}}</ref> The written language of the Iraqi Turkmen is based on Istanbul Turkish using the modern ].<ref>{{citation|last=Bulut|first=Christiane|year=2018|chapter=Iraq-Turkic|title=The Languages and Linguistics of Western Asia: An Areal Perspective|editor1-last=Haig|editor1-first=Geoffrey|editor2-last=Khan|editor2-first=Geoffrey|page=357|publisher=]|isbn=978-3110421682}}</ref> | |||
The Meskhetian Turkish dialect was originally spoken in ] until the ] community were forcefully deported and then dispersed throughout Turkey, ], ], ], ], and the ].<ref>{{citation|last1=Dobrushina|first1=Nina|last2=Daniel|first2=Michael|last3=Koryakov|first3=Yuri|year=2020|chapter=Language and Sociolinguistics of the Caucasus |title=The Oxford Handbook of Languages of the Caucasus|editor-last=Polinsky|editor-first=Maria|page=33|publisher=]|isbn=9780190690694}}</ref> They speak an ] dialect of Turkish, which hails from the regions of ], ], and ].{{sfn|Aydıngün|Harding|Hoover|Kuznetsov|2006|p=23}} The Meskhetian Turkish dialect has also borrowed from other languages (including ], ], ], ], ], and ]), which the Meskhetian Turks have been in contact with during the ] and ] rule.{{sfn|Aydıngün|Harding|Hoover|Kuznetsov|2006|p=23}} | |||
====Poetry==== | |||
The ] are spoken throughout the country. In ], ], ] and ] they speak Southeastern Anatolian dialects (comparable to ], ], ], ] and ]).<ref name="ORSAMpage3">{{citation|year=2015|title=Abdurrahman Mustafa: Turkmens' Survival Can Be Ensured by Syria's Territorial Integrity|url=http://www.orsam.org.tr/files/Soylesiler/16/16eng.pdf|page=3|publisher=ORSAM|access-date=10 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161010215636/http://www.orsam.org.tr/files/Soylesiler/16/16eng.pdf|archive-date=10 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> In ] they speak Turkish language with a ] dialect.<ref name="ORSAMpage3" /> Currently, Turkish is the third most widely used language in Syria (after ] and ]).<ref>{{cite book |last=Behnstedt |first=Peter |year=2008 |chapter=Syria |title=Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics |editor1-last=Versteegh |editor1-first=Kees |editor2-last=Eid |editor2-first=Mushira |editor3-last=Elgibali |editor3-first=Alaa |editor4-last=Woidich |editor4-first=Manfred |editor5-last=Zaborski |editor5-first=Andrzej |volume=4|page=402|publisher=] |isbn=978-90-04-14476-7}}</ref> | |||
{{Main|Poetry of the Republic of Turkey}} | |||
===Religion=== | |||
]]] | |||
] in ], ], is an example of Ottoman imperial architecture.]] | |||
] in ], ], is an example of Ottoman provincial architecture. As the resting place of ], it is one of the holiest sites in Islam and an important pilgrimage site for the largely secular ] community.]] | |||
Most ethnic Turkish people are either practicing or non-practicing Muslims who follow the teachings of the ] of ].<ref name=Mayer2010/> They form the largest Muslim community in ] and ] as well as the largest Muslim groups in ],<ref name=Rabasa&Benard>{{citation|last1=Rabasa|first1=Angel|last2=Benard|first2=Cheryl|year=2015|title=Eurojihad|pages=20–21|publisher=]|isbn=9781107078932}}</ref> ],<ref>{{citation|last=Zhelyazkova|first=Antonina|year=2015|chapter=Bulgaria|title=The Oxford Handbook of European Islam|editor-last=Cesari|editor-first=Jocelyne|page=574|quote=Turks are the largest Muslim community. They are furthermore the most strongly consolidated community in the state with a very clear and unambiguous understanding of its ethnic identity. The only differences stem from affiliation to various Islamic movements. Some of in-group competition exist between Sunni Turks and Alevi/Kızılbashi/Bektashi. The Kızılbashi, a minority within a minority, have freely practiced their specific rituals with no visible confrontation with the Sunni Turks. |publisher=]|isbn=9780199607976}}</ref> ],<ref name=Lucie2020>{{citation|last=Tungul|first=Lucie|year=2020|title=Turkish Community in the Czech Republic: A Diaspora in the Making? |page=499|journal=Politics in Central Europe|volume=16|issue=2|doi=10.2478/pce-2020-0025|s2cid=229051057|quote=...the position of Turkish migrants, the single largest Muslim community in the Czech Republic, in the specific context of the Czech Republic.|doi-access=free}}</ref> ],<ref>{{citation|last=Jacobsen|first=Brian Arly|year=2012|chapter=Muslims in Denmark: A Critical Evaluation of Estimations|title=Islam in Denmark: The Challenge of Diversity|editor-last=Nielsen|editor-first=Jørgen S.|page=47|publisher=]|isbn=9780739150924}}</ref> ],<ref name=Arab2021>{{citation|last=Arab|first=Pooyan Tamimi |year=2021|chapter=Strict Neutrality Reconsidered: Religion and Political Belonging in the Netherlands |title=Religion, Secularism, and Political Belonging|editor1-last=Medovoi|editor1-first=Leerom|editor2-last=Bentley|editor2-first=Elizabeth|page=56|quote=The construction of mosques by citizens with a Turkish migration background, the larges Muslim constituents in the Netherlands and in Germany, is well suited to clarify the idea of disentangling political and cultural or religious belonging|publisher=]|isbn=9781478012986}}</ref> ],<ref>{{citation|last=Schmidinger|first=Thomas|year=2010|chapter=Liechtenstein|title=Yearbook of Muslims in Europe|editor1-last=Nielsen|editor1-first=Jørgen|editor2-last=Akgönül|editor-first2=Samim|editor3-last=Alibašić|editor3-first=Ahmet|editor4-last=Maréchal|editor4-first=Brigitte|editor5-last=Moe|editor5-first=Christian|volume=2|pages=311–17|quote=|publisher=]|isbn=9789004184763}}</ref> the ],<ref name=Arab2021/> ]<ref>{{citation|last=Cupcea|first=Adriana|chapter=The Turkish Diyanet and its Activities in the Muslim Community in Dobruja (Romania)|title=Religious Education: Between Radicalism and Tolerance|date=6 June 2018|editor-last1=Aslan|editor-first1=Ednan|editor-last2=Rausch|editor-first2=Margaret|page=292|publisher=] |isbn=9783658216771}}</ref> and ].<ref name=Rabasa&Benard/> In addition to Sunni Turks, there are ] Turks whose local Islamic traditions have been based in ], as well as the ] traditionally centered in Anatolia and the ].<ref>{{citation|last=Poulton|first=Hugh |year=1997 |title=Muslim Identity and the Balkan State|publisher=]|isbn=9781850652762}}</ref> | |||
In general, "Turkish Islam" is considered to be "more moderate and pluralistic" than in other Middle Eastern-Islamic societies.<ref name=Rabasa&Larrabee/> Historically, Turkish Sufi movements promoted liberal forms of Islam;<ref name=Cagaptay2014>{{citation|last=Cagaptay|first=Soner|year=2014|title=The Rise of Turkey: The Twenty-First Century's First Muslim Power|page=85|publisher=]|isbn=9781612346519}}</ref> for example, Turkish humanist groups and thinkers, such as the ] (] who follow ]), the Bektashis, and ] emphasized faith over practicing Islam.<ref name=Cagaptay2014 /> During this tolerant environment under the Seljuk Turks, more Turkish tribes arriving in Anatolia during the 13th century found the liberal Sufi version of Islam closer to their ] traditions and chose to preserve some of their culture (such as dance and music).<ref name=Cagaptay2014 /> During the late Ottoman period, the ] policies introduced by the Ottoman intelligentsia fused Islam with modernization reforms; this was followed by ] in the 20th century.<ref name=Rabasa&Larrabee>{{citation|last1=Rabasa|first1=Angel|last2=Larrabee|first2=F. Stephen|year=2008|title=The Rise of Political Islam in Turkey|publisher=]|page=96|isbn=9780833044570}}</ref> | |||
In the early years of the Republic of Turkey, there were a number of poetic trends. Authors such as Ahmed Hâşim and Yahyâ Kemâl Beyatlı (1884–1958) continued to write important formal verse whose language was, to a great extent, a continuation of the late Ottoman tradition. By far the majority of the poetry of the time, however, was in the tradition of the folk-inspired "syllabist" movement (''Beş Hececiler''), which had emerged from the National Literature movement and which tended to express ] themes couched in the syllabic meter associated with Turkish folk poetry. | |||
Consequently, there are also many non-practicing Turkish Muslims who tend to be politically ]. For example, in Cyprus, the ] are generally very secular and only attend mosques on special occasions (such as for weddings, funerals, and community gatherings).<ref>{{citation|last=Henry Dodd|first=Clement|year=1993|title=The Political, Social and Economic Development of Northern Cyprus|publisher=Eothen Press|page=266|isbn=9780906719183}}</ref> Even so, the ] in ], which is the resting place of ], is considered to be one of the holiest sites in Islam and remains an important pilgrimage site for the secular Turkish Cypriot community too.<ref>{{citation|year=1991|title=Muslim Places of Worship in Cyprus|page=7|publisher=Association of Cypriot Archaeologists|isbn=9789963380565}}</ref> Similarly, in other urban areas of the ], such as in ], the ] are mainly secular, having internalized the secularist interpretation of state–religion affairs practiced in the ] since its foundation in 1923.<ref name="Oğuzlu313">{{citation|last=Oğuzlu|first=Tarik H.|year=2004|title=Endangered community:The Turkoman identity in Iraq|journal=Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs|volume=24 |issue=2|publisher=]|page=313|doi=10.1080/1360200042000296681|hdl=11693/49129|s2cid=56385519 |url=http://repository.bilkent.edu.tr/bitstream/11693/49129/1/Endangered_community_the_Turkoman_identity_in_Iraq.pdf|hdl-access=free}}</ref> | |||
The first radical step away from this trend was taken by ], who—during his time as a student in the ] from 1921 to 1924—was exposed to the modernist poetry of ] and others, which inspired him to start writing verse in a less formal style. At this time, he wrote the poem "''Açların Gözbebekleri''" ("Pupils of the Hungry"), which introduced ] into the Turkish language for, essentially, the first time.<ref>Earlier poets, such as Ahmed Hâşim, had experimented with a style of poetry called ''serbest müstezâd'' ("free ''müstezâd''"), a type of poetry which alternated long and short lines of verse, but this was not a truly "free" style of verse insofar as it still largely adhered to prosodic conventions (Fuat 2002).</ref> Much of Nâzım Hikmet's poetry subsequent to this breakthrough would continue to be written in free verse, though his work exerted little influence for some time due largely to ] of his work owing to his ] political stance, which also led to his spending several years in prison. Over time, in such books as ''Simavne Kadısı Oğlu Şeyh Bedreddin Destanı'' ("''The Epic of Shaykh Bedreddin, Son of Judge Simavne''", 1936) and ''Memleketimden İnsan Manzaraları'' ("''Human Landscapes from My Country''", 1939), he developed a voice simultaneously proclamatory and subtle. | |||
] in ] is the largest mosque in the ], and mostly serves the ] community.]] | |||
Another revolution in Turkish poetry came about in 1941 with the publication of a small volume of verse preceded by an essay and entitled '']'' ("''Strange''"). The authors were ] (1914–1950), Melih Cevdet Anday (1915–2002), and ] (1914–1988). Explicitly opposing themselves to everything that had gone in poetry before, they sought instead to create a popular art, "to explore the people's tastes, to determine them, and to make them reign supreme over art".<ref>Quoted in Halman 1997.</ref> To this end, and inspired in part by contemporary French poets like ], they employed not only a variant of the free verse introduced by Nâzım Hikmet, but also highly ], and wrote primarily about mundane daily subjects and the ordinary man on the street. The reaction was immediate and polarized: most of the ] and older poets vilified them, while much of the Turkish population embraced them wholeheartedly. Though the movement itself lasted only ten years—until Orhan Veli's death in 1950, after which Melih Cevdet Anday and Oktay Rifat moved on to other styles—its effect on Turkish poetry continues to be felt today. | |||
In ], the Turkish minorities have traditionally differentiated themselves from the Arab-Berber population who follow the ]; this is because the Turks have continued to follow the teaching of the Hanafi school which was brought to the region by their ancestors during the Ottoman rule.<ref name=Gordon>{{citation |last1=Gordon|first1=Louis A.|last2=Oxnevad|first2=Ian|year=2016|title=Middle East Politics for the New Millennium: A Constructivist Approach|page=72|publisher=]|quote=An Ottoman military class that separated itself from the general Algerian population through language, dress and religious affiliation... Unlike the Maliki Algerian masses, the Ottoman-Algerians remained affiliated with the Hanafi school of Islamic jurisprudence, and went to great lengths to replenish their ranks with Ottoman Turks from Anatolia...|isbn=978-0739196984}}</ref> Indeed, the Ottoman-Turkish mosques in the region are often distinguishable by pencil-like and octagonal minarets which were built in accordance with the traditions of the Hanafi rite.<ref>{{citation |last1=Cantone|first1=Cleo|year=2002|title=Making and Remaking Mosques in Senegal|quote=Octagonal minarets are generally an anomaly in the Maliki world associated with the square tower. Algeria, on other hand had Ottoman influence...|page=174|publisher=]|isbn=9004203370}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last1=Migeon|first1=Gaston |last2=Saladin|first2=Henri|year=2012|title=Art of Islam|quote=It was not until the 16th century, when the protectorate of the Grand Master appointed Turkish governors to the regencies of Algiers and Tunis, that some of them constructed mosques according to the Hanefit example. The resulting structures had octagonal minarets... |page=28|publisher=Parkstone International|isbn=978-1780429939}}</ref> | |||
The tradition of building mosques in the Ottoman-style (i.e. either in the imperial style based on ] mosques or the provincial styles) has continued into the present day, both in traditional areas of settlement (e.g. in Turkey, the Balkans, Cyprus, and other parts of the Levant) as well as in ] and ] where there are substantial immigrant communities.<ref>{{citation|last=Rizvi|first=Kishwar|year=2015|title=The Transnational Mosque: Architecture and Historical Memory in the Contemporary Middle East|publisher=]|pages=33–68|isbn=9781469621173}}</ref> | |||
Just as the Garip movement was a reaction against earlier poetry, so—in the 1950s and afterwards—was there a reaction against the Garip movement. The poets of this movement, soon known as ''İkinci Yeni'' ("Second New"<ref>The Garip movement was considered to be the "First New" (''Birinci Yeni'').</ref>), opposed themselves to the social aspects prevalent in the poetry of Nâzım Hikmet and the Garip poets, and instead—partly inspired by the disruption of language in such Western movements as ] and ]—sought to create a more abstract poetry through the use of jarring and unexpected language, complex images, and the association of ideas. To some extent, the movement can be seen as bearing some of the characteristics of postmodern literature. The most well-known poets writing in the "Second New" vein were Turgut Uyar (1927–1985), Edip Cansever (1928–1986), ] (1931–1990), Ece Ayhan (1931–2002), Sezai Karakoç (1933- ) and ] (1918– ). | |||
Since the 1960s, "Turkish" was even seen as synonymous with "]" in countries like Germany because Islam was considered to have a specific "Turkish character" and visual architectural style.<ref>{{citation |last1=Byrnes|first1=Timothy|last2=Katzenstein|first2=Peter|year=2006|title=Religion in an Expanding Europe|page=211|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-85926-4}}</ref> | |||
Outside of the Garip and "Second New" movements also, a number of significant poets have flourished, such as Fazıl Hüsnü Dağlarca (1914– ), who wrote poems dealing with fundamental concepts like life, death, God, time, and the cosmos; Behçet Necatigil (1916–1979), whose somewhat ] poems explore the significance of ] daily life; Can Yücel (1926–1999), who—in addition to his own highly colloquial and varied poetry—was also a translator into Turkish of a variety of world literature. | |||
=== |
===Arts and architecture=== | ||
{{Further|Turkish arts|Turkish literature|Poetry of Turkey|Music of Turkey|Turkish folk music|Architecture of Turkey}} | |||
{{See also|Ottoman architecture}} | |||
] district in ] is a ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5733/ |title=Odunpazari Historical Urban Site |website=] |date=13 April 2012}}</ref>]] | |||
{{Main article|Religion in Turkey|Secularism in Turkey|}} | |||
Turkish architecture reached its peak during the ] period. ], influenced by ], ] and ], came to develop a style all of its own.<ref name=muqarnas12>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RtbeBrAHhxgC&q=Ottoman+Architecture&pg=PA60|title=Muqarnas: An Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture. Volume 12|last=Necipoğlu|first=Gülru|oclc=33228759|year=1995|publisher=Leiden: E.J. Brill|access-date= 7 July 2008|page=60|isbn=9789004103146}}</ref> Overall, Ottoman architecture has been described as a synthesis of the architectural traditions of the Mediterranean and the Middle East.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xu_L_FJRvUIC&q=Ottoman+Architecture&pg=PA92 |title=Muqarnas: An Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture. Volume 3|last=Grabar |first=Oleg |isbn=978-9004076112| year=1985 |publisher=Leiden : E.J. Brill|access-date=7 July 2008}}</ref> | |||
The vast majority of the present-day Turkish people are ] and the most popular sect is the ] school of ]. ] was introduced with the ], and later ] set the administrative and political requirements to create a ], ], ] aligned with the ]. Thirteen years after its introduction, ] (February 5, 1937) was explicitly stated as a property of the State in the second article of the ]. The current Turkish constitution neither recognizes an ] nor promotes any. This includes Islam, which at least nominally more than 99% of citizens subscribe to (according to the government).<ref>{{cite book|title=Religion and Politics in Turkey|first=Ali|last=Çarkoǧlu|publisher=Routledge (UK)|location=|year=2004|isbn=0-4153-4831-5|url=http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0415348315&id=t5G_zw9exMQC&pg=PP1&lpg=PP1&ots=nBltWxHPjd&dq=Religion+in+Turkey&sig=gLF9WOvOo0qZO5iwyUQSUc26Ya0#PPA28,M1 }}</ref> | |||
As Turkey successfully transformed from the religion-based former Ottoman Empire into a modern nation-state with a very strong separation of state and religion, an increase in the modes of artistic expression followed. During the first years of the republic, the government invested a large amount of resources into fine arts; such as museums, theatres, opera houses and architecture. Diverse historical factors play important roles in defining the modern Turkish identity. Turkish culture is a product of efforts to be a "modern" Western state, while maintaining traditional religious and historical values.<ref name="TR_culture">{{cite book|author=Ibrahim Kaya|title=Social Theory and Later Modernities: The Turkish Experience|url=https://archive.org/details/socialtheorylate0000kaya|url-access=registration|access-date=12 June 2013|year=2004|publisher=Liverpool University Press|isbn=978-0-85323-898-0|pages=–58}}</ref> The mix of cultural influences is dramatized, for example, in the form of the "new symbols of the clash and interlacing of cultures" enacted in the works of ], recipient of the 2006 ].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/6044192.stm|title=Pamuk wins Nobel Literature prize|publisher=BBC|access-date=12 December 2006|date=12 October 2006}}</ref> | |||
==Turkish timeline== | |||
Traditional Turkish music include ] (Halk müziği), ] and ] (Sanat müziği) that originates from the Ottoman court.<ref name="DunfordRichardson2013">{{cite book|author1=Martin Dunford|author2=Terry Richardson|title=The Rough Guide to Turkey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dPAPeby7JTgC&pg=PA647|access-date=25 July 2013|date=3 June 2013|publisher=Rough Guides|isbn=978-1-4093-4005-8|pages=647–}}</ref> ] include ], rock, and ] genres.<ref name="DunfordRichardson2013" /> | |||
===Science=== | |||
{{see also| Timeline of the Ottoman Empire}} | |||
{{Main|Science and technology in Turkey}} | |||
{{Seealso|List of Turkish philosophers and scientists}} | |||
Turkey's spending on ] as a share of GDP has risen from 0.47% in 2000 to 1.40% in 2021.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.oecd.org/rd/gross-domestic-spending-on-r-d.htm |doi=10.1787/d8b068b4-en |author=OECD |title=Gross domestic spending on R&D (indicator) |year=2024 |access-date=16 May 2024}}</ref> ] in terms of article output in scientific and technical journals, and 35th in ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/IP.JRN.ARTC.SC?most_recent_value_desc=true | title=Scientific and technical journal articles |website=The World Bank |access-date=15 May 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nature.com/nature-index/country-outputs/generate/all/global |title=Nature Index | Country/Territory tables |website=] |access-date=15 May 2024}}</ref> Turkish patent office ranks 21st worldwide in overall patent applications, and 3rd in industrial design applications. Vast majority of applicants to the Turkish patent office are Turkish residents. In all patent offices globally, ].<ref name="WIPO_Türkiye">{{Cite web |ref={{harvid|WIPO Intellectual property statistical country profile 2022: Türkiye|2023}} |author=World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) |year=2023 |title=Intellectual property statistical country profile 2022: Türkiye |url=https://www.wipo.int/edocs/statistics-country-profile/en/tr.pdf |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328212456/https://www.wipo.int/edocs/statistics-country-profile/en/tr.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2023, Turkey ranked 39th in the world and 4th among its upper-middle income group in the ].<ref>{{harvnb|World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)|2023|p=19}}</ref> It was one of the countries with a notable increase in the past decade.<ref>{{harvnb|World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)|2023|p=50}}</ref> | |||
Contemporary Turkish scientists include ], who won the ] for his work on how cells repair damaged DNA.<ref>{{cite news |last=Broad |first=William J. |title=Nobel Prize in Chemistry Awarded to Tomas Lindahl, Paul Modrich and Aziz Sancar for DNA Studies |date=7 October 2015 |website=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/08/science/tomas-lindahl-paul-modrich-aziz-sancarn-nobel-chemistry.html |access-date=19 July 2024}}</ref> He is one of ] and the first in the sciences. Immunologists ] and ] founded ], which is the company that developed ] against ].<ref>{{cite news |last=Gelles |first=David |title=The Husband-and-Wife Team Behind the Leading Vaccine to Solve Covid-19 |date=10 November 2020 |website=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/11/10/business/biontech-covid-vaccine.html |access-date=19 July 2024}}</ref> ] invented ],<ref>{{harvnb|Gibson|2017|p=128}}</ref> which is a key component of ] technologies.<ref>{{cite news |last=Levy |first=Steven |title=Huawei, 5G, and the Man Who Conquered Noise |website=Wired |date=16 November 2020 |url=https://www.wired.com/story/huawei-5g-polar-codes-data-breakthrough/ |access-date=19 July 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Sin |first=Ben |title=The Key For Huawei, And China, In 5G Race Is A Turkish Professor |date=27 July 2018 |website=Forbes |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/bensin/2018/07/27/the-key-for-huawei-and-china-in-5g-race-against-the-u-s-is-a-turkish-professor/ |access-date=20 July 2024}}</ref> Mathematician ] is known for ] and ].<ref>{{harvnb|Heper|Öztürk-Tunçel|Criss|2018|loc=Arf, Cahit}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s00591-010-0072-8 |title=On the Arf invariant in historical perspective |date=2010 |last1=Lorenz |first1=Falko |last2=Roquette |first2=Peter |journal=Mathematische Semesterberichte |volume=57 |pages=73–102 }}</ref> Physician ] discovered ].<ref>{{harvnb|Law|Martin|2020|loc=Behçet’s syndrome}}</ref> Other contemporary scientists include neurologist ],<ref>{{harvnb|Heper|Öztürk-Tunçel|Criss|2018|loc=Yaşargil, M. Gazi}}</ref> physicists ]<ref>{{harvnb|Heper|Öztürk-Tunçel|Criss|2018|loc=Gürsey, Feza}}</ref> and ],<ref>{{cite news |last=Nagourney |first=Eric |title=B. N. Kursunoglu, 81, Physicist Who Led Noted Research Center |date=3 November 2003 |website=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/11/03/us/b-n-kursunoglu-81-physicist-who-led-noted-research-center.html |access-date=20 July 2024}}</ref> and astrophysicists ]<ref>{{cite news |last=Zakeer |first=Fehmida |title=Meet the woman who discovered a whole new type of galaxy |date=21 November 2018 |website=National Geographic |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/meet-woman-discovered-new-type-galaxy-burcin-mutlu-pakdil-astrophysics |access-date=20 July 2024}}</ref> and ].<ref>{{cite news |last=Canikligil |first=Razi |title=Turkish woman professor among scientists who revealed first photo of black hole |date=11 April 2019 |website=Hürriyet Daily News |url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkish-woman-professor-among-scientists-who-revealed-first-photo-of-black-hole-142584 |access-date=20 July 2024}}</ref> | |||
{{see also| Chronology of the Turkish War of Independence}} | |||
==Genetics== | |||
{{see also| Timeline of the Republic of Turkey}} | |||
{{further|Genetic studies on Turkish people}} | |||
Turkish genomic variation, along with several other ] populations, looks most similar to genomic variation of ]an populations such as southern Italians.<ref name="Taskent_et_al_2017">{{cite journal |vauthors=Taskent RO, Gokcumen O |title=The Multiple Histories of Western Asia: Perspectives from Ancient and Modern Genomes |journal=Hum Biol |year=2017 |volume=89 |issue=2 |pages=107–117 |pmid=29299965 |doi=10.13110/humanbiology.89.2.01 |s2cid=6871226 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29299965}}</ref> Data from ancient DNA – covering the ], the ], and the ] periods – showed that Western Asian genomes, including Turkish ones, have been greatly influenced by early agricultural populations in the area; later population movements, such as those of Turkic speakers, also contributed.<ref name="Taskent_et_al_2017" /> | |||
A 2014 ] study of Turkish genetics (on 16 individuals) concluded that the Turkish population forms a cluster with Southern European/Mediterranean populations, and the predicted contribution from ancestral ] populations (presumably ]) is 21.7%.<ref name=Alkan>{{cite journal|doi=10.1186/1471-2164-15-963|pmid=25376095|pmc=4236450|title=Whole genome sequencing of Turkish genomes reveals functional private alleles and impact of genetic interactions with Europe, Asia and Africa|journal=BMC Genomics|volume=15|pages=963|year=2014|last1=Alkan |first1=Can |last2=Kavak|first2=Pinar|last3=Somel|first3=Mehmet|last4=Gokcumen |first4=Omer|last5=Ugurlu |first5=Serkan |last6=Saygi|first6=Ceren |last7=Dal|first7=Elif|last8=Bugra|first8=Kuyas|last9=Güngör|first9=Tunga |last10=Sahinalp|first10=S. |last11=Özören|first11=Nesrin |last12=Bekpen|first12=Cemalettin|issue=1 |doi-access=free }}</ref> However, that is not a direct estimate of a migration rate, due to reasons such as unknown original contributing populations.<ref name=Alkan /> Moreover, the genetic variation of various populations in Central Asia "has been poorly characterized"; Western Asian populations may also be "closely related to populations in the east".<ref name="Taskent_et_al_2017" /> Meanwhile, Central Asia is home to numerous populations that "demonstrate an array of mixed anthropological features of East Eurasians (EEA) and West Eurasians (WEA)"; two studies showed ] have 40-53% ancestry classified as East Asian, with the rest being classified as European.<ref name="pmid23166524">{{cite journal| author=Xu S| title=Human population admixture in Asia. | journal=Genomics Inform | year= 2012 | volume= 10 | issue= 3 | pages= 133–44 | pmid=23166524 | doi=10.5808/GI.2012.10.3.133 | pmc=3492649 }}</ref> A 2006 study suggested that the true Central Asian contributions to Anatolia was 13% for males and 22% for females (with wide ranges of ]s), and the language replacement in Turkey and Azerbaijan might not have been in accordance with the elite dominance model.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Berkman |first=Ceren Caner |date=September 2006 |title=Comparative Analyses For The Central Asian Contribution To Anatolian Gene Pool With Reference To Balkans |type=PhD |url=http://etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/upload/12607764/index.pdf |access-date=30 October 2020}}</ref> | |||
Throughout history, the Turks have established numerous states in different geographical areas on the continents of ], ] and ]. Therefore, they encountered different cultures, influenced these cultures and have also been influenced by them. This list consists of the main events of the ancient Turks to today's modern Turks. | |||
Another study in 2021, which looked at whole-genomes and ] of 3,362 unrelated Turkish samples, resulted in establishing the first Turkish ] and found extensive admixture between South East Europeans, people from the Caucasus, Middle Eastern people, and other European populations in line with history of Turkey.<ref name="Kars_etal_2021">{{Cite journal |last1=Kars |first1=M. Ece |last2=Başak |first2=A. Nazlı |last3=Onat |first3=O. Emre |last4=Bilguvar |first4=Kaya |last5=Choi |first5=Jungmin |last6=Itan |first6=Yuval |last7=Çağlar |first7=Caner |last8=Palvadeau |first8=Robin |last9=Casanova |first9=Jean-Laurent |last10=Cooper |first10=David N. |last11=Stenson |first11=Peter D. |last12=Yavuz |first12=Alper |last13=Buluş |first13=Hakan |last14=Günel |first14=Murat |last15=Friedman |first15=Jeffrey M. |date=2021-09-07 |title=The genetic structure of the Turkish population reveals high levels of variation and admixture |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=118 |issue=36 |pages=e2026076118 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2026076118 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=8433500 |pmid=34426522 |bibcode=2021PNAS..11826076K |doi-access=free }}</ref> Moreover, significant number of rare genome and exome variants were unique to modern-day Turkish population.<ref name="Kars_etal_2021"/> Neighbouring populations in East and West, and Tuscan people in Italy were closest to Turkish population in terms of genetic similarity.<ref name="Kars_etal_2021"/> Central Asian contribution to maternal, paternal, and autosomal genes were detected, consistent with the historical migration and expansion of ] from Central Asia.<ref name="Kars_etal_2021"/> The authors speculated that the genetic similarity of the modern-day Turkish population with modern-day European populations might be due to ], which impacted the genetic makeup of modern-day European populations.<ref name="Kars_etal_2021"/> Moreover, the study found no clear genetic separation between different regions of Turkey, leading authors to suggest that recent migration events within Turkey resulted in genetic homogenization.<ref name="Kars_etal_2021"/> A 2022 study, which looked at modern-day populations and more than 700 ancient genomes from Southern Europe and West Asia covering a period of 11,000 years, found that Turkish people carry the genetic legacy of "both ancient people who lived in Anatolia for thousands of years covered by our study and people coming from Central Asia bearing Turkic languages."<ref name="Lazaridis2022">{{cite journal| author=Lazaridis I, Alpaslan-Roodenberg S, Acar A, Açıkkol A, Agelarakis A, Aghikyan L | display-authors=etal| title=A genetic probe into the ancient and medieval history of Southern Europe and West Asia. | journal=Science | year= 2022 | volume= 377 | issue= 6609 | pages= 940–951 | pmid=36007020 | doi=10.1126/science.abq0755 | pmc=10019558 | bibcode=2022Sci...377..940L}}</ref> | |||
{| class="wikitable" border="1" | |||
|+ | |||
!Turkish Republic and Independence war | |||
!1299-1922 | |||
!1000–1300s | |||
|- | |||
| | |||
*''']''' (1923) | |||
**] | |||
**] | |||
**] | |||
***] (1919-1923) | |||
***] | |||
***] | |||
*] | |||
| | |||
*''']''' (1299–1923) | |||
**] (1299–1453) | |||
***] | |||
***] | |||
**] (1453–1683) | |||
***] | |||
***] | |||
***] | |||
***] (1656-1703) | |||
**] (1683–1827) | |||
***] (1718-1730) | |||
***] | |||
**] (1828–1908) | |||
***] (1839-1876) | |||
***] | |||
***] (1876-1878) | |||
**] (1908–1922) | |||
***] | |||
***] (1914-1920) | |||
***] | |||
***] | |||
** ] | |||
***] | |||
***] | |||
**] | |||
***] | |||
***] | |||
***] | |||
***] | |||
***] | |||
***] (1299-1922) | |||
***] | |||
***] (1517-1875) | |||
***] (1908-1918) | |||
**] | |||
| | |||
*] | |||
*] (1037-1194) | |||
*] (1071) | |||
*] (1077- 1307) | |||
*] (1300s) | |||
|} | |||
==Ethnogenesis and genetic links== | |||
{{main|Genetic origins of the Turkish people}} | |||
It is difficult to understand the complex cultural and ] dynamics of the ] speaking groups that have shaped the ] landscape for the last millennium.<ref>Gokcumen O and Schurr T. Genler, Göçler ve Anadolu. Atlas Magazine. 2008</ref> During the ] the population of Anatolia expanded, reaching an estimated level of 12 million during the late ] period. Such a large pre-existing Anatolian population would have reduced the impact by the subsequent arrival of ] from ], whose ethno-linguistic roots could be traced back to the eastern coast of the ] basin in ].<ref></ref><ref></ref> The ] were the main ] who moved into Anatolia, starting from the ] in 1071.<ref name="Article">], Oguz </ref><ref name="Seljuk">]. </ref> Around 1,000,000 Turkic migrants settled in Anatolia during the 12th and 13th centuries.<ref>Peter B. Golden. An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples: Ethnogenesis and State-Formation in Medieval and Early Modern Eurasia and the Middle East, 1992, S. 224-225.</ref> | |||
The question of to what extent a gene flow from ], via ], to ] has contributed to the current gene pool of the Turkish people, and the role of the 11th century invasion by ], has been the subject of several studies. It is concluded that ] ] groups may have given rise to the present-day Turkish population. ] analysis research studies suggest that the Anatolians do not significantly differ from other ]s, indicating that while the ] carried out a permanent territorial conquest with strong ], ] and ] significance, it is barely ] detectable.<ref></ref> | |||
Another significant flow into the present-day Turkish gene pool occurred during the ] period, when large groups of non-Turks were culturally ] through the ] (''Devşirme'') system; including many of the leading Ottoman ]s such as ] and members of the ]. The famous ] (''Yeniçeri'') corps were entirely formed of non-Muslim children recruited at a very young age and raised with Turkish culture. Many ] (as well as other members of the Ottoman society) preferred to marry women from the ], such as the famous ] ], ], ], ] and ]; and to a lesser extent with women from the Ottoman provinces in the ] and ]. The naval battles between the Ottoman Empire and other European powers around the ] also played an important role in large population exchanges (see, for instance, ] and ].] have been absorbed into the Turkish ethnic group and many Turkish nobles have some Greek ancestry through the Ottoman practice of taking Christian wives. | |||
==See also== | ==See also== | ||
{{Portal|Turkey}} | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
*] | |||
*] | |||
*] | |||
*] | |||
*] | |||
==Notes== | |||
{{Turkey topics|state=expanded}} | |||
{{refbegin|30em}} | |||
{{Cnote|a|"The history of Turkey encompasses, first, the history of Anatolia before the coming of the Turks and of the civilizations—Hittite, Thracian, Hellenistic, and Byzantine—of which the Turkish nation is the heir by assimilation or example. Second, it includes the history of the Turkish peoples, including the Seljuks, who brought Islam and the Turkish language to Anatolia. Third, it is the history of the Ottoman Empire, a vast, cosmopolitan, pan-Islamic state that developed from a small Turkish amirate in Anatolia and that for centuries was a world power."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/turkey/2.htm |title=Turkey: Country Studies |author=Steven A. Glazer |publisher=Federal Research Division, Library of Congress |date=22 March 2011 |access-date=15 June 2013}}</ref>}} | |||
{{refend}} | |||
==References== | |||
{{Turkish people by country|state=expanded}} | |||
{{Reflist}} | |||
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{{refend}} | |||
==Further reading== | ==Further reading== | ||
{{refbegin}} | |||
* {{citation |title=Cezayir Ülke Raporu 2008 |publisher=Algeria Embassy Trade Consultancy |url=http://www.musavirlikler.gov.tr/altdetay.cfm?AltAlanID=368&dil=TR&ulke=DZ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130929205227/http://www.musavirlikler.gov.tr/altdetay.cfm?AltAlanID=368&dil=TR&ulke=DZ |archive-date=29 September 2013 }}. | |||
<div class="references-small"> | |||
* {{citation|date=8 February 2011|chapter=Community Profile: Kosovo Turks|title=Kosovo Communities Profile 2010|publisher=Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|chapter-url=http://www.osce.org/kosovo/75450}}. | |||
{{col-begin}} | |||
* {{cite press release |title=COMUNICAT DE PRESĂ – privind rezultatele provizorii ale Recensământului Populaţiei şi Locuinţelor – 2011 |language=ro |trans-title=PRESS RELEASE – on the provisional results of the Population and Housing Census – 2011 |date=2 February 2012 |place=Romania |publisher=Central Commission for the Census of Population and Housing |url=http://www.recensamantromania.ro/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/Comunicat_DATE_PROVIZORII_RPL_2011.pdf |access-date=14 May 2012 |archive-date=2 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190802060014/http://www.recensamantromania.ro/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/Comunicat_DATE_PROVIZORII_RPL_2011.pdf |url-status=dead }} | |||
{{col-break|width=50%}} | |||
* {{cite report |title=Cyprus: Bridging the Property Divide |series=Europe Report N°210 |date=9 December 2010 |publisher=International Crisis Group |url=http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/europe/turkey-cyprus/cyprus/210%20Cyprus%20-%20Bridging%20the%20Property%20Divide.ashx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111103083632/http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/europe/turkey-cyprus/cyprus/210%20Cyprus%20-%20Bridging%20the%20Property%20Divide.ashx |archive-date=3 November 2011 }} | |||
;Turkish people | |||
* {{cite report |title=Turkey and the Iraqi Kurds: Conflict or Cooperation? |series=Middle East Report N°81 |date=13 November 2008 |publisher=International Crisis Group |url-status=dead |url=http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/Middle%20East%20North%20Africa/Iraq%20Syria%20Lebanon/Iraq/81Turkey%20and%20Iraqi%20Kurds%20Conflict%20or%20Cooperation.ashx |archive-date=12 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110112131324/http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/Middle%20East%20North%20Africa/Iraq%20Syria%20Lebanon/Iraq/81Turkey%20and%20Iraqi%20Kurds%20Conflict%20or%20Cooperation.ashx }} | |||
* {{cite book | |||
* {{citation|year=2002|title=Population by ethnic groups, regions, counties and areas|place=Romania|publisher=National Institute of Statistics|url=http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/RPL2002INS/vol5/tables/t16.pdf}} | |||
|title = The Turkish People: Their Social Life, Religious Beliefs and Institutions and Domestic Life | |||
* {{citation |year=2008|title=The Report: Algeria 2008|publisher=Oxford Business Group|isbn=978-1-902339-09-2}}. | |||
|first = Lucy M. J. | |||
{{refend}} | |||
|last = Garnett | |||
|publisher = Kessinger Publishing | |||
|year = 2004 | |||
|isbn = 1417947063 | |||
}} | |||
* {{cite book | |||
|title = The Turks Today | |||
|first = Andrew | |||
|last = Mango | |||
|publisher = Overlook | |||
|year = 2004 | |||
|isbn = 1585676152 | |||
}} | |||
* {{cite web | |||
|title = Who Are The Turks? | |||
|author = McCarthy, Justin & McCarthy Carolyn | |||
|publisher = The American Forum For Global Education | |||
|format = PDF | |||
|accessdate = 2008-07-11 | |||
|year = 2003 | |||
|url= http://www.ataturk.com/public_files/WhoAreTheTurksebook.pdf | |||
}} | |||
;History | |||
* {{cite book | |||
|title = Atatürk: First President and Founder of the Turkish Republic | |||
|first = Yüksel| last = Atillasoy | |||
|publisher = Woodside House, Woodside, NY | |||
|year = 2002 | |||
|isbn = 978-0971235342 | |||
}} | |||
* {{cite book | |||
|title = Lords of the Golden Horn: From Suleiman the Magnificent to Kemal Ataturk | |||
|first = Noel| last = Barber | |||
|publisher = Arrow, London | |||
|year = 1988 | |||
|isbn = 978-0099539506 | |||
}} | |||
* {{cite book | |||
|title = The Turks in World History | |||
|first = Carter Vaughn| last = Findley | |||
|publisher = Oxford University Press, USA | |||
|year = 2004 | |||
|isbn = 0195177266 | |||
}} | |||
* {{cite book | |||
|title = The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire | |||
|first = Patrick| last = Kinross | |||
|publisher = Morrow | |||
|year = 1977 | |||
|isbn = 0688030939 | |||
}} | |||
* {{cite book | |||
|title = Ataturk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey | |||
|first = Andrew| last = Mango | |||
|publisher = Overlook | |||
|year = 2000 | |||
|isbn = 1585670111 | |||
}} | |||
*{{cite book | |||
|last=Merriman | |||
|first=Roger Bigelow | |||
|title=Suleiman the Magnificent, 1520–1566 | |||
|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts | |||
|publisher=Harvard University Press | |||
|year=1944 | |||
|oclc=784228}} | |||
* {{cite book | |||
|title = History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey | |||
|first = Stanford Jay| last = Shaw | |||
|coauthors = Kural Shaw, Ezel | |||
|publisher = Cambridge University Press | |||
|year = 1977 | |||
|isbn = 0521291631 | |||
}} | |||
;Demographics | |||
* {{cite book | |||
|title = Religion and Politics in Turkey | |||
|first = Ali | |||
|last = Çarkoǧlu | |||
|publisher = Routledge (UK) | |||
|year = 2004 | |||
|isbn = 0415348315 | |||
|url=http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0415348315&id=t5G_zw9exMQC&pg=PP1&lpg=PP1&ots=nBltWxHPjd&dq=Religion+in+Turkey&sig=gLF9WOvOo0qZO5iwyUQSUc26Ya0#PPA28,M1}} | |||
* {{cite book | |||
|title = The other languages of Europe: Demographic, Sociolinguistic and Educational Perspectives | |||
|first = Guus | |||
|last = Extra | |||
|coauthors = Gorter, Durk | |||
|publisher = Multilingual Matters | |||
|year = 2001 | |||
|isbn = 1853595098 | |||
|url= http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN1853595098&id=hvmy_skUPNYC&pg=RA1-PA422&lpg=RA1-PA422&ots=2bxjbJbuzM&dq=%22ethnic+groups+in+turkey%22&sig=gsODCAuvT1TRupKgZBsVDZf-oDE#PRA1-PA421,M1 | |||
}} | |||
* {{cite web | |||
|title = 2000 Census, population by provinces and districts | |||
|author = Turkish Statistical Institute | |||
|publisher = Turkish Statistical Institute | |||
|format = XLS | |||
|accessdate = 2006-12-11 | |||
|year = 2000 | |||
|url = http://www.die.gov.tr/nufus_sayimi/2000tablo5.xls | |||
}} | |||
{{col-break|width=50%}} | |||
;Language | |||
*{{cite book | |||
|title=The Turks in World History | |||
|first=Carter V. |last=Findley | |||
|publisher=Oxford University Press | |||
|year=2004 | |||
|isbn=0-19-517726-6 | |||
}} | |||
*{{cite book | |||
|title=Languages of the World, Third Edition | |||
|first=Kenneth|last=Katzner | |||
|publisher=Routledge, an imprint of Taylor & Francis Books Ltd. | |||
|year=2002 | |||
|isbn=978-0415250047 | |||
}} | |||
*{{cite book | |||
|last=Lewis | |||
|first=Geoffrey | |||
|authorlink=Geoffrey Lewis (Turkish scholar) | |||
|title=Turkish Grammar | |||
|publisher=Oxford University Press | |||
|year=2001 | |||
|isbn=0-19-870036-9}} | |||
*{{cite book | |||
|last=Lewis | |||
|first=Geoffrey | |||
|authorlink=Geoffrey Lewis (Turkish scholar) | |||
|title=The Turkish Language Reform: A Catastrophic Success | |||
|publisher=Oxford University Press | |||
|year=2002 | |||
|isbn=0-19-925669-1}} | |||
*{{cite book | |||
|last=Nişanyan | |||
|first=Sevan | |||
|title=Sözlerin Soyağacı: Çağdaş Türkçenin Etimoloji Sözlüğü (Etymological Dictionary of Contemporary Turkish) | |||
|publisher=Adam Yayınları, Revised and Enlarged 3rd Edition | |||
|year=2007 | |||
|isbn=975-418-868-4}}{{tr icon}} | |||
*{{cite book | |||
|last=Özsoy | |||
|first=A. Sumru | |||
|coauthors=Taylan, Eser E. (eds.) | |||
|title=Türkçe’nin ağızları çalıştayı bildirileri (Workshop on the dialects of Turkish) | |||
|publisher=] Yayınevi | |||
|year=2000 | |||
|isbn=9755181407}}{{tr icon}} | |||
*{{cite book | |||
|last=Soucek | |||
|first=Svat | |||
|title=A History of Inner Asia | |||
|publisher=Cambridge University Press | |||
|year=2000 | |||
|isbn=978-0521651691 | |||
}} | |||
;Arts & Culture | |||
* {{cite book | |||
|last= Andrews | |||
|first=Walter G | |||
|title= Ottoman Lyric Poetry: An Anthology | |||
|year= | |||
|publisher= | |||
|isbn= 0-2... | |||
|location=}} | |||
* {{cite book | |||
|last= Aslanapa | |||
|first=Oktay | |||
|title=Turkish art and architecture | |||
|year=1971 | |||
|publisher= Faber | |||
|isbn= 0571087817 | |||
|location=London}} | |||
*{{cite book | |||
|author=Bartok, Bela & Suchoff, Benjamin | |||
|title=Turkish Folk Music from Asia Minor (The New York Bartok Archive Studies in Musicology, No. 7) | |||
|publisher=Princeton Univ Pr | |||
|year=1976 | |||
|isbn= 0-691-09120-X }} | |||
* {{cite book | |||
|title = A History of Ottoman Architecture | |||
|first = Godfrey | |||
|last = Goodwin | |||
|publisher = Thames & Hudson | |||
|year = 2003 | |||
|isbn = 0500274290 | |||
}} | |||
* {{cite book | |||
|title = Social Theory and Later Modernities: The Turkish Experience | |||
|first = İbrahim | |||
|last = Kaya | |||
|publisher = Liverpool University Press | |||
|year = 2003 | |||
|isbn = 0853238987 | |||
|url = http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0853238987&id=0Iy7pJBRgjYC&pg=PA58&lpg=PA58&dq=Turkish+culture&sig=vfMN32AjbkM6idjKsbT7JR4zfWg#PPA49,M1 | |||
}} | |||
*{{cite book | |||
|author=Stokes, Martin | |||
|title=Sounds of Anatolia | |||
|publisher=Penguin Books | |||
|year=2000 | |||
|isbn= 1-85828-636-0}} | |||
{{col-end}} | |||
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==External links== | ==External links== | ||
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{{Turkic peoples}} | |||
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Latest revision as of 07:33, 21 December 2024
Ethnic group native to Turkey Not to be confused with Turkic peoples.Ethnic group
Türkler | |
---|---|
Map of the Turkish people around the world | |
Total population | |
c. 80 million | |
Regions with significant populations | |
Turkey 60,000,000 to 65,000,000 Northern Cyprus 315,000 | |
Modern Turkish diaspora: | |
Germany | 3,000,000 to over 7,000,000 |
United States | 1,000,000–3,000,000 |
Netherlands | 500,000 to over 2,000,000 |
France | over 1,000,000 |
United Kingdom | 500,000 |
Austria | 360,000–500,000 |
Belgium | 250,000–500,000 |
Australia | 320,000 |
Kazakhstan | 250,000 |
Sweden | 185,000 |
Russia | 109,883–150,000 |
Azerbaijan | 130,000 |
Switzerland | 120,000 |
Canada | over 100,000 |
Denmark | 70,000–75,000 |
Kyrgyzstan | 55,000 |
Italy | 50,000 |
Uzbekistan | 25,000 |
Norway | 16,500 |
Ukraine | 8,844–15,000 |
Turkmenistan | 13,000 |
Finland | 10,000 |
Poland | 5,000 |
New Zealand | 3,600–4,600 |
Ireland | 2,000–3,000 |
Brazil | 2,000-6,300 |
Liechtenstein | 1,000 |
Turkish minorities in the MENA: | |
Iraq | 3,000,000–5,000,000 |
Syria | 1,000,000–1,700,000 |
Libya | 1,000,000–1,400,000 |
Egypt | 100,000–1,500,000 |
Lebanon | 280,000 |
Saudi Arabia | 270,000–350,000 |
Yemen | 10,000-100,000 |
Jordan | 50,000 |
Turkish minorities in the Balkans: | |
Bulgaria | 588,318–800,000 |
North Macedonia | 77,959–200,000 |
Greece | 49,000–130,000 |
Romania | 28,226–80,000 |
Kosovo | 18,738–60,000 |
Bosnia and Herzegovina | 1,108 |
Serbia | 850 |
Albania | 714 |
Croatia | 367 |
Montenegro | 1,816 |
Languages | |
Turkish | |
Religion | |
Predominantly Islam (Sunnism, Alevism, non-denominational) Minority Irreligion | |
Related ethnic groups | |
Azerbaijanis and Turkmens | |
Approximately 200,000 are Turkish Cypriots and the remainder are Turkish settlers. Turkish Cypriots form 300,000 to 400,000 of the Turkish-British population. Mainland Turks are the next largest group, followed by Turkish Bulgarians and Turkish Romanians. Turkish minorities have also settled from Iraq, Greece, etc. Turkish Australians include 200,000 mainland Turks, 120,000 Turkish Cypriots, and smaller Turkish groups from Bulgaria, Greece, North Macedonia, Syria, and Western Europe. These figures only include Turkish Meskhetians. Official censuses are considered unreliable because many Turks have incorrectly been registered as "Azeri", "Kazakh", "Kyrgyz", and "Uzbek". The Turkish Swedish community includes 150,000 mainland Turks, 30,000 Turkish Bulgarians, 5,000 Turkish Macedonians, and smaller groups from Iraq and Syria. Including 2,000–3,000 mainland Turks and 1,600 Turkish Cypriots. This includes the Turkish-speaking minority only (i.e. 30% of Syrian Turks). Estimates including the Arabized Turks range between 3.5 to 6 million. Includes the Kouloughlis who are descendants of the old Turkish ruling class. Includes 80,000 Turkish Lebanese and 200,000 recent refugees from Syria. |
Turkish people or Turks (Turkish: Türkler) are the largest Turkic people who speak various dialects of the Turkish language and form a majority in Turkey and Northern Cyprus. In addition, centuries-old ethnic Turkish communities still live across other former territories of the Ottoman Empire. Article 66 of the Constitution of Turkey defines a Turk as anyone who is a citizen of Turkey. While the legal use of the term Turkish as it pertains to a citizen of Turkey is different from the term's ethnic definition, the majority of the Turkish population (an estimated 70 to 75 percent) are of Turkish ethnicity. The vast majority of Turks are Muslims and follow the Sunni faith.
The ethnic Turks can therefore be distinguished by a number of cultural and regional variants, but do not function as separate ethnic groups. In particular, the culture of the Anatolian Turks in Asia Minor has underlain and influenced the Turkish nationalist ideology. Other Turkish groups include the Rumelian Turks (also referred to as Balkan Turks) historically located in the Balkans; Turkish Cypriots on the island of Cyprus, Meskhetian Turks originally based in Meskheti, Georgia; and ethnic Turkish people across the Middle East, where they are also called Turkmen or Turkoman in the Levant (e.g. Iraqi Turkmen, Syrian Turkmen, Lebanese Turkmen, etc.). Consequently, the Turks form the largest minority group in Bulgaria, the second largest minority group in Iraq, Libya, North Macedonia, and Syria, and the third largest minority group in Kosovo. They also form substantial communities in the Western Thrace region of Greece, the Dobruja region of Romania, the Akkar region in Lebanon, as well as minority groups in other post-Ottoman Balkan and Middle Eastern countries. The mass immigration of Turks also led to them forming the largest ethnic minority group in Austria, Denmark, Germany, and the Netherlands. There are also Turkish communities in other parts of Europe as well as in North America, Australia and the Post-Soviet states. Turks are the 13th largest ethnic group in the world.
Turks from Central Asia settled in Anatolia in the 11th century, through the conquests of the Seljuk Turks. This began the transformation of the region, which had been a largely Greek-speaking region after previously being Hellenized, into a Turkish Muslim one. The Ottoman Empire expanded into parts of West Asia, Southeast Europe, and North Africa over the course of several centuries. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction and in the Russian Empire resulted in large-scale loss of life and mass migration into modern-day Turkey from the Balkans, Caucasus, and Crimea; the immigrants were both Turkish and non-Turkish people, and overwhelmingly Muslim. The empire lasted until the end of the First World War, when it was defeated by the Allies and partitioned. Following the Turkish War of Independence that ended with the Turkish National Movement retaking much of the territory lost to the Allies, the Movement ended the Ottoman Empire on 1 November 1922 and proclaimed the Republic of Turkey on 29 October 1923.
Etymology and definition
See also: Turkic peoples § EtymologyEtymology
As an ethnonym, the etymology of Turk is still unknown. In Chinese sources, Turk appears as Tujue (Chinese: 突厥; Wade–Giles: T’u-chüe), which referred to the Göktürks. The earliest mention of Turk (𐱅𐰇𐰺𐰜, türü̲k̲; or 𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰚, türk/tẄrk) in Turkic languages comes from the Second Turkic Khaganate. In Orkhon inscriptions, kök türü̲k̲ (𐰚𐰇𐰚 𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰜) is also mentioned, potentially referring to "Ashina-led Turks" or "Ashinas and Turks".
There are several theories regarding the origin of the ethnonym Turk. There is a claim that it may be connected to Herodotus's (c. 484 – c. 425 BC) reference to Targitaos, (Ταργιτάος), a king of the Scythians; however, Manfred Mayrhofer (apud Lincoln) assigned Iranian etymology for Targitaos: from Old Iranian *darga-tavah, meaning "he whose strength is long-lasting". During the first century A.D., Pomponius Mela refers to the Turcae in the forests north of the Sea of Azov, and Pliny the Elder lists the Tyrcae among the people of the same area; yet English archaeologist Ellis Minns contended that Tyrcae is "a false correction" for Iurcae/Iurkai (Ἱύρκαι), a people who dwelt beyond the Thyssagetae, according to Herodotus (Histories, IV. 22) There are references to certain groups in antiquity whose names might have been foreign transcriptions of Tür(ü)k such as Togarmah, Turukha/Turuška, Turukku and so on; but according to American historian Peter B. Golden, while any connection of some of these ancient peoples to Turks is possible, it is rather unlikely.
As a word in Turkic languages, Turk may mean "strong, strength, ripe" or "flourishing, in full strength". It may also mean ripe as for a fruit or "in the prime of life, young, and vigorous" for a person.
Definition
In the 19th century, the word Türk referred to Anatolian peasants. The Ottoman ruling class identified themselves as Ottomans, not as Turks. In the late 19th century, as the Ottoman upper classes adopted European ideas of nationalism, the term Türk took on a more positive connotation.
During Ottoman times, the millet system defined communities on a religious basis. In the early 20th century, the Young Turks abandoned Ottoman nationalism in favor of Turkish nationalism, while adopting the name Turks, which was finally used in the name of the new Turkish Republic.
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk defined the Turkish nation as the "people (halk) who established the Turkish republic". Further, "the natural and historical facts which effected the establishment (teessüs) of the Turkish nation" were "(a) unity in political existence, (b) unity in language, (c) unity in homeland, (d) unity in race and origin (menşe), (e) to be historically related and (f) to be morally related".
Article 66 of the Turkish Constitution defines a Turk as anyone who is "bound to the Turkish state through the bond of citizenship."
History
See also: History of TurkeyPrehistory, Ancient era, and Early Middle Ages
Further information: Turkic peoples, Oghuz Turks, and Anatolian peoplesAnatolia was first inhabited by hunter-gatherers during the Paleolithic era, and was inhabited by various civilizations such as Hattians and ancient Anatolian peoples. After Alexander the Great's conquest in 334 BC, the area was culturally Hellenized, and by the first century BC it is generally thought that the native Anatolian languages, themselves earlier newcomers to the area, following the Indo-European migrations, became extinct.
According to historians and linguists, the Proto-Turkic language originated in Central-East Asia, potentially in Altai-Sayan region, Mongolia or Tuva. Initially, Proto-Turkic speakers were potentially both hunter-gatherers and farmers; they later became nomadic pastoralists. Early and medieval Turkic groups exhibited a wide range of both East Asian and West-Eurasian physical appearances and genetic origins, in part through long-term contact with neighboring peoples such as Iranic, Mongolic, Tocharian, Uralic and Yeniseian peoples. In Central Asia, the earliest surviving Turkic language texts, found on the eighth-century Orkhon inscription monuments, were erected by the Göktürks in the sixth century CE, and include words not common to Turkic but found in unrelated Inner Asian languages. Although the ancient Turks were nomadic, they traded wool, leather, carpets, and horses for grain, silk, wood, and vegetables, and also had large ironworking stations in the south of the Altai Mountains during the 600s CE. Most of the Turkic peoples were followers of Tengrism, sharing the cult of the sky god Tengri, although there were also adherents of Manichaeism, Nestorian Christianity, and Buddhism. However, during the Muslim conquests, the Turks entered the Muslim world proper as slaves, the booty of Arab raids and conquests. The Turks began converting to Islam after the Muslim conquest of Transoxiana through the efforts of missionaries, Sufis, and merchants. Although initiated by the Arabs, the conversion of the Turks to Islam was filtered through Persian and Central Asian culture. Under the Umayyads, most were domestic servants, whilst under the Abbasid Caliphate, increasing numbers were trained as soldiers. By the ninth century, Turkish commanders were leading the caliphs’ Turkish troops into battle. As the Abbasid Caliphate declined, Turkish officers assumed more military and political power by taking over or establishing provincial dynasties with their own corps of Turkish troops.
Seljuk era
Main article: Seljuk dynasty See also: Seljuk Empire and Sultanate of RumDuring the 11th century, the Seljuk Turks, who were influenced by Persian civilization in many ways, grew in strength and succeeded in taking the eastern province of the Abbasid Empire. By 1055, the Seljuks captured Baghdad and began to make their first incursions into Anatolia. When they won the Battle of Manzikert against the Byzantine Empire in 1071, it opened the gates of Anatolia to them. Although ethnically Turkish, the Seljuk Turks appreciated and became carriers of Persian culture rather than Turkish culture. Nonetheless, the Turkish language and Islam were introduced and gradually spread over the region and the slow transition from a predominantly Christian and Greek-speaking Anatolia to a predominantly Muslim and Turkish-speaking one was underway.
In dire straits, the Byzantine Empire turned to the West for help, setting in motion the pleas that led to the First Crusade. Once the Crusaders took Iznik, the Seljuk Turks established the Sultanate of Rum from their new capital, Konya, in 1097. By the 12th century, Europeans had begun to call the Anatolian region Turchia or Turkey, the land of the Turks. The Turkish society in Anatolia was divided into urban, rural and nomadic populations; other Turkoman (Turkmen) tribes who had arrived into Anatolia at the same time as the Seljuks kept their nomadic ways. These tribes were more numerous than the Seljuks, and rejecting the sedentary lifestyle, adhered to an Islam impregnated with animism and shamanism from their Central Asian steppeland origins, which then mixed with new Christian influences. From this popular and syncretist Islam, with its mystical and revolutionary aspects, sects such as the Alevis and Bektashis emerged. Furthermore, intermarriage between the Turks and local inhabitants, as well as the conversion of many to Islam, also increased the Turkish-speaking Muslim population in Anatolia.
By 1243, at the Battle of Köse Dağ, the Mongols defeated the Seljuk Turks and became the new rulers of Anatolia, and in 1256, the second Mongol invasion of Anatolia caused widespread destruction. Particularly after 1277, political stability within the Seljuk territories rapidly disintegrated, leading to the strengthening of Turkoman principalities in the western and southern parts of Anatolia called the "beyliks".
Beyliks era
Main article: Anatolian beyliksWhen the Mongols defeated the Seljuk Turks and conquered Anatolia, the Turks became the vassals of the Ilkhans who established their own empire in the vast area which stretched from present-day Afghanistan to present-day Turkey. As the Mongols occupied more lands in Asia Minor, the Turks moved further into western Anatolia and settled in the Seljuk-Byzantine frontier. By the last decades of the 13th century, the Ilkhans and their Seljuk vassals lost control over much of Anatolia to these Turkoman peoples. A number of Turkish lords managed to establish themselves as rulers of various principalities, known as "Beyliks" or emirates. Amongst these beyliks, along the Aegean coast, from north to south, stretched the beyliks of Karasi, Saruhan, Aydin, Menteşe, and Teke. Inland from Teke was Hamid and east of Karasi was the beylik of Germiyan.
To the northwest of Anatolia, around Söğüt, was the small and, at this stage, insignificant, Ottoman beylik. It was hemmed into the east by other more substantial powers like Karaman on Iconium, which ruled from the Kızılırmak River to the Mediterranean. Although the Ottomans was only a small principality among the numerous Turkish beyliks, and thus posed the smallest threat to the Byzantine authority, their location in north-western Anatolia, in the former Byzantine province of Bithynia, became a fortunate position for their future conquests. The Latins, who had conquered the city of Constantinople in 1204 during the Fourth Crusade, established a Latin Empire (1204–1261), divided the former Byzantine territories in the Balkans and the Aegean among themselves, and forced the Byzantine Emperors into exile at Nicaea (present-day Iznik). From 1261 onwards, the Byzantines were largely preoccupied with regaining their control in the Balkans. Toward the end of the 13th century, as Mongol power began to decline, the Turkoman chiefs assumed greater independence.
Ottoman Empire
Main articles: Ottoman Empire and Ottoman TurksUnder its founder, Osman I, the nomadic Ottoman beylik expanded along the Sakarya River and westward towards the Sea of Marmara. Thus, the population of western Asia Minor had largely become Turkish-speaking and Muslim in religion. It was under his son, Orhan I, who had attacked and conquered the important urban center of Bursa in 1326, proclaiming it as the Ottoman capital, that the Ottoman Empire developed considerably. In 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe and established a foothold on the Gallipoli Peninsula while at the same time pushing east and taking Ankara. Many Turks from Anatolia began to settle in the region which had been abandoned by the inhabitants who had fled Thrace before the Ottoman invasion. However, the Byzantines were not the only ones to suffer from the Ottoman advance for, in the mid-1330s, Orhan annexed the Turkish beylik of Karasi. This advancement was maintained by Murad I who more than tripled the territories under his direct rule, reaching some 100,000 square miles (260,000 km), evenly distributed in Europe and Asia Minor. Gains in Anatolia were matched by those in Europe; once the Ottoman forces took Edirne (Adrianople), which became the capital of the Ottoman Empire in 1365, they opened their way into Bulgaria and Macedonia in 1371 at the Battle of Maritsa. With the conquests of Thrace, Macedonia, and Bulgaria, significant numbers of Turkish emigrants settled in these regions. This form of Ottoman-Turkish colonization became a very effective method to consolidate their position and power in the Balkans. The settlers consisted of soldiers, nomads, farmers, artisans and merchants, dervishes, preachers and other religious functionaries, and administrative personnel.
In 1453, Ottoman armies, under Sultan Mehmed II, conquered Constantinople. Mehmed reconstructed and repopulated the city, and made it the new Ottoman capital. After the Fall of Constantinople, the Ottoman Empire entered a long period of conquest and expansion with its borders eventually going deep into Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. Selim I dramatically expanded the empire's eastern and southern frontiers in the Battle of Chaldiran and gained recognition as the guardian of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. His successor, Suleiman the Magnificent, further expanded the conquests after capturing Belgrade in 1521 and using its territorial base to conquer Hungary, and other Central European territories, after his victory in the Battle of Mohács as well as also pushing the frontiers of the empire to the east. Following Suleiman's death, Ottoman victories continued, albeit less frequently than before. The island of Cyprus was conquered, in 1571, bolstering Ottoman dominance over the sea routes of the eastern Mediterranean. However, after its defeat at the Battle of Vienna, in 1683, the Ottoman army was met by ambushes and further defeats; the 1699 Treaty of Karlowitz, which granted Austria the provinces of Hungary and Transylvania, marked the first time in history that the Ottoman Empire actually relinquished territory.
By the 19th century, the empire began to decline when ethno-nationalist uprisings occurred across the empire. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction and in the Russian Empire resulted in estimated 5 million deaths, with the casualties including Turks. Five to seven or seven to nine million refugees migrated into modern-day Turkey from the Balkans, Caucasus, Crimea, and Mediterranean islands, shifting the center of the Ottoman Empire to Anatolia. In addition to a small number of Jews, the refugees were overwhelmingly Muslim; they were both Turkish and non-Turkish people, such as Circassians and Crimean Tatars. Paul Mojzes has called the Balkan Wars an "unrecognized genocide", where multiple sides were both victims and perpetrators.
By 1913, the government of the Committee of Union and Progress started a program of forcible Turkification of non-Turkish minorities. By 1914, the World War I broke out, and the Turks scored some success in Gallipoli during the Battle of the Dardanelles in 1915. During World War I, the government of the Committee of Union and Progress continued to implement its Turkification policies, which affected non-Turkish minorities, such as the Armenians during the Armenian genocide and the Greeks during various campaigns of ethnic cleansing and expulsion. In 1918, the Ottoman Government agreed to the Mudros Armistice with the Allies.
The Treaty of Sèvres —signed in 1920 by the government of Mehmet VI— dismantled the Ottoman Empire. The Turks, under Mustafa Kemal Pasha, rejected the treaty and fought the Turkish War of Independence, resulting in the abortion of that text, never ratified, and the abolition of the Sultanate. Thus, the 623-year-old Ottoman Empire ended.
Modern era
See also: History of the Republic of TurkeyOnce Mustafa Kemal led the Turkish War of Independence against the Allied forces that occupied the former Ottoman Empire, he united the Turkish Muslim majority and successfully led them from 1919 to 1922 in overthrowing the occupying forces out of what the Turkish National Movement considered the Turkish homeland. The Turkish identity became the unifying force when, in 1923, the Treaty of Lausanne was signed and the newly founded Republic of Turkey was formally established. Atatürk's presidency was marked by a series of radical political and social reforms that transformed Turkey into a secular, modern republic with civil and political equality for sectarian minorities and women.
Throughout the 1920s and the 1930s, Turks, as well as other Muslims, from the Balkans, the Black Sea, the Aegean islands, the island of Cyprus, the Sanjak of Alexandretta (Hatay), the Middle East, and the Soviet Union continued to arrive in Turkey, most of whom settled in urban north-western Anatolia. The bulk of these immigrants, known as "Muhacirs", were the Balkan Turks who faced harassment and discrimination in their homelands. However, there were still remnants of a Turkish population in many of these countries because the Turkish government wanted to preserve these communities so that the Turkish character of these neighbouring territories could be maintained. One of the last stages of ethnic Turks immigrating to Turkey was between 1940 and 1990 when about 700,000 Turks arrived from Bulgaria. Today, between a third and a quarter of Turkey's population are the descendants of these immigrants.
Geographic distribution
Main article: Turkish populationTraditional areas of Turkish settlement
Turkey
The ethnic Turks are the largest ethnic group in Turkey and number approximately 60 million to 65 million. Due to differing historical Turkish migrations to the region, dating from the Seljuk conquests in the 11th century to the continuous Turkish migrations which have persisted to the present day (especially Turkish refugees from neighboring countries), there are various accents and customs which can distinguish the ethnic Turks by geographic sub-groups. For example, the most significant are the Anatolian Turks in the central core of Asiatic Turkey whose culture was influential in underlining the roots of the Turkish nationalist ideology. There are also nomadic Turkic tribes who descend directly from Central Asia, such as the Yörüks; the Black Sea Turks in the north whose "speech largely lacks the vowel harmony valued elsewhere"; the descendants of muhacirs (Turkish refugees) who fled persecution from former Ottoman territories in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries; and more recent refugees who have continued to flee discrimination and persecution since the mid-1900s.
Initially, muhacirs who arrived in Eastern Thrace and Anatolia came fleeing from former Ottoman territories which had been annexed by European colonial powers (such as France in Algeria or Russia in Crimea); however, the largest waves of ethnic Turkish migration came from the Balkans during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, when the Balkan Wars led to most of the region becoming independent from Ottoman control. The largest waves of muhacirs came from the Balkans (especially Bulgaria, Greece, Romania and Yugoslavia); however, substantial numbers also came from Cyprus, the Sanjak of Alexandretta, the Middle East (including Trans-Jordan and Yemen) North African (such as Algeria and Libya) and the Soviet Union (especially from Meskheti).
The Turks who remained in the former Ottoman territories continued to face discrimination and persecution thereafter leading many to seek refuge in Turkey, especially Turkish Meskhetians deported by Joseph Stalin in 1944; Turkish minorities in Yugoslavia (i.e., Turkish Bosnians, Turkish Croatians, Turkish Kosovars, Turkish Macedonians, Turkish Montenegrins and Turkish Serbians) fleeing Josip Broz Tito's regime in the 1950s; Turkish Cypriots fleeing the Cypriot intercommunal violence of 1955–74; Turkish Iraqis fleeing discrimination during the rise of Arab nationalism in the 1950s and 1970s followed by the Iran–Iraq War of 1980–88; Turkish Bulgarians fleeing the Bulgarisation policies of the so-called "Revival Process" under the communist ruler Todor Zivkov in the 1980s; and Turkish Kosovars fleeing the Kosovo War of 1998–99.
Today, approximately 15–20 million Turks living in Turkey are the descendants of refugees from the Balkans; there are also 1.5 million descendants from Meskheti and over 600,000 descendants from Cyprus. The Republic of Turkey continues to be a land of migration for ethnic Turkish people fleeing persecution and wars. For example, there are approximately 1 million Syrian Turkmen living in Turkey due to the current Syrian civil war.
Cyprus
See also: Turkish Cypriots and List of Turkish CypriotsThe Turkish Cypriots are the ethnic Turks whose Ottoman Turkish forebears colonized the island of Cyprus in 1571. About 30,000 Turkish soldiers were given land once they settled in Cyprus, which bequeathed a significant Turkish community. In 1960, a census by the new Republic's government revealed that the Turkish Cypriots formed 18.2% of the island's population. However, once inter-communal fighting and ethnic tensions between 1963 and 1974 occurred between the Turkish and Greek Cypriots, known as the "Cyprus conflict", the Greek Cypriot government conducted a census in 1973, albeit without the Turkish Cypriot populace. A year later, in 1974, the Cypriot government's Department of Statistics and Research estimated the Turkish Cypriot population was 118,000 (or 18.4%). A coup d'état in Cyprus on 15 July 1974 by Greeks and Greek Cypriots favoring union with Greece (also known as "Enosis") was followed by military intervention by Turkey whose troops established Turkish Cypriot control over the northern part of the island. Hence, census's conducted by the Republic of Cyprus have excluded the Turkish Cypriot population that had settled in the unrecognized Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. Between 1975 and 1981, Turkey encouraged its own citizens to settle in Northern Cyprus; a report by CIA suggests that 200,000 of the residents of Cyprus are Turkish.
Balkans
Ethnic Turks continue to inhabit certain regions of Greece, North Macedonia, Kosovo, Romania, and Bulgaria since they first settled there during the Ottoman period. As of 2019, the Turkish population in the Balkans is over 1 million. Majority of Balkan Turks were killed or deported in the Muslim Persecution during Ottoman Contraction and arrived to Turkey as Muhacirs.
The majority of the Rumelian/Balkan Turks are the descendants of Ottoman settlers. However, the first significant wave of Anatolian Turkish settlement to the Balkans dates back to the mass migration of sedentary and nomadic subjects of the Seljuk sultan Kaykaus II (b. 1237 – d. 1279/80) who had fled to the court of Michael VIII Palaiologos in 1262.
Albania
The Turkish Albanians are one of the smallest Turkish communities in the Balkans. Once Albania came under Ottoman rule, Turkish colonization was scarce there; however, some Anatolian Turkish settlers did arrive in 1415–30 and were given timar estates. According to the 2011 census, the Turkish language was the sixth most spoken language in the country (after Albanian, Greek, Macedonian, Romani, and Aromanian).
Bosnia and Herzegovina
See also: Turks in Bosnia and HerzegovinaThe Turkish Bosnians have lived in the region since the Ottoman rule of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Thus, the Turks form the oldest ethnic minority in the country. The Turkish Bosnian community decreased dramatically due to mass emigration to Turkey when Bosnia and Herzegovina came under Austro-Hungarian rule.
In 2003 the Parliamentary Assembly of Bosnia and Herzegovina adopted the "Law on the Protection of Rights of Members of National Minorities" which officially protected the Turkish minority's cultural, religious, educational, social, economic, and political freedoms.
Bulgaria
See also: Turks in Bulgaria and List of Bulgarian TurksThe Turks of Bulgaria form the largest Turkish community in the Balkans as well as the largest ethnic minority group in Bulgaria. According to the 2011 census, they form a majority in the Kardzhali Province (66.2%) and the Razgrad Province (50.02%), as well as substantial communities in the Silistra Province (36.09%), the Targovishte Province (35.80%), and the Shumen Province (30.29%). They were ethnically cleansed during the Muslim Persecution during Ottoman Contraction and subsequently targeted during the Revival Process that aimed to assimilate them into a Bulgarian identity.
Croatia
See also: Turks in Croatia and Turkish CroatiaThe Turkish Croatians began to settle in the region during the various Croatian–Ottoman wars. Despite being a small minority, the Turks are among the 22 officially recognized national minorities in Croatia.
Greece
See also: Turks in Greece, Turks of Western Thrace, Turks of the Dodecanese, and Cretan TurksKosovo
See also: Turks in KosovoThe Turkish Kosovars are the third largest ethnic minority in Kosovo (after the Serbs and Bosniaks). They form a majority in the town and municipality of Mamuša.
Montenegro
See also: Turks in MontenegroThe Turkish Montenegrins form the smallest Turkish minority group in the Balkans. They began to settle in the region following the Ottoman rule of Montenegro. A historical event took place in 1707 which involved the killing of the Turks in Montenegro as well as the murder of all Muslims. This early example of ethnic cleaning features in the epic poem The Mountain Wreath (1846). After the Ottoman withdrawal, the majority of the remaining Turks emigrated to Istanbul and İzmir. Today, the remaining Turkish Montenegrins predominantly live in the coastal town of Bar.
North Macedonia
See also: Turks in North Macedonia and List of Macedonian TurksThe Turkish Macedonians form the second largest Turkish community in the Balkans as well as the second largest minority ethnic group in North Macedonia. They form a majority in the Centar Župa Municipality and the Plasnica Municipality as well as substantial communities in the Mavrovo and Rostuša Municipality, the Studeničani Municipality, the Dolneni Municipality, the Karbinci Municipality, and the Vasilevo Municipality.
Romania
See also: Turks of Romania and Ada KalehThe Turkish Romanians are centered in the Northern Dobruja region. The only settlement which still has a Turkish majority population is in Dobromir located in the Constanța County. Historically, Turkish Romanians also formed a majority in other regions, such as the island of Ada Kaleh which was destroyed and flooded by the Romanian government for the construction of the Iron Gate I Hydroelectric Power Station.
Serbia
See also: Turks in SerbiaThe Turkish Serbians have lived in Serbia since the Ottoman conquests in the region. They have traditionally lived in the urban areas of Serbia. In 1830, when the Principality of Serbia was granted autonomy, most Turks emigrated as "muhacirs" (refugees) to Ottoman Turkey, and by 1862 almost all of the remaining Turks left Central Serbia, including 3,000 from Belgrade. Today, the remaining community mostly live in Belgrade and Sandžak.
Caucasus
Azerbaijan
See also: Turks in AzerbaijanThe Turkish Azerbaijanis began to settle in the region during the Ottoman rule, which lasted between 1578 and 1603. By 1615, the Safavid ruler, Shah Abbas I, solidified control of the region and then deported thousands of people from Azerbaijan. In 1998, there was still approximately 19,000 Turks living in Azerbaijan who descended from the original Ottoman settlers; they are distinguishable from the rest of Azeri society because they practice Sunni Islam (rather than the dominant Shia sect in the country).
Since the Second World War, the Turkish Azerbaijani community has increased significantly due to the mass wave of Turkish Meskhetian refugees who arrived during the Soviet rule.
Georgia
Abkhazia
See also: Turks in AbkhaziaThe Turkish Abkhazians began to live in Abkhazia during the sixteenth century under Ottoman rule. Today, there are still Turks who continue to live in the region.
Meskheti
See also: Meskhetian TurksPrior to the Ottoman conquest of Meskheti in Georgia, hundreds of thousands of Turkic invaders had settled in the region from the thirteenth century. At this time, the main town, Akhaltsikhe, was mentioned in sources by the Turkish name "Ak-sika", or "White Fortress". Thus, this accounts for the present day Turkish designation of the region as "Ahıska". Local leaders were given the Turkish title "Atabek" from which came the fifteenth century name of one of the four kingdoms of what had been Georgia, Samtskhe-Saatabago, "the land of the Atabek called Samtskhe ". In 1555 the Ottomans gained the western part of Meskheti after the Peace of Amasya treaty, whilst the Safavids took the eastern part. Then in 1578 the Ottomans attacked the Safavid controlled area which initiated the Ottoman–Safavid War (1578–1590). Meskheti was fully secured into the Ottoman Empire in 1639 after a treaty signed with Iran brought an end to Iranian attempts to take the region. With the arrival of more Turkish colonizers, the Turkish Meskhetian community increased significantly.
However, once the Ottomans lost control of the region in 1883, many Turkish Meskhetians migrated from Georgia to Turkey. Migrations to Turkey continued after the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) followed by the Bolshevik Revolution (1917), and then after Georgia was incorporated into the Soviet Union. During this period, some members of the community also relocated to other Soviet borders, and those who remained in Georgia were targeted by the Sovietisation campaigns. Thereafter, during World War II, the Soviet administration initiated a mass deportation of the remaining 115,000 Turkish Meskhetians in 1944, forcing them to resettle in the Caucasus and the Central Asian Soviet republics.
Thus, today hundreds of thousands of Turkish Meskhetians are scattered throughout the Post Soviet states (especially in Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Russia, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan and Ukraine). Moreover, many have settled in Turkey and the United States. Attempts to repatriate them back to Georgia saw Georgian authorities receive applications covering 9,350 individuals within the two-year application period (up until 1 January 2010).
Levant and the Middle East
Iraq
See also: Iraqi Turkmen and TurkmeneliCommonly referred to as the Iraqi Turkmens, the Turks are the second largest ethnic minority group in Iraq (i.e. after the Kurds). The majority are the descendants of Ottoman settlers (e.g. soldiers, traders and civil servants) who were brought into Iraq from Anatolia. Today, most Iraqi Turkmen live in a region they refer to as "Turkmeneli" which stretches from the northwest to the east at the middle of Iraq with Kirkuk placed as their cultural capital.
Historically, Turkic migrations to Iraq date back to the 7th century when Turks were recruited in the Umayyad armies of Ubayd-Allah ibn Ziyad followed by thousands more Turkmen warriors arriving under the Abbasid rule. However, most of these Turks became assimilated into the local Arab population. The next large scale migration occurred under the Great Seljuq Empire after Sultan Tuğrul Bey's invasion in 1055. For the next 150 years, the Seljuk Turks placed large Turkmen communities along the most valuable routes of northern Iraq. Yet, the largest wave of Turkish migrations occurred under the four centuries of Ottoman rule (1535–1919). In 1534, Suleiman the Magnificent secured Mosul within the Ottoman Empire and it became the chief province (eyalet) responsible for administrative districts in the region. The Ottomans encouraged migration from Anatolia and the settlement of Turks along northern Iraq. After 89 years of peace, the Ottoman–Safavid War (1623–1639) saw Murad IV recapturing Baghdad and taking permanent control over Iraq which resulted in the influx of continuous Turkish settlers until Ottoman rule came to an end in 1919.
After the establishment of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, the Iraqi Turkmens initially sought for Turkey to annex the Mosul Vilayet. However, they participated in elections for the Constituent Assembly with the condition of preserving the Turkish character in Kirkuk's administration and the recognition of Turkish as the liwa's official language. Although they were recognized as a constitutive entity of Iraq, alongside the Arabs and Kurds, in the constitution of 1925, the Iraqi Turkmen were later denied this status. Thereafter, the Iraqi Turkmen found themselves increasingly discriminated against from the policies of successive regimes, such as the Kirkuk Massacre of 1923, 1947, 1959 and in 1979 when the Ba'th Party discriminated against the community.
Thus, the position of the Iraqi Turkmens has changed from historically being administrative and business classes of the Ottoman Empire to an increasingly discriminated minority. Arabization and Kurdification policies have seen Iraqi Turkmens pushed out of their homeland and thus various degrees of suppression and assimilation have ranged from political persecution and exile to terror and ethnic cleansing. Many Iraqi Turkmen have consequently sought refuge in Turkey whilst there has also been increasing migration to Western Europe (especially Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden and the United Kingdom) as well as Canada, the United States, Australia and New Zealand.
Egypt
See also: Turks in EgyptThe Turkish Egyptians are mostly the descendants of Turkish settlers who arrived during the Ottoman rule of Egypt (1517–1867 and 1867–1914). However, with the exception of the Fatimid rule of Egypt, the region was ruled from the Tulunid period (868–905) until 1952 by a succession of individuals who were either of Turkish origin or who had been raised according to the traditions of the Turkish state. Hence, during the Mamluk Sultanate, Arabic sources show that the Bahri period referred to its dynasty as the State of the Turks (Arabic: دولة الاتراك, Dawlat al-Atrāk; دولة الترك, Dawlat al-Turk) or the State of Turkey (الدولة التركية, al-Dawla al-Turkiyya). Nonetheless, the Ottoman legacy has been the most significance in the preservation of the Turkish culture in Egypt which still remains visible today.
Jordan
See also: Turks in JordanLebanon
See also: Turks in LebanonThe Lebanese Turkmen are the ethnic Turks who constitute one of the ethnic groups in Lebanon. The historic rule of several Turkic dynasties in the region saw continuous Turkish migration waves to Lebanon during the Tulunid rule (868–905), Ikhshidid rule (935–969), Seljuk rule (1037–1194), Mamluk rule (1291–1515), and Ottoman rule (1516–1918). Today, most of the Turkish Lebanese community are the descendants of the Ottoman Turkish settlers to Lebanon from Anatolia. However, with the declining territories of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century, ethnic Turkish minorities from other parts of the former Ottoman territories found refuge in Ottoman Lebanon, especially Algerian Turks after the French colonization of North Africa in 1830, and Cretan Turks in 1897 due to unrest in Greece.
Palestine
See also: Turks in Palestine and Israeli TurkmenPalestine was under Ottoman rule for over four centuries, from 1517 until 1922. Consequently, many Palestinian families have Turkish origins. However, Turkish migration did not simply come to a halt after the Ottoman period. Rather, during the British rule of Cyprus (1878-1960), many Turkish Cypriot families struggling during the Great Depression and its aftermath were forced to marry off their daughters to Arabs in British Palestine with hopes that they would have a better life there. Thousands of Turkish Cypriot women and girls were thus sent to Palestine until the late 1950s.
Turkish family surnames in Palestine often end with the letter's "ji" (e.g., al-Batniji and al-Shorbaji) whilst other common names include al-Gharbawi, Tarzi, Turk, Birkdar, Jukmadar, Radwan, Jasir and al-Jamasi.
As of 2022, there are still thousands of Palestinian families in Gaza who are of Turkish origin.
Saudi Arabia
Main article: Turks in Saudi ArabiaAs of today, the total estimate of ethnic Turks in Saudi Arabia numbered up to 270,000-350,000. After waves of Ottoman Turkish migration to the Saudi states, the Turks have made themselves one of the largest ethnic minorities in the country.
Syria
See also: Syrian Turkmen and Turkmen MountainThe Turkish-speaking Syrian Turkmen form the second largest ethnic minority group in Syria (i.e., after the Kurds); however, some estimates indicated that if Arabized Turks who no longer speaking Turkish are taken into account then they collectively form the largest ethnic minority in the country. The majority of Syrian Turkmen are the descendants of Anatolian Turkish settlers who arrived in the region during the Ottoman rule (1516–1918). Today, they mostly live near the Syria–Turkey border, stretching from the northwestern governorates of Idlib and Aleppo to the Raqqa Governorate. Many also reside in the Turkmen Mountain near Latakia, the city of Homs and its vicinity until Hama, Damascus, and the southwestern governorates of Dera'a (bordering Jordan) and Quneitra (bordering Israel).
Turkic migrations to Syria began in the 11th century, especially after the Seljuk Turks opened the way for mass migration of Turkish nomads once they entered northern Syria in 1071 and after they took Damascus in 1078 and Aleppo in 1086. By the 12th century the Turkic Zengid dynasty continued to settle Turkmes in Aleppo to confront attacks from the Crusaders. Further migrations occurred once the Mamluks entered Syria in 1260. However, the largest Turkmen migrations occurred after the Ottoman sultan Selim I conquered Syria in 1516. Turkish migration from Anatolia to Ottoman Syria was continuous for almost 400 years, until Ottoman rule ended in 1918.
In 1921 the Treaty of Ankara established Alexandretta (present-day Hatay) under an autonomous regime under French Mandate of Syria. Article 7 declared that the Turkish language would be an officially recognized language. However, once France announced that it would grant full independence to Syria, Mustafa Kemal demanded that Alexandretta be given its independence. Consequently, the Hatay State was established in 1938 and then petitioned for Ankara to unify Hatay with the Republic of Turkey. France agreed to the Turkish annexation on 23 July 1939.
Thereafter, Arabization policies saw the names of Turkish villages in Syria renamed with Arabic names and some Turkmen lands were nationalized and resettled with Arabs near the Turkish border. A mass exodus of Syrian Turkmen took place between 1945 and 1953, many of which settled in southern Turkey. Since the Syrian Civil War (2011–present), many Syrian Turkmen have been internally displaced and many have sought asylum in Turkey, Jordan, Lebanon and northern Iraq, as well as several Western European countries and Australia.
Maghreb
See also: Ottoman Algeria, Ottoman Tunisia, Ottoman Tripolitania, and KouloughlisThe Ottomans took control of Algeria in 1515 and Tunisia in 1534 (but took full control of the latter in 1574) which lead to the settlement of Turks in the region, particularly around the coastal towns. Once these regions came under French colonialism, the French classified the populations under their rule as either "Arab" or "Berber", despite the fact that these countries had diverse populations, which were also composed of ethnic Turks and Kouloughlis (i.e., people of partial Turkish origin). Jane E Goodman has said that:
From early on, the French viewed North Africa through a Manichean lens. Arab and Berber became the primary ethnic categories through which the French classified the population (Lorcin 1995: 2). This occurred despite the fact that a diverse and fragmented populace comprised not only various Arab and Berber tribal groups but also Turks, Andalusians (descended from Moors exiled from Spain during the Crusades), Kouloughlis (offspring of Turkish men and North African women), blacks (mostly slaves or former slaves), and Jews.
Algeria
See also: Turks in AlgeriaAccording to the U.S. Department of State "Algeria's population, a mixture of Arab, Berber, and Turkish in origin"; meanwhile, Australia's Department of Foreign Affairs has reported that the demographics of Algeria (as well as that of Tunisia) includes a "strong Turkish admixture".
Today, Turkish descended families in Algeria continue to practice the Hanafi school of Islam (in contrast to the ethnic Arabs and Berbers who practice the Maliki school); moreover, many retain their Turkish-origin surnames — which mostly expresses a provenance or ethnic Turkish origin from Anatolia.
Libya
See also: Turks in LibyaThe Turkish Libyans form the second largest ethnic minority group in Libya (i.e. after the Berbers) and mostly live in Misrata, Tripoli, Zawiya, Benghazi and Derna. Some Turkish Libyans also live in more remote areas of the country, such as the Turkish neighborhood of Hay al-Atrak in the town of Awbari. They are the descendants of Turkish settlers who were encouraged to migrate from Anatolia to Libya during the Ottoman rule which lasted between 1555 and 1911.
Today, the city of Misrata is considered to be the "main center of the Turkish-origin community in Libya"; in total, the Turks form approximately two-thirds (est. 270,000) of Misrata's 400,000 inhabitants. Consequently, since the Libyan Civil War erupted in 2011, Misrata became "the bastion of resistance" and Turkish Libyans figured prominently in the war. In 2014 a former Gaddafi officer reported to the New York Times that the civil war was now an "ethnic struggle" between Arab tribes (like the Zintanis) against those of Turkish ancestry (like the Misuratis), as well as against the Berbers and Circassians.
Tunisia
See also: Turks in TunisiaTunisia's population is made up "mostly of people of Arab, Berber, and Turkish descent". The Turkish Tunisians began to settle in the region in 1534, with about 10,000 Turkish soldiers, when the Ottoman Empire answered the calls of Tunisia's inhabitants who sought the help of the Turks due to fears that the Spanish would invade the country. During the Ottoman rule, the Turkish community dominated the political life of the region for centuries; as a result, the ethnic mix of Tunisia changed considerably with the continuous migration of Turks from Anatolia, as well as other parts of the Ottoman territories, for over 300 years. In addition, some Turks intermarried with the local population and their male offspring were called "Kouloughlis".
Modern diaspora
Main article: Turkish diasporaEurope
See also: Turks in EuropeModern immigration of Turks to Western Europe began with Turkish Cypriots migrating to the United Kingdom in the early 1920s when the British Empire annexed Cyprus in 1914 and the residents of Cyprus became subjects of the Crown. However, Turkish Cypriot migration increased significantly in the 1940s and 1950s due to the Cyprus conflict. Conversely, in 1944, Turks who were forcefully deported from Meskheti in Georgia during the Second World War, known as the Meskhetian Turks, settled in Eastern Europe (especially in Russia and Ukraine). By the early 1960s, migration to Western and Northern Europe increased significantly from Turkey when Turkish "guest workers" arrived under a "Labour Export Agreement" with Germany in 1961, followed by a similar agreement with the Netherlands, Belgium and Austria in 1964; France in 1965; and Sweden in 1967. More recently, Bulgarian Turks, Romanian Turks, and Western Thrace Turks have also migrated to Western Europe.
In 1997 Professor Servet Bayram and Professor Barbara Seels said that there was 10 million Turks living in Western Europe and the Balkans (excluding Cyprus and Turkey). By 2010, Boris Kharkovsky from the Center for Ethnic and Political Science Studies said that there was up to 15 million Turks living in the European Union. According to Dr Araks Pashayan 10 million "Euro-Turks" alone were living in Germany, France, the Netherlands and Belgium in 2012. Yet, there are also significant Turkish communities living in Austria, the UK, Switzerland, Italy, Liechtenstein, the Scandinavian countries, and the Post-Soviet states.
North America
Main articles: Turkish Americans and Turkish CanadiansIn the 2000 United States Census 117,575 Americans voluntarily declared their ethnicity as Turkish. However, the actual number of Turkish Americans is considerably larger with most choosing not to declare their ethnicity. Thus, Turkish Americans have been considered to be a "hard to count" community. In 1996 Professor John J. Grabowski had estimated the number of Turks to be 500,000. By 2009, official institutions placed the number between 850,000 and 900,000; however, Turkish non-governmental organizations in the USA had claimed at least 3 million Turks in the USA. More recently, in 2012, the US Commerce Secretary, John Bryson, stated that the Turkish American community was over 1,000,000. Meanwhile, in 2021, Senator Brian Feldman said that there was "over 2 million Turkish Americans". The largest concentration of Turkish Americans are in New York City, and Rochester, New York; Washington, D.C.; and Detroit, Michigan. In addition, the Turks of South Carolina, are an Anglicized and isolated community identifying as Turkish in Sumter County were they have lived for over 200 years.
Regarding the Turkish Canadian community, Statistics Canada reports that 63,955 Canadians in the 2016 census listed Turk as an ethnic origin, including those who listed more than one origin. However, the Canadian Ambassador to Turkey, Chris Cooter, said that there was over 100,000 Turkish Canadians in 2018. The majority live in Ontario, mostly in Toronto, and there is also a sizable Turkish community in Montreal, Quebec.
Oceania
See also: Turkish AustralianA notable scale of Turkish migration to Australia began in the late 1940s when Turkish Cypriots began to leave the island of Cyprus for economic reasons, and then, during the Cyprus conflict, for political reasons, marking the beginning of a Turkish Cypriot immigration trend to Australia. The Turkish Cypriot community were the only Muslims acceptable under the White Australia Policy; many of these early immigrants found jobs working in factories, out in the fields, or building national infrastructure. In 1967, the governments of Australia and Turkey signed an agreement to allow Turkish citizens to immigrate to Australia. Prior to this recruitment agreement, there were fewer than 3,000 people of Turkish origin in Australia. According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics, nearly 19,000 Turkish immigrants arrived from 1968 to 1974. They came largely from rural areas of Turkey, approximately 30% were skilled and 70% were unskilled workers. However, this changed in the 1980s when the number of skilled Turks applying to enter Australia had increased considerably. Over the next 35 years the Turkish population rose to almost 100,000. More than half of the Turkish community settled in Victoria, mostly in the north-western suburbs of Melbourne. According to the 2006 Australian Census, 59,402 people claimed Turkish ancestry; however, this does not show a true reflection of the Turkish Australian community as it is estimated that between 40,000 and 120,000 Turkish Cypriots and 150,000 to 200,000 mainland Turks live in Australia. Furthermore, there has also been ethnic Turks who have migrated to Australia from Bulgaria, Greece, Iraq, and North Macedonia.
Post-Soviet states
Due to the ordered deportation of over 115,000 Meskhetian Turks from their homeland in 1944, during the Second World War, the majority were settled in the Post-Soviet states in the Caucasus and Central Asia. According to the 1989 Soviet Census, which was the last Soviet Census, 106,000 Meskhetian Turks lived in Uzbekistan, 50,000 in Kazakhstan, and 21,000 in Kyrgyzstan. However, in 1989, the Meshetian Turks who had settled in Uzbekistan became the target of a pogrom in the Fergana valley, which was the principal destination for Meskhetian Turkish deportees, after an uprising of nationalism by the Uzbeks. The riots had left hundreds of Turks dead or injured and nearly 1,000 properties were destroyed; thus, thousands of Meskhetian Turks were forced into renewed exile. Soviet authorities recorded many Meskhetian Turks as belonging to other nationalities such as "Azeri", "Kazakh", "Kyrgyz", and "Uzbek".
Culture
Further information: Culture of Turkey and Turkey § CultureLanguage
Main article: Turkish languageBased on geographic variants, the ethnic Turks speak various dialects of the Turkish language. As of 2021, Turkish remains "the largest and most vigorous Turkic language, spoken by over 80 million people".
Historically, Ottoman Turkish was the official language and lingua franca throughout the Ottoman territories and the Ottoman Turkish alphabet used the Perso-Arabic script. However, Turkish intellectuals sought to simplify the written language during the rise of Turkish nationalism in the nineteenth century.
By the twentieth century, intensive language reforms were thoroughly practiced; most importantly, Mustafa Kemal changed the written script to a Latin-based modern Turkish alphabet in 1928. Since then, the regulatory body leading the reform activities has been the Turkish Language Association which was founded in 1932.
The modern standard Turkish is based on the dialect of Istanbul. However, dialectal variation persists, in spite of the levelling influence of the standard used in mass media and the Turkish education system since the 1930s. The terms ağız or şive often refer to the different types of Turkish dialects.
Official status
Today, the modern Turkish language is used as the official language of Turkey and Northern Cyprus. It is also an official language in the Republic of Cyprus (alongside Greek). In Kosovo, Turkish is recognized as an official language in the municipalities of Prizren, Mamusha, Gjilan, Mitrovica, Pristina, and Vushtrri, whilst elsewhere in the country it is recognized as a minority language. Similarly, in North Macedonia Turkish is an official language where they form at least 20% of the population (which includes the Plasnica Municipality, the Centar Župa Municipality, and the Mavrovo and Rostuša Municipality), whilst elsewhere in the country it remains a minority language only. Iraq recognizes Turkish as an official language in all regions where Turks constitute the majority of the population, and as a minority language elsewhere. In several countries, Turkish is officially recognized as a minority language only, including in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, and Romania. However, in Greece the right to use the Turkish language is only recognized in Western Thrace; the sizable and longstanding minorities elsewhere in the country (i.e. Rhodes and Kos) do not benefit from this same recognition.
There are also several post-Ottoman nations which do not officially recognize the Turkish language but give rights to Turkish minorities to study in their own language (alongside the compulsory study of the official language of the country); this is practiced in Bulgaria and Tunisia.
Various variants of Turkish are also used by millions of Turkish immigrants and their descendants in Western Europe, however, there is no official recognition in these countries.
Turkish dialects
See also: Turkish dialects and Cypriot Turkish Kıbrısım An example of folk music in the Cypriot Turkish dialect.Problems playing this file? See media help.
There are three major Anatolian Turkish dialect groups spoken in Turkey: the West Anatolian dialect (roughly to the west of the Euphrates), the East Anatolian dialect (to the east of the Euphrates), and the North East Anatolian group, which comprises the dialects of the Eastern Black Sea coast, such as Trabzon, Rize, and the littoral districts of Artvin.
The Balkan Turkish dialects, also called the Rumelian Turkish dialects, are divided into two main groups: "Western Rumelian Turkish" and "Eastern Rumelian Turkish". The Western dialects are spoken in North Macedonia, Kosovo, western Bulgaria, northern Romania, Bosnia and Albania. The Eastern dialects are spoken in Greece, northeastern/southern Bulgaria and southeastern Romania. This division roughly follows through a borderline between west and east Bulgaria, which starts east of Lom and proceeds southwards to the east of Vratsa, Sofia and Samokov, and turns west reaching south of Kyustendil close to the borders with Serbia and North Macedonia. The eastern dialects lacks some of the phonetic peculiarities found in the western area; thus, its dialects are close to the central Anatolian dialects. The Turkish dialects spoken near the western Black Sea region (e.g., Ludogorie, Dobruja, and Bessarabia) show analogies with northeastern Anatolian Black Sea dialects.
The Cypriot Turkish dialect maintained features of the respective local varieties of the Ottoman settlers who mostly came from the Konya-Antalya-Adana region; furthermore, Cypriot Turkish was also influenced by Cypriot Greek. Today, the varieties spoken in Northern Cyprus are increasingly influenced by standard Turkish.The Cypriot Turkish dialect is being exposed to increasing standard Turkish through immigration from Turkey, new mass media, and new educational institutions.
The Iraqi Turkish dialects have similarities with certain Southeastern Anatolian dialects around the region of Urfa and Diyarbakır. Some linguists have described the Iraqi Turkish dialects as an "Anatolian" or an "Eastern Anatolian dialect". Historically, Iraqi Turkish was influenced by Ottoman Turkish and neighboring Azerbaijani Turkic. However, Istanbul Turkish is now a prestige language which exerts a profound influence on their dialects. The syntax in Iraqi Turkish therefore differs sharply from neighboring Irano-Turkic varieties, and shares characteristics which are similar with Turkish dialects in Turkey. Collectively, the Iraqi Turkish dialects also show similarities with Cypriot Turkish and Balkan Turkish regarding modality. The written language of the Iraqi Turkmen is based on Istanbul Turkish using the modern Turkish alphabet.
The Meskhetian Turkish dialect was originally spoken in Georgia until the Turkish Meskhetian community were forcefully deported and then dispersed throughout Turkey, Russia, Central Asia, Azerbaijan, Ukraine, and the United States. They speak an Eastern Anatolian dialect of Turkish, which hails from the regions of Kars, Ardahan, and Artvin. The Meskhetian Turkish dialect has also borrowed from other languages (including Azerbaijani, Georgian, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Russian, and Uzbek), which the Meskhetian Turks have been in contact with during the Russian and Soviet rule.
The Syrian Turkish dialects are spoken throughout the country. In Aleppo, Tell Abyad, Raqqa and Bayırbucak they speak Southeastern Anatolian dialects (comparable to Kilis, Antep, Urfa, Hatay and Yayladağı). In Damascus they speak Turkish language with a Yörük dialect. Currently, Turkish is the third most widely used language in Syria (after Arabic and Kurdish).
Religion
Most ethnic Turkish people are either practicing or non-practicing Muslims who follow the teachings of the Hanafi school of Sunni Islam. They form the largest Muslim community in Turkey and Northern Cyprus as well as the largest Muslim groups in Austria, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Germany, Liechtenstein, the Netherlands, Romania and Switzerland. In addition to Sunni Turks, there are Alevi Turks whose local Islamic traditions have been based in Anatolia, as well as the Bektashis traditionally centered in Anatolia and the Balkans.
In general, "Turkish Islam" is considered to be "more moderate and pluralistic" than in other Middle Eastern-Islamic societies. Historically, Turkish Sufi movements promoted liberal forms of Islam; for example, Turkish humanist groups and thinkers, such as the Mevlevis (whirling dervishes who follow Rumi), the Bektashis, and Yunus Emre emphasized faith over practicing Islam. During this tolerant environment under the Seljuk Turks, more Turkish tribes arriving in Anatolia during the 13th century found the liberal Sufi version of Islam closer to their shamanists traditions and chose to preserve some of their culture (such as dance and music). During the late Ottoman period, the Tanzimat policies introduced by the Ottoman intelligentsia fused Islam with modernization reforms; this was followed by Atatürk's secularist reforms in the 20th century.
Consequently, there are also many non-practicing Turkish Muslims who tend to be politically secular. For example, in Cyprus, the Turkish Cypriots are generally very secular and only attend mosques on special occasions (such as for weddings, funerals, and community gatherings). Even so, the Hala Sultan Tekke in Larnaca, which is the resting place of Umm Haram, is considered to be one of the holiest sites in Islam and remains an important pilgrimage site for the secular Turkish Cypriot community too. Similarly, in other urban areas of the Levant, such as in Iraq, the Turkish minority are mainly secular, having internalized the secularist interpretation of state–religion affairs practiced in the Republic of Turkey since its foundation in 1923.
In North Africa, the Turkish minorities have traditionally differentiated themselves from the Arab-Berber population who follow the Maliki school; this is because the Turks have continued to follow the teaching of the Hanafi school which was brought to the region by their ancestors during the Ottoman rule. Indeed, the Ottoman-Turkish mosques in the region are often distinguishable by pencil-like and octagonal minarets which were built in accordance with the traditions of the Hanafi rite.
The tradition of building mosques in the Ottoman-style (i.e. either in the imperial style based on Istanbul mosques or the provincial styles) has continued into the present day, both in traditional areas of settlement (e.g. in Turkey, the Balkans, Cyprus, and other parts of the Levant) as well as in Western Europe and North America where there are substantial immigrant communities.
Since the 1960s, "Turkish" was even seen as synonymous with "Muslim" in countries like Germany because Islam was considered to have a specific "Turkish character" and visual architectural style.
Arts and architecture
Further information: Turkish arts, Turkish literature, Poetry of Turkey, Music of Turkey, Turkish folk music, and Architecture of Turkey See also: Ottoman architectureTurkish architecture reached its peak during the Ottoman period. Ottoman architecture, influenced by Seljuk, Byzantine and Islamic architecture, came to develop a style all of its own. Overall, Ottoman architecture has been described as a synthesis of the architectural traditions of the Mediterranean and the Middle East.
As Turkey successfully transformed from the religion-based former Ottoman Empire into a modern nation-state with a very strong separation of state and religion, an increase in the modes of artistic expression followed. During the first years of the republic, the government invested a large amount of resources into fine arts; such as museums, theatres, opera houses and architecture. Diverse historical factors play important roles in defining the modern Turkish identity. Turkish culture is a product of efforts to be a "modern" Western state, while maintaining traditional religious and historical values. The mix of cultural influences is dramatized, for example, in the form of the "new symbols of the clash and interlacing of cultures" enacted in the works of Orhan Pamuk, recipient of the 2006 Nobel Prize in Literature. Traditional Turkish music include Turkish folk music (Halk müziği), Fasıl and Ottoman classical music (Sanat müziği) that originates from the Ottoman court. Contemporary Turkish music include Turkish pop music, rock, and Turkish hip hop genres.
Science
Main article: Science and technology in Turkey See also: List of Turkish philosophers and scientistsTurkey's spending on research and development as a share of GDP has risen from 0.47% in 2000 to 1.40% in 2021. Turkey ranks 16th in the world in terms of article output in scientific and technical journals, and 35th in Nature Index. Turkish patent office ranks 21st worldwide in overall patent applications, and 3rd in industrial design applications. Vast majority of applicants to the Turkish patent office are Turkish residents. In all patent offices globally, Turkish residents rank 21st for overall patent applications. In 2023, Turkey ranked 39th in the world and 4th among its upper-middle income group in the Global Innovation Index. It was one of the countries with a notable increase in the past decade.
Contemporary Turkish scientists include Aziz Sancar, who won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on how cells repair damaged DNA. He is one of two Turkish Nobel laureates and the first in the sciences. Immunologists Uğur Şahin and Özlem Türeci founded BioNTech, which is the company that developed one of the first efficacious vaccines against COVID-19. Erdal Arıkan invented polar codes, which is a key component of 5G technologies. Mathematician Cahit Arf is known for Hasse–Arf theorem and Arf invariant. Physician Hulusi Behçet discovered Behçet's disease. Other contemporary scientists include neurologist Gazi Yaşargil, physicists Feza Gürsey and Behram Kurşunoğlu, and astrophysicists Burçin Mutlu-Pakdil and Feryal Özel.
Genetics
Further information: Genetic studies on Turkish peopleTurkish genomic variation, along with several other Western Asian populations, looks most similar to genomic variation of South European populations such as southern Italians. Data from ancient DNA – covering the Paleolithic, the Neolithic, and the Bronze Age periods – showed that Western Asian genomes, including Turkish ones, have been greatly influenced by early agricultural populations in the area; later population movements, such as those of Turkic speakers, also contributed.
A 2014 whole genome sequencing study of Turkish genetics (on 16 individuals) concluded that the Turkish population forms a cluster with Southern European/Mediterranean populations, and the predicted contribution from ancestral East Asian populations (presumably Central Asian) is 21.7%. However, that is not a direct estimate of a migration rate, due to reasons such as unknown original contributing populations. Moreover, the genetic variation of various populations in Central Asia "has been poorly characterized"; Western Asian populations may also be "closely related to populations in the east". Meanwhile, Central Asia is home to numerous populations that "demonstrate an array of mixed anthropological features of East Eurasians (EEA) and West Eurasians (WEA)"; two studies showed Uyghurs have 40-53% ancestry classified as East Asian, with the rest being classified as European. A 2006 study suggested that the true Central Asian contributions to Anatolia was 13% for males and 22% for females (with wide ranges of confidence intervals), and the language replacement in Turkey and Azerbaijan might not have been in accordance with the elite dominance model.
Another study in 2021, which looked at whole-genomes and whole-exomes of 3,362 unrelated Turkish samples, resulted in establishing the first Turkish variome and found extensive admixture between South East Europeans, people from the Caucasus, Middle Eastern people, and other European populations in line with history of Turkey. Moreover, significant number of rare genome and exome variants were unique to modern-day Turkish population. Neighbouring populations in East and West, and Tuscan people in Italy were closest to Turkish population in terms of genetic similarity. Central Asian contribution to maternal, paternal, and autosomal genes were detected, consistent with the historical migration and expansion of Oghuz Turks from Central Asia. The authors speculated that the genetic similarity of the modern-day Turkish population with modern-day European populations might be due to spread of neolithic Anatolian farmers into Europe, which impacted the genetic makeup of modern-day European populations. Moreover, the study found no clear genetic separation between different regions of Turkey, leading authors to suggest that recent migration events within Turkey resulted in genetic homogenization. A 2022 study, which looked at modern-day populations and more than 700 ancient genomes from Southern Europe and West Asia covering a period of 11,000 years, found that Turkish people carry the genetic legacy of "both ancient people who lived in Anatolia for thousands of years covered by our study and people coming from Central Asia bearing Turkic languages."
See also
- Gagauz people
- Turkmens
- Azerbaijanis
- Meskhetian Turks
- Tahtacı
- Yörüks
- Turkophilia
- Anti-Turkish sentiment
- Turquerie
- Demographics of Turkey
Notes
a: "The history of Turkey encompasses, first, the history of Anatolia before the coming of the Turks and of the civilizations—Hittite, Thracian, Hellenistic, and Byzantine—of which the Turkish nation is the heir by assimilation or example. Second, it includes the history of the Turkish peoples, including the Seljuks, who brought Islam and the Turkish language to Anatolia. Third, it is the history of the Ottoman Empire, a vast, cosmopolitan, pan-Islamic state that developed from a small Turkish amirate in Anatolia and that for centuries was a world power."
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La France d'aujourd'hui est une société multiculturelle et multiethnique riche de 4,9 millions de migrants représentant environ 8 % de la population du pays. L'immigration massive de populations du sud de l'Europe de culture catholique après la deuxième guerre mondiale a été suivie par l'arrivée de trois millions d'Africains du Nord, d'un million de Turcs et de contingents importants d'Afrique Noire et d'Asie qui ont implanté en France un islam majoritairement sunnite (Maghrébins et Africains de l'Ouest) mais aussi chiite (Pakistanais et Africains de l'Est).
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- ^ Barthold (1962)""The book of my grandfather Korkut" ("Kitab-i dedem Korkut") is an outstanding monument of the medieval Oghuz heroic epic. Three modern Turkic-speaking peoples - Turkmens, Azerbaijanis and Turks - are ethnically and linguistically related to the medieval Oghuzes. For all these peoples, the epic legends deposited in the "Book of Korkut" represent an artistic reflection of their historical past."
- Freeman, Michael; Ellena, Katherine; Kator-Mubarez, Amina (2021), The Global Spread of Islamism and the Consequences for Terrorism, University of Nebraska Press, p. 83, ISBN 9781640124165,
there are now around 300,000 Turkish Cypriots in the United Kingdom.
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Almost 90 per cent of the UK's Turkish population lives in London, including as many as 400,000 Turkish Cypriots concentrated in areas of north and north-east London including Hackney, Enfield and Haringey.
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Avustralya ve Amerika Birleşik Devletleri, Kanada gibi uzak ülkelerin dışında aralarında Hollanda, İngiltere, İsveç, Fransa, Belçika ve Avusturya gibi ülkelerde de sayısı yadsınamayacak bir Batı Trakyalı Türk kitlesi yaşamaktadır.
- ^ Maeva, Mila (2008), "Modern Migration Waves of Bulgarian Turks", in Marushiakova, Elena (ed.), Dynamics of National Identity and Transnational Identities in the Process of European Integration, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, pp. 227–229, ISBN 9781847184719
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An estimated 20,000 to 25,000 Meskhetian Turks settled in Azerbaijan between 1958 and 1962. The inflow continued over the years, although pinpointing precise numbers is difficult because many were officially registered as Azerbaijani. Vatan leaders in Azerbaijan asserted that close to 40,000 Meskhetian Turks were living in the republic in 1989, the time of the last Soviet census. Those numbers were then augmented by the more than 45,000 who arrived in Azerbaijan to escape the Uzbekistan troubles. Up to 5,000 more have come to Azerbaijan from Russia during the 1990s, according to some estimates.
- UNHCR (1999), Background Paper on Refugees and Asylum Seekers from Azerbaijan (PDF), United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, p. 14
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Because of the high birthrates their number is constantly increasing and, according to sources, has already reached 400,000. ... It is true that the last Soviet census of 1989 gives a lower figure – 207,369; however, one should take into account that far from all Meskhetian Turks have been registered as such. For years many were even denied the right to register their nationality in legal documents. Thus, by 1988 in Kazakhstan, only one third of them were recorded as Turks on their passports. The rest had been arbitrarily declared members of other ethnic groups.
- ^ Aydıngün et al. 2006: This figure, however, does not reflect the real population of Meskhetian Turks, because Soviet authorities recorded many of them as belonging to other nationalities such as Azeri, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, and Uzbek."
- ^ Khalifa, Mustafa (2013), "The impossible partition of Syria", Arab Reform Initiative: 3–5, archived from the original on 27 March 2019, retrieved 27 March 2019,
Turkmen are the third largest ethnic group in Syria, making up around 4–5% of the population. Some estimations indicate that they are the second biggest group, outnumbering Kurds, drawing on the fact that Turkmen are divided into two groups: the rural Turkmen who make up 30% of the Turkmen in Syria and who have kept their mother tongue, and the urban Turkmen who have become Arabized and no longer speak their mother language.
- Piccinin, Pierre (2011), Après avoir été sur le terrain, La Libre Belgique,
Les Turcomans pratiquant exclusivement leur dialecte turc sont 1 500 000. L'ensemble des Turcomans de Syrie (y compris ceux qui ont adopté l'arabe comme langue usuelle), sont estimés entre 3,5 et 6 millions, soit de 15 à 20 % de la population. C'est le troisième groupe de population en importance.
- Ahmida, Ali Abdullatif (2011), The Making of Modern Libya: State Formation, Colonization, and Resistance, Second Edition, State University of New York, p. 44, ISBN 9781438428932,
The majority of the population came from Turkish, Arab Berber, or black backgrounds, in addition to the religious minorities... Some inhabitants, like the Cologhli, were descendants of the old Turkish ruling class...
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Among the Turks may be distinguished a number of regional variants that do not function as ethnic groups but merely reflect differing historical and ecological circumstances. To some extent, differences of accent, customs, and outlook distinguish the regions and are popularly expressed in regional stereotypes. Three of the most important of these variants are Anatolian Turks, the peasantry of central core of Asiatic Turkey, whose culture is said to underlie Turkish nationalism; Rumelian Turks, primarily immigrants from Balkan territories of the empire of their descendants; and central Asian Turks, the assorted Turkic tibesmen from Asia who have come to Turkey. Others, such as the Black Sea Turks, whose speech largely lacks the vowel harmony valued elsewhere and whose natural predilections are thought to be toward extremely devout religion and the sea, are also distinguished.
- Şimşir, Bilal (1989), "The Turks of Bulgaria, 1878–1985", Turkish Quarterly Review Digest, 3 (15), Directorate General of Press and Information: 6,
The Balkan Turks and the Anatolian Turks together constituted the core of the Ottoman Empire and its founding element.
- Cornell, Svante E. (2005), Small Nations and Great Powers: A Study of Ethnopolitical Conflict in the Caucasus, Routledge, p. 171, ISBN 9781135796693,
Many Georgians have advocated that the Meskhetian Turks should be sent to Turkey, 'where they belong'. The Turkish authorities have, nevertheless, been reluctant to accept them, probably as they are afraid of experiencing a massive migration of ethnic Turks from different parts of the Balkans, the Middle East and the CIS. Other examples are that Turks in Western Thrace and Bulgaria, as well as Turkish Cypriots, face difficulties in obtaining Turkish citizenship. Rather, Turkey wants these minority groups, perhaps for strategic reasons, to remain in or return to their ancestral lands.
- Saatçi, Suphi (2018), "The Turkman of Iraq", in Bulut, Christiane (ed.), Linguistic Minorities in Turkey and Turkic-Speaking Minorities of the Periphery, Harrassowitz Verlag, p. 331, ISBN 978-3447107235
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- "Austria", Annual Report on International Religious Freedom 2007, February 2008, 110–2 Report, United States Government Publishing Office, 2008, p. 253,
By far the largest ethnic group is Turkish, of which 123,000 have Turkish citizenship, Many more ethnic Turks are Austrian citizens.
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Turkish immigrants began arriving in Denmark in the late 1960s. After subsequent family migration, people of Turkish descent now make up the largest ethnic minority group in Denmark.
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Turks are the largest immigrant group in both Germany and the Netherlands.
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So the Seljuk sultanate was a successor state ruling part of the medieval Greek empire, and within it the process of Turkification of a previously Hellenized Anatolian population continued. That population must already have been of very mixed ancestry, deriving from ancient Hittite, Phrygian, Cappadocian, and other civilizations as well as Roman and Greek.
- ^ Leonard, Thomas M. (2006). "Turkey". Encyclopedia of the Developing World, Volume 3. Routledge. p. 1576. ISBN 9781579583880.
Turkey's diversity is derived from its central location near the world's earliest civilizations as well as a history replete with population movements and invasions. The Hattite culture was prominent during the Bronze Age prior to 2000 BCE, but was replaced by the Indo-European Hittites who conquered Anatolia by the second millennium ... Subsequently, Hellenization of the elites transformed Anatolia into a largely Greek-speaking region
- ^ Sahadeo, Jeff; Zanca, Russell (2007). Everyday life in Central Asia : past and present. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. pp. 22–23. ISBN 978-0253013538.
-
- Kaser 2011, p. 336: "The emerging Christian nation states justified the prosecution of their Muslims by arguing that they were their former “suppressors”. The historical balance: between about 1820 and 1920, millions of Muslim casualties and refugees back to the remaining Ottoman Empire had to be registered; estimations speak about 5 million casualties and the same number of displaced persons"
- Gibney & Hansen 2005, p. 437: ‘Muslims had been the majority in Anatolia, the Crimea, the Balkans, and the Caucasus and a plurality in southern Russia and sections of Romania. Most of these lands were within or contiguous with the Ottoman Empire. By 1923, “only Anatolia, eastern Thrace, and a section of the southeastern Caucasus remained to the Muslim land....Millions of Muslims, most of them Turks, had died; millions more had fled to what is today Turkey. Between 1821 and 1922, more than five million Muslims were driven from their lands. Five and one-half million Muslims died, some of them killed in wars, others perishing as refugees from starvation and disease” (McCarthy 1995, 1). Since people in the Ottoman Empire were classified by religion, Turks, Albanians, Bosnians, and all other Muslim groups were recognized—and recognized themselves—simply as Muslims. Hence, their persecution and forced migration is of central importance to an analysis of “Muslim migration.”’
- Karpat 2001, p. 343: "The main migrations started from Crimea in 1856 and were followed by those from the Caucasus and the Balkans in 1862 to 1878 and 1912 to 1916. These have continued to our day. The quantitative indicators cited in various sources show that during this period a total of about 7 million migrants from Crimea, the Caucasus, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean islands settled in Anatolia. These immigrants were overwhelmingly Muslim, except for a number of Jews who left their homes in the Balkans and Russia in order to live in the Ottoman lands. By the end of the century the immigrants and their descendants constituted some 30 to 40 percent of the total population of Anatolia, and in some western areas their percentage was even higher." ... "The immigrants called themselves Muslims rather than Turks, although most of those from Bulgaria, Macedonia, and eastern Serbia descended from the Turkish Anatolian stock who settled in the Balkans in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries."
- Karpat 2004, pp. 5–6: "Migration was a major force in the social and cultural reconstruction of the Ottoman state in the nineteenth century. While some seven to nine million, mostly Muslim, refugees from lost territories in the Caucasus, Crimea, Balkans and Mediterranean islands migrated to Anatolia and Eastern Thrace, during the last quarter of the nineteenth and the early part of the twentieth centuries..."
- Pekesen 2012: "The immigration had far-reaching social and political consequences for the Ottoman Empire and Turkey." ... "Between 1821 and 1922, some 5.3 million Muslims migrated to the Empire.50 It is estimated that in 1923, the year the republic of Turkey was founded, about 25 per cent of the population came from immigrant families.51"
- Biondich 2011, p. 93: "The road from Berlin to Lausanne was littered with millions of casualties. In the period between 1878 and 1912, as many as two million Muslims emigrated voluntarily or involuntarily from the Balkans. When one adds those who were killed or expelled between 1912 and 1923, the number of Muslim casualties from the Balkan far exceeds three million. By 1923 fewer than one million remained in the Balkans"
- Armour 2012, p. 213: "To top it all, the Empire was host to a steady stream of Muslim refugees. Russia between 1854 and 1876 expelled 1.4 million Crimean Tartars, and in the mid-1860s another 600,000 Circassians from the Caucasus. Their arrival produced further economic dislocation and expense."
- Tasar, Frank & Eden 2021, pp. 6–7
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- Uchiyama et al. 2020: "Most linguists and historians agree that Proto-Turkic, the common ancestor of all ancient and contemporary Turkic languages, must have been spoken somewhere in Central-East Asia (e.g. Róna-Tas, Reference Róna-Tas1991, p. 35; Golden, Reference Golden1992, pp. 124–127; Menges, Reference Menges1995, pp. 16–19)."
- Golden, Peter B. (2011). Studies on the Peoples and Cultures of the Eurasian Steppes. Editura Academiei Române. pp. 37–38. ISBN 978-973-27-2152-0.
- Uchiyama et al. 2020: "The ultimate Proto-Turkic homeland may have been located in a more compact area, most likely in Eastern Mongolia"
- Lee & Kuang 2017: "The best candidate for the Turkic Urheimat would then be northern and western Mongolia and Tuva, where all these haplogroups could have intermingled, rather than eastern and southern Mongolia..."
- Uchiyama et al. 2020:"To sum up, the palaeolinguistic reconstruction points to a mixed subsistence strategy and complex economy of the Proto-Turkic-speaking community. It is likely that the subsistence of the Early Proto-Turkic speakers was based on a combination of hunting–gathering and agriculture, with a later shift to nomadic pastoralism as an economy basis, partly owing to the interaction of the Late Proto-Turkic groups with the Iranian-speaking herders of the Eastern Steppe."
-
- Lee 2023, p. 4: "It should also be noted that even the early Turkic peoples, including the Tiele and the Türks, were made up of heterogeneous elements. Importantly, DNA studies demonstrate that the expansion process of the Turkic peoples involved the Turkicization of various non-Turkic-speaking groups. The “Turks” intermixed with and Turkicized various indigenous groups across Eurasia: Uralic hunter-gatherers in northern Eurasia; Mongolic nomads in Mongolia; Indo-European-speaking nomads and sedentary populations in Xinjiang, Transoxiana, Iran, Kazakhstan, and South Siberia; and Indo-European elements (the Byzantine subjects, among others) in Anatolia and the Balkans.11"
- Findley 2005, p. 18: "Moreover, Turks do not all physically look alike. They never did. The Turks of Turkey are famous for their range of physical types. Given the Turks' ancient Inner Asian origins, it is easy to imagine that they once presented a uniform Mongoloid appearance. Such traits seem to be more characteristic in the eastern Turkic world; however, uniformity of type can never have prevailed there either. Archeological evidence indicates that Indo-Europeans, or certainly Europoid physical types, inhabited the oases of the Tarim basin and even parts of Mongolia in ancient times. In the Tarim basin, persistence of these former inhabitants' genes among the modern Uyghurs is both observable and scientifically demonstrable.32 Early Chinese sources describe the Kirghiz as blue-eyed and blond or red-haired. The genesis of Turkic ethnic groups from earliest times occurred in confederations of diverse peoples. As if to prove the point, the earliest surviving texts in Turkic languages are studded with terms from other languages."
- Golden, Peter B. (25 July 2018). "The Ethnogonic Tales of the Türks". The Medieval History Journal. 21 (2): 291–327. doi:10.1177/0971945818775373. ISSN 0971-9458. S2CID 166026934."Some DNA tests point to the Iranian connections of the Ashina and Ashide,133 highlighting further that the Turks as a whole 'were made up of heterogeneous and somatically dissimilar populations'.134 Geographically, the accounts cover the regions of Inner Mongolia, Gansu, Xinjiang, the Yenisei zone and the Altay, regions with Turkic, Indo-European (Iranian and Tokharian), Yeniseic, Uralic and other populations. Wusun elements, like most steppe polities of an ethno-linguistic mix, may have also played a substratal role."
- Lee & Kuang 2017: "Both Chinese histories and modern dna studies indicate that the early and medieval Turkic peoples were made up of heterogeneous populations"
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By 1913 the advocates of liberalism had lost out to radicals in the party who promoted a program of forcible Turkification.
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With the crushing of opposition elements, the Young Turks simultaneously launched their program of forcible Turkification and the creation of a highly centralized administrative system."
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In 1914, the aim of Turkification was not to exterminate but to expel as many Greeks of the Aegean region as possible as not only a "security measure," but as an extension of the policy of economic and cultural boycott, while at the same time creating living space for the muhadjirs that had been driven out of their homes under equally brutal circumstances.
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...the initial stages of the Turkification of the Empire, which affected by attacks on its very heterogeneous structure, thereby ushering in a relentless process of ethnic cleansing that eventually, through the exigencies and opportunities of the First World War, culminated in the Armenian Genocide.
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Through this genocide and the forced deportation of the Greeks, the nationalists completed the Young Turk's program-the Turkification of Turkey and the elimination of a pretext for Great Power meddling.
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The devising of a scheme of a correlative Turkification of the Empire, or what was left of it, included the cardinal goal of the liquidation of that Empire's residual non-Turkish elements. Given their numbers, their concentration in geo-strategic locations, and the troublesome legacy of the Armenian Question, the Armenians were targeted as the prime object for such a liquidation.
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During the 1950s some 300,000 ethnic Turks left Bosnia, Macedonia and other south-eastern parts of Yugoslavia for Turkey.
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UNHCR notes that a number of members of the Turkish Kosovar community – around 60,000 people before the war - left for Turkey. This community is under increasing pressure, notably from the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA), who seek to 'Albanianise' them, and make them relinquish their language, stated the AFP.
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Given the strong demographic growth in Turkey, today 15-20 million Turks could be descendants of immigrants from South East Europe.
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It is often said that if the descendants of those who migrated from Cyprus to Turkey back in 1931 are included, the number of Turkish Cypriots living in the "motherland" might exceed 600,000.
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1 Milyon Suriyeli Türkmen Vatandaşlık Hakkından Yararlanmak İstiyor.
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Further reading
- Cezayir Ülke Raporu 2008, Algeria Embassy Trade Consultancy, archived from the original on 29 September 2013.
- "Community Profile: Kosovo Turks", Kosovo Communities Profile 2010, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, 8 February 2011.
- "COMUNICAT DE PRESĂ – privind rezultatele provizorii ale Recensământului Populaţiei şi Locuinţelor – 2011" [PRESS RELEASE – on the provisional results of the Population and Housing Census – 2011] (PDF) (Press release) (in Romanian). Romania: Central Commission for the Census of Population and Housing. 2 February 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 August 2019. Retrieved 14 May 2012.
- Cyprus: Bridging the Property Divide (Report). Europe Report N°210. International Crisis Group. 9 December 2010. Archived from the original on 3 November 2011.
- Turkey and the Iraqi Kurds: Conflict or Cooperation? (Report). Middle East Report N°81. International Crisis Group. 13 November 2008. Archived from the original on 12 January 2011.
- Population by ethnic groups, regions, counties and areas (PDF), Romania: National Institute of Statistics, 2002
- The Report: Algeria 2008, Oxford Business Group, 2008, ISBN 978-1-902339-09-2.
External links
- Media related to People of Turkey at Wikimedia Commons
Demographics of Turkey | |
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Census in Turkey | |
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Central Asian (i.e. Turkmeni, Afghani and Iranian) Turkmens, distinct from Levantine (i.e. Iraqi and Syrian) Turkmen/Turkoman minorities, who mostly adhere to an Ottoman-Turkish heritage and identity. In traditional areas of Turkish settlement (i.e. former Ottoman territories). |