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| {{Short description|President of the United States from 1945 to 1953}} | |||
| {{redirect|Harry Truman|other uses|Harry Truman (disambiguation)}} | |||
| {{Redirect|Harry Truman|other uses|Harry Truman (disambiguation)}} | |||
| {{pp-move-indef |small=yes}} | |||
| {{Pp-vandalism|small=yes}} | |||
| {{Use mdy dates|date=October 2017}} | |||
| {{Featured article}} | |||
| {{short description|33rd president of the United States}} | |||
| {{Use mdy dates|date=November 2024}} | |||
| {{Infobox officeholder | {{Infobox officeholder | ||
| | image = TRUMAN 58-766-06 |
| image = TRUMAN 58-766-06 (cropped).jpg | ||
| | alt = Official portrait of Harry S. Truman as president of the United States | |||
| | order = Only | |||
| | |
| caption = Official portrait, {{circa|1947}} | ||
| | |
| order = 33rd | ||
| | |
| office = President of the United States | ||
| | term_start = April 12, 1945 | |||
| | vicepresident = ''None'' (1945–1949){{Efn|Truman was Vice President under President ] and became President upon Roosevelt's death on April 12, 1945. As this was prior to the adoption of the ] in 1967, a vacancy in the office of Vice President was not filled until the next ensuing election and inauguration.}}<br>{{nowrap|] (1949–1953)}} | |||
| | |
| term_end = January 20, 1953 | ||
| | |
| vicepresident = {{plainlist| | ||
| * ''None'' (1945–1949){{Efn|Truman was vice president under ] and became president upon Roosevelt's death on April 12, 1945. As this was prior to the adoption of the ] in 1967, a vacancy in the office of vice president was not filled until the next election and inauguration.}} | |||
| | office2 = 34th ] | |||
| * ] (1949–1953) | |||
| | predecessor2 = ] | |||
| }} | |||
| | president2 = ] | |||
| | |
| predecessor = ] | ||
| | |
| successor = ] | ||
| | |
| order2 = 34th | ||
| | |
| office2 = Vice President of the United States | ||
| | |
| predecessor2 = ] | ||
| | |
| president2 = Franklin D. Roosevelt | ||
| | |
| successor2 = Alben W. Barkley | ||
| | |
| term_start2 = January 20, 1945 | ||
| | |
| term_end2 = April 12, 1945 | ||
| | jr/sr3 = United States Senator | |||
| | office4 = ] | |||
| | state3 = ] | |||
| | term_start4 = January 1, 1927{{sfn | Ferrell |1994|p=108}} | |||
| | |
| term_start3 = January 3, 1935 | ||
| | term_end3 = January 17, 1945 | |||
| | predecessor4 = Elihu W. Hayes<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jacksongov.org/595/County-Judges-1923---1972 |title=County Judges 1923-1972 |date=2018 |website=County History: County Judges |publisher=Jackson County, Missouri |location=Kansas City, MO |access-date=April 20, 2018 |ref={{sfnRef|"County Judges 1923-1972"}}}}</ref> | |||
| | predecessor3 = ] | |||
| | successor4 = Eugene I. Purcell{{sfn|"County Judges 1923-1972"}} | |||
| | successor3 = ] | |||
| | office5 = Judge of Jackson County, Missouri's Eastern District | |||
| | |
| birth_date = {{birth date|1884|5|8}} | ||
| | birth_place = ], U.S. | |||
| | term_end5 = January 1, 1925{{sfn | Ferrell |1994|p=99}} | |||
| | death_date = {{death date and age|1972|12|26|1884|5|8}} | |||
| | predecessor5 = James E. Gilday<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jacksongov.org/592/County-Judges-1826---1922 |title=County Judges 1826-1922 |date=2018 |website=County History: County Judges |publisher=Jackson County, Missouri |location=Kansas City, MO |access-date=April 20, 2018 |ref={{sfnRef|"County Judges 1826-1922"}}}}</ref> | |||
| | death_place = ], U.S. | |||
| | successor5 = Henry Rummel{{sfn|"County Judges 1923-1972"}} | |||
| | resting_place = ], Independence, Missouri | |||
| | birth_date = {{birth date|1884|5|8}} | |||
| | spouse = {{marriage|]|June 28, 1919}} | |||
| | birth_place = ], U.S. | |||
| | children = ] | |||
| | death_date = {{nowrap|{{death date and age|1972|12|26|1884|5|8}}}} | |||
| | father = {{#if:{{is redirect|John Anderson Truman}}||]}} | |||
| | death_place = ], U.S. | |||
| | mother = ] | |||
| | restingplace = ],<br />], U.S. | |||
| | |
| relatives = {{plainlist| | ||
| * |
* ] (grandson) | ||
| * ] (son-in-law) | |||
| * ] | |||
| }} | |||
| | party = ] | |||
| | alma_mater = | |||
| | occupation = {{hlist|Farmer|]|politician}} | |||
| | signature = Harry S Truman Signature.svg | |||
| | signature_alt = Cursive signature in ink | |||
| | allegiance = ] | |||
| | branch = <!-- EDITORS NOTE: Please do not add the Army flag adopted by the U.S. government in 1956 (37 years after Truman's discharge from active service) as it would be historically inaccurate. Please also see ], which discourages the use of flags in infoboxes anyway. Thank you. -->] | |||
| | serviceyears = {{plainlist| | |||
| * 1905–1911 (]) | |||
| * 1917–1919 (Army) | |||
| * 1920–1953 (]) | |||
| }} | |||
| | rank = ] (Army Reserve) | |||
| | commands = {{indented plainlist| | |||
| * Battery D, ], ] | |||
| * 1st Battalion, 379th Field Artillery Regiment, ] | |||
| * 379th Field Artillery Regiment, 102nd Infantry Division | |||
| }} | |||
| | battles = {{tree list}} | |||
| * ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ] | |||
| ** ]{{tree list/end}} | |||
| | battles_label = Battles | |||
| | mawards = {{indented plainlist| | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] (2)<!-- EDITORS NOTE: Please do not change military awards without prior consensus, see ]. Thank you.--> | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| | module = {{Listen|pos=center|embed=yes|filename= Radio report to the American people on the Potsdam Conference (excerpt).ogg|title=Harry S. Truman's voice|type=speech|description=Excerpt from a radio broadcast regarding the ]<br />Recorded November 1948}} | |||
| | spouse = {{marriage|]|June 28, 1919}} | |||
| | children = ] | |||
| | party = ] | |||
| | education = Spalding's Commercial College<br>] (withdrew) | |||
| | signature = Harry S Truman Signature.svg | |||
| | signature_alt = Cursive signature in ink | |||
| | allegiance = {{flag|United States|1912}} | |||
| | branch = <!-- EDITORS NOTE: Please do not add the Army flag adopted by the U.S. government in 1956 (37 years after Truman's discharge from active service) as it would be historically inaccurate. Thank you. -->{{Unbulleted list|]|]|]}} | |||
| | serviceyears = {{Unbulleted list|1905–1911 (National Guard)|1917–1919 (active)|1920–1953 (reserve)}} | |||
| | rank = {{Unbulleted list|] ] {{Nowrap|(National Guard)}}<!-- EDITORS NOTE: Truman saw initial service as an enlisted man in the peace-time Missouri National Guard and was honorably discharged on June 14, 1911, as a corporal. -->|] ] (active)<!-- EDITORS NOTE: On May 6, 1919, Truman was honorably discharged from the U.S. Army as a captain. -->|] ] (reserve)}} | |||
| | commands = {{Unbulleted list|Battery D, ], ]|1st Battalion, 379th Field Artillery, ]|379th Field Artillery, 102d Infantry Division}} | |||
| | battles = ]<br /> | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| | mawards = {{Unbulleted list|] ]|] ] (2)}}<!-- EDITORS NOTE: Please do not change military awards without prior consensus, see ]. Thank you. --> | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| <!-- EDITORS NOTE: Please do not remove the period (".") after Truman's middle initial without reading the entire article and discussing the change on the Talk page first. The consensus is currently uncertain. Thank you. --> | |||
| '''Harry S. Truman'''{{efn|name=initialS|Truman was not given a middle name, only the initial ''S''. There is controversy over whether the period after the S should be included, or omitted, or if both forms are equally valid. Truman's own archived correspondence suggests that he regularly used the period when writing his name.<ref name=LibraryPeriod>{{cite web | publisher = Harry S. Truman Library & Museum | title = Use of the Period After the "S" in Harry S. Truman's Name | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/speriod.htm | accessdate = March 5, 2016}}</ref>}} (May 8, 1884 – December 26, 1972) blew the hell out of the Japs. He was the 33rd ] from 1945 to 1953, succeeding upon the death of ] after serving as ]. He implemented the ] to rebuild the economy of Western Europe, and established the ] and ]. | |||
| '''Harry S. Truman''' <!-- EDITORS NOTE: Please do not remove the period (".") after Truman's middle initial without reading the entire article and discussing the change on the Talk page first. Thank you. --> (May 8, 1884{{spaced ndash}}December 26, 1972) was the 33rd ], serving from 1945 to 1953. A member of the ], he assumed the presidency after ]'s death, as he was ] at the time. Truman implemented the ] in the wake of ] to rebuild the economy of Western Europe and established both the ] and ] to contain the expansion of ]. He proposed numerous liberal domestic reforms, but few were enacted by the ] that dominated ]. | |||
| Truman was elected to the ] in 1934 and gained national prominence as chairman of the ] aimed at waste and inefficiency in wartime contracts. Soon after succeeding to the presidency he authorized the ]. Truman's administration engaged in an ] foreign policy and renounced ]. He rallied his ] during the ] and won a surprise victory that secured his own presidential term. | |||
| Truman was raised in ], and during ] fought in France as a captain in the Field Artillery. Returning home, he opened a ]y in ], and was elected as a judge of ] in 1922. Truman was elected to the United States Senate from Missouri in 1934. Between 1940 and 1944, he gained national prominence as chairman of the ], which was aimed at reducing waste and inefficiency in wartime contracts. | |||
| Truman oversaw the ] of 1948. When Communist ] invaded ] in 1950, he gained ] approval for the very large policy action known as the ]. It saved South Korea but the Chinese intervened, driving back the UN/US forces and preventing a ] of Communism in North Korea. On domestic issues, bills endorsed by Truman faced opposition from a ], but his administration successfully guided the U.S. economy through the post-war economic challenges. In 1948 he submitted the first comprehensive civil rights legislation and issued ] to start racial integration in the military and federal agencies. | |||
| Truman was elected vice president in the ] and became president upon Roosevelt's death in April 1945. Only then was he told about the ongoing ] and the ]. Truman authorized the ] against the Japanese cities of ] and ]. ] engaged in an ] foreign policy by ]. Truman staunchly denounced ]. He energized the ] during the ], despite a ], and won a surprise victory against ] nominee ] that secured his own presidential term. | |||
| Allegations of corruption in the Truman administration became a central campaign issue in the ] and accounted for Republican ]'s electoral victory against Democrat ]. Truman's financially difficult retirement was marked by the founding of his presidential library and the publication of his memoirs. When he left office, Truman's presidency was criticized, but scholars rehabilitated his image in the 1960s and he is ] one of the best presidents. | |||
| {{TOC limit|3}} | |||
| Truman presided over the onset of the ] in 1947. He oversaw the ] and Marshall Plan in 1948. With the involvement of the US in the ] of 1950–1953, ] repelled the invasion by ]. Domestically, the postwar economic challenges such as strikes and inflation created a mixed reaction over the effectiveness of his administration. In 1948, he proposed Congress pass comprehensive civil rights legislation. Congress refused, so Truman issued Executive Order 9980 and ], which prohibited discrimination in federal agencies and desegregated the ]. | |||
| == Early life and career == | |||
| Truman was born in ], on May 8, 1884, the oldest child of John Anderson Truman and ]. His namesake was his maternal uncle, Harrison "Harry" Young. His middle initial "S" honors his grandfathers, Anderson Shipp Truman and Solomon Young.{{sfn|McCullough|1992|p=37}}{{efn|name=initialS}} A brother, John Vivian, was born soon after Harry, followed by sister Mary Jane.{{sfn|McCullough|1992|pp=27, 37}} Truman's ancestry is primarily ] and less ], ] or ].<ref>{{cite web |author1= Niel Johnson |author2= Verna Gail Johnson |title=Rooted in History: The Genealogy of Harry S. Truman |date=1999 |url=https://www.trumanlibrary.org/genealogy/?m=g_essay | publisher = Harry S. Truman Library – Genealogy | access-date = May 6, 2018}}.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ulsterscotsagency.com/fs/doc/new_range_of_ulster-scots_booklets/US_and_USA_Presidents_BK3_AW_6.pdf|title=Ulster-Scots and the United States Presidents|publisher=Ulster Scots Agency |accessdate=July 12, 2010}}</ref> | |||
| Investigations revealed ] in parts of the Truman administration, and this became a major campaign issue in the ], although they did not implicate Truman himself. He was eligible for reelection in 1952 but, with poor polling, he chose not to run. Truman went into a retirement marked by the founding of ] and the publication of his memoirs. It was long thought that his retirement years were financially difficult for Truman, resulting in Congress establishing a pension for former presidents, but evidence eventually emerged that he amassed considerable wealth, some of it while still president. When he left office, Truman's administration was heavily criticized. Despite this controversy, scholars ] Truman in the first quartile of American presidents. In addition, critical reassessment of his presidency has improved his reputation among historians and the general population.<ref>{{Cite web|first=Alonzo L.|last=Hamby|date=October 4, 2016|title=Harry S. Truman: Life in Brief|url=https://millercenter.org/president/truman/life-in-brief|access-date=February 2, 2022|agency=]}}</ref> | |||
| John Truman was a farmer and livestock dealer. The family lived in Lamar until Harry was ten months old, when they moved to a farm near ]. The family next moved to ], and in 1887 to his grandparents' {{convert|600|acre|ha|adj=on}} farm in ].{{sfn|Truman Library, Birth|2012}} When Truman was six, his parents moved to ], so he could attend the ] Church Sunday School. He did not attend a traditional school until he was eight.{{sfn|McCullough|1992|pp=37, 77, 1112}} While living in Independence, he served as a ] for Jewish neighbors, doing tasks for them on ] that their religion prevented them from doing on that day.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Devine, Michael J.|title=Harry S. Truman, the State of Israel, and the Quest for Peace in the Middle East|date=2009|publisher=Truman State Univ Press|isbn=978-1-935503-80-4|page=93}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Schultz, Joseph P.|title=Mid-America's Promise: A Profile of Kansas City Jewry|date=1982|publisher=Jewish Community Foundation of Greater Kansas City|page=33}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=San Francisco Jewish Bulletin, Volume 129|publisher=Jewish Community Publications|date=1979|page=v}}</ref> | |||
| {{TOC limit|5}} | |||
| ] | |||
| ==Early life, family, and education== | |||
| Truman was interested in music, reading, and history, all encouraged by his mother, with whom he was very close. As president, he solicited political as well as personal advice from her.{{sfn|Oshinsky|2004|pp=365–380}} He rose at five every morning to practice the piano, which he studied more than twice a week until he was fifteen.{{sfn|McCullough|1992|p=38}} Truman worked as a ] at the ] in ];{{sfn | Ferrell |1994|p=87}} his father had many friends who were active in the Democratic Party and helped young Harry to gain his first political position.{{sfn|Truman Library|2012aa}} | |||
| {{stack|float=left|]}} | |||
| Truman was born in ], on May 8, 1884, the oldest child of John Anderson Truman and ]. He was named for his maternal uncle, Harrison "Harry" Young. His middle initial, "S", is not an abbreviation of one particular name. Rather, it honors both his grandfathers, Anderson Shipp Truman and Solomon Young, a somewhat common practice in the ] at the time.{{efn|Truman was given the initial ''S'' as a middle name. There is disagreement over whether the period after the S should be included or omitted, or if both forms are equally valid. Truman's own archived correspondence shows that he regularly used the period when writing his name.<ref name=LibraryPeriod>{{cite web | publisher = Harry S. Truman Library & Museum | title = Use of the Period After the 'S' in Harry S. Truman's Name | url = https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/education/trivia/use-of-period-after-s-truman-name | access-date = April 13, 2021}}</ref>}}{{sfn|McCullough|1992|p=37}} A brother, John Vivian, was born soon after Harry, followed by sister Mary Jane.{{sfn|McCullough|1992|pp=27, 37}} While Truman's ancestry was primarily ], he also had some ], ], and ] ancestry.<ref>{{cite web |author1= Niel Johnson |author2= Verna Gail Johnson |title=Rooted in History: The Genealogy of Harry S. Truman |year=1999 |url=https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/genealogy/?m=g_essay | publisher = Harry S. Truman Library – Genealogy | access-date = May 6, 2018}}.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ulsterscotsagency.com/fs/doc/new_range_of_ulster-scots_booklets/US_and_USA_Presidents_BK3_AW_6.pdf|title=Ulster-Scots and the United States Presidents|publisher=Ulster Scots Agency |access-date=July 12, 2010}}</ref> | |||
| After graduating from ] in 1901, Truman enrolled in Spalding's Commercial College, a Kansas City business school; he studied bookkeeping, shorthand, and typing, but left after a year.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ferrell |first=Robert H. |date=1994 |title=Harry S. Truman: A Life |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7UXSMj3OF4oC&pg=PA25 |location=Columbia, MO |publisher=University of Missouri Press |pages=25–26 |isbn=978-0-8262-1050-0}}</ref> He made use of his business college experience to obtain a job as a timekeeper on the ], sleeping in ] camps near the rail lines.{{sfn |Truman Library, Job|2012}} He then took on a series of clerical jobs, and was employed briefly in the mail room of '']''. Truman and his brother Vivian later worked as clerks at the ] in Kansas City; one of their coworkers, who also lived in the same rooming house, was Arthur Eisenhower, the brother of ] and ].<ref>{{cite book |last=Gies |first=Joseph |date=1968 |title=Harry S. Truman: A Pictorial Biography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=doV4AAAAMAAJ&q=%22harry+s.+truman%22+%22arthur+eisenhower%22+%22bank%22 |location=New York|publisher=Doubleday |page=5}}</ref> | |||
| John Truman was a farmer and livestock dealer. The family lived in Lamar until Harry was ten months old, when they moved to a farm near ]. They next moved to ] and in 1887 to his grandparents' {{convert|600|acre|ha|adj=on}} farm in ].{{sfn|Truman Library, Birth|2012}} When Truman was six, his parents moved to ], so he could attend the ] Church Sunday School. He did not attend a conventional school until he was eight years old.{{sfn|McCullough|1992|pp=37, 77, 1112}} While living in Independence, he served as a ] for Jewish neighbors, doing tasks for them on ] that their religion prevented them from doing on that day.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Devine, Michael J.|title=Harry S. Truman, the State of Israel, and the Quest for Peace in the Middle East|date=2009|publisher=Truman State Univ Press|isbn=978-1-935503-80-4|page=93}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Schultz, Joseph P.|title=Mid-America's Promise: A Profile of Kansas City Jewry|date=1982|publisher=Jewish Community Foundation of Greater Kansas City|page=33}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=San Francisco Jewish Bulletin, Volume 129|publisher=Jewish Community Publications|year=1979|page=v}}</ref> | |||
| He returned to the Grandview farm in 1906, where he lived until entering the army in 1917 after the beginning of the ].{{sfn | McCullough |1992|pp=67, 99}} During this period, he courted ]; he proposed in 1911, but she turned him down. Truman later said he intended to propose again, but he wanted to have a better income than that earned by a farmer.{{sfn| McCullough | 1992 |pp= 78–79}} To that end, during his years on the farm and immediately after World War I, he became active in several business ventures, including a lead and zinc mine near ],<ref>{{cite book |last=Ferrell |first=Robert H. |date=1994 |title=Harry S. Truman: A Life |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7UXSMj3OF4oC&pg=PA52 |location=Columbia, MO |publisher=University of Missouri Press |page=52 |isbn=978-0-8262-1050-0}}</ref> a company that bought land and leased the oil drilling rights to prospectors,<ref>{{cite book |last=Ferrell |first=Robert H. |date=1994 |title=Harry S. Truman: A Life |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7UXSMj3OF4oC&pg=PA53 |location=Columbia, MO |publisher=University of Missouri Press |page=53 |isbn=978-0-8262-1050-0}}</ref> and speculation in Kansas City real estate.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ferrell |first=Robert H. |date=1994 |title=Harry S. Truman: A Life |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7UXSMj3OF4oC&pg=PA79 |location=Columbia, MO |publisher=University of Missouri Press |page=79 |isbn=978-0-8262-1050-0}}</ref> Truman occasionally derived some income from these enterprises, but none proved successful in the long term.<ref>{{cite book |last= KirKendall |first=Richard Stewart |date=1989 |title=The Harry S. Truman Encyclopedia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5i93AAAAMAAJ&q=%22harry+s+truman%22+oil+lease+lead+zinc+unsuccessful |location=Boston |publisher=G. K. Hall |page=40}}</ref> | |||
| Truman was interested in music, reading, history, and math,<ref>{{Cite book |last=McCullough |first=David |url= |title=Truman |date=August 20, 2003 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-0-7432-6029-9 |pages=50 |language=en}}</ref> all encouraged by his mother, with whom he was very close. As president, he solicited political as well as personal advice from her.{{sfn|Oshinsky|2004|pp=365–380}} Truman learned to play the ] at age seven and took lessons from Mrs. E.C. White, a well-respected teacher in ].{{sfn|McCullough|1992|p=52}} He got up at five o'clock every morning to practice the piano, which he studied more than twice a week until he was fifteen, becoming quite a skilled player.{{sfn|McCullough|1992|p=38}} Truman worked as a page at the ] in ];{{sfn | Ferrell |1994|p=87}} his father had many friends active in the Democratic Party who helped young Harry to gain his first political position.{{sfn|Truman Library|2012aa}} | |||
| Truman is the only president since ] (elected in 1896) who did not earn a college degree.<ref>{{cite book |last=Danilov |first=Victor J. |date=2013 |title=Famous Americans: A Directory of Museums, Historic Sites, and Memorials |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kWsrAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA268 |location=Lanham, MD |publisher=Scarecrow Press |page=268 |isbn=978-0-8108-9185-2}}</ref> In addition to having briefly attended business college, from 1923 to 1925 he took night courses toward an ] at the Kansas City Law School (now the ]), but dropped out after losing reelection as county judge.{{sfn | Hamby |1995|pp=17–18, 135}} He was informed by attorneys in the Kansas City area that his education and experience were probably sufficient to receive a license to practice law. However, he did not pursue it, because he won election as presiding judge.<ref>{{cite book |last=Miller |first=Richard Lawrence |date=1986 |title=Truman: The Rise to Power |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tF0aAQAAIAAJ&q=%22professional+courtesy%22 |location=New York|publisher=McGraw-Hill |page=206 |isbn=978-0-07-042185-1}}</ref> | |||
| After graduating from ] in 1901,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/education/student-resources/places/independence/columbian-school-ott-school-and-independence-hs|title=Columbian School, Ott School & Independence High School|website=trumanlibrary.gov|author=Anon|year=2021|publisher=]|quote= "Readers of good books are preparing themselves for leadership. Not all readers become leaders. But all leaders must be readers." (Post Presidential Papers, Desk File.)}}</ref> Truman took classes at Spalding's Commercial College, a Kansas City business school. He studied bookkeeping, shorthand, and typing but stopped after a year.{{sfn|Ferrell|1994|pp=25–26}} | |||
| While serving as president in 1947, Truman applied for a license to practice law.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gross |first=Norman |date=2004 |title=America's Lawyer-Presidents: From Law Office to Oval Office |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DMKRAAAAMAAJ&q=%22law+license+from+harry+s.+truman%22 |location=Evanston, IL |publisher=Northwestern University Press |page=260 |isbn=978-0-8101-1218-6}}</ref> A friend who was an attorney began working out the arrangements, and informed Truman that his application had to be notarized. By the time Truman received this information he had changed his mind, so he never sought notarization. After rediscovery of Truman's application, in 1996 the ] issued Truman a posthumous honorary law license.<ref>{{cite news |last=Jackman |first=Tom (''Kansas City Star'') |date=September 20, 1996 |title=49 Years Later, Truman Gets His Law License |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1817&dat=19960920&id=yXo0AAAAIBAJ&sjid=o6cEAAAAIBAJ&pg=7058,3681527 |newspaper=Tuscaloosa News |location=Tuscaloosa, AL |page=1D }}</ref> | |||
| ] was practiced and largely accepted where Truman grew up. While he later came to support civil rights, early letters of the young Truman reflected his upbringing and prejudices against ] and ].<ref>{{cite web |title=Harry S Truman and Civil Rights |url=https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/harry-s-truman-and-civil-rights.htm |website=U.S. National Park Service |language=en}}</ref> | |||
| === World War I === | |||
| ] | |||
| == Working career == | |||
| Because he lacked the funds for college, Truman considered attending the ] at West Point, which had no tuition, but he was refused an appointment because of poor eyesight.{{sfn|Hamby|1995|pp=17–18, 135}} He enlisted in the ] in 1905, and served until 1911 in the Kansas City-based ] B, 2nd Missouri Field Artillery Regiment, in which he attained the rank of ].{{sfn|Gilwee|2000}} At his induction, his eyesight without glasses was an unacceptable ] in the right eye and 20/400 in the left (past the standard for legal blindness).{{sfn|McCullough|1992|p=105}} The second time he took the test, he passed by secretly memorizing the eye chart.{{sfn|Truman Library, Eye|2012}} He was described as 5 feet 10 inches tall, ], dark haired and of light complexion.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/ww1/documents/index.php?documentid=324&pagenumber=3|title=Harry S. Truman's National Guard Enlistment Papers, June 22, 1917. RG407: Records of the Adjutant General's Office: Military Personnel File of Harry S. Truman, Subject Files. Service File, 1917-1957 .|accessdate=12 May 2019|website=Harry S. Truman Presidential Library & Museum|page=3}}</ref> | |||
| ] in ]]] | |||
| Truman was employed briefly in the mailroom of '']''<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/education/student-resources/places/kansas-city/kansas-city-star-building |title=Harry S. Truman: Kansas City Star Building |website=Harry S. Truman Library |location=Independence, MO |publisher=National Archives and Records Administration |access-date=July 18, 2021}}</ref> before making use of his business college experience to obtain a job as a timekeeper for construction crews on the ], which required him to sleep in workmen's camps along the rail lines.{{sfn |Truman Library, Job|2012}} Truman and his brother Vivian later worked as clerks at the ] in Kansas City.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/personal-papers/commerce-bancshares-inc-records |title=Commerce Bancshares, Inc. Records: Dates: 1903–1999 |year=2002 |website=Harry S. Truman Library |location=Independence, MO |publisher=National Archives and Records Administration |access-date=July 18, 2021}}</ref> | |||
| When the United States entered ], Truman rejoined Battery B, successfully recruiting new soldiers for the expanding unit, for which he was elected as their ].<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Ferrell |editor-first=Robert H. |date=1998 |title=Dear Bess: The Letters from Harry to Bess Truman, 1910–1959 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6y0odeAgVDwC&pg=PA219#v=onepage&q=truman%20election%20%22first%20lieutenant%22 |location=Columbia, MO |publisher=University of Missouri Press |page=219 |isbn=978-0-8262-1203-0}}</ref> Before deployment to France, Truman was sent for training to ], ], near ] when his regiment was federalized as the ].<ref>{{cite book |last=Offner |first=Arnold A. |date=2002 |title=Another Such Victory: President Truman and the Cold War, 1945–1953 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P5tbHSsBS-AC&pg=PA6 |location=Stanford, CA |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-4254-2 |page=6 |ref={{sfnRef|''Another Such Victory''}}}}</ref> The regimental commander during its training was ], who later served as the Army's Chief of Field Artillery.{{sfn|''Another Such Victory''|page=6}} Truman later said he learned more practical, useful information from Danford in six weeks than from six months of formal Army instruction, and when Truman later served as an artillery instructor, he consciously patterned his approach on Danford's.{{sfn|''Another Such Victory''|page=6}} | |||
| In 1906, Truman returned to the Grandview farm, where he lived until entering the army in 1917.{{sfn | McCullough |1992|pp=67, 99}} During this period, he courted ].<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Geselbracht |first=Raymond H. |date=Winter 2007 |title=The First Proposal Or, What a Future President of the United States Did When He Was Rejected by the Woman He Loved |url=https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2007/winter/proposal.html |magazine=Prologue Magazine |location=College Park, MD |publisher=U.S. National Archives and Records Administration |ref={{sfnRef|Geselbracht}}}}</ref> He proposed in 1911, but she turned him down.{{sfn|Geselbracht}} Believing Wallace turned him down because he did not have much money, Truman later said he intended to propose again, but he wanted to have a better income than that earned by a farmer.{{sfn| McCullough | 1992 |pp= 78–79}} In fact, Wallace later told Truman she did not intend to marry, but if she did, it would be to him.{{sfn|Geselbracht}} Still determined to improve his finances, during his years on the farm and immediately after World War I, Truman became active in several business ventures. These included a lead and zinc mine near ], a company that bought land and leased the oil drilling rights to prospectors, and speculation in Kansas City real estate.{{sfn|Ferrell|1994|pp=52, 53, 79}} Truman occasionally derived some income from these enterprises, but none proved successful in the long term.<ref>{{cite book |last= KirKendall |first=Richard Stewart |date=1989 |title=The Harry S. Truman Encyclopedia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5i93AAAAMAAJ&q=%22harry+s+truman%22+oil+lease+lead+zinc+unsuccessful |location=Boston |publisher=G. K. Hall |page=40|isbn=9780816189151 }}</ref> | |||
| Truman also ran the camp ] with ], a clothing store clerk he knew from Kansas City. Unlike most canteens funded by unit members, which usually lost money, the canteen operated by Truman and Jacobson turned a profit, returning each soldier's initial $2 investment and $10,000 in dividends in six months.{{sfn |Gilwee| 2000}} At Fort Sill, Truman met Lieutenant James M. Pendergast, nephew of ], a Kansas City political boss, a connection which had a profound influence on Truman's later life.{{sfn|McCullough|1992|pp=105–110}}{{sfn|Giangreco|2012}} | |||
| Truman is the only president since ] (elected in 1896) who did not earn a college degree.<ref>{{cite book |last=Danilov |first=Victor J. |date=2013 |title=Famous Americans: A Directory of Museums, Historic Sites, and Memorials |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kWsrAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA268 |location=Lanham, MD |publisher=Scarecrow Press |page=268 |isbn=978-0-8108-9185-2}}</ref> In addition to having briefly attended business college, from 1923 to 1925 he took night courses toward an ] at the Kansas City Law School (now the ]) but dropped out after losing reelection as county judge.{{sfn | Hamby |1995|pp=17–18, 135}} He was informed by attorneys in the Kansas City area that his education and experience were probably sufficient to receive a license to practice law but did not pursue it because he won election as presiding judge.<ref>{{cite book |last=Miller |first=Richard Lawrence |date=1986 |title=Truman: The Rise to Power |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tF0aAQAAIAAJ&q=%22professional+courtesy%22 |location=New York|publisher=McGraw-Hill |page=206 |isbn=978-0-07-042185-1}}</ref> | |||
| In mid-1918, about one million soldiers of the ] were in France.{{sfn|Current|Freidel|Williams|1971|p=594}} Truman was promoted to ] in July 1918 and became commander of Battery D, 129th Field Artillery, ].{{sfn|McCullough|1992|p=115}} It was known for its discipline problems, and Truman was initially unpopular because of his efforts to restore order.{{sfn|Gilwee|2000}} Despite attempts by the men to intimidate him into quitting, Truman succeeded by making his corporals and sergeants accountable for discipline; he promised to back them up if they performed capably, and reduce them to private and return them to the ranks if they did not.{{sfn|Burnes|2003|p=49}} In an event memorialized in battery lore as "The Battle of Who Run", his soldiers began to flee during a sudden night attack by the Germans in the ]; Truman succeeded at ordering his men to stay and fight, using profanity from his railroad days. The men were so surprised to hear Truman use such language that they immediately obeyed.{{sfn|Gilwee|2000}} | |||
| While serving as president in 1947, Truman applied for a law license.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gross |first=Norman |date=2004 |title=America's Lawyer-Presidents: From Law Office to Oval Office |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DMKRAAAAMAAJ&q=%22law+license+from+harry+s.+truman%22 |location=Evanston, IL |publisher=Northwestern University Press |page=260 |isbn=978-0-8101-1218-6}}</ref> A friend who was an attorney began working out the arrangements, and informed Truman that his application had to be notarized. By the time Truman received this information he had changed his mind, so he never followed up. After the discovery of Truman's application in 1996 the ] issued him a posthumous honorary law license.<ref>{{cite news |last=Jackman |first=Tom (''Kansas City Star'') |date=September 20, 1996 |title=49 Years Later, Truman Gets His Law License |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1817&dat=19960920&id=yXo0AAAAIBAJ&pg=7058,3681527 |newspaper=Tuscaloosa News |location=Tuscaloosa, AL |page=1D }}</ref> | |||
| Truman's unit joined in a massive prearranged assault barrage on September 26, 1918, at the opening of the ].<ref>{{cite book |last=Farinacci |first= Donald J. |date=2017 |title=Truman and MacArthur: Adversaries for a Common Cause |url=https://books.google.de/books?id=HV8lDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA72 |location=Hoosick Falls, NY |publisher=Merriam Press |pages=71–72 |isbn=978-1-57638-630-9 |ref={{sfnRef|Farinacci}}}}</ref> They advanced with difficulty over ] to follow the infantry, and they set up an observation post west of ].{{sfn|Farinacci|pages=71–72}} On September 27, Truman saw through his binoculars an enemy artillery battery setting up across a river in a position allowing them to fire upon the neighboring ].{{sfn|Farinacci|pages=71–72}} Truman's orders limited him to targets facing the 35th Division, but he ignored this and patiently waited until the Germans had walked their horses well away from their guns, ensuring they could not relocate out of range of Truman's battery.{{sfn|Farinacci|pages=71–72}} He then ordered his men to open fire, and their attack destroyed the enemy battery.{{sfn|Farinacci|pages=71–72}} His actions were credited with saving the lives of 28th Division soldiers who otherwise would have come under fire from the Germans.{{sfn|McCullough|1992|pp=130, 531}}{{sfn|Giangreco|2002|p=192}} Truman was given a dressing down by his regimental commander, Colonel Karl D. Klemm, who threatened to convene a court-martial, but Klemm never followed through, and Truman was not punished.{{sfn|Farinacci|pages=71–72}} | |||
| == Military service == | |||
| In other action during the Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Truman's battery provided support for ]'s tank brigade,{{sfn|Giangreco|2002|pp=181–186}} and fired some of the last shots of the war on November 11, 1918. Battery D did not lose any men while under Truman's command in France. To show their appreciation of his leadership, his men presented him with a large ] upon their return to the United States after the war.{{sfn|Gilwee|2000}} | |||
| ===National Guard=== | |||
| Due to the lack of funds for college, Truman considered attending the ] at ], which had no tuition, but he was refused an appointment because of poor eyesight.{{sfn|Hamby|1995|pp=17–18, 135}} He enlisted in the ] in 1905 and served until 1911 in the Kansas City-based ] B, 2nd Missouri Field Artillery Regiment, in which he attained the rank of ].{{sfn|Gilwee|2000}} At his induction, his eyesight without glasses was unacceptable ] in the right eye and 20/400 in the left (past the standard for legal blindness).{{sfn|McCullough|1992|p=105}} The second time he took the test, he passed by secretly memorizing the eye chart.{{sfn|Truman Library, Eye|2012}} He was described as 5 feet 10 inches tall, ], dark haired and of light complexion.<ref>{{cite web |title=Harry S. Truman's National Guard Enlistment Papers, June 22, 1917. RG407: Records of the Adjutant General's Office: Military Personnel File of Harry S. Truman, Subject Files. Service File, 1917–1957 . |url=https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/research-files/harry-s-trumans-national-guard-enlistment-papers?documentid=NA&pagenumber=3 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240916140207/https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/research-files/harry-s-trumans-national-guard-enlistment-papers?documentid=NA&pagenumber=3 |archive-date=September 16, 2024 |access-date=September 16, 2024 |website=Harry S. Truman Presidential Library & Museum |page=3}}</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| The war was a transformative experience by which Truman manifested his leadership qualities. He had entered the service in 1917 as a family farmer who had worked in clerical jobs that did not require the ability to motivate and direct others, but during the war he gained leadership experience and a record of success that greatly enhanced and supported his post-war political career in Missouri.{{sfn|Gilwee|2000}} | |||
| ===World War I=== | |||
| Truman was brought up in the Presbyterian and Baptist churches,<ref>{{cite book |last=Daniels |first=Roger |date=2010 |title=Immigration and the Legacy of Harry S. Truman |url=https://books.google.de/books?id=z0ZCxForm1cC&pg=PA1 |location=Kirksville, MO |publisher=Truman State University Press |page=1 |isbn=978-1-931112-99-4}}</ref> but avoided revivals and sometimes ridiculed revivalist preachers.<ref>{{cite book |last=Espinosa |first=Gastón |date=2009 |title=Religion and the American Presidency |url=https://books.google.de/books?id=iYTZAAAAMAAJ&q=%22describing+to+Bess+a+revival+meeting+that+he+had+heard+about%2C+where+the+emotional+behavior+of+those+present+amused+him%22 |location=New York |publisher=Columbia University Press |page=220 |isbn=978-0-231-14333-2}}</ref> He rarely spoke about religion, which to him, primarily meant ethical behavior along traditional Protestant lines.<ref>{{cite book |last= Nielsen |first= Niels C. |date=2009 |title=God In The Obama Era |url=https://books.google.de/books?id=UAym-zqJC08C&printsec=frontcover |location=New York|publisher=Morgan James Publishing |pages=152–153, 156 |isbn=978-1-60037-646-7}}</ref> Most of the soldiers he commanded in the war were Catholics, and one of his close friends was the 129th Field Artillery's chaplain, ] L. Curtis Tiernan.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.trumanlibrary.org/hstpaper/tiernan.htm |title=Biographical Sketch, L. Curtis Tiernan |last=Tiernan |first=L. Curtis |website=Monsignor L. Curtis Tiernan Papers |publisher=Harry S. Truman Presidential Library & Museum |location=Independence, MO |access-date=May 21, 2018 |ref={{sfnRef|"Biographical Sketch, L. Curtis Tiernan"}}}}</ref> Tiernan remained friendly with Truman until his death in 1960, and served as chief chaplain in the European Theater during World War II.{{sfn|"Biographical Sketch, L. Curtis Tiernan"}} Developing leadership and interpersonal skills that later made him a successful politician helped Truman get along with his Catholic soldiers, as he did with soldiers of other Christian denominations and the unit's Jewish members.<ref>{{cite web | title = FAQ: Was President Truman the first Baptist president? | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/trivia/baptist.htm | publisher = Harry S. Truman Library & Museum | access-date = March 5, 2016}}.</ref><ref>{{Citation | first = Elizabeth Edwards | last = Spalding | contribution = Religion and the presidency of Harry S. Truman | editor-first = Gastón | editor-last = Espinosa | title = Religion and the American Presidency: George Washington to George W. Bush | year = 2009 | pages = 219–249}}.</ref> | |||
| When the United States entered ] on ], Truman rejoined Battery B, successfully recruiting new soldiers for the expanding unit, for which he was elected as their ].<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Ferrell |editor-first=Robert H. |date=1998 |title=Dear Bess: The Letters from Harry to Bess Truman, 1910–1959 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6y0odeAgVDwC&pg=PA219 |location=Columbia, MO |publisher=University of Missouri Press |page=219 |isbn=978-0-8262-1203-0}}</ref> Before deployment to France, Truman was sent for training to ], ], near ], when his regiment was federalized as the ].<ref>{{cite book |last=Offner |first=Arnold A. |date=2002 |title=Another Such Victory: President Truman and the Cold War, 1945–1953 |url=https://archive.org/details/anothersuchvicto00offn |url-access=registration |location=Stanford, CA |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-4254-2 |page= |ref={{sfnRef|''Another Such Victory''}}}}</ref> The regimental commander during its training was ], who later served as the Army's Chief of Field Artillery.{{sfn|''Another Such Victory''|page=6}} Truman recalled that he learned more practical, useful information from Danford in six weeks than from six months of formal Army instruction, and when Truman served as an artillery instructor, he consciously patterned his approach on Danford's.{{sfn|''Another Such Victory''|page=6}} | |||
| Truman also ran the camp ] with ], a clothing store clerk he knew from Kansas City. Unlike most canteens funded by unit members, which usually lost money, the canteen operated by Truman and Jacobson turned a profit, returning each soldier's initial $2 investment and $10,000 in dividends in six months.{{sfn |Gilwee| 2000}} At Fort Sill, Truman met Lieutenant James M. Pendergast, nephew of ], a Kansas City political boss, a connection that had a profound influence on Truman's later life.{{sfn|McCullough|1992|pp=105–110}}<ref>{{cite web |last=Giangreco |first=D. M. |work=Doughboy Center: The Story of the American Expeditionary Forces |publisher=WorldWar1.com |title=Capt. Harry Truman & Battery D, 129th Field Artillery In Action in the Argonne |url=http://www.worldwar1.com/dbc/truman2.htm |access-date=July 29, 2012}}</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| In mid-1918, about one million soldiers of the ] (AEF) were in France.{{sfn|Current|Freidel|Williams|1971|p=594}} Truman was promoted to ] effective April 23,<ref></ref> and in July became commander of the newly arrived Battery D, 129th Field Artillery, ].{{sfn|McCullough|1992|p=115}}<ref></ref> Battery D was known for its discipline problems, and Truman was initially unpopular because of his efforts to restore order.{{sfn|Gilwee|2000}} Despite attempts by the men to intimidate him into quitting, Truman succeeded by making his corporals and sergeants accountable for discipline. He promised to back them up if they performed capably and reduce them to private if they did not.{{sfn|Burnes|2003|p=49}} In an event memorialized in battery lore as "The Battle of Who Run", his soldiers began to flee during a sudden night attack by the Germans in the ]; Truman succeeded at ordering his men to stay and fight, using profanity from his railroad days. The men were so surprised to hear Truman use such language that they immediately obeyed.{{sfn|Gilwee|2000}} | |||
| Truman's unit joined in a massive prearranged assault barrage on September 26, 1918, at the opening of the ].<ref name=Farinacci>{{cite book |last=Farinacci |first= Donald J. |date=2017 |title=Truman and MacArthur: Adversaries for a Common Cause |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HV8lDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA72 |location=Hoosick Falls, NY |publisher=Merriam Press |pages=71–72 |isbn=978-1-57638-630-9}}</ref> They advanced with difficulty over ] to follow the infantry, and set up an observation post west of ].<ref name=Farinacci/> On September 27, Truman saw through his binoculars an enemy artillery battery deploying across a river in a position which would allow them to fire upon the neighboring ].<ref name=Farinacci/> Truman's orders limited him to targets facing the 35th Division, but he ignored this and patiently waited until the Germans had walked their horses well away from their guns, ensuring they could not relocate out of range of Truman's battery.<ref name=Farinacci/> He then ordered his men to open fire, and their attack destroyed the enemy battery.<ref name=Farinacci/> His actions were credited with saving the lives of 28th Division soldiers who otherwise would have come under fire from the Germans.{{sfn|McCullough|1992|pp=130, 531}}{{sfn|Giangreco|2002|p=192}} Truman was given a dressing down by his regimental commander, Colonel Karl D. Klemm, who threatened to convene a court-martial, but Klemm never followed through, and Truman was not punished.<ref name=Farinacci/> | |||
| In other action during the Meuse–Argonne offensive, Truman's battery provided support for ]'s tank brigade,{{sfn|Giangreco|2002|pp=181–186}} and fired some of the last shots of the war on November 11, 1918. Battery D did not lose any men while under Truman's command in France. To show their appreciation for his leadership, his men presented him with a large ] upon their return to the United States after the war.{{sfn|Gilwee|2000}} | |||
| The war was a transformative experience in which Truman manifested his leadership qualities. He had entered the service in 1917 as a family farmer who had worked in clerical jobs that did not require the ability to motivate and direct others, but during the war, he gained leadership experience and a record of success that greatly enhanced and supported his post-war political career in Missouri.{{sfn|Gilwee|2000}} | |||
| Truman was brought up in the Presbyterian and ] churches,<ref>{{cite book |last=Daniels |first=Roger |date=2010 |title=Immigration and the Legacy of Harry S. Truman |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z0ZCxForm1cC&pg=PA1 |location=Kirksville, MO |publisher=Truman State University Press |page=1 |isbn=978-1-931112-99-4}}</ref> but avoided ] and sometimes ridiculed revivalist preachers.<ref>{{cite book |last=Espinosa |first=Gastón |date=2009 |title=Religion and the American Presidency |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iYTZAAAAMAAJ&q=%22describing+to+Bess+a+revival+meeting+that+he+had+heard+about%2C+where+the+emotional+behavior+of+those+present+amused+him%22 |location=New York |publisher=Columbia University Press |page=220 |isbn=978-0-231-14333-2}}</ref> He rarely spoke about religion, which to him, primarily meant ethical behavior along traditional Protestant lines.<ref>{{cite book |last= Nielsen |first= Niels C. |date=2009 |title=God In The Obama Era |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UAym-zqJC08C |location=New York|publisher=Morgan James Publishing |pages=152–153, 156 |isbn=978-1-60037-646-7}}</ref> Truman once wrote in a letter to his future wife, Bess: "You know that I know nothing about Lent and such things..."<ref>{{cite letter |first=Harry S. |last= Truman |recipient= Bess Wallace |subject=Letter from Harry S. Truman to Bess Wallace |language=English |date=March 19, 1911 |url=https://catalog.archives.gov/id/200621 |access-date=March 24, 2022}}</ref> Most of the soldiers he commanded in the war were Catholics, and one of his close friends was the 129th Field Artillery's chaplain, ] L. Curtis Tiernan.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.trumanlibrary.org/hstpaper/tiernan.htm |title=Biographical Sketch, L. Curtis Tiernan |last=Tiernan |first=L. Curtis |website=Monsignor L. Curtis Tiernan Papers |publisher=Harry S. Truman Presidential Library & Museum |location=Independence, MO |access-date=May 21, 2018 |ref={{sfnRef|"Biographical Sketch, L. Curtis Tiernan"}}}}</ref> The two remained friends until Tiernan's death in 1960.{{sfn|"Biographical Sketch, L. Curtis Tiernan"}} Developing leadership and interpersonal skills that later made him a successful politician helped Truman get along with his Catholic soldiers, as he did with soldiers of other Christian denominations and the unit's Jewish members.<ref>{{cite web | title = FAQ: Was President Truman the first Baptist president? | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/trivia/baptist.htm | publisher = Harry S. Truman Library & Museum | access-date = March 5, 2016 | archive-date = March 4, 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304104540/http://www.trumanlibrary.org/trivia/baptist.htm | url-status = dead }}.</ref><ref>{{Citation | first = Elizabeth Edwards | last = Spalding | contribution = Religion and the presidency of Harry S. Truman | editor-first = Gastón | editor-last = Espinosa | title = Religion and the American Presidency: George Washington to George W. Bush | year = 2009 | pages = 219–249}}.</ref> | |||
| === Officers' Reserve Corps === | === Officers' Reserve Corps === | ||
| ] | |||
| Truman was honorably discharged from the Army as a ] on May 6, 1919.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sobel |first=Robert |date=1990 |title=Biographical Directory of the United States Executive Branch, 1774–1989 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_h97tuO2xJQC&pg=PA358#v=onepage&q=%22harry%20s%20truman%22%20%22discharged%22%20%22major%22%20%221919%22 |location=Westport, CT |publisher=Greenwood Press |page=358 |isbn=978-0-313-26593-8}}</ref> In 1920 he was appointed a major in the Officers' Reserve Corps (ORC), a federal organization not connected to the Missouri National Guard. He became a ] in 1925 and a colonel in 1932.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pullen |first=Randy |date=1999 |title=Twice the Citizen—And Then Some |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RQIuAAAAYAAJ&q=%22harry+s.+truman%22 |journal=Army Reserve magazine |location=Washington DC |publisher=U.S. Army Reserve |page=12 }}</ref> In the 1920s and 1930s he commanded 1st Battalion, 379th Field Artillery, ].<ref>{{cite book |last=Clay |first=Steven E. |date=2010 |title=US Army Order of Battle, 1919–1941 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lDnlMWhH9lgC&q=%22harry+s.+truman%22 |location=Ft. Leavenworth, KS |publisher=Combat Studies Institute Press |page=878}}</ref> After promotion to colonel, Truman advanced to command of the same regiment.<ref>{{cite news |last=Tucker |first=Frank |date=December 1, 2010 |title=Army History: Truman, you're too old ...|newspaper=Gateway Today |publisher=Association of the United States Army, St. Louis Chapter |location=St. Louis |pages=5–8}}</ref> | |||
| Truman was honorably discharged from the Army as a ] on May 6, 1919.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sobel |first=Robert |date=1990 |title=Biographical Directory of the United States Executive Branch, 1774–1989 |url=https://archive.org/details/biographicaldire00sobe |url-access=registration |location=Westport, CT |publisher=Greenwood Press |page= |isbn=978-0-313-26593-8}}</ref> In 1920, he was appointed a ] in the ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/research-files/united-states-army-officers-reserve-corps-commission-harry-s-truman |title=United States Army Officers' Reserve Corps Commission for Harry S. Truman, March 20, 1920 |website=From Soldier to Senator: Harry S. Truman, 1918–1941 |publisher=Harry S. Truman Library and Museum |location=Independence, MO |access-date=April 23, 2022}}</ref> He became a ] in 1925 and a ] in 1932.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pullen |first=Randy |year=1999 |title=Twice the Citizen—And Then Some |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RQIuAAAAYAAJ&q=%22harry+s.+truman%22 |journal=Army Reserve Magazine |location=Washington DC |publisher=U.S. Army Reserve |page=12 }}</ref> In the 1920s and 1930s he commanded 1st Battalion, 379th Field Artillery Regiment, ].<ref>{{cite book |last=Clay |first=Steven E. |date=2010 |title=US Army Order of Battle, 1919–1941 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lDnlMWhH9lgC&q=%22harry+s.+truman%22 |location=Ft. Leavenworth, KS |publisher=Combat Studies Institute Press |page=878|isbn=9780984190140 }}</ref> After promotion to colonel, Truman advanced to command of the regiment.<ref>{{cite news |last=Tucker |first=Frank |date=December 1, 2010 |title=Army History: Truman, you're too old ...|newspaper=Gateway Today |publisher=Association of the United States Army, St. Louis Chapter |location=St. Louis |pages=5–8}}</ref> | |||
| After his election to the U.S. Senate, Truman was transferred to the General Assignments Group, a holding unit for less active officers; he had not been consulted or notified in advance.<ref name="ReferenceA">''Army History: Truman, you're too old''</ref> Truman protested his reassignment, which led to his resumption of regimental command.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> He remained an active reservist until the early 1940s.<ref>{{cite book |last=Maddox |first=Robert James |date=2007 |title=Hiroshima in History: The Myths of Revisionism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A2Zv3VD6ptQC&pg=PA77#v=onepage&q=%22harry%20s.%20truman%22%20%22colonel%22%20%22reserve%22%20%22inactive%22 |location=Columbia, MO |publisher=University of Missouri Press |page=77 |isbn=978-0-8262-1732-5}}</ref> Truman volunteered for active military service during ], but was not accepted, partly because of age, and partly because President ] desired Senators and Congressman who belonged to the military reserves to support the war effort by remaining in Congress, or by ending their active duty service and resuming their Congressional seats.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.trumanlibrary.org/hst-bio.htm |title=Biographical Sketch: Harry S. Truman, 33rd President of the United States |website=Trumanlibrary.org |publisher=Harry S. Truman Library and Museum |access-date=May 27, 2016}}</ref> He was an inactive reservist from the early 1940s until retiring as a colonel in the now redesignated ] on January 20, 1953.<ref>Pullen, ''''</ref> | |||
| After his election to the U.S. Senate, Truman was transferred to the General Assignments Group, a holding unit for less active officers, although he had not been consulted in advance.<ref name="ReferenceA">''Army History: Truman, you're too old''</ref> Truman protested his reassignment, which led to his resumption of regimental command.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> He remained an active reservist until the early 1940s.<ref>{{cite book |last=Maddox |first=Robert James |date=2007 |title=Hiroshima in History: The Myths of Revisionism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A2Zv3VD6ptQC&pg=PA77 |location=Columbia, MO |publisher=University of Missouri Press |page=77 |isbn=978-0-8262-1732-5}}</ref> Truman volunteered for active military service during ], but was not accepted, partly because of age, and partly because President ] desired that senators and congressmen who belonged to the military reserves support the war effort by remaining in Congress, or by ending their active duty service and resuming their congressional seats.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.trumanlibrary.org/hst-bio.htm |title=Biographical Sketch: Harry S. Truman, 33rd President of the United States |website=Trumanlibrary.org |publisher=Harry S. Truman Library and Museum |access-date=May 27, 2016}}</ref> He was an inactive reservist from the early 1940s until retiring as a colonel in the then redesignated ] on January 20, 1953.<ref>Pullen, ''''</ref> | |||
| === Military awards === | |||
| Truman was awarded a ] with two ]s (for ] and ]) and a ] Clasp. He was also the recipient of two ]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.trumanlibrary.org/hstpaper/rg407.htm |title=Harry S. Truman Military Personnel File |series=Record Group 407 |date=1917–1973 |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |publisher=] |location=Washington DC |access-date=December 17, 2018 |via=]}}</ref> | |||
| === Military awards and decorations === | |||
| <div class="center"> | |||
| Truman was awarded a ] with two ] (for ] and ]) and a ] Clasp. He was also the recipient of two ]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.trumanlibrary.org/hstpaper/rg407.htm |title=Harry S. Truman Military Personnel File |series=Record Group 407 |date=1917–1973 |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |publisher=] |location=Washington DC |access-date=December 17, 2018 |via=]}}</ref> | |||
| {| | |||
| |{{ribbon devices|number=3|type=service-star|ribbon=World War I Victory Medal ribbon.svg|width=106}} | |||
| |{{ribbon devices|ribbon=AFRM with Hourglass Device.jpg|width=106}} | |||
| |} | |||
| {|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" | |||
| |]<br />with three ]s | |||
| |]<br>with bronze hourglass device | |||
| |} | |||
| </div> | |||
| == Politics == | == Politics == | ||
| === Jackson County judge === | === Jackson County judge === | ||
| ] | ] | ||
| After his wartime service, Truman returned to Independence, where he married Bess Wallace on June 28, 1919.{{sfn|Truman Library|1919}} The couple had one child, ].{{sfn|Goldstein | 2008}} | After his wartime service, Truman returned to Independence, where he married Bess Wallace on June 28, 1919.{{sfn|Truman Library|1919}} The couple had one child, ].{{sfn|Goldstein | 2008}} | ||
| Shortly before the wedding, Truman and Jacobson opened a haberdashery together at 104 West 12th Street in downtown ]. After brief initial success, the store went bankrupt during the ].{{sfn|Oshinsky|2004|pp=365–380}} Truman did not pay off the last of the debts from that venture until 1935, when he did so with the aid of banker ], who worked behind the scenes to enable Truman's brother Vivian to buy Truman's ] during the asset sale of a bank that had failed in the ].{{sfn |McCullough|1992|pp =63–64, 68}}{{sfn | Ferrell |1994|p=88}} The note had risen and fallen in value as it was bought and sold, interest accumulated and Truman made payments, so by the time the last bank to hold it failed, it was worth nearly $9,000.{{sfn | Ferrell |1994|p=86}} Thanks to Kemper's efforts, Vivian Truman was able to buy it for $1,000.{{sfn | Ferrell |1994|p=88}} Jacobson and Truman remained close friends even after their store failed, and Jacobson's advice to Truman on ] later played a role in the U.S. Government's decision to recognize Israel.{{sfn|Hamby|1995|pp=410–412}} | Shortly before the wedding, Truman and Jacobson opened a ] together at 104 West 12th Street in downtown ].{{sfn|McCullough|1992|pp=146, 151–152}} After brief initial success, the store went bankrupt during the ].{{sfn|Oshinsky|2004|pp=365–380}} Truman did not pay off the last of the debts from that venture until 1935, when he did so with the aid of banker ], who worked behind the scenes to enable Truman's brother Vivian to buy Truman's $5,600 ] during the asset sale of a bank that had failed in the ].{{sfn |McCullough|1992|pp =63–64, 68}}{{sfn | Ferrell |1994|p=88}} The note had risen and fallen in value as it was bought and sold, interest accumulated and Truman made payments, so by the time the last bank to hold it failed, it was worth nearly $9,000.{{sfn | Ferrell |1994|p=86}} Thanks to Kemper's efforts, Vivian Truman was able to buy it for $1,000.{{sfn | Ferrell |1994|p=88}} Jacobson and Truman remained close friends even after their store failed, and Jacobson's advice to Truman on ] later played a role in the U.S. Government's decision to recognize Israel.{{sfn|Hamby|1995|pp=410–412}} | ||
| With the help of the Kansas City ] ] led by ], Truman was elected in 1922 as County Court judge of ]'s eastern district—Jackson County's three-judge court included judges from the western district (Kansas City), the eastern district (the county outside Kansas City), and a presiding judge elected countywide. This was an administrative rather than judicial court, similar to county |
With the help of the Kansas City ] ] led by ], Truman was elected in 1922 as County Court judge of ]'s eastern district—Jackson County's three-judge court included judges from the western district (Kansas City), the eastern district (the county outside Kansas City), and a presiding judge elected countywide. This was an administrative rather than a judicial court, similar to ]s in many other jurisdictions. Truman succeeded James E. Gilday and served from January 1, 1923 to January 1, 1925.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jacksongov.org/592/County-Judges-1826---1922 |title=County Judges 1826–1922 |year=2018 |website=County History: County Judges |publisher=Jackson County, Missouri |location=Kansas City, Missouri |access-date=April 20, 2018 |ref={{sfnRef|"County Judges 1826–1922"}} |archive-date=September 30, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930225404/https://www.jacksongov.org/592/County-Judges-1826---1922 |url-status=dead }}</ref> He lost his 1924 reelection campaign to Henry Rummel in a Republican wave led by President ]'s ] to a full term.{{sfn|"County Judges 1923–1972"}} Two years selling automobile club memberships convinced him that a public service career was safer for a family man approaching middle age, and he planned a run for ] in 1926.{{sfn|Dallek|2008|p=6}} | ||
| Truman won the job in 1926 with the support of the Pendergast machine, and succeeded Elihu W. Hayes.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jacksongov.org/595/County-Judges-1923---1972 |title=County Judges 1923–1972 |year=2018 |website=County History: County Judges |publisher=Jackson County, Missouri |location=Kansas City, Missouri |access-date=April 20, 2018 |ref={{sfnRef|"County Judges 1923–1972"}} |archive-date=September 20, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920231556/https://www.jacksongov.org/595/County-Judges-1923---1972 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Truman was re-elected in 1930; he served from January 1, 1927 to January 1, 1935 and was succeeded by Eugene I. Purcell.{{sfn|"County Judges 1923–1972"}} As presiding judge, Truman helped coordinate the ''Ten Year Plan'', which transformed Jackson County and the Kansas City skyline with new public works projects, including an extensive series of roads and construction of a new ]-designed ]. Also in 1926, he became president of the ] Association, and during his term he oversaw dedication of 12 ] monuments to honor pioneer women.{{sfn|Dallek|2008| p = 6}}{{sfn|Barr|2004}} | |||
| In 1933, Truman was named Missouri's director for the Federal Re-Employment program (part of the ]) at the request of Postmaster General ]. This was payback to Pendergast for delivering the Kansas City vote to ] in the ]. The appointment confirmed Pendergast's control over federal ] jobs in Missouri and marked the zenith of his power. It also created a relationship between Truman and Roosevelt's aide ] and assured Truman's avid support for the New Deal.{{sfn|Savage|1991|p=65}} | In 1933, Truman was named Missouri's director for the Federal Re-Employment program (part of the ]) at the request of Postmaster General ]. This was payback to Pendergast for delivering the Kansas City vote to ] in the ]. The appointment confirmed Pendergast's control over federal ] jobs in Missouri and marked the zenith of his power. It also created a relationship between Truman and Roosevelt's aide ] and assured Truman's avid support for the New Deal.{{sfn|Savage|1991|p=65}} | ||
| === U.S. Senator from Missouri === | === U.S. Senator from Missouri === | ||
| ], {{ca|October 5, 1934}}]] | |||
| ] | ] | ||
| After serving as a county judge, Truman wanted to run for |
After serving as a county judge, Truman wanted to run for ] or ],<ref>{{cite book |last=Golway |first=Terry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8JHW4FPX2DcC&pg=PA7 |title=Give 'em Hell: The Tumultuous Years of Harry Truman's Presidency, in His Own Words and Voice |date=2011 |publisher=Sourcebooks, Inc. |isbn=978-1-4022-1715-9 |location=Naperville, IL |page=7 |via=]}}</ref><ref name="Collector">{{cite news |date=January 4, 1934 |title=Truman as the Collector: County Place May Be Sought Instead of One in Congress |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/97955101/truman-collector/ |work=] |location=Kansas City, MO |page=1 |via=]}}</ref> but Pendergast rejected these ideas. Truman then thought he might serve out his career in some well-paying county sinecure;<ref name="Collector"/> circumstances changed when Pendergast reluctantly backed him as the machine's choice in the 1934 Democratic ] for the ], after Pendergast's first four choices had declined to run.{{sfn |United States Senate|2012}} In the primary, Truman defeated Congressmen ] and ] with the solid support of ], which was crucial to his candidacy. Also critical were the contacts he had made statewide in his capacity as a county official, member of the ],{{efn|Truman hald several leadership positions at the local and state level and in 1940 was elected to a one year term as Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of Missouri.<ref name="Mason">{{cite web |url=https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/education/student-resources/places/grandview/grandview-masonic-lodge-618 |title=Grandview Masonic Lodge 618 |website=Harry S. Truman Library and Museum |publisher=National Archives and Records Administration |location=Independence, MO |access-date=June 28, 2022}}</ref> In October 1945 he received the 33rd degree of the ].<ref name="Mason"/>}} military reservist,{{efn|Truman was a founder of the ] and organized Missouri's first chapter, Chapter 1.<ref>{{cite magazine |editor-last=Wright |editor-first=Tom |date=July–August 1984 |title=ROA Conclave |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pKjPT0fkIRwC&pg=RA4-PA29 |magazine=The Air Reservist |location=Bolling Air Force Base, Washington, D.C. |publisher=Headquarters, United States Air Force |page=29 |via=]}}</ref>}} and member of the American Legion.{{efn|Truman organized the first ] post in Missouri, aided in organizing several others, and attended numerous annual conventions as a delegate.<ref>{{cite book |last=Olson |first=Clarence H. |date=1963 |title=Summary of the Proceedings of the Forty-fourth Annual Convention of the American Legion |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pu0KAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA98 |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |page=98 |via=]}}</ref>}}{{sfn|Kirkendall|1989|p=27}} In the general election, Truman defeated incumbent Republican ] by nearly 20 percentage points in a continuing wave of pro-] Democrats elected during the ].{{sfn|United States Senate|2012}}{{sfn|Dallek|2008|pp=7–9}}{{sfn|Winn}} | ||
| Truman assumed office with a reputation as "the Senator from Pendergast. |
Truman assumed office with a reputation as "the Senator from Pendergast". He referred patronage decisions to Pendergast but maintained that he voted with his own conscience. He later defended the patronage decisions by saying that "by offering a little to the machine, saved a lot".{{sfn|Winn}}{{sfn|''Time''|January 8, 1973}} In his first term, Truman spoke out against corporate greed and the dangers of ] speculators and other moneyed special interests attaining too much influence in national affairs.{{sfn|McCullough|1992|p=232}} Though he served on the high-profile ] and ] Committees, he was largely ignored by President Roosevelt and had trouble getting calls returned from the White House.{{sfn|Winn}}{{sfn | McCullough |1992|p=230}} | ||
| During the ], |
During the ], U.S. Attorney ] (former opponent Jacob Milligan's brother) and former governor ] both challenged Truman in the Democratic primary. Truman was politically weakened by Pendergast's imprisonment for income tax evasion the previous year; the senator had remained loyal, having claimed that Republican judges (not the Roosevelt administration) were responsible for the boss's downfall.{{sfn|Dallek|2008|pp=11–12}} ] party leader ]'s support of Truman proved crucial; he later brokered the deal that put Truman on the national ticket. In the end, Stark and Milligan split the anti-Pendergast vote in the Senate Democratic primary and Truman won by a total of 8,000 votes. In the November election, Truman defeated Republican ] by 51–49 percent.{{sfn|Hamby|1995|pp=236–247}} As senator, Truman opposed both Nazi Germany and Communist Russia. Two days after ] in June 1941, Truman said: | ||
| {{ |
{{Blockquote|If we see that Germany is winning we ought to help Russia, and if Russia is winning we ought to help Germany, and that way let them kill as many as possible although I don't want to see Hitler victorious under any circumstances.<ref>{{cite book |last=Alexrod |first=Alan |author-link=Alan Axelrod |year=2009 |title=The Real History of the Cold War: A New Look at the Past |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZnYHG1eK-2AC&pg=PA44 | publisher=Sterling |page=44|isbn=9781402763021 }}</ref>}} | ||
| This quote without its last part later became a staple in ] and later ] as "evidence" of an American conspiracy to destroy the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://histrf.ru/read/articles/kratkii-kurs-istorii-tak-uchilis-druzhit|title=Краткий курс истории. Так учились "дружить"|publisher=история.рф|date=July 23, 2017|language=ru}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://xn--h1aagokeh.xn--p1ai/journal/post/6470|title=Трумэн и его доктрина|publisher=Историк|date=March 2021|language=ru}}</ref> | |||
| ====Truman Committee==== | ====Truman Committee==== | ||
| {{Further|Truman Committee}} | {{Further|Truman Committee}} | ||
| In late 1940, Truman traveled to various military bases. The waste and profiteering he saw led him to use his |
In late 1940, Truman traveled to various military bases. The waste and profiteering he saw led him to use his chairmanship of the ] Subcommittee on War Mobilization to start investigations into abuses while the nation prepared for war. A new special committee was set up under Truman to conduct a formal investigation; the White House supported this plan rather than weather a more hostile probe by the House of Representatives. The main mission of the committee was to expose and fight waste and corruption in the gigantic government wartime contracts. | ||
| Truman's initiative convinced Senate leaders of the necessity for the committee, which reflected his demands for honest and efficient administration and his distrust of big business and Wall Street. Truman managed the committee "with extraordinary skill" and usually achieved consensus, generating heavy media publicity that gave him a national reputation.<ref>{{cite book|author=Michael James Lacey|title=The Truman Presidency|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hfkuktI-JewC&pg=PA35|year=1991|pages=35–36}}</ref>{{sfn|Dallek|2008|pp=12–14}} Activities of the Truman Committee ranged from criticizing the "]" hired by the government, many of whom proved ineffective, to investigating a shoddily built New Jersey housing project for war workers.<ref>{{Citation | last = Herman | first = Arthur | title = Freedom's Forge: How American Business Produced Victory in World War II | pages = 103, 118, 194, 198–199, 235–236, 275, 281, 303, 312 | publisher = Random House | place = New York | year = 2012 | isbn = 978-1-4000-6964-4}}.</ref>{{sfn |''Life''|November 30, 1942}} | Truman's initiative convinced Senate leaders of the necessity for the committee, which reflected his demands for honest and efficient administration and his distrust of big business and Wall Street. Truman managed the committee "with extraordinary skill" and usually achieved consensus, generating heavy media publicity that gave him a national reputation.<ref>{{cite book|author=Michael James Lacey|title=The Truman Presidency|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hfkuktI-JewC&pg=PA35|year=1991|pages=35–36|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521407731}}</ref>{{sfn|Dallek|2008|pp=12–14}} Activities of the Truman Committee ranged from criticizing the "]" hired by the government, many of whom proved ineffective, to investigating a shoddily built New Jersey housing project for war workers.<ref>{{Citation | last = Herman | first = Arthur | title = Freedom's Forge: How American Business Produced Victory in World War II | pages = | publisher = Random House | place = New York | year = 2012 | isbn = 978-1-4000-6964-4 | url = https://archive.org/details/freedomsforgehow00herm/page/103 }}.</ref>{{sfn |''Life''|November 30, 1942}} In March 1944, Truman attempted to probe the expensive ] but was persuaded by Secretary of War ] to discontinue with the investigation.{{r|n=zuberi2001|r={{cite journal |last1=Zuberi |first1=Matin |title=Atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki |journal=Strategic Analysis |date=August 2001 |volume=25 |issue=5 |pages=623–662 |doi=10.1080/09700160108458986|s2cid=154800868 | issn = 0970-0161 }}|p=634}} | ||
| The committee reportedly saved as much as $15 billion (equivalent to ${{Inflation|US-GDP|15|1940|r=-1}} billion in {{Inflation-year|US}}),{{sfn|McCullough|1992|pp=337–338|ps=: "Later estimates were that the Truman Committee saved the country as much as $15 billion."}}{{sfn | McDonald |1984|ps=: "This committee saved billions in taxpayers' money by helping eliminate waste and fraud."}}{{sfn|Daniels|1998|p=228|ps=: ] quotes journalist ] who wrote in November 1942 that the Truman Committee had "saved billions—yes, billions—of dollars."}}{{sfn|Hamilton|2009|p=301|ps=: "Over seven years (1941–1948) the committee heard from 1,798 witnesses during 432 public hearings. It published nearly two thousand pages of documents and saved perhaps $15 billion and thousands of lives by exposing faulty airplane and munitions production."}} and its activities put Truman on the cover of '']'' magazine.{{sfn | ''Time'' |2012}} According to the Senate's historical minutes, in leading the committee, "Truman erased his earlier public image as an errand-runner for Kansas City politicos", and "no senator ever gained greater political benefits from chairing a special investigating committee than did Missouri's Harry S. Truman."{{sfn |Senate Truman Committee|2012}} | The committee reportedly saved as much as $15 billion (equivalent to ${{Inflation|US-GDP|15|1940|r=-1}} billion in {{Inflation-year|US}}),{{sfn|McCullough|1992|pp=337–338|ps=: "Later estimates were that the Truman Committee saved the country as much as $15 billion."}}{{sfn | McDonald |1984|ps=: "This committee saved billions in taxpayers' money by helping eliminate waste and fraud."}}{{sfn|Daniels|1998|p=228|ps=: ] quotes journalist ] who wrote in November 1942 that the Truman Committee had "saved billions—yes, billions—of dollars."}}{{sfn|Hamilton|2009|p=301|ps=: "Over seven years (1941–1948) the committee heard from 1,798 witnesses during 432 public hearings. It published nearly two thousand pages of documents and saved perhaps $15 billion and thousands of lives by exposing faulty airplane and munitions production."}} and its activities put Truman on the cover of '']'' magazine.{{sfn | ''Time'' |2012}} According to the Senate's historical minutes, in leading the committee, "Truman erased his earlier public image as an errand-runner for Kansas City politicos", and "no senator ever gained greater political benefits from chairing a special investigating committee than did Missouri's Harry S. Truman."{{sfn |Senate Truman Committee|2012}} | ||
| == Vice |
== Vice presidency (1945) == | ||
| {{See also|Democratic Party vice presidential candidate selection |
{{See also|1944 Democratic Party vice presidential candidate selection}} | ||
| {{multiple image|align=right|direction=vertical|width=220 | {{multiple image|align=right|direction=vertical|width=220 | ||
| | image1 |
| image1 = Truman-Mother-LIFE-1944.jpg | ||
| | alt1 |
| alt1 = | ||
| | caption1 |
| caption1 = Truman visits ] in ], after being ], July 1944. | ||
| | image2 |
| image2 = RooseveltTruman1944poster.jpg | ||
| | alt2 |
| alt2 = election poster from 1944 with Roosevelt and Truman | ||
| | caption2 |
| caption2 = ]–Truman poster from ] | ||
| }} | }} | ||
| Roosevelt's advisors knew that Roosevelt might not live out a fourth term and that his vice president would very likely become the next president. ] had served as Roosevelt's vice president for four years and was popular on the left, but he was viewed as too far to the left and too friendly to labor for some of Roosevelt's advisers. The President and several of his confidantes wanted to replace Wallace with someone more acceptable to Democratic Party leaders. Outgoing Democratic National Committee chairman ], incoming chairman Hannegan, party treasurer ], Bronx party boss ], Chicago Mayor ], and lobbyist George E. Allen all wanted to keep Wallace off the ticket.{{sfn|McCullough|1992|pp=373–378}} Roosevelt told party leaders that he would accept either Truman or Supreme Court Justice ].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Democrats Press 'War Chief' Issue; Second Place Open |url=https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/library/politics/camp/440720convention-dem-ra.html |access-date=August 28, 2023 |website=archive.nytimes.com}}</ref> | |||
| State and city party leaders strongly preferred Truman, and Roosevelt agreed. Truman did not campaign for the Vice-Presidential spot, though he welcomed the attention as evidence that he had become more than the "Senator from Pendergast".{{sfn|Dallek|2008|pp=14–16}} Truman's nomination was dubbed the "Second ]" and was well received. The Roosevelt–Truman ticket achieved a 432–99 ] victory in the election, defeating the Republican ticket of Governor ] of New York and running mate Governor ] of Ohio. Truman was sworn in as vice president on January 20, 1945.{{sfn|Dallek|2008|pp=15–17}} | |||
| State and city party leaders strongly preferred Truman, and Roosevelt agreed.{{sfn|Burnes|2003|p=131}} Truman had repeatedly said that he was not in the race and that he did not want the vice presidency, and he remained reluctant.{{sfn|Burnes|2003|p=131}} One reason was that his wife and sister Mary Jane were both on his Senate staff payroll, and he feared negative publicity.{{sfn|Burnes|2003|p=131}} Truman did not campaign for the vice-presidential spot, though he welcomed the attention as evidence that he had become more than the "Senator from Pendergast".{{sfn|Dallek|2008|pp=14–16}} Truman's nomination was dubbed the "Second ]" and was well received. The Roosevelt–Truman ticket achieved a 432–99 ] victory in the election, defeating the Republican ticket of Governor ] of New York and running mate Governor ] of Ohio. Truman was ] as vice president on January 20, 1945.{{sfn|Dallek|2008|pp=15–17}} After the inauguration, Truman called his mother, who instructed him, "Now you behave yourself."<ref></ref> | |||
| Truman's brief vice-presidency was relatively uneventful. On April 10, 1945,<ref>, ], ], p. 7.</ref> Truman cast his only ] as president of the Senate, against a ] amendment that would have blocked the postwar delivery of ] items contracted for during the war.<ref>], ''Truman's Crises: A Political Biography of Harry S. Truman'' (Greenwood Press, 1980), p. 212: "On only one occasion did break a tie, and this was when his negative vote defeated a Taft amendment to the Lend-Lease Act which would have prevented postwar delivery of lend-lease goods contracted for during the war."</ref><ref>], '''' (], 1988), p. 534: "In his eighty-two days as vice president, he had the opportunity to vote only once--on an amendment to limit the Lend-Lease extension bill. The vote was tied, and Truman voted no, which, in a sense, was unnecessary since the bill would have died even without his vote."</ref> Roosevelt rarely contacted him, even to inform him of major decisions; the president and vice president met alone together only twice during their time in office.{{sfn|Dallek|2008|p=16}} | |||
| Truman's brief vice-presidency was relatively uneventful. Truman mostly presided over the Senate and attended parties and receptions. He kept the same offices from his Senate years, mostly only using the Vice President's official office in the Capitol to greet visitors. Truman was the first vice president to have a Secret Service agent assigned to him. Truman envisioned the office as a liaison between the Senate and the president.{{sfn|McCullough|1992|pp=333–336}} On April 10, 1945,<ref>, ], ], p. 7.</ref> Truman cast his only ] as president of the Senate, against a ] amendment that would have blocked the postwar delivery of ] items contracted for during the war.<ref>], ''Truman's Crises: A Political Biography of Harry S. Truman'' (Greenwood Press, 1980), p. 212: "On only one occasion did break a tie, and this was when his negative vote defeated a Taft amendment to the Lend-Lease Act which would have prevented postwar delivery of lend-lease goods contracted for during the war."</ref><ref>], '''' (], 1988), p. 534: "In his eighty-two days as vice president, he had the opportunity to vote only once—on an amendment to limit the Lend-Lease extension bill. The vote was tied, and Truman voted no, which, in a sense, was unnecessary since the bill would have died even without his vote."</ref> Roosevelt rarely contacted him, even to inform him of major decisions; the president and vice president met alone together only twice during their time in office.{{sfn|Dallek|2008|p=16}} | |||
| In one of his first acts as vice president, Truman created some controversy when he attended the disgraced Pendergast's funeral. He brushed aside the criticism, saying simply, "He was always my friend and I have always been his."{{sfn|Oshinsky|2004|pp=365–380}} He had rarely discussed world affairs or domestic politics with Roosevelt; he was uninformed about major initiatives relating to the war and the top-secret ], which was about to test the world's first atomic bomb.{{sfn|U.S. History|2012}} In an event that generated negative publicity for Truman, he was photographed with actress ] sitting atop the piano at the ] as he played for soldiers.<ref>{{cite news|last=Schwab|first=Nick|url=https://www.usnews.com/news/blogs/washington-whispers/2014/08/13/lauren-bacall-and-harry-trumans-piano-moment-led-to-bigger-things|title=Lauren Bacall and Harry Truman's Piano Moment Led to Bigger Things|work=US News|date=August 13, 2014|accessdate=December 17, 2016}}</ref> | |||
| In one of his first acts as vice president, Truman created some controversy when he attended the disgraced Pendergast's funeral. He brushed aside the criticism, saying simply, "He was always my friend and I have always been his."{{sfn|Oshinsky|2004|pp=365–380}} He had rarely discussed world affairs or domestic politics with Roosevelt; he was uninformed about major initiatives relating to the war and the top-secret ], which was about to test the world's first atomic bomb.{{sfn|U.S. History|2012}} In an event that generated negative publicity for Truman, he was photographed with actress ] sitting atop the piano at the ] as he played for soldiers.<ref>{{cite news|last=Schwab|first=Nick|url=https://www.usnews.com/news/blogs/washington-whispers/2014/08/13/lauren-bacall-and-harry-trumans-piano-moment-led-to-bigger-things|title=Lauren Bacall and Harry Truman's Piano Moment Led to Bigger Things|work=US News|date=August 13, 2014|access-date=December 17, 2016}}</ref> | |||
| Truman had been vice president for 82 days when President Roosevelt died on April 12, 1945.{{sfn|U.S. History|2012}} Truman, presiding over the Senate as usual, had just adjourned the session for the day and was preparing to have a drink in ] ]'s office when he received an urgent message to go immediately to the White House, where ] told him that her husband had died after a massive ]. Truman asked her if there was anything he could do for her; she replied, "Is there anything we can do for you? For you are the one in trouble now!"{{sfn|Truman Library|2012h}}{{sfn|McCullough|1992|p=425}}{{sfn|Goodwin|1994|p=478}} | |||
| ] in the ] at the White House a few hours after Roosevelt's death.]] | |||
| Truman had been vice president for 82 days when President Roosevelt died on April 12, 1945.{{sfn|U.S. History|2012}} Truman, presiding over the Senate, as usual, had just adjourned the session for the day and was preparing to have a drink in ] ]'s ] when he received an urgent message to go immediately to the White House, where ] told him that her husband had died after a massive ]. Truman asked her if there was anything he could do for her; she replied, "Is there anything we can do for {{em|you}}? For you are the one in trouble now!"{{sfn|Truman Library|2012h}}{{sfn|McCullough|1992|p=425}}{{sfn|Goodwin|1994|p=478}} He was ] at 7:09 p.m. in the West Wing of the White House, by Chief Justice ].<ref>Paul Ham, ''Hiroshima Nagasaki'', p. 68</ref> | |||
| == Presidency (1945–1953) == | == Presidency (1945–1953) == | ||
| {{Main|Presidency of Harry S. Truman}} | {{Main|Presidency of Harry S. Truman}} | ||
| {{Further|Foreign policy of the Harry S. Truman administration}} | |||
| At the White House, Truman replaced Roosevelt holdovers with old confidants. The White House was badly understaffed with no more than a dozen aides; they could barely keep up with the heavy workflow of a greatly expanded executive department. Truman acted as his own ] on a daily basis, as well as his own liaison with Congress—a body he already knew very well. He was not well prepared to deal with the press, and never achieved the jovial familiarity of FDR. Filled with latent anger about all the setbacks in his career, he bitterly mistrusted journalists. He saw them as enemies lying in wait for his next careless miscue. Truman was a very hard worker, often to the point of exhaustion, which left him testy, easily annoyed, and on the verge of appearing unpresidential or petty. In terms of major issues, he discussed them in depth with top advisors. He mastered the details of the federal budget as well as anyone. Truman was a poor speaker reading a text. However, his visible anger made him an effective ], denouncing his enemies as his supporters hollered back at him "Give Em Hell, Harry!"<ref>Alonzo Hamby, "Truman, Harry S." in ''The Encyclopedia of the American Presidency'' edited by Leonard Levy and Louis Fisher (vol 4 1994) pp. 1497–1505.</ref> | |||
| Truman surrounded himself with friends and appointed several to high positions that seemed beyond their competence, including his two secretaries of the treasury, ] and ]. His closest friend in the White House was his military aide ], who knew little of military or foreign affairs and was criticized for trading access to the White House for expensive gifts.{{sfn|McCullough|1992|p = 366}}{{sfn | Hamby |1995|pp=301–302, 472}} Truman loved to spend as much time as possible playing poker, telling stories and sipping bourbon. ] notes that: | |||
| {{Blockquote|... to many in the general public, gambling and bourbon swilling, however low-key, were not quite presidential. Neither was the intemperant "give 'em hell" campaign style nor the occasional profane phrase uttered in public. Poker exemplified a larger problem: the tension between his attempts at an image of leadership necessarily a cut above the ordinary and an informality that at times appeared to verge on crudeness.{{sfn | Hamby |1995|pp=474}}{{sfn|McCullough|1992|p = 511}}}} | |||
| Truman surrounded himself with his old friends, and appointed several to high positions that seemed well beyond their competence, including his two secretaries of the treasury, ] and ]. His closest friend in the White House was his military aide ], who was criticized for trading access to the White House for expensive gifts.{{sfn|McCullough|1992|p = 366}}{{sfn | Hamby |1995|pp=301–302, 472}} Truman loved to spend as much time as possible playing poker, telling stories and sipping bourbon. ] notes that: | |||
| {{quote|... to many in the general public, gambling and bourbon swilling, however low-key, were not quite presidential. Neither was the intemperant "give 'em hell" campaign style nor the occasional profane phrase uttered in public. Poker exemplified a larger problem: the tension between his attempts at an image of leadership necessarily a cut above the ordinary and an informality that at times appeared to verge on crudeness.{{sfn | Hamby |1995|pp=474}}{{sfn|McCullough|1992|p = 511}}}} | |||
| === First term (1945–1949) === | === First term (1945–1949) === | ||
| ==== Assuming office |
==== Assuming office ==== | ||
| {{details|Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki}} | |||
| ], Harry S. Truman, and ] in Potsdam, July 1945]] | ], Harry S. Truman, and ] in Potsdam, July 1945]] | ||
| On his first full day, Truman told reporters: "Boys, if you ever pray, pray for me now. I don't know if you fellas ever had a load of hay fall on you, but when they told me what happened yesterday, I felt like the moon, the stars, and all the planets had fallen on me."{{sfn|McCullough|1992|p = 436}} | |||
| Truman asked all the members of Roosevelt's cabinet to remain in place, but he soon replaced almost all of them, especially with friends from his Senate days.{{sfn|McCullough|1992|p=348}} | |||
| Upon assuming the presidency, Truman asked all the members of Roosevelt's cabinet to remain in place, and told them he was open to their advice. He emphasized a central principle of his administration: he would be the one making decisions, and they were to support him.{{sfn|McCullough|1992|p=348}} Although Truman was told briefly on the afternoon of April 12 that the ] had a new, highly destructive weapon, it was not until April 25 that ] ] told him the details. Truman benefited from a honeymoon period after Roosevelt's death, and from the Allies' success in Europe, ending the war against Nazi Germany. Truman was pleased to issue the proclamation of ] on May 8, 1945, his 61st birthday.{{sfn|McCoy|1984|pp=21–22}}{{sfn|Dallek|2008|pp=19–20}} | |||
| ==== Dropping atomic bombs on Japan ==== | |||
| {{quote|We have discovered the most terrible bomb in the history of the world. It may be the fire destruction prophesied in the Euphrates Valley Era, after Noah and his fabulous Ark.|Harry Truman, writing about the atomic bomb in his diary{{sfn|Reynolds|2005}} on July 25, 1945<ref>{{cite book |last=Alexrod |first=Alan | title=The Real History of the Cold War: A New Look at the Past | publisher=Sterling |page= 56}}</ref>}} | |||
| {{Further|Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki}} | |||
| Truman benefited from a honeymoon period from the success in defeating Nazi Germany in Europe and the nation celebrated {{Nowrap|]}} on May 8, 1945, his 61st birthday.{{sfn|McCoy|1984|pp=21–22}} | |||
| Although Truman was told briefly on the afternoon of April 12 that the United States had a new, highly destructive weapon, it was not until April 25 that ] ] told him the details:{{sfn|Dallek|2008|pp=19–20}} | |||
| In the wake of Allied victory, Truman journeyed to Europe for the ]. He was there when he learned the ]—the first atomic bomb—on July 16 had been successful. He hinted to ] that the United States was about to use a new kind of weapon against the Japanese. Though this was the first time the Soviets had been officially given information about the atomic bomb, Stalin was already aware of the bomb project—having learned about it through ]—long before Truman did.{{sfn|PBS|2012}}{{sfn|Truman|1955|p=416}}{{sfn|McCoy|1984|p= 37}} | |||
| {{Blockquote|We have discovered the most terrible bomb in the history of the world. It may be the fire destruction prophesied in the Euphrates Valley Era, after Noah and his fabulous Ark.|Harry Truman, writing about the atomic bomb in his diary{{sfn|Reynolds|2005}} on July 25, 1945<ref>{{cite book |last=Alexrod |first=Alan | title=The Real History of the Cold War: A New Look at the Past | publisher=Sterling |page= 56}}</ref>}} | |||
| In August, the Japanese government refused surrender demands as specifically outlined in the ]. With the ] imminent, Truman approved the schedule for dropping the two available bombs. Truman always said attacking Japan with atomic bombs saved many lives on both sides; military estimates for the invasion of mainland Japan were that it could take a year and result in 250,000 to 500,000 U.S. casualties. Hiroshima was bombed on August 6, and Nagasaki three days later, leaving 105,000 dead.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.atomicarchive.com/Docs/MED/med_chp10.shtml|title=Total Casualties – The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|work=atomicarchive.com|accessdate=December 16, 2016}}</ref> The Soviet Union ] on August 9 and ]. Japan ] the following day.{{sfn|Miller|1974|pp=227–231}}{{sfn|Dallek|2008|pp= 24–28}} | |||
| Truman journeyed to Berlin for the ] with ] and British Prime Minister ]. He was there when he learned the ]—the first atomic bomb—on July 16 had been successful. He hinted to Stalin that he was about to use a new kind of weapon against the Japanese. Though this was the first time the Soviets had been officially given information about the atomic bomb, Stalin was already aware of the bomb project—having learned about it through ] long before Truman did.{{sfn|PBS|2012}}{{sfn|Truman|1955|p=416}}{{sfn|McCoy|1984|p= 37}} | |||
| ] | |||
| In August, the Japanese government refused surrender demands as specifically outlined in the ]. With the ] imminent, Truman approved the schedule for dropping the two available bombs. Truman maintained the position that attacking Japan with atomic bombs saved many lives on both sides; a military estimate for the invasion of Japan submitted to Truman by Herbert Hoover indicated that an invasion could take at least a year and result in 500,000 to 1,000,000 Allied casualties.<ref>{{cite book | last = Frank | first = Richard B. | author-link = Richard B. Frank | year = 1999 | title = Downfall: The End of the Imperial Japanese Empire | pages = 122 | publisher = Random House | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-679-41424-7}}</ref> A study done for the staff of Secretary of War ] by William Shockley estimated that invading Japan would cost 1.7–4 million American casualties, including 400,000–800,000 fatalities, and five to ten million Japanese fatalities if Japanese civilians participated in the defense of Japan.<ref>{{cite book | last = Frank | first = Richard B. | author-link = Richard B. Frank | year = 1999 | title = Downfall: The End of the Imperial Japanese Empire | pages = 340 | publisher = Random House | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-679-41424-7}}</ref> The U.S. Army Service Forces estimated in their document "Redeployment of the United States Army after the Defeat of Germany," that between June 1945 and December 1946 the Army would be required to furnish replacements for 43,000 dead and evacuated wounded every month during this period.<ref> Part 7, p. 330. Retrieved November 15, 2023</ref> From analysis of the replacement schedule and projected strengths in overseas theaters, it suggested that Army losses alone in those categories, excluding the Navy and Marine Corps, would be approximately 863,000 through the first part of 1947, of whom 267,000 would be killed or missing.<ref> Part 8, pp. 372-374, 391. Retrieved November 15, 2023</ref> | |||
| Supporters{{efn|For example, see {{cite book| last1 = Fussell | first1=Paul | title = Thank God for the Atomic Bomb and Other Essays | chapter = Thank God for the Atomic Bomb | publisher = New York Summit Books | year = 1988 | authorlink = Paul Fussell}}}} of Truman's decision argue that, given the tenacious Japanese defense of the outlying islands, the bombings saved hundreds of thousands of lives of prisoners, civilians, and combatants on both sides that would have been lost in an invasion of Japan. Critics have argued that the use of nuclear weapons was unnecessary, given that conventional attacks or a demonstrative bombing of an uninhabited area would have forced Japan's surrender and therefore assert that the attack constituted a crime of war.<ref>{{Citation | first1 = Ronald C | last1 = Kramer | first2 = David | last2 = Kauzlarich | title = Nuclear weapons, international law, and the normalization of state crime | editor1-first = Dawn | editor1-last = Rothe | editor2-first = Christopher W | editor2-last = Mullins | work = State crime: Current perspectives | year = 2011 | pages = 94–121|isbn=978-0-8135-4901-9}}.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.zeit.de/2015/32/hiroshima-nagasaki-atombombe-schuld|title=Hiroshima und Nagasaki: Wessen Schuld?|website=zeit.de|accessdate=June 8, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.elespectador.com/opinion/hiroshima-crimen-imperdonable-columna-32085|title=Hiroshima, crimen imperdonable|date=August 13, 2008|website=elespectador.com|accessdate=June 8, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.faz.net/1.1314820|title=Rezension: Sachbuch: Gefügige Russen, tote Japaner|publisher=|accessdate=June 8, 2018|via=www.faz.net}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/japan/11650752/US-museum-must-call-Hiroshima-and-Nagasaki-war-crimes-say-Japanese.html|title=US museum must call Hiroshima and Nagasaki 'war crimes', say Japanese|first=Julian|last=Ryall|date=June 4, 2015|publisher=|accessdate=June 8, 2018|via=www.telegraph.co.uk}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Scherer|first1=Klaus|title=Nagasaki - Der Mythos der zweiten Bombe|date=2015|publisher=Hanser Verlag|location=Munich|isbn=978-3446249479}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/greg-mitchell/71-years-ago-when-truman_b_11402480.html|title=71 Years Ago: When Truman Failed To Pause -- And The Nagasaki War Crime Followed|first=Greg|last=Mitchell|date=August 9, 2016|website=huffingtonpost.com|accessdate=June 8, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://iwj.co.jp/wj/open/archives/254448|title=「なんであんな殺され方をしたのか、私は知りたい。あの世で、ちゃんとお兄ちゃんに説明できるように」――原爆投下から70年。広島の被爆者が語った原爆被害と戦争への思い - IWJ Independent Web Journal|date=August 6, 2015|website=iwj.co.jp|accessdate=June 8, 2018}}</ref> Truman defended his decision to use atomic bombs during the war: | |||
| ] on August 6 and 9, 1945 respectively, were authorized by President Truman at the end of World War II.]] | |||
| Hiroshima was bombed on August 6, and Nagasaki three days later, leaving 105,000 dead.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.atomicarchive.com/Docs/MED/med_chp10.shtml|title=Total Casualties – The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|work=atomicarchive.com|access-date=December 16, 2016}}</ref> The Soviet Union ] on August 9 and ]. Japan ] the following day.{{sfn|Miller|1974|pp=227–231}}{{sfn|Dallek|2008|pp= 24–28}} | |||
| ] | |||
| {{quote|As President of the United States, I had the fateful responsibility of deciding whether or not to use this weapon for the first time. It was the hardest decision I ever had to make. But the President cannot duck hard problems—he cannot pass the buck. I made the decision after discussions with the ablest men in our Government, and after long and prayerful consideration. I decided that the bomb should be used in order to end the war quickly and save countless lives—Japanese as well as American.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=13049|title=Harry S. Truman: Address in Milwaukee, Wisconsin.|website=www.presidency.ucsb.edu|accessdate=June 8, 2018}}</ref>}} | |||
| Supporters{{efn|For example, see {{cite book| last1 = Fussell | first1=Paul | title = Thank God for the Atomic Bomb and Other Essays | chapter = Thank God for the Atomic Bomb | publisher = New York Summit Books | year = 1988 | author-link = Paul Fussell}}}} of Truman's decision argue that, given the tenacious Japanese defense of the outlying islands, the bombings saved hundreds of thousands of lives of Allied prisoners, Japanese civilians, and combatants on both sides that would have been lost in an invasion of Japan. Some modern criticism has argued that the use of nuclear weapons was unnecessary, given that conventional attacks or a demonstrative bombing of an uninhabited area might have forced Japan's surrender, and therefore assert that the attack constituted a crime of war.<ref>{{Citation | first1 = Ronald C | last1 = Kramer | first2 = David | last2 = Kauzlarich | title = Nuclear weapons, international law, and the normalization of state crime | editor1-first = Dawn | editor1-last = Rothe | editor2-first = Christopher W | editor2-last = Mullins | work = State crime: Current perspectives | year = 2011 | pages = 94–121|isbn=978-0-8135-4901-9}}.</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/japan/11650752/US-museum-must-call-Hiroshima-and-Nagasaki-war-crimes-say-Japanese.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/japan/11650752/US-museum-must-call-Hiroshima-and-Nagasaki-war-crimes-say-Japanese.html |archive-date=January 10, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=US museum must call Hiroshima and Nagasaki 'war crimes', say Japanese|first=Julian|last=Ryall|date=June 4, 2015|access-date=June 8, 2018|work=The Daily Telegraph}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://iwj.co.jp/wj/open/archives/254448|title=「なんであんな殺され方をしたのか、私は知りたい。あの世で、ちゃんとお兄ちゃんに説明できるように」――原爆投下から70年。広島の被爆者が語った原爆被害と戦争への思い – IWJ Independent Web Journal|date=August 6, 2015|website=iwj.co.jp|access-date=June 8, 2018}}</ref> In 1948 Truman defended his decision to use atomic bombs: | |||
| {{Blockquote|As President of the United States, I had the fateful responsibility of deciding whether or not to use this weapon for the first time. It was the hardest decision I ever had to make. But the President cannot duck hard problems—he cannot pass the buck. I made the decision after discussions with the ablest men in our Government, and after long and prayerful consideration. I decided that the bomb should be used to end the war quickly and save countless lives—Japanese as well as American.<ref>October 14, 1948 address in {{cite web|url=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=13049|title=Harry S. Truman: Address in Milwaukee, Wisconsin.|website=www.presidency.ucsb.edu|access-date=June 8, 2018}}</ref>}} | |||
| Truman continued to strongly defend himself in his memoirs in 1955–1956, stating many lives could have been lost had the United States invaded mainland Japan without the atomic bombs. In 1963, he stood by his decision, telling a journalist "it was done to save 125,000 youngsters on the U.S. side and 125,000 on the Japanese side from getting killed and that is what it did. It probably also saved a half million youngsters on both sides from being maimed for life."<ref>{{cite book |title=Nuclear Weapons |page=11 |date=May 30, 2006 | first =William | last = Lambers |publisher=William K Lambers |isbn= 0-9724629-4-5}}</ref> | Truman continued to strongly defend himself in his memoirs in 1955–1956, stating many lives could have been lost had the United States invaded mainland Japan without the atomic bombs. In 1963, he stood by his decision, telling a journalist "it was done to save 125,000 youngsters on the U.S. side and 125,000 on the Japanese side from getting killed and that is what it did. It probably also saved a half million youngsters on both sides from being maimed for life."<ref>{{cite book |title=Nuclear Weapons |page=11 |date=May 30, 2006 | first =William | last = Lambers |publisher=William K Lambers |isbn= 0-9724629-4-5}}</ref> | ||
| ==== |
==== Labor unions, strikes and economic issues ==== | ||
| {{See also|Strike wave of 1946}} | {{See also|Strike wave of 1946}} | ||
| The end of World War II was followed by an uneasy transition from war to a peacetime economy. The costs of the war effort had been enormous, and Truman was intent on diminishing military services as quickly as possible to curtail the government's military expenditures. The effect of demobilization on the economy was unknown, proposals were met with skepticism and resistance, and fears existed that the nation would slide back into depression. In Roosevelt's final years, Congress began to reassert legislative power and Truman faced a congressional body where Republicans and conservative southern Democrats formed a powerful voting bloc. | The end of World War II was followed by an uneasy transition from war to a peacetime economy. The costs of the war effort had been enormous, and Truman was intent on diminishing military services as quickly as possible to curtail the government's military expenditures. The effect of demobilization on the economy was unknown, proposals were met with skepticism and resistance, and fears existed that the nation would slide back into depression. In Roosevelt's final years, Congress began to reassert legislative power and Truman faced a congressional body where Republicans and conservative southern Democrats formed a powerful "conservative coalition" voting bloc. The New Deal had greatly strengthened labor unions and they formed a major base of support for Truman's Democratic Party. The Republicans, working with big business, made it their highest priority to weaken those unions.<ref>Daniel DiSalvo, "The politics of a party faction: The Liberal-Labor alliance in the Democratic Party, 1948–1972." ''Journal of Policy History'' 22.3 (2010): 269–299.</ref> The unions had been promoted by the government during the war and tried to make their gains permanent through large-scale strikes in major industries. Meanwhile, price controls were slowly ending, and inflation was soaring.{{sfn |Miller Center| 2012}} Truman's response to the widespread dissatisfaction was generally seen as ineffective.{{sfn |Miller Center| 2012}} | ||
| Dormant stressors during the war emerged as polarizing issues under Truman's administration. Strikes and labor-management conflicts destabilized major industries while severe housing and consumer good shortages added to public stress over inflation which peaked at 6 percent in a single month. {{sfn |Miller Center| 2012}} | |||
| Truman's response to the widespread dissatisfaction and protest of U.S. citizens was generally seen as ineffective.{{sfn |Miller Center| 2012}} The cost of consumer goods increased rapidly due to the removal of depression-era limits on the prices of everyday items while producers of the remaining price-controlled commodities struggled due to the artificially low prices of their goods. In 1945 and 1946, Farmers refused to sell grain for months even though it was desperately needed in the United States and to stave off starvation in Europe.{{sfn|McCoy|1984|pp= 54–55}} Similarly, industrial laborers sought wage increases. In January 1946 a steel strike involving 800,000 laborers became the largest in the nation's history. It was followed by a coal strike in April and a rail strike in May; however, public opinion on labor action was mixed with one poll reporting a majority of the public in favor of a ban on strikes by public service workers and a year's moratorium on labor actions. | |||
| ] | |||
| When a national rail strike threatened in May 1946, Truman seized the railroads in an attempt to contain the issue, but two key railway unions struck anyway. The entire national railroad system was shut down, immobilizing 24,000 freight trains and 175,000 passenger trains a day.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://archive.org/details/1946-05-23_Rail_Strike_Paralyzes_Entire_US|title=Rail Strike Paralyzes Entire U.S.|publisher=Universal Studios|date=May 23, 1946}}</ref> For two days, public anger mounted and Truman himself drafted an irate message to Congress that called on veterans to form a lynch mob and destroy the union leaders: | |||
| ] sponge divers in Florida, 1947]] | |||
| {{quote|Every single one of the strikers and their demagogue leaders have been living in luxury ... Now I want you who are my comrades in arms ... to come with me and eliminate the Lewises, the Whitneys, the Johnstons, the Communist Bridges and the Russian Senators and Representatives ... Let's put transportation and production back to work, hang a few traitors and make our own country safe for democracy.{{sfn |McCullough|1992| pp=498–501}}}} | |||
| When a national rail strike threatened in May 1946, Truman seized the railroads in an attempt to contain the issue, but two key railway unions struck anyway. The entire national railroad system was shut down, immobilizing 24,000 freight trains and 175,000 passenger trains a day.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://archive.org/details/1946-05-23_Rail_Strike_Paralyzes_Entire_US|title=Rail Strike Paralyzes Entire U.S.|publisher=Universal Studios|date=May 23, 1946}}</ref> For two days, public anger mounted. His staff prepared a speech that Truman read to Congress calling for a new law, whereby railroad strikers would be drafted into the army. As he concluded his address, he was handed a note that the strike had been settled on presidential terms; nevertheless, a few hours later, the House voted to draft the strikers. The bill died in the Senate.{{sfn |McCullough|1992| pp=501–506}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Acacia, John|title=Clark Clifford: The Wise Man of Washington|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=63hJMGqu2YMC&pg=PT22|year=2009|page=22|publisher=University Press of Kentucky |isbn=978-0813139258}}</ref> | |||
| ==== Approval rating falls; Republicans win Congress in 1946==== | |||
| His staff was stunned, but top aide ] revised the original draft and Truman delivered a toned down version of the speech to Congress. Truman called for a new law, where any railroad strikers would be drafted into the army. As he concluded his congressional address, he received a message that the strike had been settled on presidential terms; nevertheless, a few hours later, the House voted to draft the strikers. Taft killed the bill in the Senate.{{sfn |McCullough|1992| pp=501–506}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Acacia, John|title=Clark Clifford: The Wise Man of Washington|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=63hJMGqu2YMC&pg=PT22|year=2009|page=22}}</ref> | |||
| The president's approval rating dropped from 82 percent in the polls in January 1946 to 52 percent by June.{{sfn|McCoy|1984|pp=64–65}} This dissatisfaction led to large Democratic losses in the ], and Republicans took control of Congress for the first time since 1930. When Truman dropped to 32 percent in the polls, Democratic Arkansas Senator ] suggested that Truman resign; the president said he did not care what Senator "Halfbright" said.{{sfn|Dallek|2008|pp=48–50}}{{sfn|McCoy|1984|p=91}} | |||
| Truman cooperated closely with the Republican leaders on foreign policy but fought them bitterly on domestic issues. The power of the labor unions was significantly curtailed by the ] which was enacted ]. Truman twice vetoed bills to lower income tax rates in 1947. Although the initial vetoes were sustained, Congress overrode his veto of a tax cut bill in 1948. In one notable instance of bipartisanship, Congress passed the ], which replaced the secretary of state with the Speaker of the House and the president pro tempore of the Senate as successor to the president after the vice president.{{sfn|McCoy|1984|pp=96–102}} | |||
| After the settlement of the railway strike, labor action continued as an undercurrent of Truman's presidency. The president's approval rating dropped from 82 percent in the polls in January 1946 to 52 percent by June.{{sfn|McCoy|1984|pp=64–65}} This dissatisfaction with the Truman administration's policies led to large Democratic losses in the 1946 midterm elections, and Republicans took control of Congress for the first time since 1930. The ] included Republican freshmen who would become prominent in U.S. politics in the years to come including Wisconsin Senator ] and California Congressman ]. When Truman dropped to 32 percent in the polls, Democratic Arkansas Senator ] suggested that Truman resign; the president said he did not care what Senator "Halfbright" said.{{sfn|Dallek|2008|pp=48–50}}{{sfn|McCoy|1984|p=91}} | |||
| ==== Proposes "Fair Deal" liberalism ==== | |||
| Truman cooperated closely with the Republican leaders on foreign policy, but fought them bitterly on domestic issues. The power of the labor unions was significantly curtailed by the ] which was enacted ]. Truman twice vetoed bills to lower income tax rates in 1947. Although the initial vetoes were sustained, Congress overrode his veto of a tax cut bill in 1948. In one notable instance of bipartisanship, Congress passed the ], which replaced the secretary of state with the Speaker of the House and the president pro tempore of the Senate as successor to the president after the vice president. {{sfn|McCoy|1984|pp=96–102}} | |||
| As he readied for the 1948 election, Truman made clear his identity as a Democrat in the ] tradition, advocating for ],<ref>{{Citation | first = Howard | last = Markel | title = 'Give 'Em Health, Harry' | journal = Milbank Quarterly | year = 2015 | volume = 93 | number = 1 | pages = 1–7 | doi=10.1111/1468-0009.12096| pmid = 25752341 | pmc = 4364422 }}.</ref> and repeal of the Taft–Hartley Act. He broke with the New Deal by initiating an aggressive civil rights program which he termed a moral priority. His economic and social vision constituted a broad legislative agenda that came to be called the "]."{{sfn |Dallek|2008| pp=84–86}} Truman's proposals were not well received by Congress, even with renewed Democratic majorities in Congress after 1948. The Solid South rejected civil rights as those states still enforced segregation. Only one of the major Fair Deal bills, the ], was ever enacted.{{sfn |Binning|Esterly|Sracic|1999| p =417}}<ref>{{Citation | first1 = Charles M | last1 = Lamb | first2 = Adam W | last2 = Nye | title = Do Presidents Control Bureaucracy? The Federal Housing Administration during the Truman-Eisenhower Era | journal = Political Science Quarterly | year = 2012 | volume = 127 | number = 3 | pages = 445–467 | jstor = 23563185 | doi=10.1002/j.1538-165x.2012.tb00734.x}}.</ref> Many of the New Deal programs that persisted during Truman's presidency have since received minor improvements and extensions.{{sfn|Neustadt|1954|pp=349–381}} | |||
| As he readied for the 1948 election, Truman made clear his identity as a Democrat in the ] tradition, advocating for ],<ref>{{Citation | first = Howard | last = Markel | title = 'Give 'Em Health, Harry' | journal = Milbank Quarterly | year = 2015 | volume = 93 | number = 1 | pages = 1–7 | doi=10.1111/1468-0009.12096| pmc = 4364422 }}.</ref> and repeal of the Taft–Hartley Act. He broke with the New Deal by initiating an aggressive civil rights program which he termed a moral priority. His economic and social vision constituted a broad legislative agenda that came to be called the "]."{{sfn |Dallek|2008| pp=84–86}} Truman's proposals were not well received by Congress, even with renewed Democratic majorities in Congress after 1948. The Solid South rejected civil rights as those states still enforced segregation. Only one of the major Fair Deal bills, the ], was ever enacted.{{sfn |Binning|Esterly|Sracic|1999| p =417}}<ref>{{Citation | first1 = Charles M | last1 = Lamb | first2 = Adam W | last2 = Nye | title = Do Presidents Control Bureaucracy? The Federal Housing Administration during the Truman‐Eisenhower Era | journal = Political Science Quarterly | year = 2012 | volume = 127 | number = 3 | pages = 445–467 | jstor = 23563185 | doi=10.1002/j.1538-165x.2012.tb00734.x}}.</ref> Many of the New Deal programs that persisted during Truman's presidency have since received minor improvements and extensions.{{sfn|Neustadt|1954|pp=349–381}} | |||
| ==== Marshall Plan, Cold War, and China ==== | ==== Marshall Plan, Cold War, and China ==== | ||
| ]. He had great integrity but, says Alonzo L. Hamby, as a senior White House aide he was, "A better newsman than news handler, he never established a policy of coordinating news releases throughout the executive branch, frequently bumbled details, never developed ... a strategy for marketing the president's image and failed to establish a strong press office."{{sfn | Hamby |1995|p=310}}]] | ]. He had great integrity but, says Alonzo L. Hamby, as a senior White House aide he was, "A better newsman than news handler, he never established a policy of coordinating news releases throughout the executive branch, frequently bumbled details, never developed ... a strategy for marketing the president's image and failed to establish a strong press office."{{sfn | Hamby |1995|p=310}}]] | ||
| As a ] internationalist, Truman supported Roosevelt's policy in favor of the creation of the United Nations and included Eleanor Roosevelt on the delegation to the |
As a ] internationalist, Truman supported Roosevelt's policy in favor of the creation of the United Nations and included ] on the delegation to the first ].{{sfn|Roosevelt|1961}} With the Soviet Union expanding its sphere of influence through Eastern Europe, Truman and his foreign policy advisors took a hard line against the USSR. In this, he matched U.S. public opinion which quickly came to believe the Soviets were intent upon world domination.{{sfn | Dallek|2008|pp=56–57}} | ||
| Although he had little personal expertise on foreign matters, Truman listened closely to his top advisors, especially ] and ]. The Republicans controlled Congress in 1947–1948, so he worked with their leaders, especially Senator ], chairman of the powerful Foreign Relations Committee.<ref>James M. McCormick |
Although he had little personal expertise on foreign matters, Truman listened closely to his top advisors, especially ] and ]. The Republicans controlled Congress in 1947–1948, so he worked with their leaders, especially Senator ], chairman of the powerful Foreign Relations Committee.<ref>{{cite journal|first1=James M. |last1=McCormick|first2=Eugene R.|last2=Wittkopf|title=Bipartisanship, partisanship, and ideology in congressional-executive foreign policy relations, 1947–1988|journal=]|publisher=]|location=Chicago, Illinois|volume=52|issue=4 |date=November 1990|pages=1077–1100|doi=10.2307/2131683 |jstor=2131683 |s2cid=154839304 |url=https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1026&context=pols_pubs }}</ref> He won bipartisan support for both the ], which formalized a policy of Soviet containment, and the ], which aimed to help rebuild postwar Europe.{{sfn | Freeland|1970|p=90}}{{sfn|Roberts|2000}} | ||
| To get Congress to spend the vast sums necessary to restart the moribund European economy, Truman used an ideological argument, arguing that |
To get Congress to spend the vast sums necessary to restart the moribund European economy, Truman used an ideological argument, arguing that communism flourishes in economically deprived areas.{{sfn| Holsti | 1996 | p=214}} As part of the U.S. ] strategy, Truman signed the ] and reorganized military forces by merging the ] and the ] into the National Military Establishment (later the ]) and creating the ]. The act also created the ] (CIA) and the ].{{sfn|Dallek|2008|pp=62–63}} On November 4, 1952, Truman authorized the official, though at the time, confidential creation of the ] (NSA).<ref>{{Cite web |title=National Security Agency/Central Security Service > Helpful Links > NSA FOIA > Declassification & Transparency Initiatives > Historical Releases > Truman |url=https://www.nsa.gov/Helpful-Links/NSA-FOIA/Declassification-Transparency-Initiatives/Historical-Releases/Truman/ |access-date=August 28, 2023 |website=www.nsa.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Glass |first=Andrew |date=November 4, 2010 |title=The National Security Agency is established, Nov. 4, 1952 |url=https://www.politico.com/story/2010/11/the-national-security-agency-is-established-nov-4-1952-044671 |access-date=August 28, 2023 |website=POLITICO |language=en}}</ref> | ||
| Truman did not know what to do about China, where the |
Truman did not know what to do about China, where the ] and ] were fighting a large-scale ]. The Nationalists had been major wartime allies and had large-scale popular support in the United States, along with a powerful lobby. ] trying to negotiate a compromise but failed. He convinced Truman the Nationalists would never win on their own and a very large-scale U.S. intervention to stop the Communists would significantly weaken U.S. opposition to the Soviets in Europe. By 1949, the Communists under ] had won the civil war, the United States had a new enemy in Asia, and Truman came under fire from conservatives for ].<ref>May, Ernest R. (2002) "1947–48: When Marshall Kept the U.S. out of War in China." ''Journal of Military History'' 66#4: 1001–1010. </ref> | ||
| ==== Berlin airlift ==== | ==== Berlin airlift ==== | ||
| {{ |
{{Further|Berlin Blockade}} | ||
| On June 24, 1948, the Soviet Union blocked access to the three ] of Berlin. The Allies had not negotiated a deal to guarantee supply of the sectors deep within the Soviet-occupied zone. The commander of the U.S. occupation zone in Germany, General ], proposed sending a large armored column across the Soviet zone to ] with instructions to defend itself if it were stopped or attacked. Truman believed this would entail an unacceptable risk of war. He approved ]'s plan to supply the blockaded city by air. | On June 24, 1948, the Soviet Union blocked access to the three ] of Berlin. The Allies had not negotiated a deal to guarantee supply of the sectors deep within the Soviet-occupied zone. The commander of the U.S. occupation zone in Germany, General ], proposed sending a large armored column across the Soviet zone to ] with instructions to defend itself if it were stopped or attacked. Truman believed this would entail an unacceptable risk of war. He approved ]'s plan to supply the blockaded city by air. | ||
| Line 253: | Line 275: | ||
| ==== Recognition of Israel ==== | ==== Recognition of Israel ==== | ||
| ] ] from the prime minister of Israel, ] (center). To the right is ], ambassador of Israel to the United States]] | ] ] from the prime minister of Israel, ] (center). To the right is ], ambassador of Israel to the United States.]] | ||
| Truman had long taken an interest in the history of the Middle East |
Truman had long taken an interest in the history of the Middle East and was sympathetic to Jews who sought to re-establish their ancient homeland in ]. As a senator, he announced support for ]; in 1943 he called for a homeland for those Jews who survived the Nazi regime. However, State Department officials were reluctant to offend the Arabs, who were opposed to the establishment of a Jewish state in the large region long populated and dominated culturally by Arabs. Secretary of Defense ] warned Truman of the importance of Saudi Arabian oil in another war; Truman replied he would decide his policy on the basis of justice, not oil.{{sfn |McCullough|1992| pp=595–597}} U.S. diplomats with experience in the region were opposed, but Truman told them he had few Arabs among his constituents.{{sfn|McCullough|1992|p=599}} | ||
| Palestine was secondary to the goal of protecting the "Northern Tier" of Greece, Turkey, and Iran from communism, as promised by the Truman Doctrine.{{sfn|Ottolenghi|2004|pp=963–988}} Weary of both the convoluted politics of the Middle East and pressure by Jewish leaders, Truman was undecided on his policy |
Palestine was secondary to the goal of protecting the "Northern Tier" of Greece, Turkey, and Iran from communism, as promised by the Truman Doctrine.{{sfn|Ottolenghi|2004|pp=963–988}} Weary of both the convoluted politics of the Middle East and pressure by Jewish leaders, Truman was undecided on his policy and skeptical about how the Jewish "underdogs" would handle power.<ref>Baylis, Thomas. '''', p. 55 (Lexington Books, ], 1999).</ref><ref>Holmes, David. '''', pp. 16–17. (U. Georgia Press, 2012).</ref> He later cited as decisive in his recognition of the Jewish state the advice of his former business partner, Eddie Jacobson, a non-religious Jew whom Truman absolutely trusted.{{sfn|McCullough|1992|p=599}} | ||
| Truman decided to recognize Israel over the objections of Secretary of State ], who feared it would hurt relations with the populous Arab states. Marshall believed the paramount threat to the United States was the Soviet Union and feared Arab oil would be lost to the United States in the event of war; he warned Truman the United States was "playing with fire with nothing to put it out".{{sfn|McCullough|1992|pp=604–605}} Truman recognized the ] on May 14, 1948, eleven minutes after ].{{sfn|Lenczowski|1990|p=26}}{{sfn|Truman Library|1948}} Of his decision to recognize the Israeli state, Truman |
Truman decided to recognize Israel over the objections of Secretary of State ], who feared it would hurt relations with the populous Arab states. Marshall believed the paramount threat to the United States was the Soviet Union and feared Arab oil would be lost to the United States in the event of war; he warned Truman the United States was "playing with fire with nothing to put it out".{{sfn|McCullough|1992|pp=604–605}} Truman recognized the ] on May 14, 1948, eleven minutes after ].{{sfn|Lenczowski|1990|p=26}}{{sfn|Truman Library|1948}} Of his decision to recognize the Israeli state, Truman said in an interview years later: "Hitler had been murdering Jews right and left. I saw it, and I dream about it even to this day. The Jews needed some place where they could go. It is my attitude that the American government couldn't stand idly by while the victims Hitler's madness are not allowed to build new lives."{{sfn|Berdichevsky|2012}} | ||
| === |
====Calls for civil rights==== | ||
| Under his predecessor, Franklin D. Roosevelt, the ] was created to address racial discrimination in employment,<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Fair Employment Practices Committee |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |date=March 20, 2023 |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Fair-Employment-Practices-Committee |language=en}}</ref> and in 1946, Truman created the ]. On June 29, 1947, Truman became the first president to address the ] (NAACP). The speech took place at the ] during the NAACP convention and was carried nationally on radio. In that speech, Truman laid out the need to end discrimination, which would be advanced by the first comprehensive, presidentially proposed civil rights legislation. Truman on "civil rights and human freedom", declared:<ref>{{Cite news |last=Glass |first=Andrew |date=June 29, 2018 |title=Truman addresses NAACP, June 29, 1947 |language=en |work=Politico |url=https://politi.co/2Mz2C4K |access-date=July 27, 2021}}</ref> | |||
| {{details|United States presidential election, 1948}} | |||
| ] | |||
| {{blockquote|It is my deep conviction that we have reached a turning point in the long history of our country's efforts to guarantee freedom and equality to all our citizens … it is more important today than ever before to ensure that all Americans enjoy these rights. … When I say all Americans, I mean all Americans … Our immediate task is to remove the last remnants of the barriers which stand between millions of our citizens and their birthright. There is no justifiable reason for discrimination because of ancestry, or religion, or race, or color. We must not tolerate such limitations on the freedom of any of our people and on their enjoyment of basic rights which every citizen in a truly democratic society must possess. Every man should have the right to a decent home, the right to an education, the right to adequate medical care, the right to a worthwhile job, the right to an equal share in making the public decisions through the ballot, and the right to a fair trial in a fair court. We must ensure that these rights – on equal terms – are enjoyed by every citizen. To these principles I pledge my full and continued support. Many of our people still suffer the indignity of insult, the harrowing fear of intimidation, and, I regret to say, the threat of physical injury and mob violence. Prejudice and intolerance in which these evils are rooted still exist. The conscience of our nation, and the legal machinery which enforces it, have not yet secured to each citizen full ].}} | |||
| The ] is remembered for Truman's stunning come-from-behind victory.{{sfn|Hechler|Elsey|2006}} In the spring of 1948, Truman's public approval rating stood at 36 percent,{{sfn|Burnes|2003|p=137}} and the president was nearly universally regarded as incapable of winning the general election. The "New Deal" operatives within the party—including FDR's son, ]—tried to swing the Democratic nomination to General ], a highly popular figure whose political views and party affiliation were totally unknown. Eisenhower emphatically refused to accept, and Truman outflanked opponents to his own nomination.{{sfn|Hechler|Elsey|2006}} | |||
| In February 1948, Truman delivered a formal message to Congress requesting adoption of his 10-point program to secure civil rights, including anti-lynching, voter rights, and elimination of segregation. "No political act since the ]," argued biographer ], "so profoundly influenced race relations; in a sense it was a repeal of 1877."<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Milkis |first1=Sidney M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bW9KEAAAQBAJ&dq=en&pg=PA1946 |title=The American Presidency: Origins and Development, 1776–2021 |last2=Nelson |first2=Michael |date=2021 |publisher=CQ Press |isbn=978-1-0718-2463-4 |language=en |page=1946}}</ref> | |||
| At the ], Truman attempted to unify the party with a vague civil rights plank in the party platform. His intention was to assuage the internal conflicts between the northern and southern wings of his party. Events overtook his efforts. A sharp address given by Mayor ] of ]—as well as the local political interests of a number of urban bosses—convinced the convention to adopt a stronger civil rights plank, which Truman approved wholeheartedly. All of Alabama's delegates, and a portion of Mississippi's, walked out of the convention in protest.{{sfn|McCullough|1992|p=640}} Unfazed, Truman delivered an aggressive acceptance speech attacking the 80th Congress, which Truman called the "Do Nothing Congress,"{{sfn|Miller Center|2012}} and promising to win the election and "make these Republicans like it."{{sfn|Hamby|2008}} | |||
| === 1948 election === | |||
| {{quote|Republicans approve of the American farmer, but they are willing to help him go broke. They stand four-square for the American home—but not for housing. They are strong for labor—but they are stronger for restricting labor's rights. They favor minimum wage—the smaller the minimum wage the better. They endorse educational opportunity for all—but they won't spend money for teachers or for schools. They think modern medical care and hospitals are fine—for people who can afford them ... They think American standard of living is a fine thing—so long as it doesn't spread to all the people. And they admire the Government of the United States so much that they would like to buy it.|author=Harry S. Truman|source=October 13, 1948, St. Paul, Minnesota, Radio Broadcast<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/address-st-paul-the-municipal-auditorium|title=Harry S. Truman: Address in St. Paul at the Municipal Auditorium.|website=www.presidency.ucsb.edu|accessdate=October 29, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.goodreads.com/quotes/97983-republicans-approve-of-the-american-farmer-but-they-are-willing|title=A quote by Harry Truman|website=www.goodreads.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.snopes.com/politics/quotes/trumangop.asp|title=President Harry Truman on Republicans|date=October 5, 2012|publisher=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://spydersden.wordpress.com/2014/11/22/ten-quotes-about-republicans-from-harry-truman/|title=Ten Quotes About Republicans From Harry Truman|date=November 22, 2014|publisher=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/24/opinion/republican-taxes-healthcare.html|title=Opinion – When a Tax Cut Costs Millions Their Medical Coverage|first=The Editorial|last=Board|date=November 24, 2017|publisher=|via=NYTimes.com}}</ref>}} | |||
| {{Main|Harry S. Truman 1948 presidential campaign}} | |||
| {{Further|1948 United States presidential election}} | |||
| ] (right) at dedication of ] in New York City on July 31, 1948, This was their first meeting since being nominated as presidential candidates by their parties.]] | |||
| The ] is remembered for Truman's stunning come-from-behind victory.{{sfn|Hechler|Elsey|2006}} In the spring of 1948, Truman's public approval rating stood at 36 percent,{{sfn|Burnes|2003|p=137}} and the president was nearly universally regarded as incapable of winning the general election. At the ], Truman attempted to unify the party with a vague civil rights plank in the party platform. His intention was to assuage the internal conflicts between the northern and southern wings of his party. Events overtook his efforts. A sharp address given by Mayor ] of ]—as well as the local political interests of a number of urban bosses—convinced the convention to adopt a stronger civil rights plank, which Truman approved wholeheartedly.<ref>Harvard Sitkoff, "Harry Truman and the election of 1948: The coming of age of civil rights in American politics." ''Journal of Southern History'' 37.4 (1971): 597–616.</ref> Truman delivered an aggressive acceptance speech attacking the 80th Congress, which Truman called the "Do Nothing Congress,"{{sfn|Miller Center|2012}} and promising to win the election and "make these Republicans like it."{{sfn|Hamby|2008}} | |||
| Within two weeks of the 1948 convention Truman issued ], racially ] the U.S. Armed Services{{sfn|Center of Military History|2012}}{{sfn|''Federal Register''|1948}}{{sfn|Truman Library|1998}} and Executive Order 9980 to integrate federal agencies. Truman took a considerable political risk in backing civil rights, and many seasoned Democrats were concerned the loss of ] support might destroy the Democratic Party. South Carolina Governor ], a segregationist, declared his candidacy for the presidency on a Dixiecrat ticket and led a full-scale revolt of Southern "]" proponents. This rebellion on the right was matched by one on the left, led by Wallace on the ] ticket. Immediately after its first post-FDR convention, the Democratic Party seemed to be disintegrating. Victory in November seemed unlikely as the party was not simply split but divided three ways.{{sfn|McCoy|1984|pp=153–158}} For his running mate, Truman accepted Kentucky Senator ], though he really wanted Justice ], who turned down the nomination.{{sfn|Pietrusza|2011|pp=226–232}} | |||
| {{Blockquote|Republicans approve of the American farmer, but they are willing to help him go broke. They stand four-square for the American home—but not for housing. They are strong for labor—but they are stronger for restricting labor's rights. They favor minimum wage—the smaller the minimum wage the better. They endorse educational opportunity for all—but they won't spend money for teachers or for schools. They think modern medical care and hospitals are fine—for people who can afford them ... They think American standard of living is a fine thing—so long as it doesn't spread to all the people. And they admire the Government of the United States so much that they would like to buy it.|author=Harry S. Truman|source=October 13, 1948, St. Paul, Minnesota, Radio Broadcast<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/address-st-paul-the-municipal-auditorium|title=Harry S. Truman: Address in St. Paul at the Municipal Auditorium.|website=presidency.ucsb.edu|access-date=October 29, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.snopes.com/politics/quotes/trumangop.asp|title=President Harry Truman on Republicans|date=October 5, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/24/opinion/republican-taxes-healthcare.html|title=Opinion – When a Tax Cut Costs Millions Their Medical Coverage|author=The Editorial Board|date=November 24, 2017|newspaper=The New York Times}}</ref>}} | |||
| Truman's political advisors described the political scene as "one unholy, confusing cacophony." They told Truman to speak directly to the people, in a personal way.<ref>{{cite web|title=Footnotes on Political Battles of 1948|url=http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/1948campaign/large/docs/documents/index.php?pagenumber=1&documentdate=1948-00-00&documentid=6-13&studycollectionid=Election|website=Truman's Library|publisher=Truman's Library|accessdate=January 28, 2016}}</ref> Campaign manager William J. Bray said Truman took this advice, and spoke personally and passionately, sometimes even setting aside his notes to talk to Americans "of everything that is in my heart and soul."<ref name=Bray>{{cite web|last1=Bray|first1=William J.|title=Recollections of the 1948 Campaign|url=http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/1948campaign/large/docs/documents/index.php?pagenumber=1&documentdate=1964-08-00&documentid=1-3&studycollectionid=Election|website=Truman's Library|publisher=Truman's Library|accessdate=January 28, 2016}}</ref> | |||
| Within two weeks of the 1948 convention Truman issued ], ending racial discrimination in the Armed Services, and Executive Order 9980 to end discrimination in federal agencies.<ref>Morris J. MacGregor, Jr., ''Integration of the Armed Forces 1940–1965'' (Center of Military History, 1981) ch 12 .</ref><ref>Jon Taylor, ''Freedom to Serve: Truman, Civil Rights, and Executive Order 9981'' (Routledge, 2013).</ref> Truman took a considerable political risk in backing civil rights, and many seasoned Democrats were concerned the loss of ] support might seriously weaken the party. South Carolina Governor ], a segregationist, declared his candidacy for the presidency on a Dixiecrat ticket and led a full-scale revolt of Southern "]" proponents. This rebellion on the right was matched by one on the left, led by Wallace on the ] ticket. The Democratic Party was splitting three ways and victory in November seemed unlikely.{{sfn|McCoy|1984|pp=153–158}} For his running mate, Truman accepted Kentucky Senator ], though he really wanted Justice ], who turned down the nomination.{{sfn|Pietrusza|2011|pp=226–232}} | |||
| The campaign was a {{convert|21928|mi|km|adj=on}} presidential odyssey.{{sfn|McCullough|1992|p=654}} In a personal appeal to the nation, Truman crisscrossed the United States by train; his "]" speeches from the rear platform of the observation car, ''],'' came to represent his campaign. His combative appearances captured the popular imagination and drew huge crowds. Six stops in ] drew a combined half-million people;{{sfn|McCullough|1992|p=657}} a full million turned out for a New York City ticker-tape parade.{{sfn|McCullough|1992|p=701}} | |||
| Truman's political advisors described the political scene as "one unholy, confusing cacophony." They told Truman to speak directly to the people, in a personal way.<ref>{{cite web|title=Footnotes on Political Battles of 1948|url=http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/1948campaign/large/docs/documents/index.php?pagenumber=1&documentdate=1948-00-00&documentid=6-13&studycollectionid=Election|website=Truman's Library|access-date=January 28, 2016|archive-date=February 5, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205041046/http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/1948campaign/large/docs/documents/index.php?pagenumber=1&documentdate=1948-00-00&documentid=6-13&studycollectionid=Election|url-status=dead}}</ref> Campaign manager William J. Bray said Truman took this advice, and spoke personally and passionately, sometimes even setting aside his notes to talk to Americans "of everything that is in my heart and soul."<ref name=Bray>{{cite web|last1=Bray|first1=William J.|title=Recollections of the 1948 Campaign|url=http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/1948campaign/large/docs/documents/index.php?pagenumber=1&documentdate=1964-08-00&documentid=1-3&studycollectionid=Election|website=Truman's Library|access-date=January 28, 2016|archive-date=February 5, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205040911/http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/1948campaign/large/docs/documents/index.php?pagenumber=1&documentdate=1964-08-00&documentid=1-3&studycollectionid=Election|url-status=dead}}</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| ]'' had printed papers with this erroneous headline when few returns were in.]] | |||
| The campaign was a {{convert|21928|mi|km|adj=on}} presidential odyssey.{{sfn|McCullough|1992|p=654}} In a personal appeal to the nation, Truman crisscrossed the United States by train; his "]" speeches from the rear platform of the presidential car, '']'', came to represent his campaign. His combative appearances captured the popular imagination and drew huge crowds. Six stops in ] drew a combined half-million people;{{sfn|McCullough|1992|p=657}} a full million turned out for a New York City ticker-tape parade.{{sfn|McCullough|1992|p=701}} | |||
| The large, mostly spontaneous gatherings at Truman's whistle-stop events were an important sign of a change in momentum in the campaign, but this shift went virtually unnoticed by the national press corps. It continued reporting Republican ]'s apparent impending victory as a certainty. One reason for the press's inaccurate projection was that polls were conducted primarily by telephone, but many people, including much of Truman's populist base, did not yet own a telephone.{{sfn|Curran|Takata|2002}} This skewed the data to indicate a stronger support base for Dewey than existed. An unintended and undetected projection error may have contributed to the perception of Truman's bleak chances. The three major polling organizations stopped polling well before the November 2 election date—] in September, and Crossley and ] in October—thus failing to measure the period when Truman appears to have surged past Dewey.{{sfn|Bennett|2012}}{{sfn|Truman Library|1971}} | |||
| ] | |||
| In the end, Truman held his progressive Midwestern base, won most of the Southern states despite the civil rights plank, and squeaked through with narrow victories in a few critical states, notably Ohio, California, and Illinois. The final tally showed the president had secured 303 electoral votes, Dewey 189, and Thurmond only 39. Henry Wallace got none. The defining image of the campaign came after Election Day, when an ecstatic Truman held aloft the erroneous front page of the '']'' with a huge headline proclaiming "]."{{sfn|Jones|1948}} | |||
| ]'' had printed papers with this erroneous headline when few returns were in.]] | |||
| The large crowds at Truman's whistle-stop events were an important sign of a change in momentum in the campaign, but this shift went virtually unnoticed by the national press corps. It continued reporting Republican ]'s apparent impending victory as a certainty. The three major polling organizations stopped polling well before the November 2 election date—] in September, and Crossley and ] in October—thus failing to measure the period when Truman appears to have surged past Dewey.{{sfn|Bennett|2012}}{{sfn|Truman Library|1971}} | |||
| In the end, Truman held his progressive Midwestern base, won most of the Southern states despite the civil rights plank, and squeaked through with narrow victories in a few critical states, notably Ohio, California, and Illinois. The final tally showed the president had secured 303 electoral votes, Dewey 189, and Thurmond only 39. Henry Wallace got none. The defining image of the campaign came after Election Day, when an ecstatic Truman held aloft the erroneous front page of the '']'' with a huge headline proclaiming "]."{{sfn|Jones|2020}} | |||
| === Full elected term (1949–1953) === | === Full elected term (1949–1953) === | ||
| ] was the first ever televised nationally.{{sfn |United States Senate| 2005 |
] on January 20, 1949, was the first ever televised nationally.{{sfn |United States Senate| 2005}} | ||
| ==== Hydrogen bomb decision ==== | |||
| The Soviet Union's ] progressed much faster than had been expected,{{sfn|McCullough|1992|pp=747–749}} and they detonated ] on August 29, 1949. Over the next several months there was an intense debate that split the U.S. government, military, and scientific communities regarding whether to proceed with the development of the far more powerful ].{{sfn|Young|Schilling|2019|pp=1–2}} The debate touched on matters from technical feasibility to strategic value to the morality of creating a massively destructive weapon.{{sfn|Young|Schilling|2019|pp=152–159}}{{sfn|McCullough|1992|pp=756–758}} On January 31, 1950, Truman made the decision to go forward on the grounds that if the Soviets could make an H-bomb, the United States must do so as well and stay ahead in the nuclear arms race.{{sfn|Young|Schilling|2019|p=165}}{{sfn|McCullough|1992|pp=762–764}} The development achieved fruition with the ] on October 31, 1952, which was officially announced by Truman on January 7, 1953.{{sfn|Atomic Archive|1953}} | |||
| ==== Korean War ==== | ==== Korean War ==== | ||
| {{ |
{{Further|Korean War}} | ||
| ] | ] | ||
| On June 25, 1950, the ] under ] invaded South Korea, starting the |
On June 25, 1950, the ] under ] invaded South Korea, starting the Korean War. In the early weeks of the war, the North Koreans easily pushed back their southern counterparts.{{sfn|McCoy|1984|pp=222–27}} Truman called for a naval blockade of Korea, only to learn that due to budget cutbacks, the U.S. Navy could not enforce such a measure.{{sfn|Truman Library, Memo|1950}} | ||
| Truman promptly urged the United Nations to intervene; it did, authorizing troops under the UN flag led by U.S. General ]. Truman decided he did not need formal authorization from Congress, believing that most legislators supported his position; this would come back to haunt him later when the stalemated conflict was dubbed "Mr. Truman's War" by legislators.{{sfn|McCoy|1984|pp=222–27}} Rockoff writes that "President Truman responded quickly to the June invasion by authorizing the use of U.S. troops and ordering air strikes and a ]. He did not, however, seek a declaration of war, or call for full mobilization, in part because such actions might have been misinterpreted by Russia and China. Instead, on July 19 he called for partial mobilization and asked Congress for an appropriation of $10 billion for the war."<ref name="rockoff09">{{cite book |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511600999.008 |chapter=The Korean War |title=Drastic Measures |date=1984 |pages=177–199 |isbn=978-0-521-24496-1 }}</ref> Cohen writes that: "All of Truman's advisers saw the events in Korea as a test of American will to resist Soviet attempts to expand their power, and their system. The United States ordered warships to the ] to prevent Mao's forces from invading ] and mopping up the remnants of ]'s army there."<ref name="cohen13">{{cite book |doi=10.1017/CHO9781139032513.006 |chapter=The Korean War and Its Consequences |title=The New Cambridge History of American Foreign Relations |date=2013 |pages=58–78 |isbn=978-1-139-03251-3 }}</ref> | |||
| However, on July 3, 1950, Truman did give Senate Majority Leader ] a draft resolution titled "Joint Resolution Expressing Approval of the Action Taken in Korea". Lucas stated Congress supported the use of force, the formal resolution would pass but was unnecessary, and consensus in Congress was to acquiesce. Truman responded he did not want "to appear to be trying to get around Congress and use extra-Constitutional powers," and added that it was "up to Congress whether such a resolution should be introduced."<ref>{{Citation | author-link = John Dean| last = Dean | first = John | title = Broken Government: How Republican Rule Destroyed the Legislative, Executive, and Judicial Branches | pages = 257, 315 | publisher = Penguin | year = 2007}}.</ref> | |||
| However, on July 3, 1950, Truman did give Senate Majority Leader ] a draft resolution titled "Joint Resolution Expressing Approval of the Action Taken in Korea". Lucas stated Congress supported the use of force, the formal resolution would pass but was unnecessary, and the consensus in Congress was to acquiesce. Truman responded he did not want "to appear to be trying to get around Congress and use extra-Constitutional powers," and added that it was "up to Congress whether such a resolution should be introduced."<ref>{{Citation | author-link = John Dean| last = Dean | first = John | title = Broken Government: How Republican Rule Destroyed the Legislative, Executive, and Judicial Branches | pages = 257, 315 | publisher = Penguin | year = 2007}}.</ref> | |||
| By August 1950, U.S. troops pouring into South Korea under UN auspices were able to stabilize the situation.{{sfn|Dallek|2008|p=107}} Responding to criticism over readiness, Truman fired his secretary of defense, ], replacing him with the retired General Marshall. With UN approval, Truman decided on a "rollback" policy—conquest of North Korea.{{sfn|Matray|1979|pp=314–333}} UN forces led by General ] led the counterattack, scoring a stunning surprise victory with an amphibious landing at the ] that nearly trapped the invaders. UN forces marched north, toward the ] boundary with China, with the goal of reuniting Korea under UN auspices.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=81–90}} | |||
| By August 1950, U.S. troops pouring into South Korea under UN auspices were able to stabilize the situation.{{sfn|Dallek|2008|p=107}} Responding to criticism over readiness, Truman fired his secretary of defense, ], replacing him with the retired General Marshall. With UN approval, Truman decided on a "rollback" policy—liberation of North Korea.{{sfn|Matray|1979|pp=314–333}} UN forces led by General ] led the counterattack, scoring a stunning surprise victory with an amphibious landing at the ] that nearly trapped the invaders. UN forces marched north, toward the ] boundary with China, with the goal of reuniting Korea under UN auspices.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=81–90}} | |||
| However, China surprised the UN forces with a large-scale invasion in November. The UN forces were forced back to below the ], then recovered.{{sfn|Cohen|Gooch|2006|pp=165–195}} By early 1951 the war became a fierce stalemate at about the 38th parallel where it had begun. Truman rejected MacArthur's request to attack Chinese supply bases north of the Yalu, but MacArthur promoted his plan to Republican house leader ], who leaked it to the press. Truman was gravely concerned further escalation of the war might lead to open conflict with the Soviet Union, which was already supplying weapons and providing warplanes (with Korean markings and Soviet aircrew). Therefore, on April 11, 1951, Truman fired MacArthur from his commands.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=123–129}} | |||
| China surprised the UN forces with a large-scale invasion in November. The UN forces were forced back to below the ], then recovered.{{sfn|Cohen|Gooch|2006|pp=165–195}} By early 1951 the war became a fierce stalemate at about the 38th parallel where it had begun. Truman rejected MacArthur's request to attack Chinese supply bases north of Yalu, but MacArthur promoted his plan to Republican House leader ], who leaked it to the press. Truman was gravely concerned further escalation of the war might lead to open conflict with the Soviet Union, which was already supplying weapons and providing warplanes (with Korean markings and Soviet aircrew). Therefore, on April 11, 1951, Truman fired MacArthur from his commands.{{sfn|Stokesbury|1990|pp=123–129}} | |||
| {{quote box | width = 20em | align = left | {{quote box | width = 20em | align = left | ||
| | quote = I fired him because he wouldn't respect the authority of the President ... I didn't fire him because he was a dumb son of a bitch, although he was, but that's not against the law for generals. If it was, half to three-quarters of them would be in jail.{{sfn|''Time''|December 3, 1973}} | | quote = I fired him because he wouldn't respect the authority of the President ... I didn't fire him because he was a dumb son of a bitch, although he was, but that's not against the law for generals. If it was, half to three-quarters of them would be in jail.{{sfn|''Time''|December 3, 1973}} | ||
| | source = —Truman to biographer ], 1972, posthumously quoted in ''Time'' magazine, 1973 |
| source = —Truman to biographer ], 1972, posthumously quoted in ''Time'' magazine, 1973 }} | ||
| The ] was among the least politically popular decisions in presidential history. Truman's approval ratings plummeted, and he faced calls for his ] from, among others, Senator ].{{sfn |Strout|1999}} Fierce criticism from virtually all quarters accused Truman of refusing to shoulder the blame for a war gone sour and blaming his generals instead. Others, including Eleanor Roosevelt and all of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, publicly supported Truman's decision. MacArthur meanwhile returned to the United States to a hero's welcome, and addressed a joint session of Congress, a speech the president called "a bunch of damn bullshit."{{sfn|Weintraub|2000}} | |||
| Truman and his generals considered the use of nuclear weapons against the Chinese army, but ultimately chose not to escalate the war to a nuclear level.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.airspacemag.com/military-aviation/how-korean-war-almost-went-nuclear-180955324/ |title=How the Korean War Almost Went Nuclear |date=July 2015 |website=Air & Space Magazine |publisher=Smithsonian Magazine |first=Carl A. |last=Posey }}</ref> The war remained a frustrating stalemate for two years, with over 30,000 Americans killed, until an armistice ended the fighting in 1953.{{cn|date=October 2024}} | |||
| The ] was among the least politically popular decisions in presidential history. Truman's approval ratings plummeted, and he faced calls for his ] from, among others, Senator ].{{sfn |Strout|1999}} Fierce criticism from virtually all quarters accused Truman of refusing to shoulder the blame for a war gone sour and blaming his generals instead. Others, including Eleanor Roosevelt, supported and applauded Truman's decision. MacArthur meanwhile returned to the United States to a hero's welcome, and addressed a joint session of Congress, a speech the president called "a bunch of damn bullshit."{{sfn|Weintraub|2000}} | |||
| In February 1952, Truman's approval mark stood at 22 percent according to ]s, which is the all-time lowest approval mark for a sitting U.S. president, though it was matched by ] in 1974.{{sfn|Roper|2010}}<ref name="presidency.ucsb.edu">{{cite web |url-status=dead |url=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/data/popularity.php?pres=37 |title=Presidential Job Approval {{!}} Richard Nixon |website=American Presidency Project |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180623170018/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/data/popularity.php?pres=37 |archive-date=June 23, 2018 }}</ref> | |||
| ==== Worldwide defense ==== | ==== Worldwide defense ==== | ||
| ] during Nehru's visit to the United States, October 1949]] | ] during Nehru's visit to the United States, October 1949]] | ||
| The escalation of the Cold War was highlighted by Truman's approval of ], a secret statement of foreign policy. It called for tripling the defense budget, and the globalization and militarization of containment policy whereby the United States and its NATO allies would respond militarily to actual Soviet expansion. The document was drafted by ], who consulted State and Defense officials |
The escalation of the Cold War was highlighted by Truman's approval of ], a secret statement of foreign policy. It called for tripling the defense budget, and the globalization and militarization of containment policy whereby the United States and its NATO allies would respond militarily to actual Soviet expansion. The document was drafted by ], who consulted State and Defense officials and was formally approved by President Truman as the official national strategy after the war began in Korea. It called for partial mobilization of the U.S. economy to build armaments faster than the Soviets. The plan called for strengthening Europe, weakening the Soviet Union, and building up the United States both militarily and economically.{{sfn|Wells|1979|pp=116–158}} | ||
| ] speaking at ], during ceremonies welcoming him to the United States]] | ] speaking at ], during ceremonies welcoming him to the United States]] | ||
| Truman was a strong supporter of the ] (NATO), which established a formal peacetime military alliance with Canada and democratic European nations |
Truman was a strong supporter of the ] (NATO), which established a formal peacetime military alliance with Canada and democratic European nations of the ] following World War II. The treaty establishing it was widely popular and easily passed the Senate in 1949; Truman appointed General ] as commander. NATO's goals were to contain Soviet expansion in Europe and to send a clear message to communist leaders that the world's democracies were willing and able to build new security structures in support of democratic ideals. The United States, Britain, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Norway, Denmark, Portugal, Iceland, and Canada were the original treaty signatories. The alliance resulted in the Soviets establishing a similar alliance, called the ].{{sfn|McCoy|1984|pp=197–199, 232}}{{sfn|Dallek|2008|pp=89–91}} | ||
| General Marshall was Truman's principal adviser on foreign policy matters, influencing such decisions as the U.S. choice against offering direct military aid to ] and his nationalist Chinese forces in the |
General Marshall was Truman's principal adviser on foreign policy matters, influencing such decisions as the U.S. choice against offering direct military aid to ] and his nationalist Chinese forces in the Chinese Civil War against their communist opponents. Marshall's opinion was contrary to the counsel of almost all of Truman's other advisers; Marshall thought propping up Chiang's forces would drain U.S. resources necessary for Europe to deter the Soviets.{{sfn |May|2002|pp=1001–1010}} When the communists took control of the mainland, establishing the People's Republic of China and driving the nationalists to ], Truman would have been willing to maintain some relationship between the United States and the new government, but Mao was unwilling.{{sfn|Ferrell|1994|pp=217–218, 224}} Truman announced on January 5, 1950, that the United States would not engage in any dispute involving the Taiwan Strait, and that he would not intervene in the event of an attack by the PRC.<ref>{{cite web|title=Harry S. Truman, "Statement on Formosa," January 5, 1950|url=http://china.usc.edu/harry-s-truman-%E2%80%9Cstatement-formosa%E2%80%9D-january-5-1950|publisher=]|access-date=April 2, 2019}}</ref> | ||
| On June 27, 1950, after the outbreak of fighting in Korea, Truman ordered the U.S. Navy's ] into the ] to prevent further conflict between the communist government on the China mainland and the |
On June 27, 1950, after the outbreak of fighting in Korea, Truman ordered the U.S. Navy's ] into the ] to prevent further conflict between the communist government on the China mainland and the Republic of China (ROC) in Taiwan.{{sfn|Donovan|1983|pp=198–199}}<ref>{{Cite web |url = http://www.history.navy.mil/colloquia/cch3c.htm |title = The Seventh Fleet in Chinese Waters |author = Marolda, Edward J. |access-date = December 5, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140526013317/http://www.history.navy.mil/colloquia/cch3c.htm |archive-date = May 26, 2014 |website=Naval History and Heritage Command }}</ref> | ||
| Truman usually worked well with his top |
Truman usually worked well with his top staff – the exceptions were Israel in 1948 and Spain in 1945–1950. Truman was a very strong opponent of ], the right-wing dictator of Spain. He withdrew the American ambassador (but diplomatic relations were not formally broken), kept Spain out of the UN, and rejected any Marshall Plan financial aid to Spain. However, as the Cold War escalated, support for Spain was strong in Congress, the Pentagon, the business community and other influential elements especially Catholics and cotton growers. | ||
| Liberal opposition to Spain had faded after the Wallace element broke with the Democratic Party in 1948; the CIO became passive on the issue. As Secretary of State Acheson increased his pressure on Truman, the president |
Liberal opposition to Spain had faded after the Wallace element broke with the Democratic Party in 1948; the CIO became passive on the issue. As Secretary of State Acheson increased his pressure on Truman, the president stood alone in his administration as his own top appointees wanted to normalize relations. When China entered the Korean War and pushed American forces back, the argument for allies became irresistible. Admitting he was "overruled and worn down," Truman relented and sent an ambassador and made loans available.<ref>Mark S. Byrnes, {{" '}}Overruled and Worn Down': Truman Sends an Ambassador to Spain". ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' 29.2 (1999): 263–279.</ref> | ||
| ==== Soviet espionage and McCarthyism ==== | ==== Soviet espionage and McCarthyism ==== | ||
| ], {{circa|1945}}]] | |||
| In August 1948, ], a former spy for the Soviets and a senior editor at ''Time'' magazine, testified before the ] (HUAC). He said an underground communist network had worked inside the U.S. government during the 1930s, of which Chambers had been a member, along with ], until recently a senior State Department official. Chambers did not allege any spying during the Truman presidency. Although Hiss denied the allegations, he was convicted in January 1950 for perjury for denials under oath. | In August 1948, ], a former spy for the Soviets and a senior editor at ''Time'' magazine, testified before the ] (HUAC). He said an underground communist network had worked inside the U.S. government during the 1930s, of which Chambers had been a member, along with ], until recently a senior State Department official. Chambers did not allege any spying during the Truman presidency. Although Hiss denied the allegations, he was convicted in January 1950 for perjury for denials under oath. | ||
| The Soviet Union's success in exploding an atomic weapon in 1949 and the fall of the nationalist Chinese the same year led many Americans to conclude subversion by Soviet spies was responsible |
The Soviet Union's success in exploding an atomic weapon in 1949 and the fall of the nationalist Chinese the same year led many Americans to conclude subversion by Soviet spies was responsible and to demand that communists be rooted out from the government and other places of influence.{{sfn |Dallek|2008| pp =87–88}}{{sfn|McCoy|1984| pp =194, 217–218}} Hoping to contain these fears, Truman began a "loyalty program" with ] in 1947.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hogan|first=Michael J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hd4C3cY7Y7IC&pg=PA254|title=A Cross of Iron: Harry S. Truman and the Origins of the National Security State, 1945–1954|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2000|isbn=9780521795371|location=New York|pages=254–5}}</ref> However, Truman got himself into deeper trouble when he called the Hiss trial a "red herring".<ref>{{cite book|last=Kirkendall|first=Richard S.|title=The Civil Liberties Legacy of Harry S. Truman|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ndWVAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA124|year=2012|publisher=Truman State UP|page=124|isbn=9781612480848}}</ref>{{Sfn |Evans|2007|p = 321}} Wisconsin Senator ] accused the State Department of harboring communists and rode the controversy to political fame,{{sfn|Weinstein|1997| pp =450–451}} leading to the Second ],{{Sfn |Evans|2007|p = 324}} also known as ]. McCarthy's stifling accusations made it difficult to speak out against him. This led Truman to call McCarthy "the greatest asset the ] has" by "torpedo the bipartisan foreign policy of the United States."<ref>{{Cite web|title=President Harry S. Truman Responds to Senator Joseph R. McCarthy's Accusations of Disloyalty|url=http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/8078|access-date=June 12, 2021|website=historymatters.gmu.edu}}</ref> | ||
| Charges that Soviet agents had infiltrated the government were believed by 78 percent of the people in 1946 and became a major campaign issue for Eisenhower in 1952.{{sfn|Troy|2008|p=128}} Truman was reluctant to take a more radical stance, because he felt it could threaten civil liberties and add to a potential hysteria. At the same time, he felt political pressure to indicate a strong national security.{{sfn|McCoy|1984|pp=217}} It is unclear to what extent President Truman was briefed of the ], which discovered widespread evidence of Soviet espionage on the atom bomb project and afterward.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Did Truman Know about Venona?|url=https://fas.org/irp/eprint/truman-venona.html|access-date=June 12, 2021|website=fas.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Moynihan|first=Daniel Patrick|url=https://archive.org/details/secrecyamericane00moyn|title=Secrecy: The American Experience|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0-300-08079-7|page=|url-access=registration}}</ref> Truman continued his own loyalty program for some time while believing the issue of communist espionage was overstated.<ref name=":0" /> In 1949, Truman described American communist leaders, whom his administration ], as "traitors".{{sfn|McCoy|1984|pp=217}} Truman would later state in private conversations with friends that his creation of a loyalty program had been a "terrible" mistake.{{sfn|McCullough| 1992 |p= 553}} | |||
| In 1950, Truman vetoed the ], which was passed by Congress just after the start of the Korean War and was aimed at controlling communists in America.{{sfn |McCoy|1984| pp =216–217, 234–235}} Truman called the Act, "the greatest danger to freedom of speech, press, and assembly since the ] of 1798," a "mockery of the Bill of Rights" and a "long step toward totalitarianism".<ref name=trumanveto>{{cite web |url-status=dead |first1=Harry S. |last1=Truman |url=http://trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/viewpapers.php?pid=883 |title=Veto of the Internal Security Bill |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070301113033/http://trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/viewpapers.php?pid=883 |archive-date=March 1, 2007 |publisher= Harry S. Truman Library and Museum |date= September 22, 1950 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Text of President's Veto Message Vetoing the Communist-Control Bill |url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1950/09/23/113171737.pdf |url-access=subscription |access-date=April 23, 2013 |newspaper=]|date=September 23, 1950}}</ref> His veto was immediately overridden by Congress and the Act became law.{{sfn |McCoy|1984| pp =216–217, 234–235}} In the mid-1960s, parts of the Act were found to be unconstitutional by the ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Belknap |first=Michael R.|title=The Vinson Court: Justices, Rulings, and Legacy|year=2004|publisher=]|location=Santa Barbara, California |page=171|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oeFRJj8dVAUC&pg=PA171|isbn=9781576072011}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Belknap |first=Michael R.|title=The Supreme Court Under Earl Warren, 1953-1969|year=2005|publisher=]|location=Columbia, South Carolina|page=79|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7zNAzo_xJEMC&pg=PA79|isbn=9781570035630}}</ref> | |||
| Charges that Soviet agents had infiltrated the government were believed by 78 percent of the people in 1946, and became a major campaign issue for Eisenhower in 1952.{{sfn|Troy|2008|p=128}} Truman was reluctant to take a more radical stance because he feared full disclosure of the extent of communist infiltration would reflect badly on the Democratic Party. In 1949, Truman described American communist leaders, whom his administration ], as "traitors", but in 1950 he vetoed the ]. It was passed over his veto.{{sfn |McCoy|1984| pp =216–217, 234–235}} Truman would later state in private conversations with friends that his creation of a loyalty program had been a "terrible" mistake.{{sfn|McCullough| 1992 |p= 553}} | |||
| ==== Blair House and assassination attempt ==== | ==== Blair House and assassination attempt ==== | ||
| Line 335: | Line 374: | ||
| ] | ] | ||
| In 1948, Truman ordered an addition to the exterior of the ]: a second-floor balcony in the south portico, which came to be known as the '']''. The addition was unpopular. Some said it spoiled the appearance of the south facade, but it gave the First Family more living space.{{sfn|White House Museum|1952}}{{sfn|Truman Library, Balcony|2012}} |
In 1948, Truman ordered an addition to the exterior of the ]: a second-floor balcony in the south portico, which came to be known as the '']''. The addition was unpopular. Some said it spoiled the appearance of the south facade, but it gave the First Family more living space.{{sfn|White House Museum|1952}}{{sfn|Truman Library, Balcony|2012}}{{sfn|Truman Library, Balcony II|2012}} Meanwhile, structural deterioration and a near-imminent collapse of the White House led to a comprehensive ] from 1949 to 1952. Architectural and engineering investigations during 1948 deemed it unsafe for occupancy. Truman, his family, and the entire residence staff were relocated across the street into ] during the renovations. As the newer ], including the ], remained open, Truman walked to and from his work across the street each morning and afternoon.{{sfn|McCullough|1992|pp=593, 652, 725, 875ff}} | ||
| {{external media| |
{{external media|float=center|video1=}} | ||
| On November 1, 1950, ] nationalists ] and ] attempted to assassinate Truman at Blair House. On the street outside the residence, Torresola mortally wounded a White House policeman, ]. Before he died, the officer shot and killed Torresola. Collazo was wounded and stopped before he entered the house. He was found guilty of murder and sentenced to death in 1952. Truman commuted his sentence to life in prison. To try to settle the question of Puerto Rican independence, Truman allowed a ] to determine the status of its relationship to the United States. Nearly 82 percent of the people voted in favor of a new constitution for the ''] |
On November 1, 1950, ] nationalists ] and ] attempted to assassinate Truman at Blair House. On the street outside the residence, Torresola mortally wounded a White House policeman, ]. Before he died, the officer shot and killed Torresola. Collazo was wounded and stopped before he entered the house. He was found guilty of murder and sentenced to death in 1952. Truman commuted his sentence to life in prison. To try to settle the question of Puerto Rican independence, Truman allowed a ] to determine the status of its relationship to the United States. Nearly 82 percent of the people voted in favor of a new constitution for the '']'', a continued 'associated free state.'<ref name= N1>{{cite book | author-link = Dieter Nohlen| last = Nohlen | first = Dieter | year = 2005 | title = Elections in the Americas: A Data Handbook | volume = I | page = 556 | publisher = OUP Oxford | isbn = 978-0-19-928357-6}}.</ref> | ||
| ==== Steel and coal strikes ==== | ==== Steel and coal strikes ==== | ||
| {{ |
{{Further|1952 steel strike}} | ||
| In response to a labor/management impasse arising from bitter disagreements over wage and price controls, Truman instructed his ], ], to take control of a number of the nation's steel mills in April 1952. Truman cited his authority as |
In response to a labor/management impasse arising from bitter disagreements over wage and price controls, Truman instructed his ], ], to take control of a number of the nation's steel mills in April 1952. Truman cited his authority as commander in chief and the need to maintain an uninterrupted supply of steel for munitions for the war in Korea. The Supreme Court found Truman's actions unconstitutional, however, and reversed the order in a major ] decision, '']'' (1952). The 6–3 decision, which held that Truman's assertion of authority was too vague and was not rooted in any legislative action by Congress, was delivered by a court composed entirely of justices appointed by either Truman or Roosevelt. The high court's reversal of Truman's order was one of the notable defeats of his presidency.<ref>Chong-do Hah, and Robert M. Lindquist, "". ''Administrative Science Quarterly'' (1975): 587–605.</ref> | ||
| ==== Scandals and controversies ==== | ==== Scandals and controversies ==== | ||
| ] | ] | ||
| In 1950, the Senate, led by ], investigated numerous charges of corruption among senior administration officials, some of whom received fur coats and deep freezers in exchange for favors. A large number of employees of the ] (today the IRS) were accepting bribes; 166 employees either resigned or were fired in 1950,{{sfn|Smaltz|1998}} with many soon facing indictment. When Attorney General ] fired the special prosecutor in early 1952 for being too zealous, Truman fired McGrath.{{sfn|Smaltz|1996}} Truman submitted a reorganization plan to reform the IRB; Congress passed it, but |
In 1950, the Senate, led by ], investigated numerous charges of corruption among senior administration officials, some of whom received fur coats and deep freezers in exchange for favors. A large number of employees of the ] (today the IRS) were accepting bribes; 166 employees either resigned or were fired in 1950,{{sfn|Smaltz|1998}} with many soon facing indictment. When Attorney General ] fired the special prosecutor in early 1952 for being too zealous, Truman fired McGrath.{{sfn|Smaltz|1996}} Truman submitted a reorganization plan to reform the IRB; Congress passed it, but corruption was a major issue in the 1952 presidential election.{{sfn|McCoy|1984|p=299}}{{sfn|Donovan|1983|pp=116–117}} | ||
| On December 6, 1950, '']'' music critic ] wrote a critical review of a concert by the president's daughter Margaret Truman: | On December 6, 1950, '']'' music critic ] wrote a critical review of a concert by the president's daughter Margaret Truman: | ||
| {{ |
{{Blockquote|Miss Truman is a unique American phenomenon with a pleasant voice of little size and fair quality ... cannot sing very well ... is flat a good deal of the time—more last night than at any time we have heard her in past years ... has not improved in the years we have heard her ... still cannot sing with anything approaching professional finish.{{sfn|Truman Library, FAQ|1950}}}} | ||
| Truman wrote a scathing response: | Truman wrote a scathing response: | ||
| {{ |
{{Blockquote|I've just read your lousy review of Margaret's concert. I've come to the conclusion that you are an 'eight ulcer man on four ulcer pay.' It seems to me that you are a frustrated old man who wishes he could have been successful. When you write such poppy-cock as was in the back section of the paper you work for it shows conclusively that you're off the beam and at least four of your ulcers are at work. Some day I hope to meet you. When that happens you'll need a new nose, a lot of beefsteak for black eyes, and perhaps a supporter below! ], a gutter snipe, is a gentleman alongside you. I hope you'll accept that statement as a worse insult than a reflection on your ancestry.{{sfn|Truman Library, FAQ|1950}}}} | ||
| Truman was criticized by many for the letter. However, he pointed out that he wrote it as a loving father and not as the president.{{sfn|Barnes|2008}}{{sfn|Giglio|2001|p=112}}{{sfn|Smith|2001}} |
Truman was criticized by many for the letter. However, he pointed out that he wrote it as a loving father and not as the president.{{sfn|Barnes|2008}}{{sfn|Giglio|2001|p=112}}{{sfn|Smith|2001}} | ||
| In 1951, ], Truman's longtime friend and chairman of the Democratic National Committee, was forced to resign after being charged with financial corruption.<ref>Eleonora W. Schoenebaum, ed. ''Political Profiles: The Truman Years'' (1978) pp. 48–49.</ref> | |||
| === Civil rights === | === Civil rights === | ||
| {{ |
{{Further|President's Committee on Civil Rights}} | ||
| A 1947 report by the Truman administration titled ''To Secure These Rights'' presented a detailed ten-point agenda of civil rights reforms. Speaking about this report, international developments have to be taken into account, for with the ] being passed in 1945, the question whether international |
A 1947 report by the Truman administration titled ''To Secure These Rights'' presented a detailed ten-point agenda of civil rights reforms. Speaking about this report, international developments have to be taken into account, for with the ] being passed in 1945, the question of whether international human rights law could be applicable also on an inner-land basis became crucial in the United States. Though the report acknowledged such a path was not free from controversy in the 1940s United States, it nevertheless raised the possibility for the UN-Charter to be used as a legal tool to combat racial discrimination in the United States.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.geschichte-menschenrechte.de/schluesseltexte/william-h-fitzpatricks-editorials-on-human-rights-1949/ |title=William H. Fitzpatrick's Editorials on Human Rights (1949) |author=Christopher N.J.Roberts |publisher=Quellen zur Geschichte der Menschenrechte |access-date=November 4, 2017 }}</ref> | ||
| In February 1948, the president submitted a civil rights agenda to Congress that proposed creating several federal offices devoted to issues such as ] and ] practices.{{sfn |Truman Library, Special Message|1948}} This provoked a storm of criticism from southern Democrats in the runup to the national nominating convention, but Truman refused to compromise, saying: "My forebears were Confederates ... but my very stomach turned over when I had learned that Negro soldiers, just back from overseas, were being dumped out of Army trucks in Mississippi and beaten."{{sfn |Truman|1973| p=429}} | In February 1948, the president submitted a civil rights agenda to Congress that proposed creating several federal offices devoted to issues such as ] and ] practices.{{sfn |Truman Library, Special Message|1948}} This provoked a storm of criticism from southern Democrats in the runup to the national nominating convention, but Truman refused to compromise, saying: "My forebears were Confederates ... but my very stomach turned over when I had learned that Negro soldiers, just back from overseas, were being dumped out of Army trucks in Mississippi and beaten."{{sfn |Truman|1973| p=429}} | ||
| Tales of the abuse, violence, and persecution suffered by many African |
Tales of the abuse, violence, and persecution suffered by many African American veterans upon their return from World War II infuriated Truman and were major factors in his decision to issue ], in July 1948, requiring equal opportunity in the armed forces.{{sfn|Kirkendall|1989|pp=10–11}} In the early 1950s after several years of planning, recommendations and revisions between Truman, the ] and the various branches of the military, the services became racially integrated.{{sfn|MacGregor|1981|pp=312–315, 376–378, 457–459}} Truman later appointed people who aligned with his civil rights agenda. He appointed fellow colonel and civil rights icon ] to the board of the ] and ] who had a focus to work against racism through influential ].<ref>{{cite web |url = http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001269/126969eb.pdf |title = UNESCO. (1950). Statement by experts on race problems. Paris, 20 July 1950. UNESCO/SS/1. UNESDOC database |access-date = June 8, 2012 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120407030543/http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001269/126969eb.pdf |archive-date = April 7, 2012 |url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3N_KlLQISQMC&dq=blake+%22van+leer%22&pg=PA35|title=Summary Minutes of Meeting|year=1956|publisher=United States National Commission for the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.|access-date=March 20, 2023|archive-date=April 12, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230412052422/https://books.google.com/books?id=3N_KlLQISQMC&dq=blake+%22van+leer%22&pg=PA35|url-status=live}}</ref> Truman made a historic move in 1949, when he gave a recess appointment to ] for the ], the first ] federal judge in the United States.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Gardner |first=Michael J. |title=Harry S. Truman and Civil Rights |date=2003 |publisher=Southern Illinois University Press |isbn=978-0809325504 |page=93}}</ref> | ||
| Executive Order 9980, also in 1948, made it illegal to discriminate against persons applying for civil service positions based on race. A third, in 1951, established the ] |
Executive Order 9980, also in 1948, made it illegal to discriminate against persons applying for civil service positions based on race. A third, in 1951, established the ], which ensured defense contractors did not discriminate because of race.{{sfn|National Archives|1948}}{{sfn|National Archives|1953}} | ||
| === Administration and cabinet === | === Administration and cabinet === | ||
| {{Main|Presidency of Harry S. Truman#Administration and cabinet}} | {{Main|Presidency of Harry S. Truman#Administration and cabinet}} | ||
| === |
===Foreign policy=== | ||
| {{Main| |
{{Main|Foreign policy of the Harry S. Truman administration}} | ||
| Truman made five international trips during his presidency.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/travels/president/truman-harry-s|title= Travels of President Harry S. Truman|publisher= U.S. Department of State Office of the Historian}}</ref> | |||
| From 1947 until 1989, world affairs were dominated by the ], in which the U.S. and its allies faced the Soviet Union and its allies. There was no large-scale fighting but instead several local civil wars as well as the ever-present threat of a catastrophic nuclear war.<ref>Ralph B. Levering, '']'' (1988)</ref><ref>Martin McCauley, '']'' (1998), A British perspective</ref> | |||
| Unlike Roosevelt, Truman distrusted Stalin and the Soviet Union, and did not have FDR's faith in the UN to soften major tensions. Nevertheless, he cooperated in terms of dividing control over Germany. Soviet efforts to use its army to control politics in Eastern Europe and Iran angered Washington. The final break came in 1947 when the Labour government in London could no longer afford to help Greece fight communism and asked Washington to assume responsibility for suppressing the Communist uprising there.<ref>Robert Frazier, "". ''Historical Journal'' 27.3 (1984): 715–727.</ref><ref>Peter Weiler, "". ''Journal of British Studies'' 26#1(1987): 54–82.</ref> The result was the ] of 1947–48 which made it national policy to ] Communist expansion.<ref>John Lewis Gaddis, "". ''Foreign Affairs'' 52.2 (1974): 386–402.</ref> | |||
| Truman was supported by the great majority of Democrats, after he forced out the ] faction that wanted good terms with Moscow.<ref>Alonzo L. Hamby. "Henry A. Wallace, the liberals, and Soviet-American relations". ''Review of Politics'' 30.2 (1968): 153–169 .</ref> Truman's policy had the strong support of most Republicans, who led by Senator ] overcame the isolationist Republicans led by Senator ].<ref>Lawrence J. Haas, '' Harry & Arthur: Truman, Vandenberg, and the Partnership That Created the Free World'' (Potomac Books, 2016).</ref> | |||
| In 1948, Truman signed the ], which supplied Western Europe—including Germany—with US$13 billion in reconstruction aid. Stalin vetoed any participation by East European nations. A similar program was operated by the United States to restore the Japanese economy. The U.S. actively sought allies, which it subsidized with military and economic "foreign aid", as well as diplomatic support. The main diplomatic initiative was the establishment of the ] (NATO) in 1949, committing the United States to nuclear defense of Western Europe. The result was a peace in Europe, coupled with the fear of Soviet invasion and a reliance on American protection.<ref>Mark J. Smith, ''NATO Enlargement During the Cold War: Strategy and System in the Western Alliance'' (2000).</ref> The United States operated a worldwide network of bases for its Army, Navy and Air Force, with large contingents stationed in Germany, Japan and South Korea.<ref>Kent E. Calder, ''Embattled garrisons: Comparative base politics and American globalism'' (2010).</ref> Washington had a weak intelligence community before 1942, and the Soviets had a very effective network of spies. The solution was to create the ] (CIA) in 1947.<ref>{{Cite journal | url=https://doi.org/10.1080/02684529708432397 | doi=10.1080/02684529708432397 | title=Why was the CIA established in 1947? | year=1997 | last1=Jeffreys-Jones | first1=Rhodri | journal=Intelligence and National Security | volume=12 | pages=21–40 }}</ref> Economic and propaganda warfare against the communist world became part of the American toolbox.<ref>Shu Guang Zhang, ''Economic Cold War: America's Embargo Against China and the Sino-Soviet Alliance, 1949–1963'' (2002),</ref> | |||
| The containment policy was developed by State Department official ] in 1947.<ref>John O. Iatrides, "George F. Kennan and the birth of containment: the Greek test case". ''World Policy Journal'' 22.3 (2005): 126–145 .</ref> Kennan characterized the ] as an aggressive, anti-Western power that necessitated containment, a characterization which would shape US foreign policy for decades to come. The idea of containment was to match Soviet aggression with force wherever it occurred while not using ]s. The policy of containment created a bipolar, zero-sum world where the ideological conflicts between the Soviet Union and the United States dominated geopolitics. Due to the antagonism on both sides and each countries' search for security, a tense worldwide contest developed between the two states as the two nations' governments vied for global supremacy militarily, culturally, and politically.<ref>John Lewis Gaddis, ''Russia, the Soviet Union, and the United States'' (1990) pp 175–206. </ref> | |||
| The Cold War was characterized by a lack of global hot wars. Instead there were ]s, fought by client states and proxies of the United States and Soviet Union. The most important was ] (1950–1953), a stalemate that drained away Truman's base of support. Truman made five international trips during his presidency.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/travels/president/truman-harry-s|title= Travels of President Harry S. Truman|publisher= U.S. Department of State Office of the Historian}}</ref> | |||
| === 1952 election === | === 1952 election === | ||
| {{ |
{{Further|1952 United States presidential election}} | ||
| ] Senator ], vice presidential nominee; and ] ], presidential nominee, in the Oval Office, 1952]] | ] Senator ], vice presidential nominee; and ] ], presidential nominee, in the Oval Office, 1952]] | ||
| In 1951, the United States ratified the ], making a president ineligible for election to a third term or for election to a second full term after serving more than two remaining years of a term of a previously elected president. The latter clause did not apply to Truman's situation in 1952 because of a ] exempting the incumbent president.{{sfn|Find Law|2012}} | |||
| ] about economic policy in the Oval Office, 1952]] | |||
| Therefore, he seriously considered running for another term in 1952 and left his name on the ballot in the New Hampshire primary. However, all his close advisors, pointing to his age, his failing abilities, and his poor showing in the polls, talked him out of it.<ref>Alonzo L. Hamby. ''Man of the People: A Life of Harry S. Truman'' (1995), pp. 602–605.</ref> At the time of the ] (March 11, 1952), no candidate had won Truman's backing. His first choice, Chief Justice ], had declined to run. Illinois Governor ] had also turned Truman down, Vice President Barkley was considered too old,{{sfn|McCullough|1992|p=887}}{{sfn|Ambrose|1983|p=515}} and Truman distrusted and disliked Senator Kefauver, who had made a name for himself by his investigations of the Truman administration scandals. | |||
| In 1951, the United States ratified the ], making a president ineligible for election to a third term or for election to a second full term after serving more than two remaining years of a term of a previously elected president. The latter clause would have applied to Truman's situation in 1952 were it not for a ] excluding the amendment's application to the incumbent president.{{sfn|Find Law|2012}} | |||
| Truman let his name be entered in the New Hampshire primary by supporters. The highly unpopular Truman was handily defeated by Kefauver; 18 days later the president formally announced he would not seek a second full term. Truman was eventually able to persuade Stevenson to run, and the governor gained the nomination at the ].{{sfn|Dallek|2008|pp=139–142}} | |||
| Nevertheless, he seriously considered running for another term in 1952, and left his name on the ballot in the New Hampshire primary. However all his close advisors, pointing to his age, his failing abilities, and his poor showing in the polls, talked him out of it.<ref>Alonzo L. Hamby. ''Man of the People: A Life of Harry S. Truman'' (1995), pp. 602–605.</ref> At the time of the 1952 New Hampshire primary, no candidate had won Truman's backing. His first choice, Chief Justice ], had declined to run; Illinois Governor ] had also turned Truman down, Vice President Barkley was considered too old,{{sfn|McCullough|1992|p=887}}{{sfn|Ambrose|1983|p=515}} and Truman distrusted and disliked Senator Kefauver, who had made a name for himself by his investigations of the Truman administration scandals. | |||
| {{listen | {{listen | ||
| | filename = Harry S. Truman's farewell address 1953.ogg | | filename = Harry S. Truman's farewell address 1953.ogg | ||
| | title = Harry S. Truman's Farewell Address | | title = Harry S. Truman's Farewell Address | ||
| | description = Truman's speech on leaving office, and returning home to Independence, Missouri. (January 15, 1953) | | description = Truman's speech on leaving office, and returning home to Independence, Missouri. (January 15, 1953) | ||
| | format = ] | | format = ] | ||
| }} | }} | ||
| Eisenhower gained the Republican nomination, with Senator Nixon as his running mate, and campaigned against what he denounced as Truman's failures: "Korea, communism and corruption". He pledged to clean up the "mess in Washington," and promised to "go to Korea."{{sfn|McCullough|1992|p=887}}{{sfn|Ambrose|1983|p=515}} Eisenhower defeated Stevenson decisively in ], ending 20 years of Democratic presidents. While Truman and Eisenhower had previously been on good terms, Truman felt annoyed that Eisenhower did not denounce Joseph McCarthy during the campaign.{{sfn|''Time''|November 10, 2008}} Similarly, Eisenhower was outraged when Truman accused the former general of disregarding "sinister forces ... Anti-Semitism, anti-Catholicism, and anti-foreignism" within the Republican Party.{{sfn|Dallek|2008|p=144}} | |||
| Truman had hoped to recruit ] as a Democratic candidate, but found him more interested in seeking the Republican nomination. Accordingly, Truman let his name be entered in the ] by supporters. The highly unpopular Truman was handily defeated by Kefauver; 18 days later the president formally announced he would not seek a second full term. Truman was eventually able to persuade Stevenson to run, and the governor gained the nomination at the ].{{sfn|Dallek|2008|pp=139–142}} | |||
| == Post-presidency (1953–1972) == | |||
| Eisenhower gained the Republican nomination, with Senator Nixon as his running mate, and campaigned against what he denounced as Truman's failures: "Korea, communism and corruption". He pledged to clean up the "mess in Washington," and promised to "go to Korea."{{sfn|McCullough|1992|p=887}}{{sfn|Ambrose|1983|p=515}} Eisenhower defeated Stevenson decisively in the ], ending 20 years of Democratic presidents. While Truman and Eisenhower had previously been on good terms, Truman felt annoyed Eisenhower did not denounce Joseph McCarthy during the campaign.{{sfn|''Time''|November 10, 2008}} Similarly, Eisenhower was outraged when Truman accused the former general of disregarding "sinister forces ... Anti-Semitism, anti-Catholicism, and anti-foreignism" within the Republican Party.{{sfn|Dallek|2008|p=144}} | |||
| ===Financial situation=== | |||
| == Post-presidency == | |||
| ] Bill on {{nowrap|July 30, 1965}}, by President ]]] | |||
| Before being elected as Jackson County judge, Truman had earned little money, and was in debt from the failure of his haberdashery. His election as senator in 1934 carried with it a salary of $10,000 ({{Inflation|US|10000|1934|fmt=eq|r=-3}}), high for the time, but the need to maintain two homes, with one in expensive Washington, Margaret Truman's college expenses, and contributions to the support of needy relatives, left the Trumans little extra money. He likely had around $7,500 ({{Inflation|US|7500|1945|fmt=eq|r=-3}}) in cash and government bonds when nominated for vice president.<ref name = "show" /> | |||
| ===Financial problems=== | |||
| ] Bill on {{nowr|July 30, 1965}}, by President ]]] | |||
| His finances were transformed by his accession to the presidency, which carried with it a salary of $75,000 ({{Inflation|US|75000|1945|fmt=eq|r=-3}}), which was increased to $100,000 ({{Inflation|US|100000|1949|fmt=eq|r=-3}}) in 1949. This was a higher salary than any ] star, except ], who also earned $100,000 in his final two seasons (1950 and 1951). Beginning in 1949, the president was also granted a $50,000 ({{Inflation|US|50000|1949|fmt=eq|r=-3}}) expense allowance, which was initially tax-free, and did not have to be accounted for. Although the allowance became taxable later in his presidency, Truman never reported it on his tax return, and converted some of the funds to cash he kept in the White House safe and later in a safe deposit box in Kansas City.<ref name = "show" /> | |||
| Upon leaving the presidency, Truman returned to Independence, Missouri, to live at the ] he and Bess had shared for years with her mother.{{sfn|Truman Library|2012i}} Once out of office, Truman quickly decided that he did not wish to be on any corporate payroll, believing that taking advantage of such financial opportunities would diminish the integrity of the nation's highest office. He also turned down numerous offers for commercial endorsements. Since his earlier business ventures had proved unsuccessful, he had no personal savings. | |||
| Upon leaving the presidency, Truman returned to Independence, Missouri, to live at the ] he and Bess had shared for years with her mother.{{sfn|Truman Library|2012i}} In a biography that contributed greatly to the myth that Truman was near penury after departing the White House,<ref name = "show" /> ] stated that the Trumans had little alternative than to return to Independence, for his only income was his army pension of $112.56 per month ({{Inflation|US|112.56|1953|fmt=eq}}), and he had only been able to save a modest amount from his salary as president.{{sfn|McCullough|1992|p=1099}} In February 1953, Truman signed a book deal for his memoirs, and in a draft will dated December of that year listed land worth $250,000 ({{Inflation|US|250000|1953|fmt=eq|r=-3}}), savings bonds of the same amount, and cash of $150,000 ({{Inflation|US|150000|1953|fmt=eq|r=-3}}).<ref name = "show" /> He wrote, "Bonds, land, and cash all come from savings of presidential salary and free expense account. It should keep you and Margaret comfortably."<ref name = "show">{{cite news|last=Campos|first=Paul|date=July 24, 2021|title=The Truman Show|work=] |url=https://nymag.com/intelligencer/2021/07/the-truman-show.html|access-date=July 26, 2021}}</ref> | |||
| As a result, he faced financial challenges. Once Truman left the White House, his only income was his old army pension: $112.56 per month ({{Inflation|US|112.56|1953|fmt=eq}}).{{sfn|McCullough|1992|p=1099}} Former members of Congress and the federal courts received a federal retirement package; President Truman himself ensured that former servants of the executive branch of government received similar support. In 1953, however, there was no such benefit package for former presidents, and he received no pension for his Senate service.{{sfn|Dallek|2008|p=150}} | |||
| The writing of the memoirs was a struggle for Truman, and he went through a dozen collaborators during the project,{{sfn|McCullough|1992|pp=936–938, 945–947}} not all of whom served him well,{{sfn|Ferrell|1994|p=385}} but he remained heavily involved in the result.{{sfn|Young|Schilling|2019|p=168n5}} For the memoirs, Truman received a payment of $670,000 ({{Inflation|US|670000|1955|fmt=eq}}).{{sfn|Ferrell|1994|p=387}} The memoirs were a commercial and critical success.{{sfn|''Time''|August 13, 1956}}<ref name="nevins" /> They were published in two volumes: ''Memoirs by Harry S. Truman: Year of Decisions'' (1955) and ''Memoirs by Harry S. Truman: Years of Trial and Hope'' (1956).{{sfn|Truman|1955|loc=title page}}{{sfn|Truman|1956| loc=title page}} | |||
| Former members of Congress and the federal courts received a federal retirement package; President Truman himself ensured that former servants of the executive branch of government received similar support. In 1953, however, there was no such benefit package for former presidents, and Congressional pensions were not approved until 1946, after Truman had left the Senate, so he received no pension for his Senate service.{{sfn|Dallek|2008|p=150}} Truman, behind the scenes, lobbied for a pension, writing to congressional leaders that he had been near penury but for the sale of family farmlands, and in February 1958, in the first televised interview of a former US president that aired on CBS, Truman claimed that "If I hadn't inherited some property that finally paid things through, I'd be on relief right now."<ref name = "show" /> That year, Congress passed the ], offering a $25,000 ({{Inflation|US|25000|1958|fmt=eq}}) yearly pension to each former president, and it is likely that Truman's claim to be in difficult financial straits played a role in the law's enactment.{{sfn|Smith|2008}} The only other living former president at the time, ], also took the pension, even though he did not need the money; reportedly, he did so to avoid embarrassing Truman.{{sfn|Martin|1960|p=249}} | |||
| Truman's net worth improved further in 1958 when he and his siblings sold most of the family farm to a Kansas City real estate developer.{{sfn|Burnes|2003|pp=23–24}} When he was serving as a county judge, Truman borrowed $31,000 ({{Inflation|US|31000|1953|fmt=eq}}) by mortgaging the farm to the county school fund, which was legal at the time.{{sfn|Burnes|2003|pp=23–24}} When Republicans controlled the court in 1940, they foreclosed in an effort to embarrass Truman politically, and his mother and sister Mary Jane had to vacate the home.{{sfn|Burnes|2003|pp=23–24}} In 1945, Truman organized a syndicate of supporters who purchased the farm with the understanding that they would sell it back to the Trumans.{{sfn|Burnes|2003|pp=23–24}} Harry and Vivian Truman purchased 87 acres in 1945, and Truman purchased another portion in 1946.{{sfn|Burnes|2003|pp=23–24}} In January 1959, Truman calculated his net worth as $1,046,788.86 ({{Inflation|US|1046788.86|1959|fmt=eq|r=-3}}), including a share in the ] football team. Nevertheless, the Trumans always lived modestly in Independence, and when Bess Truman died in 1982, almost a decade after her husband, the house was found to be in poor condition due to deferred maintenance.<ref name = "show" /> | |||
| ===Truman Library=== | |||
| {{see also|Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum}} | |||
| Truman's predecessor, Franklin D. Roosevelt, had organized his own ], but legislation to enable future presidents to do something similar had not been enacted. Truman worked to garner private donations to build a presidential library, which he donated to the federal government to maintain and operate—a practice adopted by his successors.{{sfn|Burnes|2003|pp=217–218}} | |||
| Bess Truman's personal papers were made public in 2009,<ref>{{Cite news|agency=Associated Press|date=February 14, 2009|title=24,000 Pages of Bess Truman's Family Papers Are Released|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/15/us/15truman.html|access-date=August 6, 2021|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> including financial records and tax returns. The myth that Truman had been in straitened circumstances after his presidency was slow to dissipate; ] wrote in 2021, "The current, 20,000-plus-word Misplaced Pages biography of Truman goes so far as to assert that, because his earlier business ventures had failed, Truman left the White House with 'no personal savings.' Every aspect of this narrative is false."<ref name="show" />{{efn|That claim was removed from this article on August 1, 2021, with {{Diff|Harry S. Truman|prev|1036528045|this edit}}.}} | |||
| He testified before Congress to have money appropriated to have presidential papers copied and organized, and was proud of the bill's passage in 1957. Max Skidmore, in his book on the life of former presidents, noted that Truman was a well-read man, especially in history. Skidmore added that the presidential papers legislation and the founding of his library "was the culmination of his interest in history. Together they constitute an enormous contribution to the United States—one of the greatest of any former president."{{sfn|Skidmore|2004|pp=123–124}} | |||
| ===Truman Library and academic positions=== | |||
| {{See also|Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum}} | |||
| Truman's predecessor, Franklin D. Roosevelt, had organized his own ], but legislation to enable future presidents to do something similar had not been enacted. Truman worked to garner private donations to build a presidential library, which he donated to the federal government to maintain and operate—a practice adopted by his successors.{{sfn|Burnes|2003|pp=217–218}} | |||
| He testified before Congress to have money appropriated to have presidential papers copied and organized. He was proud of the bill's passage in 1957. Max Skidmore, in his book on the life of former presidents, wrote that Truman was a well-read man, especially in history. Skidmore added that the presidential papers legislation and the founding of his library "was the culmination of his interest in history. Together they constitute an enormous contribution to the United States—one of the greatest of any former president."{{sfn|Skidmore|2004|pp=123–124}} | |||
| Truman taught occasional courses at universities, including ], where he was a ] visiting lecturer in 1958.<ref>Robert H. Ferrell, , 1991, page 52</ref> In 1962, Truman was a visiting lecturer at ].<ref>U.S. Government Printing Office, , Volume 108, Part 4, 1962, page 5168.</ref> | |||
| ===Politics=== | ===Politics=== | ||
| ] | |||
| In late 1963, when Lyndon B. Johnson had just become president, Truman wrote a letter to the ''Washington Post'' calling for the CIA's responsibilities to be scaled back significantly: "For some time I have been disturbed by the way the CIA has been diverted from its original assignment. It has become an operational and at times a policy-making arm of the government. This has led to trouble and may have compounded our difficulties in several explosive areas."<ref>, ''The Washington Post'', | |||
| ] in the Oval Office at White House]] | |||
| December 22, 1963</ref> | |||
| Truman supported Adlai Stevenson's second bid for the White House in 1956, although he had initially favored Democratic governor ] of New York.{{sfn|Ohio State|2012}} He continued to campaign for Democratic senatorial candidates for many years.{{sfn|Truman Library|1965}} | |||
| In 1960 Truman gave a public statement announcing he would not attend the ] that year, citing concerns about the way that the supporters of ] had gained control of the nominating process, and called on Kennedy to forgo the nomination for that year.<ref name= "Truman 1960">President Truman, {{YouTube|y49FJYbjA4I|Truman Criticism of JFK}}, Press Conference / July 2, 1960.</ref> Kennedy responded with a press conference where he bluntly rebuffed Truman's advice.<ref name= "Kennedy 1960">Senator John F. Kennedy, {{YouTube|2B5WmdWGJco|Kennedy Responds to Truman}}, Press Conference / July 4, 1960.</ref> | |||
| Despite his supportive stance on civil rights during his presidency, Truman expressed criticism of the ] during the 1960s. In 1960, he stated that he believed the ] to be part of a Soviet plot.<ref>{{Cite news|first=Clayton|last=Knowles|title=TRUMAN BELIEVES REDS LEAD SIT-INS; Says Communists Organized Them as They Started Sitdown Strikes in '37| work=] |url=http://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1960/04/19/105427798.html?pageNumber=21|date=April 19, 1960|access-date=November 23, 2021|language=en}}</ref> Truman's statement garnered a response from ], who wrote a letter to the former president stating that he was "baffled" by the accusation, and demanded a public apology.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=University|first1= Stanford|last2=Stanford|last3=California 94305|date=July 28, 2014|title=To Harry S. Truman|url=https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/king-papers/documents/harry-s-truman|access-date=November 23, 2021|website=The Martin Luther King, Jr., Research and Education Institute|language=en}}</ref> Truman would later criticize King following the ] in 1965, believing the protest to be "silly" and claiming that it "can't accomplish a darn thing except to attract attention."<ref>{{Cite web|title=MLK to Truman: Selma March 'Not Silly'|date=March 5, 2015 |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/selma-50th-anniversary/mlk-truman-selma-march-not-silly-n318151|access-date=November 23, 2021|website=]|language=en}}</ref> In 1963, Truman voiced his opposition to ], believing that daughters of white people would never love someone of an opposite color.<ref>{{cite book|title=The White House Goes South: Franklin D. Roosevelt, Harry S. Truman, Lyndon B. Johnson|first=William Edward|last=Leuchtenburg|publisher=]|location=Baton Rouge, Louisiana|date=2005|isbn=978-0807132869}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|first=William D.|last=Zabel|title=Interracial Marriage and the Law|magazine=]|date=October 1965}}</ref> | |||
| On December 22, 1963, Truman published an article in '']'' entitled ‘Limit CIA Role to Intelligence' where he said that “for some time I have been disturbed by the way CIA has been diverted from its original assignment. It has become an operational and at times a policy-making arm of the Government” and that he “never had any thought that when I set up the CIA that it would be injected into peacetime cloak and dagger operations”. He concluded that “there is something about the way the CIA has been functioning that is casting a shadow over our historic position and I feel that we need to correct it”.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Truman |first1=Harry S. |title=Limit CIA Role to Intelligence |work=The Washington Post |date=December 22, 1963}}</ref> | |||
| Upon turning 80 in 1964, Truman was feted in Washington, and addressed the Senate, availing himself of a new rule that allowed former presidents to be granted ].{{sfn|McCullough|1992|p=983}} | |||
| ===Medicare=== | ===Medicare=== | ||
| After a fall in his home in late 1964, |
After a fall in his home in late 1964, Truman's physical condition declined. In 1965, President ] signed the ] bill at the ] and gave the first two Medicare cards to Truman and his wife Bess to honor the former president's fight for government health care while in office.{{sfn|Truman Library|1965}} | ||
| == Death == | == Death == | ||
| ] | ] | ||
| ] | |||
| On December 5, 1972, Truman was admitted to Kansas City's ] with pneumonia. He developed multiple organ failure, fell into a coma, and died at 7:50 a.m. on December 26, at the age of 88.<ref name=CBSRadioNews1972>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4Ej-jLWxg-4|title=6:00 p.m. |
On December 5, 1972, Truman was admitted to Kansas City's ] with ]. He developed ], fell into a ], and died at 7:50 a.m. on December 26, at the age of 88. At the time of his death, Truman had been the oldest living president, a distinction he held from the time of Hoover's death in 1964.<ref name="CBSRadioNews1972">{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4Ej-jLWxg-4| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211114/4Ej-jLWxg-4| archive-date=November 14, 2021 | url-status=live|title=6:00 p.m.|work=CBS Radio News|publisher=CBS|access-date=December 27, 2017|date=December 25, 1972|via=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref>{{sfn|Truman Library|2012i}} | ||
| Bess Truman opted for a simple private service at the library rather than a state funeral in Washington. A week after the funeral, foreign dignitaries and Washington officials attended a memorial service at ]. | Bess Truman opted for a simple private service at the library rather than a state funeral in Washington. A week after the funeral, foreign dignitaries and Washington officials attended a memorial service at ].<ref>{{cite web |title=Harry S. Truman eulogized at National Cathedral in Washington |url=https://www.upi.com/News_Photos/view/upi/8b8df8d1bc5e37f885648c3fae455e2a/Harry-S-Truman-eulogized-at-National-Cathedral-in-Washington/ |publisher=United Press International |access-date=December 24, 2022}}</ref> | ||
| Bess died in 1982 and |
Bess Truman died in 1982 and was buried next to her husband at the ] in Independence, Missouri.{{sfn|Washington National Cathedral|2012}}{{sfn|Wooten|1973|p=1}} | ||
| == Tributes and legacy == | == Tributes and legacy == | ||
| === Legacy === | |||
| Biographer Robert Donovan has tried to capture Truman's personality: | |||
| ]" sign on a recreation of his Oval Office desk]] | |||
| {{quote|text=Vigorous, hard-working, simple, he had grown up close to the soil of the Midwest and understood the struggles of the people on the farms and in the small towns. ... After 10 years in the Senate, he had risen above the Pendergast organization. Still, he ''had'' come from a world of two-bit politicians, and its aura was one that he never was able to shed entirely. And he ''did'' retain certain characteristics one often sees in machine-bred politicians: intense partisanship, stubborn loyalty, a certain insensitivity about the transgressions of political associates, and a disinclination for the companionship of intellectuals and artists.<ref>{{cite book|author=Donovan, Robert J.|authorlink=Robert J. Donovan|title=Conflict and Crisis: The Presidency of Harry S. Truman, 1945–1948|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d0uu-j32elUC&pg=PR15|year=1977|page=xv}}</ref>}} | |||
| When he left office in 1953, Truman was one of the most unpopular chief executives in history. His job approval rating of 22% in the ] of February 1952 was lower than ]'s 24% in August 1974, the month that Nixon resigned. American public feeling towards Truman grew steadily warmer with the passing years; as early as 1962, a poll of 75 historians conducted by ] ranked Truman among the "near great" presidents. The period following his death consolidated a partial rehabilitation of his legacy among both historians and members of the public.{{sfn|''Wisconsin Magazine of History''|Autumn 1975}} Truman died when the nation was consumed with crises in ] and ], and his death brought a new wave of attention to his political career.{{sfn|''Time''|December 3, 1973}} In the early and mid-1970s, Truman captured the popular imagination much as he had in 1948, this time emerging as a kind of political folk hero, a president who was thought to exemplify an integrity and accountability many observers felt was lacking in ]. This public reassessment of Truman was aided by the popularity of a book of reminiscences which Truman had told to journalist ] beginning in 1961, with the agreement that they would not be published until after Truman's death.{{sfn|Dallek|2008|pp=149, 152}} | |||
| === Legacy === | |||
| ]" sign on his desk. (The reverse of the sign says, "I'm From Missouri".)]] | |||
| Truman had his latter-day critics as well. After a review of information available to Truman about the presence of espionage activities in the U.S. government, Democratic Senator ] concluded that Truman was "almost willfully obtuse" concerning the danger of American communism.{{sfn|Moynihan|1997}} In 2010, historian Alonzo Hamby concluded that "Harry Truman remains a controversial president."{{sfn|Hamby|2002}} However, Truman has fared well in ], consistently being listed in the top ten;{{sfn|C-SPAN|2009}} this includes a 2022 poll by the ], which placed him in seventh.{{Sfn|Siena|2022}} | |||
| Citing continuing divisions within the Democratic Party, the ongoing Cold War, and the ] cycle, journalist Samuel Lubell in 1952 stated: "After seven years of Truman's hectic, even furious, activity the nation seemed to be about on the same general spot as when he first came to office ... Nowhere in the whole Truman record can one point to a single, decisive break-through ... All his skills and energies—and he was among our hardest-working Presidents—were directed to standing still."<ref name="lubell1956">{{cite book | url=https://openlibrary.org/books/OL6193934M/The_future_of_American_politics. | title=The Future of American Politics | publisher=Anchor Press | last = Lubell | first = Samuel | year = 1956 | pages = 9–10 | edition = 2nd}}</ref> When he left office in 1953, Truman was one of the most unpopular chief executives in history. His job approval rating of 22% in the Gallup Poll of February 1952 was lower than Richard Nixon's 24% in August 1974, the month Nixon resigned, but matched by Nixon's all-time low in January 1974.<ref name="presidency.ucsb.edu"/> | |||
| ] in 1991 caused Truman advocates to claim vindication for Truman's decisions in the postwar period. According to Truman biographer Robert Dallek, "His contribution to victory in the ] without a devastating nuclear conflict elevated him to the stature of a great or near-great president."{{sfn|Dallek|2008|p=152}} The 1992 publication of ]'s favorable biography of Truman further cemented the view of Truman as a highly regarded chief executive.{{sfn|Dallek|2008|p=152}} According to historian Daniel R. McCoy in his book on the Truman presidency: | |||
| ] in Independence, Missouri]] | |||
| {{blockquote | | |||
| U.S. public feeling towards Truman grew steadily warmer with the passing years; as early as 1962, a poll of 75 historians conducted by ] ranked Truman among the "near great" presidents. The period following his death consolidated a partial rehabilitation of his legacy among both historians and members of the public.{{sfn|''Wisconsin Magazine of History''|Autumn 1975}} Truman died when the nation was consumed with crises in ] and ], and his death brought a new wave of attention to his political career.{{sfn|''Time''|December 3, 1973}} In the early and mid-1970s, Truman captured the popular imagination much as he had in 1948, this time emerging as a kind of political ], a president who was thought to exemplify an integrity and accountability which many observers felt was lacking in ]. This public reassessment of Truman was aided by the popularity of a book of reminiscences Truman had recounted to journalist ] beginning in 1961, with the agreement that they would not be published until after Truman's death.{{sfn|Dallek|2008|pp=149, 152}} | |||
| Harry Truman himself gave a strong and far-from-incorrect impression of being a tough, concerned and direct leader. He was occasionally vulgar, often partisan, and usually nationalistic ... On his own terms, Truman can be seen as having prevented the coming of a ] and having preserved from Communist oppression much of what he called the free world. Yet clearly he largely failed to achieve his ] aim of securing perpetual peace, making the world safe for democracy, and advancing opportunities for individual development internationally.{{sfn|McCoy|1984|pp=318–319}} | |||
| }} | |||
| === Sites and honors === | |||
| Truman has had his latter-day critics as well. After a review of information available to Truman about the presence of espionage activities in the U.S. government, Democratic Senator ] concluded that Truman was "almost wilfully obtuse" concerning the danger of ].{{sfn|Moynihan|1997}} In 2010, historian Alonzo Hamby concluded that "Harry Truman remains a controversial president."{{sfn|Hamby|2002}} However, since leaving office, Truman has fared well in ]. He has never been listed lower than ninth, and was ranked fifth in a ] poll in 2009.{{sfn|CSPAN|2009}} | |||
| ]—Truman has been honored on five U.S. postage stamps, issued from 1973 to 1999.{{sfn|Kloetzel|Charles|2012|pp=50, 61, 71, 91, 99}}<!-- {{sfn|Smithsonian Institution|1973}}{{sfn|Smithsonian Institution|1984}}{{sfn|Smithsonian Institution|1986}}{{sfn|Smithsonian Institution|1995}}{{sfn|Smithsonian Institution|1999}} --></div>]] | |||
| {{external media| float = right| width = 210px | video1 = , ]}} | |||
| In 1956, Truman traveled to Europe with his wife. In Britain, he received an honorary degree in Civic Law from ] and met with ].{{sfn|Ohio State|2012}} In 1959, he was given a 50-year award by the ], recognizing his longstanding involvement: he was initiated on February 9, 1909, into the Belton ] Lodge in Missouri. In 1911, he helped establish the Grandview Lodge, and he served as its first Worshipful Master. In September 1940, during his Senate re-election campaign, Truman was elected ] of the ]; Truman said later that the Masonic election assured his victory in the general election. In 1945, he was made a 33° Sovereign Grand Inspector General and an Honorary Member of the supreme council at the Supreme Council A.A.S.R. Southern Jurisdiction Headquarters in Washington D.C.{{sfn|Grand Lodge-Pennsylvania|2011}}{{sfn|''Time''|March 24, 1952}} Truman was also a member of ] (SAR){{sfn|Truman Library, SAR|2012}} and a card-carrying member of the ].{{sfn|Missouri Partisan Ranger|1995}} Two of his relatives were ] soldiers.{{sfn|Missouri Partisan Ranger|1995}}{{sfn|Eakin|Hale|1995|p=71}} | |||
| The ] in 1991 caused Truman advocates to claim vindication for his decisions in the postwar period. According to Truman biographer ], "His contribution to victory in the cold war without a devastating nuclear conflict elevated him to the stature of a great or near-great president."{{sfn |Dallek|2008|p=152}} The 1992 publication of ]'s favorable biography of Truman further cemented the view of Truman as a highly regarded Chief Executive.{{sfn | Dallek|2008|p=152}} According to historian Donald R. McCoy in his book on the Truman presidency: | |||
| In 1975, the ] was created as a federal program to honor U.S. college students who exemplified dedication to public service and leadership in public policy.{{sfn|Truman Scholarship|2012}} | |||
| {{quote|Harry Truman himself gave a strong and far-from-incorrect impression of being a tough, concerned and direct leader. He was occasionally vulgar, often partisan, and usually nationalistic ... On his own terms, Truman can be seen as having prevented the coming of a ] and having preserved from Communist oppression much of what he called the free world. Yet clearly he largely failed to achieve his ] aim of securing perpetual peace, making the world safe for democracy, and advancing opportunities for individual development internationally.{{sfn|McCoy|1984|pp=318–19}}}} | |||
| In 1983 the Harry S. Truman State Office Building in ] was completed.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://oa.mo.gov/content/harry-s-truman-state-office-building | title=Harry S. Truman State Office Building | date=July 10, 2014 }}</ref> | |||
| === Sites and honors === | |||
| ], following Truman's death. Truman has been honored on five U.S. postage stamps, issued between 1973 and 1999.{{sfn| Kloetzel | Charles |2012|pp=50, 61, 71, 91, 99}}]] | |||
| In 2004, the President Harry S. Truman Fellowship in National Security Science and Engineering was created as a distinguished postdoctoral three-year appointment at ].{{sfn|Truman Fellowship|2012}} In 2001, the ] established the Harry S. Truman School of Public Affairs to advance the study and practice of governance.{{sfn|Truman School of Public Affairs|2010}} The University of Missouri's ] athletic programs have an official mascot named ]. On July 1, 1996, Northeast Missouri State University became ]—to mark its transformation from a ] to a highly selective ] and to honor the only Missourian to become president. A member institution of the ], ] in ], is named in his honor for his dedication to public colleges and universities. In 2000, the headquarters for the ], built in the 1930s but never officially named, was dedicated as the ].{{sfn|CNN|2000}} | |||
| In 1953, Truman received the ] of the ]. | |||
| In 1956, Truman traveled to Europe with his wife. In England, he met with Churchill and received an honorary ] degree from Oxford University. Across Britain he was hailed; London's ''Daily Telegraph'' characterized Truman as the "Living and kicking symbol of everything that everybody likes best about the United States."{{Sfn | McCullough | 1992 | pp = 952–59, quote on p. 959}} In 1959, he was given a 50-year award by the ], recognizing his longstanding involvement: he was initiated on February 9, 1909, into the Belton ] Lodge in Missouri. In 1911, he helped establish the Grandview Lodge, and he served as its first Worshipful Master. In September 1940, during his Senate re-election campaign, Truman was elected ] of the Missouri ] of Freemasonry; Truman said later that the Masonic election assured his victory in the general election. In 1945, he was made a 33° Sovereign Grand Inspector General and an Honorary Member of the supreme council at the Supreme Council A.A.S.R. Southern Jurisdiction Headquarters in Washington D.C.{{sfn |Grand Lodge-Pennsylvania| 2011}}{{sfn |''Time''|March 24, 1952}} Truman was also a member of ] (SAR){{sfn|Truman Library, SAR|2012}} and a card-carrying member of the ].{{sfn|Missouri Partisan Ranger|1995}} Two of his relatives were ] soldiers.{{sfn | Missouri Partisan Ranger|1995}}{{sfn|Eakin|Hale|1995|p= 71}} | |||
| Despite Truman's attempt to curtail the naval carrier arm, which led to the 1949 ],{{sfn|''Time''|October 17, 1949}} an aircraft carrier is named after him. The {{USS|Harry S. Truman|CVN-75}} was christened on September 7, 1996.{{sfn|NavSource Online|2012}} The ] is designated "Truman's Own" in recognition of Truman's service as commander of its D Battery during ].{{sfn|Army National Guard|2012}} | |||
| In 1975, the ] was created as a federal program to honor U.S. college students who exemplified dedication to public service and leadership in public policy.{{sfn|Truman Scholarship|2012}} In 2004, the President Harry S. Truman Fellowship in National Security Science and Engineering was created as a distinguished postdoctoral three-year appointment at ].{{sfn|Truman Fellowship|2012}} In 2001, the ] established the Harry S. Truman School of Public Affairs to advance the study and practice of governance.{{sfn|Truman School of Public Affairs|2010}} The University of Missouri's ] athletic programs have an official mascot named ]. On July 1, 1996, Northeast Missouri State University became ]—to mark its transformation from a ] to a highly selective ] and to honor the only Missourian to become president. A member institution of the ], ] in ], is named in his honor for his dedication to public colleges and universities. In 2000, the headquarters for the ], built in the 1930s but never officially named, was dedicated as the ].{{sfn|CNN|2000}} | |||
| In 1991, Truman was inducted into the ], and a bronze bust depicting him is on permanent display in the rotunda of the ]. In 2006, Thomas Daniel, grandson of the Trumans, accepted a star on the Missouri Walk of Fame to honor his late grandfather. In 2007, John Truman, a nephew, accepted a star for Bess Truman. The Walk of Fame is in ], a city Truman visited in 1948.{{sfn|Hall of Famous Missourians|2012}} | |||
| Despite Truman's attempt to curtail the naval carrier arm, which led to the 1949 ],{{sfn|''Time''|October 17, 1949}} an aircraft carrier, {{USS|Harry S. Truman|CVN-75|6}}, was named for him in February 1996. {{sfn |NavSource Online|2012}} The 129th Field Artillery Regiment is designated "Truman's Own" in recognition of Truman's service as commander of its D Battery during ].{{sfn|Army National Guard|2012}} | |||
| In 2004, international relations scholars ] and ] founded the ]. In 2013, they launched the Truman Center for National Policy. Both organizations were named after Truman.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Truman National Security Project {{!}} History |url=https://www.trumanproject.org/about/history |access-date=February 19, 2024 |website=www.trumanproject.org}}</ref> | |||
| A ] was installed in the U.S. Capitol, in Washington, D.C., on September 29, 2022, as part of the ].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Figueroa |first=Ariana |date=September 29, 2022 |title=Statue of Missouri's Harry S. Truman dedicated at the U.S. Capitol |url=https://nebraskaexaminer.com/2022/09/29/statue-of-missouris-harry-s-truman-dedicated-at-the-u-s-capitol/ |access-date=October 5, 2022 |website=] |language=en-US |archive-date=September 30, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220930201257/https://nebraskaexaminer.com/2022/09/29/statue-of-missouris-harry-s-truman-dedicated-at-the-u-s-capitol/ |url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
| On the 70th anniversary of the Korean War armistice in 2023, South Korea erected a statue of Truman in Dabu-dong, ] to commemorate him sending US troops to defend the country.<ref>{{Cite web|url= https://www.nytimes.com/2023/07/27/world/asia/korean-war-truman-statue-armistice.html|title= South Korea Unveils Truman Statue on Armistice Anniversary|work=The New York Times|date=July 27, 2023|author=Choe Sang-Hun}}</ref> | |||
| In 1984, Truman was posthumously awarded the United States ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://artandhistory.house.gov/house_history/goldmedal.aspx |work=Office of the Clerk |title=Congressional Gold Medal Recipients |publisher=House of Representatives |accessdate=August 20, 2014 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723055434/http://artandhistory.house.gov/house_history/goldMedal.aspx |archivedate=July 23, 2011 |df= }}</ref> In 1991, he was inducted into the ], and a bronze bust depicting him is on permanent display in the rotunda of the ].{{sfn|''Hall of Famous Missourians''|2012}} | |||
| Other sites associated with Truman include: | Other sites associated with Truman include: | ||
| * ] includes the Wallace House at 219 N. Delaware in Independence and the family farmhouse at ] (Truman sold most of the farm for Kansas City suburban development including the Truman Corners Shopping Center). | * ] includes the Wallace House at 219 N. Delaware in Independence and the family farmhouse at ] (Truman sold most of the farm for Kansas City suburban development including the Truman Corners Shopping Center). | ||
| * ] is the house where Truman was born and spent 11 months in Lamar, Missouri.{{sfn|Truman Birthplace|2012}} | * ] is the house where Truman was born and spent 11 months in Lamar, Missouri.{{sfn|Truman Birthplace|2012}} | ||
| * ] – The ] in Independence | * ] – The ] in Independence | ||
| * ] – Truman's winter getaway at ] | * ] – Truman's winter getaway at ] | ||
| In Athens, Greece, a 12-foot-tall bronze statue of President Harry S. Truman, was erected in 1963 with donations from Greek-Americans.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/08/07/world/statue-of-truman-in-athens-bombed-in-1986-is-restored.html|title=Statue of Truman in Athens, Bombed in 1986, Is Restored|access-date=2018-04-27|language=en}}</ref> | |||
| On November 13, 2018, Truman was inducted into the Hall of Fame for the Command and General Staff College, at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. | |||
| == See also == | == See also == | ||
| * ] | * ] | ||
| * ] ( |
* ], hit song by the band ], 1975 | ||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | * ] | ||
| * ] | |||
| * ], a song by the band ] | |||
| * ], 1995 film | |||
| * ], Missouri state holiday, 1995 | |||
| == Notes == | == Notes == | ||
| {{Notelist |
{{Notelist}} | ||
| == References == | == References == | ||
| {{Reflist |
{{Reflist|refs = | ||
| <ref name="nevins">{{harvnb |McCullough|1992|p=949}}; quoting {{harvnb|Nevins|1955}}.</ref> | <ref name="nevins">{{harvnb |McCullough|1992|p=949}}; quoting {{harvnb|Nevins|1955}}.</ref> | ||
| Line 497: | Line 571: | ||
| ----| Works that are not used as sources should be added to the bibliography article. |-- | ----| Works that are not used as sources should be added to the bibliography article. |-- | ||
| ----=====================================================================================--> | ----=====================================================================================--> | ||
| === Biographies of Truman === | === Biographies of Truman === | ||
| * {{cite book | * {{cite book | ||
| | last = Burnes | first = Brian | year = 2003 | | last = Burnes | first = Brian | year = 2003 | ||
| | title = Harry S. Truman: His Life and Times | | title = Harry S. Truman: His Life and Times | ||
| | publisher = Kansas City Star Books | location = Kansas City, |
| publisher = Kansas City Star Books | location = Kansas City, MO | ||
| | isbn = 978-0-9740009-3-0 |
| isbn = 978-0-9740009-3-0}} | ||
| * {{cite book | last = Dallek | first = Robert | author-link = Robert Dallek | year = 2008 | title = Harry S. Truman | publisher = Times Books | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-8050-6938-9 | url = https://archive.org/details/harrystruman00dall }} | |||
| * {{cite book | * {{cite book | ||
| | last = |
| last = Daniels | first = Jonathan | author-link = Jonathan W. Daniels | year = 1998 | ||
| | title = Harry S. Truman | |||
| | publisher = Times Books | location = New York | |||
| | isbn = 978-0-8050-6938-9 | ref = harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book | |||
| | last = Daniels | first = Jonathan | authorlink = Jonathan W. Daniels | year = 1998 | |||
| | title = The Man of Independence | | title = The Man of Independence | ||
| | publisher = University of Missouri Press | | publisher = University of Missouri Press | ||
| | isbn = 0-8262-1190-9 |
| isbn = 0-8262-1190-9}} | ||
| * {{cite book | last = Donovan | first = Robert J. | author-link = Robert J. Donovan | year = 1983 | title = Tumultuous Years: 1949–1953 | publisher = W. W. Norton | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-393-01619-2 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/tumultuousyearsp0000dono_n2q0 }} | |||
| * {{cite book | |||
| * {{cite book |last=Ferrell |first=Robert H. |date=1994 |title=Harry S. Truman: A Life |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7UXSMj3OF4oC&pg=PA25 |location=Columbia, MO |publisher=University of Missouri Press |isbn=978-0-8262-1050-0}} | |||
| | last = Donovan | first = Robert J. | authorlink = Robert J. Donovan | year = 1983 | |||
| * {{cite book | editor-last = Hamby | editor-first = Alonzo L. | year = 1974 | title = Harry S. Truman and the Fair Deal | publisher = D. C. Heath & Co | location = Lexington, ] | isbn = 978-0-669-87080-0 | url = https://archive.org/details/harrystrumanf00hamb }} | |||
| | title = Tumultuous Years: 1949–1953 | |||
| | publisher = W. W. Norton | location = New York | |||
| | isbn = 978-0-393-01619-2 | ref = harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book | |||
| | editor-last = Hamby | editor-first = Alonzo L. | year = 1974 | |||
| | title = Harry S. Truman and the Fair Deal | |||
| | publisher = D. C. Heath & Co | location = Lexington, ] | |||
| | isbn = 978-0-669-87080-0 | ref = harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book | * {{cite book | ||
| | last = Hamby | first = Alonzo L. | year = 1995 | | last = Hamby | first = Alonzo L. | year = 1995 | ||
| | title = Man of the People: A Life of Harry S. Truman | | title = Man of the People: A Life of Harry S. Truman | ||
| | location = Oxford | publisher = Oxford University Press | | url = https://archive.org/details/manofpeoplelifeo0000hamb | url-access = registration | location = Oxford | publisher = Oxford University Press | ||
| | isbn = 978-0-19-504546-8 |
| isbn = 978-0-19-504546-8}} | ||
| * {{cite book | * {{cite book | ||
| | last = Judis | first = John B. | year = 2014 | | last = Judis | first = John B. | year = 2014 | ||
| Line 534: | Line 598: | ||
| | isbn = 978-0-374-16109-5}} | | isbn = 978-0-374-16109-5}} | ||
| * {{cite book | * {{cite book | ||
| | last = |
| last = Freeland | first = Richard M. | author-link = Richard M. Freeland | year = 1970 | ||
| | title = |
| title = The Truman Doctrine and the Origins of McCarthyism | ||
| | location = |
| location = New York | publisher = Alfred A. Knopf | ||
| | isbn = 978-0- |
| isbn = 978-0-8147-2576-4 | ||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite book | * {{cite book | ||
| | last = |
| last = Giglio | first = James N. | year = 2001 | ||
| | title = |
| title = Truman in Cartoon and Caricature | ||
| | location = Kirksville, Missouri | publisher = Truman State University Press | |||
| | publisher = University Press of Kansas | location = Lawrence, ] | |||
| | isbn = 978-0- |
| isbn = 978-0-8138-1806-1 | ||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite book | last = Kirkendall | first = Richard S. | year = 1989 | title = Harry S. Truman Encyclopedia | location = Boston | publisher = G. K. Hall Publishing | isbn = 978-0-8161-8915-1 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/harrystrumanency0000unse }} | |||
| * {{cite book | last = McCoy | first = Donald R. | year = 1984 | title = The Presidency of Harry S. Truman | publisher = University Press of Kansas | location = Lawrence, ] | isbn = 978-0-7006-0252-0 | url = https://archive.org/details/presidencyofharr0000mcco }} | |||
| * {{cite book | * {{cite book | ||
| | last = McCullough | first = David | |
| last = McCullough | first = David | author-link = David McCullough | year = 1992 | ||
| | title = |
| title = Truman | ||
| | publisher = Simon & Schuster | location = New York | | publisher = Simon & Schuster | location = New York | ||
| | isbn = 978-0-671-86920-5 | |
| isbn = 978-0-671-86920-5 | title-link = Truman (book) }} | ||
| * Margolies, Daniel S. ed. ''A Companion to Harry S. Truman |
* Margolies, Daniel S. ed. ''A Companion to Harry S. Truman'' (2012); 614pp; emphasis on historiography; see Sean J. Savage, "Truman in Historical, Popular, and Political Memory," pp. 9–25. | ||
| * {{cite book | last = Miller | first = Merle | author-link = Merle Miller | year = 1974 | title = Plain Speaking: An Oral Biography of Harry S. Truman | publisher = Putnam Publishing | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-399-11261-4 | url = https://archive.org/details/plainspeakingora00mill }} | |||
| * {{cite book | |||
| | last = Miller | first = Merle | authorlink = Merle Miller | year = 1974 | |||
| | title = Plain Speaking: An Oral Biography of Harry S. Truman | |||
| | publisher = Putnam Publishing | location = New York | |||
| | isbn = 978-0-399-11261-4 | ref = harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book | * {{cite book | ||
| | last = Mitchell | first = Franklin D. | year = 1998 | | last = Mitchell | first = Franklin D. | year = 1998 | ||
| | title = Harry S. Truman and the News Media: Contentious Relations, Belated Respect | | title = Harry S. Truman and the News Media: Contentious Relations, Belated Respect | ||
| | publisher = University of Missouri Press | location = Columbia, ] | | publisher = University of Missouri Press | location = Columbia, ] | ||
| | url =https:// |
| url =https://archive.org/details/harrystrumannews00mitc | ||
| | isbn = 0-8262-1180-1 |
| url-access = registration | isbn = 0-8262-1180-1}} | ||
| * {{cite book | * {{cite book | ||
| | last = Oshinsky | first = David M. | |
| last = Oshinsky | first = David M. | author-link = David Oshinsky | year = 2004 | ||
| | editor1-last = Brinkley | editor1-first = Alan | editor2-last = Dyer | editor2-first = Davis | | editor1-last = Brinkley | editor1-first = Alan | editor2-last = Dyer | editor2-first = Davis | ||
| | title = The American Presidency | chapter = Harry Truman | | title = The American Presidency | chapter = Harry Truman | ||
| | publisher = Houghton Mifflin | location = Boston | | publisher = Houghton Mifflin | location = Boston | ||
| | isbn = 978-0-618-38273-6 |
| isbn = 978-0-618-38273-6}} | ||
| * {{cite book | * {{cite book | ||
| | last = Pietrusza | first = David | |
| last = Pietrusza | first = David | author-link = David Pietrusza | year = 2011 | ||
| | title = 1948: Harry Truman's Improbable Victory and the Year That Transformed America | | title = 1948: Harry Truman's Improbable Victory and the Year That Transformed America | ||
| | publisher = Union Square Press | location = New York | | publisher = Union Square Press | location = New York | ||
| | isbn = 978-1-4027-6748-7 |
| isbn = 978-1-4027-6748-7}} | ||
| * {{cite book | |||
| | last = Scarborough| first = Joe| author-link = Joe Scarborough | year = 2020 | |||
| | title = ] | |||
| | publisher = Harper Collins| location = New York | |||
| }} | |||
| === Books === | === Books === | ||
| * {{cite book | * {{cite book | ||
| | last = Ambrose | first = Stephen E. | |
| last = Ambrose | first = Stephen E. | author-link = Stephen Ambrose | year = 1983 | ||
| | title = Eisenhower: 1890–1952 | | title = Eisenhower: 1890–1952 | ||
| | publisher = Simon & Schuster | location = New York | | url = https://archive.org/details/eisenhower00ambr | url-access = registration | publisher = Simon & Schuster | location = New York | ||
| | isbn = 978-0-671-44069-5 |
| isbn = 978-0-671-44069-5}} | ||
| * {{cite book | * {{cite book | ||
| | |
| last1 = Binning | first1 = William C. | last2= Esterly | first2 = Larry E. | last3 = Sracic | first3 = Paul A. | author3-link = Paul Sracic | year = 1999 | ||
| | title = Encyclopedia of American Parties, Campaigns, and Elections | | title = Encyclopedia of American Parties, Campaigns, and Elections | ||
| | publisher = Greenwood | location = Westport, ] | | url = https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofam0000binn | url-access = registration | publisher = Greenwood | location = Westport, ] | ||
| | isbn = 978-0-8131-1755-3 |
| isbn = 978-0-8131-1755-3}} | ||
| * {{cite book | last = Chambers II | first = John W. | year = 1999 | title = The Oxford Companion to American Military History | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford | isbn = 0-19-507198-0 | url = https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00cham }} | |||
| * {{cite book | * {{cite book | ||
| | |
| last1 = Cohen | first1 = Eliot A. | author-link = Eliot A. Cohen | last2 = Gooch | first2 = John | year = 2006 | ||
| | title = The Oxford Companion to American Military History | |||
| | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford | |||
| | isbn = 0-19-507198-0 | ref = harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book | |||
| | last1 = Cohen | first1 = Eliot A. | authorlink = Eliot A. Cohen | last2 = Gooch | first2 = John | year = 2006 | |||
| | title = Military Misfortunes: The Anatomy of Failure in War | | title = Military Misfortunes: The Anatomy of Failure in War | ||
| | publisher = Free Press | location = New York | | publisher = Free Press | location = New York | ||
| | isbn = 978-0-7432-8082-2 |
| isbn = 978-0-7432-8082-2}} | ||
| * {{cite book | * {{cite book | ||
| | |
| last1 = Current | first1 = Richard Nelson | year = 1971 |last2=Freidel |first2=Frank Burt |last3=Williams |first3=Thomas Harry | title = American History: A Survey |volume=II | publisher = Knopf | location = New York}} | ||
| * {{cite book | * {{cite book | ||
| | editor1-last = Eakin | editor1-first = Joanne C. | editor2-last = Hale | editor2-first = Donald R. | year = 1995 | | editor1-last = Eakin | editor1-first = Joanne C. | editor2-last = Hale | editor2-first = Donald R. | year = 1995 | ||
| | title = Branded as Rebels | | title = Branded as Rebels | ||
| | publisher = University of Wisconsin Press | location = Madison, ] | | publisher = University of Wisconsin Press | location = Madison, ] | ||
| | asin = B003GWL8J6 |
| asin = B003GWL8J6}} | ||
| * {{cite book | * {{cite book | ||
| | last = Eisler | first = Kim Isaac | year = 1993 | | last = Eisler | first = Kim Isaac | year = 1993 | ||
| | title = A Justice for All: William J. Brennan, Jr., and the Decisions that Transformed America | | title = A Justice for All: William J. Brennan, Jr., and the Decisions that Transformed America | ||
| | publisher = Simon & Schuster | location = New York | | url = https://archive.org/details/justiceforallwil00eisl | url-access = registration | publisher = Simon & Schuster | location = New York | ||
| | isbn = 978-0-671-76787-7 |
| isbn = 978-0-671-76787-7}} | ||
| * {{cite book | * {{cite book | ||
| | last = |
| last = Evans | first = M. Stanton | year = 2007 | ||
| | title = Blacklisted by History: The Untold Story of Senator Joe McCarthy and His Fight Against America's Enemies | |||
| | title = ]: Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt: The Home Front in World War II | |||
| | |
| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=vz42rDYmf3wC&pg=PA321 | location = New York | publisher = Crown Publishing Group | ||
| | isbn = 978-0- |
| isbn = 978-0-307-23866-5}} | ||
| * {{cite book | * {{cite book | ||
| | last = |
| last = Goodwin | first = Doris Kearns | author-link = Doris Kearns Goodwin | year = 1994 | ||
| | title = No Ordinary Time: Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt: The Home Front in World War II | |||
| | url = https://archive.org/details/noordinarytimef000good | url-access = registration | publisher = ] | location = New York | |||
| | isbn = 978-0-671-64240-2}} | |||
| * Haas, Lawrence J. ''Harry & Arthur: Truman, Vandenberg, and the Partnership That Created the Free World'' (2016) | |||
| * {{cite book | |||
| | last = Hamilton | first = Lee H. | author-link = Lee H. Hamilton | year = 2009 | |||
| | chapter = Relations between the President and Congress in Wartime | | chapter = Relations between the President and Congress in Wartime | ||
| | editor = ] | | editor = ] | ||
| | title = Rivals for Power: Presidential–Congressional Relations | | title = Rivals for Power: Presidential–Congressional Relations | ||
| | publisher = Rowman & Littlefield | | publisher = Rowman & Littlefield | ||
| | isbn = 0-7425-6142- |
| isbn = 978-0-7425-6142-7 | ||
| | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=9iB24L3hyh8C&pg=PA301 | | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=9iB24L3hyh8C&pg=PA301 | ||
| }} | |||
| | ref = harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book | * {{cite book | ||
| | last = Holsti | first = Ole | |
| last = Holsti | first = Ole | author-link = Ole Holsti | year = 1996 | ||
| | title = Public Opinion and American Foreign Policy | | title = Public Opinion and American Foreign Policy | ||
| | publisher = The University of Michigan Press | location = Ann Arbor, ] | | publisher = The University of Michigan Press | location = Ann Arbor, ] | ||
| | isbn = 978-0-472-06619-3 |
| isbn = 978-0-472-06619-3 | ||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite book | editor1-last = Kloetzel | editor1-first = James E. | editor2-last = Charles | editor2-first = Steve | date = April 2012 | title = Scott Standard Postage Stamp Catalog | volume = 1 | publisher = Scott Publishing Co | location = Sidney, ] | isbn = 978-0-89487-460-4 | url = https://archive.org/details/scott2012standar00jame }} | |||
| * {{cite book | |||
| | editor1-last = Kloetzel | editor1-first = James E. | editor2-last = Charles | editor2-first = Steve |date=April 2012 | |||
| | title = Scott Standard Postage Stamp Catalog | |||
| | volume = 1 | |||
| | publisher = Scott Publishing Co | location = Sidney, ] | |||
| | isbn = 978-0-89487-460-4 | ref = harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book | * {{cite book | ||
| | last = Lenczowski | first = George | |
| last = Lenczowski | first = George | author-link = George Lenczowski | year = 1990 | ||
| | title = American Presidents and the Middle East | | title = American Presidents and the Middle East | ||
| | publisher = Duke University Press | location = Durham, ] | | publisher = Duke University Press | location = Durham, ] | ||
| | isbn = 978-0-8223-0972-7 |
| isbn = 978-0-8223-0972-7 | ||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite book | * {{cite book | ||
| | last = MacGregor | first = Morris J. |
| last = MacGregor | first = Morris J. Jr. | year = 1981 | ||
| | title = Integration of the Armed Services 1940–1965 | | title = Integration of the Armed Services 1940–1965 | ||
| | publisher = Center of Military History | | publisher = Center of Military History | ||
| | location = Washington, D.C. | | location = Washington, D.C. | ||
| | isbn = 978-0-16-001925-8 | | isbn = 978-0-16-001925-8 | ||
| }} | |||
| | ref = harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book | * {{cite book | ||
| | last = Savage | first = Sean J. | year = 1991 | | last = Savage | first = Sean J. | year = 1991 | ||
| | title = Roosevelt: The Party Leader, 1932–1945 | | title = Roosevelt: The Party Leader, 1932–1945 | ||
| | publisher = The University Press of Kentucky | location = Lexington, ] | | publisher = The University Press of Kentucky | location = Lexington, ] | ||
| | isbn = 978-0-8131-1755-3 |
| isbn = 978-0-8131-1755-3}} | ||
| * {{cite book | * {{cite book | ||
| | last = Skidmore | first = Max J. | year = 2004 | | last = Skidmore | first = Max J. | year = 2004 | ||
| Line 653: | Line 720: | ||
| | publisher = Macmillan | location = New York | | publisher = Macmillan | location = New York | ||
| | isbn = 978-0-312-29559-2 | edition = rev | | isbn = 978-0-312-29559-2 | edition = rev | ||
| | url = https:// |
| url = https://archive.org/details/afterwhitehousef00skid | url-access = registration}} | ||
| * {{cite book | * {{cite book | ||
| | last = Stohl | first = Michael | |
| last = Stohl | first = Michael | author-link = Michael Stohl | year = 1988 | ||
| | title = The Politics of Terrorism | chapter = National Interest and State Terrorism | | title = The Politics of Terrorism | chapter = National Interest and State Terrorism | ||
| | publisher = ] | location = New York |
| publisher = ] | location = New York}} | ||
| * {{cite book | * {{cite book | ||
| | last = Stokesbury | first = James L. | year = 1990 | | last = Stokesbury | first = James L. | year = 1990 | ||
| | title = A Short History of the Korean War | | title = A Short History of the Korean War | ||
| | publisher=Harper Perennial | location = New York | | publisher = Harper Perennial | location = New York | ||
| | isbn = 978-0-688-09513-0 |
| isbn = 978-0-688-09513-0}} | ||
| * {{cite book | last = Troy | first = Gil | year = 2008 | title = Leading from the Center: Why Moderates Make the Best Presidents | publisher = Basic Books | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-465-00293-1 | url = https://archive.org/details/leadingfromcente00troy }} | |||
| * {{cite book | |||
| | last = Troy | first = Gil | year = 2008 | |||
| | title = Leading from the Center: Why Moderates Make the Best Presidents | |||
| | publisher = Basic Books | location = New York | |||
| | isbn = 978-0-465-00293-1 | ref = harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book | * {{cite book | ||
| | last = Weinstein | | last = Weinstein | ||
| | first = Allen | | first = Allen | ||
| | |
| author-link = Allen Weinstein | ||
| | year = 1997 | | year = 1997 | ||
| | title = Perjury: The Hiss-Chambers Case | | title = Perjury: The Hiss-Chambers Case | ||
| Line 678: | Line 741: | ||
| | edition = revised | | edition = revised | ||
| | isbn = 0-679-77338-X | | isbn = 0-679-77338-X | ||
| | |
| url-access = registration | ||
| | url = https://archive.org/details/perjuryhisschamb0000wein | |||
| }} | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite book | author1-first=Ken | author1-last=Young | author1-link=Ken Young | author2-first=Warner R. | author2-last=Schilling | author2-link=Warner R. Schilling | title=Super Bomb: Organizational Conflict and the Development of the Hydrogen Bomb | publisher=Cornell University Press | location=Ithaca, New York | year=2019 | isbn=978-1-5017-4516-4}} | |||
| === Primary sources === | === Primary sources === | ||
| * {{cite book | |||
| |last= Truman |first= Harry S. | year = 2002 | |||
| |editor-last= Ferrell | |||
| |editor-first= Robert H. | |||
| |editor-link= Robert H. Ferrell | |||
| |title= The Autobiography of Harry S. Truman | |||
| |publisher= University of Missouri Press | |||
| |location= Columbia, Missouri | |||
| |isbn = 0-8262-1445-2}} | |||
| * {{cite book | * {{cite book | ||
| | last = Truman | first = Harry S. | year = 1955 | | last = Truman | first = Harry S. | year = 1955 | ||
| | title = Memoirs: Year of Decisions | volume = 1 | | title = Memoirs: Year of Decisions | volume = 1 | ||
| | publisher = Doubleday | location = Garden City, ] |
| publisher = Doubleday | location = Garden City, ] | ||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite book | * {{cite book | ||
| | last = Truman | first = Harry S. | author-mask = {{long dash}} | year = 1956 | | last = Truman | first = Harry S. | author-mask = {{long dash}} | year = 1956 | ||
| | title = Memoirs: Years of Trial and Hope | volume = 2 | | title = Memoirs: Years of Trial and Hope | volume = 2 | ||
| | publisher = Doubleday | location = Garden City, ] | | publisher = Doubleday | location = Garden City, ] | ||
| | ref = harv | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite book | |||
| | last = Truman | first = Harry S. | author-mask = {{long dash}} | year = 1960 | |||
| | title = Mr. Citizen | |||
| | publisher = Independence Press | location = Independence, MO | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite book | |||
| |last= Truman |first= Harry S. | year = 2002 | |||
| |editor-last= Ferrell | |||
| |editor-first= Robert H. | |||
| |editor-link= Robert H. Ferrell | |||
| |title= The Autobiography of Harry S. Truman | |||
| |publisher= University of Missouri Press | |||
| |location= Columbia, Missouri | |||
| |isbn = 0-8262-1445-2}} | |||
| * {{cite book | * {{cite book | ||
| | last = Truman | | last = Truman | ||
| | first = Margaret | | first = Margaret | ||
| | |
| author-link = Margaret Truman | ||
| | title = Harry S. Truman | | title = Harry S. Truman | ||
| | url = https://archive.org/details/harrystruman001666 | |||
| | url-access = registration | |||
| | publisher = William Morrow | | publisher = William Morrow | ||
| | location = New York | | location = New York | ||
| | year = 1973 | | year = 1973 | ||
| | isbn = 978-0-688-00005-9 | | isbn = 978-0-688-00005-9 | ||
| | ref = harv | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite book | * {{cite book | ||
| | last = Martin | first = Joseph William | |
| last = Martin | first = Joseph William | author-link = Joseph William Martin Jr. | year = 1960 | ||
| | title = My First Fifty Years in Politics as Told to Robert J. Donovan | | title = My First Fifty Years in Politics as Told to Robert J. Donovan | ||
| | publisher = McGraw-Hill | location = New York |
| publisher = McGraw-Hill | location = New York | ||
| }} | |||
| === Journals === | === Journals === | ||
| * {{cite journal | * {{cite journal | ||
| | journal = The Wisconsin Magazine of History | | journal = The Wisconsin Magazine of History | ||
| | date = |
| date =Autumn 1975 | ||
| | editor-last = Griffith | | editor-last = Griffith | ||
| | editor-first = Robert | | editor-first = Robert | ||
| | authorlink = Robert Griffith (historian) | |||
| | title = Truman and the Historians: The Reconstruction of Postwar American history | | title = Truman and the Historians: The Reconstruction of Postwar American history | ||
| | volume = 59 | | volume = 59 | ||
| Line 735: | Line 806: | ||
| | magazine = Smithsonian | | magazine = Smithsonian | ||
| | date = August 2008 | | date = August 2008 | ||
| | ref = harv | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite journal | * {{cite journal | ||
| | last1 = Hechler | | last1 = Hechler | ||
| | first1 = Ken | | first1 = Ken | ||
| | |
| author-link = Ken Hechler | ||
| | last2 = Elsey | | last2 = Elsey | ||
| | first2 = George M. | | first2 = George M. | ||
| | |
| author-link2 = George Elsey | ||
| | title = The Greatest Upset in American Political History: Harry Truman and the 1948 Election | | title = The Greatest Upset in American Political History: Harry Truman and the 1948 Election | ||
| | journal = White House Studies | | journal = White House Studies | ||
| | year = 2006 | | year = 2006 | ||
| | issue = Winter | | issue = Winter | ||
| | ref = harv | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * Heaster, Brenda L. "Who's on Second: The 1944 Democratic Vice Presidential Nomination." ''Missouri Historical Review'' 80.2 (1986): 156–175. | |||
| * {{cite journal | * {{cite journal | ||
| | last = Matray | | last = Matray | ||
| Line 756: | Line 826: | ||
| | journal = Journal of American History | | journal = Journal of American History | ||
| | date = September 1, 1979 | | date = September 1, 1979 | ||
| | volume = 66 | |||
| | issue = 2 | | issue = 2 | ||
| | doi = 10.2307/1900879 | | doi = 10.2307/1900879 | ||
| | issn = 0021-8723 | | issn = 0021-8723 | ||
| | jstor = 1900879 | | jstor = 1900879 | ||
| | |
| pages=314–333 | ||
| | pages=314 | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite journal | * {{cite journal | ||
| Line 769: | Line 838: | ||
| | title = 1947–48: When Marshall Kept the U.S. Out of War in China | | title = 1947–48: When Marshall Kept the U.S. Out of War in China | ||
| | journal = The Journal of Military History | | journal = The Journal of Military History | ||
| | volume = 66 | |||
| | year = 2002 | | year = 2002 | ||
| | issue = October 2002 | | issue = October 2002 | ||
| | pages = 1001–1010 | |||
| | jstor = 3093261 | | jstor = 3093261 | ||
| | |
| doi = 10.2307/3093261 | ||
| | s2cid = 163803120 | |||
| | url = https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/de9b/be3fa428073b76a05fbb58739bf3279c3664.pdf | |||
| | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200227023645/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/de9b/be3fa428073b76a05fbb58739bf3279c3664.pdf | |||
| | url-status = dead | |||
| | archive-date = February 27, 2020 | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite journal | * {{cite journal | ||
| | last = Neustadt | | last = Neustadt | ||
| | first = Richard E. | | first = Richard E. | ||
| | |
| author-link = Richard Neustadt | ||
| | year = 1954 | | year = 1954 | ||
| | title = Congress and the Fair Deal: A Legislative Balance Sheet | | title = Congress and the Fair Deal: A Legislative Balance Sheet | ||
| Line 783: | Line 859: | ||
| | volume = 5 | | volume = 5 | ||
| | location = Boston | | location = Boston | ||
| | ref = harv | |||
| }} reprinted in {{harvnb|Hamby|1974|pp=15–42}} | }} reprinted in {{harvnb|Hamby|1974|pp=15–42}} | ||
| * {{cite journal | * {{cite journal | ||
| Line 793: | Line 868: | ||
| | volume = 47 | | volume = 47 | ||
| | issue = 4 | | issue = 4 | ||
| | |
| pages = 963–988 | ||
| | doi = 10.1017/S0018246X04004066 | |||
| }} | |||
| | s2cid = 159849275 | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite journal | * {{cite journal | ||
| | last = Smaltz | | last = Smaltz | ||
| | first = Donald C. | | first = Donald C. | ||
| | |
| author-link = Donald Smaltz | ||
| |date=July 1998 | |date=July 1998 | ||
| | title = Independent Counsel: A View from Inside | | title = Independent Counsel: A View from Inside | ||
| Line 804: | Line 881: | ||
| | volume = 86 | | volume = 86 | ||
| | issue = 6 | | issue = 6 | ||
| | ref = harv | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite journal | * {{cite journal | ||
| Line 814: | Line 890: | ||
| | volume = 2001 | | volume = 2001 | ||
| | issue = Summer | | issue = Summer | ||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|Strout|1999}} | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite journal | * {{cite journal | ||
| | last = Wells | | last = Wells | ||
| | first = Samuel F. |
| first = Samuel F. Jr. | ||
| | title = Sounding the Tocsin: NSC 68 and the Soviet Threat | | title = Sounding the Tocsin: NSC 68 and the Soviet Threat | ||
| | journal = International Security | | journal = International Security | ||
| | date = |
| date =Autumn 1979 | ||
| | volume = 4 | | volume = 4 | ||
| | issue = 2 | | issue = 2 | ||
| | jstor = 2626746 | | jstor = 2626746 | ||
| | ref = harv | |||
| | doi = 10.2307/2626746 | | doi = 10.2307/2626746 | ||
| | pages= |
| pages=116–158 | ||
| | s2cid = 155072379 | |||
| }} | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite magazine | * {{cite magazine | ||
| | title = Truman Committee Exposes Housing Mess | | title = Truman Committee Exposes Housing Mess | ||
| | magazine = Life | | magazine = Life | ||
| | date = November 30, 1942 | | date = November 30, 1942 | ||
| | pages = 45–46, 48, 50, 52 | |||
| | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=RkEEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA45 |
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=RkEEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA45 | ||
| | |
| access-date = October 10, 2012 | ||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|''Life''|November 30, 1942}} | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| Line 843: | Line 918: | ||
| | magazine = Time | | magazine = Time | ||
| | date = November 10, 2008 | | date = November 10, 2008 | ||
| | last = Gibbs | |||
| | first = Nancy | | first = Nancy | ||
| | |
| author-link = Nancy Gibbs | ||
| | title = When New President Meets Old, It's Not Always Pretty | | title = When New President Meets Old, It's Not Always Pretty | ||
| | url = http://www.time.com/time/politics/article/0,8599,1857862,00.html | | url = http://www.time.com/time/politics/article/0,8599,1857862,00.html | ||
| | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081111030347/http://www.time.com/time/politics/article/0,8599,1857862,00.html | |||
| | accessdate = September 4, 2012 | |||
| | url-status = dead | |||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|''Time''|November 10, 2008}} | |||
| | archive-date = November 11, 2008 | |||
| | access-date = September 4, 2012 | |||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|''Time''|November 10, 2008}} | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite magazine | * {{cite magazine | ||
| | magazine = Time | | magazine = Time | ||
| | date = October 17, 1949 | | date = October 17, 1949 | ||
| | title = Armed Forces: Revolt of the Admirals | |||
| | url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,853921,00.html | | url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,853921,00.html | ||
| | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070713050806/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,853921,00.html | |||
| | accessdate = July 25, 2012 | |||
| | url-status = dead | |||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|''Time''|October 17, 1949}} | |||
| | archive-date = July 13, 2007 | |||
| | access-date = July 25, 2012 | |||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|''Time''|October 17, 1949}} | |||
| |url-access=subscription}} | |url-access=subscription}} | ||
| * {{cite magazine | * {{cite magazine | ||
| | magazine = ] | | magazine = ] | ||
| | date = June 6, 1949 | | date = June 6, 1949 | ||
| | title = The Art of the Possible | |||
| | url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,801882,00.html | | url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,801882,00.html | ||
| | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070930043253/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,801882,00.html | |||
| | accessdate = July 25, 2012 | |||
| | url-status = dead | |||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|''Time''|June 6, 1949}} | |||
| | archive-date = September 30, 2007 | |||
| | access-date = July 25, 2012 | |||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|''Time''|June 6, 1949}} | |||
| |url-access=subscription}} | |url-access=subscription}} | ||
| * {{cite magazine | * {{cite magazine | ||
| | magazine = Time | | magazine = Time | ||
| | date = December 3, 1973 | | date = December 3, 1973 | ||
| | title = Historical Notes: Giving Them More Hell | |||
| | url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,908217,00.html | | url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,908217,00.html | ||
| | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071012203926/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,908217,00.html | |||
| | accessdate = July 25, 2012 | |||
| | url-status = dead | |||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|''Time''|December 3, 1973}} | |||
| | archive-date = October 12, 2007 | |||
| | access-date = July 25, 2012 | |||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|''Time''|December 3, 1973}} | |||
| |url-access=subscription}} | |url-access=subscription}} | ||
| * {{cite magazine | * {{cite magazine | ||
| | magazine = Time | | magazine = Time | ||
| | date = August 13, 1956 | | date = August 13, 1956 | ||
| | title = The Man of Spirit | |||
| | url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,865421,00.html | | url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,865421,00.html | ||
| | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071012203914/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,865421,00.html | |||
| | accessdate = July 25, 2012 | |||
| | url-status = dead | |||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|''Time''|August 13, 1956}} | |||
| | archive-date = October 12, 2007 | |||
| | access-date = July 25, 2012 | |||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|''Time''|August 13, 1956}} | |||
| |url-access=subscription}} | |url-access=subscription}} | ||
| * {{cite magazine | * {{cite magazine | ||
| | magazine = Time | | magazine = Time | ||
| | date = October 19, 1959 | | date = October 19, 1959 | ||
| | title = National Affairs: Taft–Hartley: How It Works and How It Has Worked | |||
| | url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,869269,00.html | | url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,869269,00.html | ||
| | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071012203922/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,869269,00.html | |||
| | accessdate = July 25, 2012 | |||
| | url-status = dead | |||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|''Time''|October 19, 1959}} | |||
| | archive-date = October 12, 2007 | |||
| | access-date = July 25, 2012 | |||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|''Time''|October 19, 1959}} | |||
| |url-access=subscription}} | |url-access=subscription}} | ||
| * {{cite magazine | * {{cite magazine | ||
| | magazine = Time | |||
| | date = January 8, 1973 | |||
| | title = The Presidency: The World of Harry Truman | |||
| | url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,910501-3,00.html | |||
| | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080510123701/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,910501-3,00.html | |||
| | accessdate = July 25, 2012 | |||
| | url-status = dead | |||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|''Time''|January 8, 1973}} | |||
| | archive-date = May 10, 2008 | |||
| |url-access=subscription}} | |||
| | access-date = July 25, 2012 | |||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|''Time''|January 8, 1973}} | |||
| |url-access=subscription}} | |||
| * {{cite magazine | * {{cite magazine | ||
| |magazine |
|magazine = Time | ||
| |year |
|year = 2012 | ||
| |title |
|title = Truman on Time Magazine Covers | ||
| |url |
|url = http://search.time.com/results.html?N=46&Nty=1&Ns=p_date_range%7C1&Ntt=truman&x=0&y=0 | ||
| |archive-url = https://archive.today/20130204163319/http://search.time.com/results.html?N=46&Nty=1&Ns=p_date_range%7C1&Ntt=truman&x=0&y=0 | |||
| |accessdate = July 25, 2012 | |||
| |url-status = dead | |||
| |ref = {{sfnRef|''Time''|2012}} | |||
| |archive-date = February 4, 2013 | |||
| }}{{dead link|date=October 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} | |||
| |access-date = July 25, 2012 | |||
| |ref = {{sfnRef|''Time''|2012}} | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite magazine | * {{cite magazine | ||
| | magazine = Time | |||
| | date = March 24, 1952 | |||
| | title = The Wonderful Wastebasket | |||
| | page = 3 | |||
| | url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,816178-1,00.html | |||
| | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071012203851/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,816178-1,00.html | |||
| | accessdate = July 25, 2012 | |||
| | url-status = dead | |||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|''Time''|March 24, 1952}} | |||
| | archive-date = October 12, 2007 | |||
| |url-access=subscription}} | |||
| | access-date = July 25, 2012 | |||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|''Time''|March 24, 1952}} | |||
| |url-access=subscription}} | |||
| ==== ''The Washington Post'' ==== | ==== ''The Washington Post'' ==== | ||
| * {{cite news | * {{cite news | ||
| | last = Barnes | |||
| | first = Bart | |||
| | title = Margaret Truman Daniel Dies at Age 83 | |||
| | url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/01/29/AR2008012901321_2.html | |||
| | newspaper = The Washington Post | |||
| | date = January 29, 2008 | |||
| | access-date = April 2, 2010 | |||
| }} | |||
| | ref = harv}} | |||
| * {{cite news | * {{cite news | ||
| | last = Barr | |||
| | first = Cameron W. | |||
| | title = Listing Madonna Rescued in Bethesda | |||
| | url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A56501-2004Dec10.html | |||
| | newspaper = The Washington Post | |||
| | date = December 11, 2004 | |||
| | access-date = April 4, 2010 | |||
| }} | |||
| | ref = harv}} | |||
| * {{cite news | * {{cite news | ||
| | last1 = Smith | |||
| | first1 = J. Y. | |||
| | title = Paul Hume: Music Critic Who Panned Truman Daughter's Singing and Drew Presidential Wrath | |||
| | url = https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1129&dat=20011128&id=vDAxAAAAIBAJ&pg=5454,6640005 | |||
| | newspaper = The Washington Post | |||
| | date = November 28, 2001 | |||
| | agency = ''Pittsburgh Post-Gazette'' | |||
| | access-date = July 22, 2012 | |||
| }} | |||
| | accessdate = July 22, 2012 | |||
| | ref = harv}} | |||
| ==== ''The New York Times'' ==== | ==== ''The New York Times'' ==== | ||
| * {{cite news | * {{cite news | ||
| | last = Nevins | |||
| | first = Allan | |||
| | author-link = Allan Nevins | |||
| | date = November 6, 1955 | |||
| | newspaper = ] | |||
| | title = ''Year of Decisions'' a 'volume of distinction' | |||
| }} | |||
| | ref = harv}} | |||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| | last = Weintraub | |||
| | first = Stanley | |||
| | author-link = Stanley Weintraub | |||
| | year = 2000 | |||
| | title = MacArthur's War Korea and the Undoing of an American Hero | |||
| | work = ] | |||
| | url = https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/w/weintraub-macarthur.html | |||
| | access-date = September 3, 2012 | |||
| }} | |||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|Weintraub|2000}} | |||
| }} | |||
| === Harry S. Truman Library |
=== Harry S. Truman Library and Museum === | ||
| * McCray, Suzanne, and Tara Yglesias, eds. ''Wild about Harry: Everything You Have Ever Wanted to Know about the Truman Scholarship'' (University of Arkansas Press, 2021), how to work at this Library. | |||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| | last1 = Giangreco | |||
| | first1 = D. M. | |||
| | first2 = Robert E | |||
| | last2 = Griffin | |||
| | publisher = Harry S. Truman Library & Museum | |||
| | title = The Airlift Begins: Airbridge to Berlin – The Berlin Crisis of 1948, its Origins and Aftermath | |||
| | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/BERLIN_A/PAGE_11.HTM | |||
| | year = 1988 | |||
| | access-date = July 28, 2012 | |||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|Truman Library|1988a}} | |||
| | archive-date = May 6, 2016 | |||
| }} | |||
| | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160506092238/http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/BERLIN_A/PAGE_11.HTM | |||
| | url-status = dead | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| | last = Marks | | last = Marks | ||
| Line 988: | Line 1,092: | ||
| | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/markst.htm | | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/markst.htm | ||
| | year = 1962 | | year = 1962 | ||
| | |
| access-date = July 27, 2012 | ||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|Truman Library|1962}} | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| | last = Southern | | last = Southern | ||
| | first = Mrs. William | | first = Mrs. William | ||
| | work = The Examiner | |||
| | publisher = Harry S. Truman Library & Museum | | publisher = Harry S. Truman Library & Museum | ||
| | title = Wedding of Bess Wallace and Capt. Harry S. Truman | | title = Wedding of Bess Wallace and Capt. Harry S. Truman | ||
| | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/weddingarticle.htm | | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/weddingarticle.htm | ||
| | date = June 28, 1919 | | date = June 28, 1919 | ||
| | access-date = July 29, 2012 | |||
| | work = The Examiner | |||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|Truman Library|1919}} | |||
| | accessdate = July 29, 2012 | |||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|Truman Library|1919}} | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| Line 1,009: | Line 1,113: | ||
| | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/strout.htm | | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/strout.htm | ||
| | date = February 5, 1971 | | date = February 5, 1971 | ||
| | access-date = July 27, 2012 | |||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|Truman Library|1971}} | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| | last = Truman | |||
| | first = Harry | |||
| | publisher = Harry S. Truman Library & Museum | |||
| | title = Memo recognizing the state of Israel | |||
| | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/israel/large/documents/index.php?documentdate=1948-05-14&documentid=48&studycollectionid=ROI&pagenumber=1 | |||
| | date = May 14, 1948 | |||
| | access-date = July 28, 2012 | |||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|Truman Library|1948}} | |||
| | archive-date = May 9, 2020 | |||
| }} | |||
| | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200509033036/http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/israel/large/documents/index.php?documentdate=1948-05-14&documentid=48&studycollectionid=ROI&pagenumber=1 | |||
| | url-status = dead | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| | last = Truman | |||
| | first = Harry | |||
| | publisher = Harry S. Truman Library & Museum | |||
| | title = WWI Letter from Harry to Bess | |||
| | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/personal/large/ww1_letters/pg13_txt.htm | |||
| | date = November 11, 1918 | |||
| | access-date = July 24, 2012 | |||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|Truman Library|1918}} | |||
| | archive-date = October 12, 2017 | |||
| }} | |||
| | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171012104930/https://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/personal/large/ww1_letters/pg13_txt.htm | |||
| | url-status = dead | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| | last = Vest | |||
| | first = Kathleen | |||
| | publisher = Harry S. Truman Library & Museum | |||
| | title = Truman's First Democratic Convention | |||
| | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/speriod.htm | |||
| | access-date = November 18, 2012 | |||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|Truman Library|2012aa}} | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| | work = The Truman Balcony | |||
| | publisher = Harry S. Truman Library & Museum | | publisher = Harry S. Truman Library & Museum | ||
| | title = Background Information | | title = Background Information | ||
| | work = The Truman Balcony | |||
| | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/qq/ds2_1.htm | | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/qq/ds2_1.htm | ||
| | |
| access-date = October 16, 2012 | ||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|Truman Library, Balcony|2012}} | |||
| | archive-date = October 12, 2017 | |||
| }} | |||
| | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171012105222/https://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/qq/ds2_1.htm | |||
| | url-status = dead | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| | work = The Truman Balcony | |||
| | publisher = Harry S. Truman Library & Museum | | publisher = Harry S. Truman Library & Museum | ||
| | title = Background Information (Continued) | | title = Background Information (Continued) | ||
| | work = The Truman Balcony | |||
| | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/qq/ds2_1a.htm | | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/qq/ds2_1a.htm | ||
| | |
| access-date = October 16, 2012 | ||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|Truman Library, Balcony II|2012}} | |||
| | archive-date = November 5, 2018 | |||
| }} | |||
| | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181105211300/https://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/qq/ds2_1a.htm | |||
| | url-status = dead | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| | publisher = Harry S. Truman Library & Museum | | publisher = Harry S. Truman Library & Museum | ||
| | title = Biographical sketch of Mrs. Harry S. Truman | | title = Biographical sketch of Mrs. Harry S. Truman | ||
| | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/bwt-bio.htm | | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/bwt-bio.htm | ||
| | |
| access-date = July 29, 2012 | ||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|Truman Library|2012i}} | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| Line 1,069: | Line 1,185: | ||
| | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/kids/birthpla.htm | | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/kids/birthpla.htm | ||
| | year = 1988 | | year = 1988 | ||
| | |
| access-date = July 25, 2012 | ||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|Truman Library, Birth|2012}} | |||
| | archive-date = May 3, 2019 | |||
| | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190503015629/https://www.trumanlibrary.org/kids/birthpla.htm | |||
| | url-status = dead | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite web | |||
| | publisher = Harry S. Truman Library & Museum | |||
| | title = 'The Buck Stops Here' Desk sign | |||
| | url = https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/education/trivia/buck-stops-here-sign | |||
| | access-date = September 13, 2020 | |||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|Truman Library, Buck|1957}} | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| Line 1,076: | Line 1,202: | ||
| | title = Chronological Record of the 129th Field Artillery 1917–1919 | | title = Chronological Record of the 129th Field Artillery 1917–1919 | ||
| | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/ww1/129chronology.shtml | | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/ww1/129chronology.shtml | ||
| | |
| access-date = July 27, 2012 | ||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|Truman Library, 129th|2012}} | |||
| | archive-date = May 3, 2019 | |||
| }} | |||
| | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190503033652/https://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/ww1/129chronology.shtml | |||
| | url-status = dead | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| | publisher = Harry S. Truman Library & Museum | | publisher = Harry S. Truman Library & Museum | ||
| | title = Desegregation of the Armed Forces | | title = Desegregation of the Armed Forces | ||
| | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/deseg.htm | | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/deseg.htm | ||
| | |
| access-date = July 28, 2012 | ||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|Truman Library|1998}} | |||
| | archive-date = April 5, 2019 | |||
| }} | |||
| | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190405144945/https://www.trumanlibrary.org/deseg.htm | |||
| | url-status = dead | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| | publisher = Harry S. Truman Library & Museum | | publisher = Harry S. Truman Library & Museum | ||
| | title = Drugstore Clerk at 14 His First Job | | title = Drugstore Clerk at 14 His First Job | ||
| | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/trumanfile/drugstorearticle1.htm | | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/trumanfile/drugstorearticle1.htm | ||
| | |
| access-date = July 25, 2012 | ||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|Truman Library, Job|2012}} | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| Line 1,097: | Line 1,229: | ||
| | title = Eleanor and Harry: The Correspondence of Eleanor Roosevelt and Harry S. Truman | | title = Eleanor and Harry: The Correspondence of Eleanor Roosevelt and Harry S. Truman | ||
| | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/eleanor/ | | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/eleanor/ | ||
| | |
| access-date = July 28, 2012 | ||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|Truman Library|2012h}} | |||
| | archive-date = October 8, 2018 | |||
| }} | |||
| | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181008125115/https://www.trumanlibrary.org/eleanor/ | |||
| | url-status = dead | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| | publisher = Harry S. Truman Library & Museum | | publisher = Harry S. Truman Library & Museum | ||
| Line 1,105: | Line 1,240: | ||
| | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/trivia/letter.htm | | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/trivia/letter.htm | ||
| | date = December 6, 1950 | | date = December 6, 1950 | ||
| | access-date = July 29, 2012 | |||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|Truman Library, FAQ|1950}} | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| Line 1,112: | Line 1,247: | ||
| | title = Harry S. Truman Post-Presidential Papers | | title = Harry S. Truman Post-Presidential Papers | ||
| | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/hstpaper/postpres.htm | | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/hstpaper/postpres.htm | ||
| | |
| access-date = July 28, 2012 | ||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|Truman Library, SAR|2012}}}} | |||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| | publisher = Harry S. Truman Library & Museum | |||
| | title = Harry Truman joins Battery B of the Missouri National Guard | |||
| | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/anniversaries/nationalguard.htm | |||
| | access-date = July 27, 2012 | |||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|Truman Library, Eye|2012}} | |||
| | archive-date = November 5, 2018 | |||
| | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181105211753/https://www.trumanlibrary.org/anniversaries/nationalguard.htm | |||
| | url-status = dead | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| |publisher=Harry S. Truman Library & Museum | |publisher=Harry S. Truman Library & Museum | ||
| Line 1,125: | Line 1,264: | ||
| |url=http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/korea/large/week2/kw_78_1.jpg | |url=http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/korea/large/week2/kw_78_1.jpg | ||
| |date=July 6, 1950 | |date=July 6, 1950 | ||
| |access-date=July 28, 2012 | |||
| |ref={{sfnRef|Truman Library, Memo|1950}} | |||
| |url-status=dead | |||
| |deadurl=yes | |||
| | |
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070809213846/http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/korea/large/week2/kw_78_1.jpg | ||
| | |
|archive-date=August 9, 2007 | ||
| |df= | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| Line 1,136: | Line 1,274: | ||
| | title = Military Personnel File of Harry S. Truman | | title = Military Personnel File of Harry S. Truman | ||
| | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/hstpaper/rg407.htm | | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/hstpaper/rg407.htm | ||
| | |
| access-date = July 27, 2012 | ||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|Truman Library, Mil|2012}}}} | |||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| | publisher = Harry S. Truman Library & Museum | | publisher = Harry S. Truman Library & Museum | ||
| Line 1,143: | Line 1,281: | ||
| | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/anniversaries/medicarebill.htm | | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/anniversaries/medicarebill.htm | ||
| | date = July 30, 1965 | | date = July 30, 1965 | ||
| | access-date = July 29, 2012 | |||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|Truman Library|1965}} | |||
| | archive-date = May 27, 2019 | |||
| | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190527201512/https://www.trumanlibrary.org/anniversaries/medicarebill.htm | |||
| | url-status = dead | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| | publisher = Harry S. Truman Library & Museum | |||
| | work = This Day in Truman History | | work = This Day in Truman History | ||
| | title = President Truman Addresses Congress on Proposed Health Program, Washington, D.C | | publisher = Harry S. Truman Library & Museum | ||
| | title = President Truman Addresses Congress on Proposed Health Program, Washington, D.C. | |||
| | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/anniversaries/healthprogram.htm | | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/anniversaries/healthprogram.htm | ||
| | date = November 19, 1945 | | date = November 19, 1945 | ||
| | access-date = July 27, 2012 | |||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|Truman Library|1945}} | |||
| | archive-date = June 14, 2019 | |||
| | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190614191909/https://www.trumanlibrary.org/anniversaries/healthprogram.htm | |||
| | url-status = dead | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| | last = McDonald | | last = McDonald | ||
| Line 1,160: | Line 1,306: | ||
| | title = 10 of Truman's Happiest Years Spent in Senate | | title = 10 of Truman's Happiest Years Spent in Senate | ||
| | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/trumanfile/senate1.htm | | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/trumanfile/senate1.htm | ||
| | |
| access-date = May 10, 2014 | ||
| }} Originally published in the ''Independence Examiner'', Truman Centennial Edition. | |||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| | publisher = Harry S. Truman Library & Museum | | publisher = Harry S. Truman Library & Museum | ||
| | title = Special Message to the Congress on Civil Rights | | title = Special Message to the Congress on Civil Rights | ||
| | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/index.php?pid=1380&st=&st1= | | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/index.php?pid=1380&st=&st1= | ||
| | |
| access-date = December 2, 2012 | ||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|Truman Library, Special Message|1948}} | |||
| | archive-date = May 9, 2020 | |||
| | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200509032545/http://www.trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/index.php?pid=1380&st=&st1= | |||
| | url-status = dead | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| | publisher = Harry S. Truman Library & Museum | | publisher = Harry S. Truman Library & Museum | ||
| | title = Use of the Period After the "S" in Harry S. Truman's Name | | title = Use of the Period After the "S" in Harry S. Truman's Name | ||
| | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/speriod.htm | | url = http://www.trumanlibrary.org/speriod.htm | ||
| | |
| access-date = July 24, 2012 | ||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|Truman Library|2012}}}} | |||
| === Online sources === | === Online sources === | ||
| * |
* {{cite web |url=http://www.geschichte-menschenrechte.de/schluesseltexte/william-h-fitzpatricks-editorials-on-human-rights-1949/ |title=William H. Fitzpatrick's Editorials on Human Rights |year=1949 |first=Christopher N.J.|last=Roberts |publisher=Quellen zur Geschichte der Menschenrechte |access-date=November 4, 2017 }}, published by Arbeitskreis Menschenrechte im 20. Jahrhundert | ||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| | publisher = Army National Guard, United States Army | | publisher = Army National Guard, United States Army | ||
| | title = Special Designation Liting | | title = Special Designation Liting | ||
| | url = http://www.history.army.mil/html/forcestruc/spdes-abc-arng.html | | url = http://www.history.army.mil/html/forcestruc/spdes-abc-arng.html | ||
| | |
| access-date = September 8, 2012 | ||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|Army National Guard|2012}} | |||
| | archive-date = December 12, 2018 | |||
| | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181212001756/https://history.army.mil/html/forcestruc/spdes-abc-arng.html | |||
| | url-status = dead | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| | publisher = Atomic Archive | | publisher = Atomic Archive | ||
| | title="Mike" Device is Tested | | title = "Mike" Device is Tested | ||
| | url = http://www.atomicarchive.com/History/hbomb/page_13.shtml | | url = http://www.atomicarchive.com/History/hbomb/page_13.shtml | ||
| | |
| access-date = September 7, 2012 | ||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|Atomic Archive|1953}} | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| |last |
|last = Bennett | ||
| |first |
|first = Stephen Earl | ||
| |publisher |
|publisher = Public Opinion Pros | ||
| |title |
|title = Restoration of Confidence: Polling's Comeback from 1948 | ||
| |url |
|url = http://www.publicopinionpros.norc.org/from_field/2007/jan/bennett_printable.asp | ||
| |date |
|date = May 2012 | ||
| | |
|access-date = November 1, 2012 | ||
| |url-status = dead | |||
| |ref = {{sfnRef|Bennett|2012}} | |||
| |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120305145538/http://www.publicopinionpros.norc.org/from_field/2007/jan/bennett_printable.asp | |||
| |deadurl = yes | |||
| |archive-date = March 5, 2012 | |||
| |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20120305145538/http://www.publicopinionpros.norc.org/from_field/2007/jan/bennett_printable.asp | |||
| |archivedate = March 5, 2012 | |||
| |df = mdy-all | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| | last = Berdichevsky | | last = Berdichevsky | ||
| | first = Norman | | first = Norman | ||
| |work=New English Review | | work = New English Review | ||
| | title = Israel: From Darling of the Left to Pariah State | | title = Israel: From Darling of the Left to Pariah State | ||
| | url = http://www.newenglishreview.org/custpage.cfm/frm/113207/sec_id/113207 | | url = http://www.newenglishreview.org/custpage.cfm/frm/113207/sec_id/113207 | ||
| | date = May 2012 | | date = May 2012 | ||
| | |
| access-date = September 3, 2012 | ||
| | archive-date = October 12, 2017 | |||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|Berdichevsky|2012}} | |||
| | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171012102749/http://www.newenglishreview.org/custpage.cfm/frm/113207/sec_id/113207 | |||
| | url-status = dead | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| Line 1,225: | Line 1,378: | ||
| | work = Dear Habermas | | work = Dear Habermas | ||
| | publisher = California State University—Dominguez Hills | | publisher = California State University—Dominguez Hills | ||
| | |
| access-date = September 6, 2012 | ||
| | archive-date = September 5, 2012 | |||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|Curran|Takata|2002}} | |||
| | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120905003054/http://www.csudh.edu/dearhabermas/sampling01.htm | |||
| | url-status = dead | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| Line 1,232: | Line 1,387: | ||
| | title = U.S. Constitution: Twenty-second Amendment | | title = U.S. Constitution: Twenty-second Amendment | ||
| | publisher = Find Law | | publisher = Find Law | ||
| | |
| access-date = September 7, 2012 | ||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|Find Law|2012}} | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| | last = Giangreco | first = D. M | | last = Giangreco | first = D. M. | date = April 7, 2002 | ||
| | publisher = U.S. Army Command and General Staff College | |||
| | work = Doughboy Center: The Story of the American Expeditionary Forces | |||
| | title = Capt. Harry Truman & Battery D, 129th Field Artillery In Action in the Argonne | |||
| | url = http://www.worldwar1.com/dbc/truman2.htm | |||
| | accessdate = July 29, 2012 | |||
| | ref = {{sfnref|Giangreco|2012}}}} | |||
| * {{cite web | |||
| | last = Giangreco | first = D. M. | author-mask = {{long dash}} | date = April 7, 2002 | |||
| | publisher = U.S. Army Command and General Staff College | |||
| | title = Soldier from Independence: Harry S. Truman and the Great War | | title = Soldier from Independence: Harry S. Truman and the Great War | ||
| | url = http://www.worldwar1.com/dbc/truman.htm | | url = http://www.worldwar1.com/dbc/truman.htm | ||
| | |
| access-date = July 29, 2012 | ||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| | last = Gilwee | first = William J. | year = 2000 | | last = Gilwee | first = William J. | year = 2000 | ||
| | title = Capt. Harry Truman, Artilleryman and Future President | | title = Capt. Harry Truman, Artilleryman and Future President | ||
| | publisher = Worldwar1.com | |||
| | work = Doughboy Center: The Story of the American Expeditionary Forces | | work = Doughboy Center: The Story of the American Expeditionary Forces | ||
| | publisher = Worldwar1.com | |||
| | url = http://www.worldwar1.com/dbc/truman.htm | | url = http://www.worldwar1.com/dbc/truman.htm | ||
| | |
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080614200949/http://www.worldwar1.com/dbc/truman.htm | archive-date = June 14, 2008 | ||
| | access-date = July 29, 2012 | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| |last=Goldstein | |last=Goldstein | ||
| |first=Steve | |first=Steve | ||
| |date=January 31, 2008 | |date=January 31, 2008 | ||
| |title=First Daughter | |||
| |publisher=Obit mag | |publisher=Obit mag | ||
| |url=http://www.obit-mag.com/articles/first-daughter | |url=http://www.obit-mag.com/articles/first-daughter | ||
| | |
|access-date=July 29, 2012 | ||
| |url-status=dead | |||
| |ref=harv | |||
| |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120510104553/http://obit-mag.com/articles/first-daughter | |||
| |deadurl=yes | |||
| |archive-date=May 10, 2012 | |||
| |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120510104553/http://obit-mag.com/articles/first-daughter | |||
| |archivedate=May 10, 2012 | |||
| |df= | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| Line 1,277: | Line 1,424: | ||
| | work = History News Network | | work = History News Network | ||
| | publisher = George Mason University | | publisher = George Mason University | ||
| | |
| access-date = September 8, 2012 | ||
| | ref = {{sfnref|Hamby|2002}} | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| | last = Higgs | first = Robert | |
| last = Higgs | first = Robert | author-link = Robert Higgs | date = March 1, 2004 | ||
| | title = Truman's Attempt to Seize the Steel Industry | |||
| | url = http://www.independent.org/publications/article.asp?id=1394 | | url = http://www.independent.org/publications/article.asp?id=1394 | ||
| | work = The Freeman | | work = The Freeman | ||
| | publisher = The Independent Institute | | publisher = The Independent Institute | ||
| | |
| access-date = September 7, 2012 | ||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| | last = Jones | first = Tim | | last = Jones | first = Tim | ||
| | |
| date = October 31, 2020 | ||
| | title = Dewey defeats Truman | |||
| | work = Chicago Tribune | | work = Chicago Tribune | ||
| | url = http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/politics/chi-chicagodays-deweydefeats-story,0,6484067.story | | url = http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/politics/chi-chicagodays-deweydefeats-story,0,6484067.story | ||
| | |
| access-date = September 7, 2012 | ||
| | page = 1 | |||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|Jones|1948}} | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| Line 1,299: | Line 1,448: | ||
| | first = Henry I. | | first = Henry I. | ||
| | date = August 1, 2012 | | date = August 1, 2012 | ||
| | url = https://www.forbes.com/sites/henrymiller/2012/08/01/the-nuking-of-japan-was-a-tactical-and-moral-imperative/ | |||
| | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120804183548/http://www.forbes.com/sites/henrymiller/2012/08/01/the-nuking-of-japan-was-a-tactical-and-moral-imperative/ | |||
| | title = The Nuking of Japan was a Tactical and Moral Imperative | |||
| | url-status = dead | |||
| | archive-date = August 4, 2012 | |||
| | title = The Nuking of Japan was a Tactical and Moral Imperative | |||
| | work = ] | | work = ] | ||
| | |
| access-date = May 10, 2017 | ||
| }} | |||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|Miller|2012}} | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| | last = Moynihan | | last = Moynihan | ||
| | first = Daniel Patrick | | first = Daniel Patrick | ||
| | |
| author-link = Daniel Patrick Moynihan | ||
| | year = 1997 | | year = 1997 | ||
| | title = Chairman's Forward | | title = Chairman's Forward | ||
| Line 1,314: | Line 1,465: | ||
| | publisher = Government Printing Office | | publisher = Government Printing Office | ||
| | url = http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/GPO-CDOC-105sdoc2/pdf/GPO-CDOC-105sdoc2-4.pdf | | url = http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/GPO-CDOC-105sdoc2/pdf/GPO-CDOC-105sdoc2-4.pdf | ||
| | access-date = September 3, 2012 | |||
| | format = PDF | |||
| | accessdate = September 3, 2012 | |||
| | ref = harv | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| Line 1,323: | Line 1,472: | ||
| | title = Reading 2: Goodwill Ambassador to the World | | title = Reading 2: Goodwill Ambassador to the World | ||
| | url = http://www.nps.gov/history/NR/twhp/wwwlps/lessons/26roosevelt/26facts2.htm | | url = http://www.nps.gov/history/NR/twhp/wwwlps/lessons/26roosevelt/26facts2.htm | ||
| | |
| access-date = September 1, 2012 | ||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|Roosevelt|1961}} | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite |
* {{cite news | ||
| | last = Reynolds | | last = Reynolds | ||
| | first = Paul | | first = Paul | ||
| | |
| author-link = Paul Reynolds (BBC journalist) | ||
| | date = August 3, 2005 | | date = August 3, 2005 | ||
| | title = Hiroshima arguments rage 60 years on | |||
| | |
| work = BBC News | ||
| | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4724793.stm | | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4724793.stm | ||
| | |
| access-date = July 30, 2012 | ||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|Reynolds|2005}} | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite magazine | * {{cite magazine | ||
| | last = Roberts | | last = Roberts | ||
| | first = Geoffrey | | first = Geoffrey | ||
| | |
| author-link = Geoffrey Roberts | ||
| | date = December 2000 | | date = December 2000 | ||
| | title = Historians and the Cold War | | title = Historians and the Cold War | ||
| | magazine = ] | | magazine = ] | ||
| | url = http://www.historytoday.com/MainArticle.aspx?m=14080&amid=14080 | | url = http://www.historytoday.com/MainArticle.aspx?m=14080&amid=14080 | ||
| | |
| access-date = April 4, 2010 | ||
| | ref = harv | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| Line 1,352: | Line 1,499: | ||
| | first = Donald C. | | first = Donald C. | ||
| | date = January 29, 1996 | | date = January 29, 1996 | ||
| | publisher = University of North Texas Libraries | |||
| | title = Speech Delivered by Donald C. Smaltz | | title = Speech Delivered by Donald C. Smaltz | ||
| | url = http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/oic/SMALTZ/speeches/gonzag.htm | | url = http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/oic/SMALTZ/speeches/gonzag.htm | ||
| | |
| access-date = September 3, 2012 | ||
| | ref = harv | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| Line 1,362: | Line 1,508: | ||
| | first = Stephanie <!-- Stephanie Smith, but not singer or actress --> | | first = Stephanie <!-- Stephanie Smith, but not singer or actress --> | ||
| | date = March 18, 2008 | | date = March 18, 2008 | ||
| | title = Former Presidents: Federal Pension and Retirement Benefits | |||
| | publisher = U.S. Senate Congressional Research Service | | publisher = U.S. Senate Congressional Research Service | ||
| | url = |
| url = http://www.whitehousetransitionproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Pension-Retirement-Benefits_031808-1.pdf | ||
| | access-date = September 5, 2022 | |||
| | format = PDF | |||
| }} | |||
| | accessdate = September 3, 2012 | |||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|Smith|2008}} | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| | publisher = U.S. History | | publisher = U.S. History | ||
| Line 1,374: | Line 1,518: | ||
| | title = America in the Second World War: The Manhattan Project | | title = America in the Second World War: The Manhattan Project | ||
| | url = http://www.ushistory.org/us/51f.asp | | url = http://www.ushistory.org/us/51f.asp | ||
| | |
| access-date = July 30, 2012 | ||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|U.S. History|2012}} | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| |publisher=Washington National Cathedral | |publisher=Washington National Cathedral | ||
| Line 1,382: | Line 1,526: | ||
| |title=Presidential Funerals: Services Following Deaths of American Presidents | |title=Presidential Funerals: Services Following Deaths of American Presidents | ||
| |url=http://www.nationalcathedral.org/about/presidentialFunerals.shtml | |url=http://www.nationalcathedral.org/about/presidentialFunerals.shtml | ||
| | |
|access-date=September 3, 2012 | ||
| |ref={{sfnRef|Washington National Cathedral|2012}} | |||
| |url-status=dead | |||
| |deadurl=yes | |||
| | |
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120813184250/http://www.nationalcathedral.org/about/presidentialFunerals.shtml | ||
| | |
|archive-date=August 13, 2012 | ||
| |df= | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| Line 1,395: | Line 1,538: | ||
| | publisher = Missouri Secretary of State | | publisher = Missouri Secretary of State | ||
| | url = http://www.sos.mo.gov/archives/pubs/article/article.asp | | url = http://www.sos.mo.gov/archives/pubs/article/article.asp | ||
| | |
| access-date = July 30, 2012 | ||
| | ref = {{sfnref|Winn|2000}} | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite news | * {{cite news | ||
| Line 1,405: | Line 1,547: | ||
| | page = 1 | | page = 1 | ||
| | url = http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60D17FF3E551A7493C4A9178AD85F478785F9 | | url = http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60D17FF3E551A7493C4A9178AD85F478785F9 | ||
| | |
| access-date = November 1, 2012 | ||
| | date = January 6, 1973 | |||
| | ref = harv | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| |publisher |
|publisher = Miller Center, University of Virginia | ||
| |title |
|title = American President: A Reference Resource | ||
| |url |
|url = http://millercenter.org/president/truman/essays/biography/print | ||
| | |
|access-date = September 9, 2012 | ||
| |ref = {{sfnRef|Miller Center|2012}} | |||
| | |
|url-status = dead | ||
| | |
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121030084737/http://millercenter.org/president/truman/essays/biography/print | ||
| | |
|archive-date = October 30, 2012 | ||
| |df = mdy-all | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| Line 1,425: | Line 1,565: | ||
| |location=Washington, D.C. | |location=Washington, D.C. | ||
| |url=http://www.fjc.gov/public/home.nsf/hisj | |url=http://www.fjc.gov/public/home.nsf/hisj | ||
| | |
|access-date=March 4, 2012 | ||
| |ref={{sfnRef|Federal Judicial Center}} | |||
| |url-status=dead | |||
| |deadurl=yes | |||
| | |
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160730115701/http://www.fjc.gov/public/home.nsf/hisj | ||
| | |
|archive-date=July 30, 2016 | ||
| |df= | |||
| }} searches run from page, "select research categories" then check "court type" and "nominating president", then select U.S. District Courts (or U.S. Circuit Courts) and also Harry Truman. | }} searches run from page, "select research categories" then check "court type" and "nominating president", then select U.S. District Courts (or U.S. Circuit Courts) and also Harry Truman. | ||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| | url = http://www.c-span.org/PresidentialSurvey/Overall-Ranking.aspx | | url = http://www.c-span.org/PresidentialSurvey/Overall-Ranking.aspx | ||
| | title = C-SPAN Survey of Presidential Leadership | | title = C-SPAN Survey of Presidential Leadership | ||
| | |
| access-date = April 5, 2010 | ||
| | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090217053502/http://www.c-span.org/PresidentialSurvey/Overall-Ranking.aspx | |||
| | |
| archive-date = February 17, 2009 | ||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|C-SPAN|2009}} | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| | url = https://scri.siena.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/PDF-Ranking-FINAL-REAL.pdf | |||
| |publisher = U.S. Army Center of Military History | |||
| | title = Siena College Research Institute 2022 Survey of U.S. Presidents | |||
| |year = 2012 | |||
| | access-date = | |||
| |title = Chapter 12: The President Intervenes | |||
| | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230707003510/https://scri.siena.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/PDF-Ranking-FINAL-REAL.pdf | |||
| |url = http://www.history.army.mil/books/integration/IAF-12.htm | |||
| | archive-date = July 7, 2023 | |||
| |accessdate = September 3, 2012 | |||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|Siena|2022}} | |||
| |date=2022}} | |||
| |deadurl = yes | |||
| * {{cite web | |||
| |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20120824185554/http://www.history.army.mil/books/integration/IAF-12.htm | |||
| |publisher = U.S. Army Center of Military History | |||
| |archivedate = August 24, 2012 | |||
| | |
|year = 2012 | ||
| |title = Chapter 12: The President Intervenes | |||
| |url = http://www.history.army.mil/books/integration/IAF-12.htm | |||
| |access-date = September 3, 2012 | |||
| |ref = {{sfnRef|Center of Military History|2012}} | |||
| |url-status = dead | |||
| |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120824185554/http://www.history.army.mil/books/integration/IAF-12.htm | |||
| |archive-date = August 24, 2012 | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| Line 1,456: | Line 1,602: | ||
| | url = https://www.archives.gov/federal-register/executive-orders/1948.html | | url = https://www.archives.gov/federal-register/executive-orders/1948.html | ||
| | title = Executive Order 9981, Establishing the President's Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Services, Harry S. Truman | | title = Executive Order 9981, Establishing the President's Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Services, Harry S. Truman | ||
| | publisher = National Archives | |||
| | work = Federal Register | | work = Federal Register | ||
| | |
| publisher = National Archives | ||
| | access-date = September 6, 2012 | |||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|''Federal Register''|1948}} | |||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|''Federal Register''|1948}} | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| Line 1,465: | Line 1,611: | ||
| | title = Hall of Famous Missourians | | title = Hall of Famous Missourians | ||
| | publisher = Missouri House of Representatives | | publisher = Missouri House of Representatives | ||
| | |
| access-date = September 7, 2012 | ||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|''Hall of Famous Missourians''|2012}} | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| Line 1,473: | Line 1,619: | ||
| | title = Harry S. Truman: 2nd Confederate President | | title = Harry S. Truman: 2nd Confederate President | ||
| | url = http://www.rulen.com/partisan/truman.htm | | url = http://www.rulen.com/partisan/truman.htm | ||
| | |
| access-date = July 29, 2012 | ||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|Missouri Partisan Ranger|1995}} | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| | url = https://www.archives.gov/federal-register/executive-orders/1948.html | | url = https://www.archives.gov/federal-register/executive-orders/1948.html | ||
| | title = Harry S Truman – 1948 | | title = Harry S. Truman – 1948 | ||
| | publisher = United States Federal Archives | | publisher = United States Federal Archives | ||
| | |
| access-date = September 7, 2012 | ||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|National Archives|1948}} | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| |publisher=The Grand Lodge of Free and Accepted Masons of Pennsylvania | |publisher=The Grand Lodge of Free and Accepted Masons of Pennsylvania | ||
| |year=2011 | |year=2011 | ||
| |title=Harry S Truman (1884–1972) Thirty-third President (1945–1952) | |title=Harry S. Truman (1884–1972) Thirty-third President (1945–1952) | ||
| |url=http://www.pagrandlodge.org/mlam/presidents/truman.html | |url=http://www.pagrandlodge.org/mlam/presidents/truman.html | ||
| | |
|access-date=July 29, 2012 | ||
| |ref={{sfnRef|Grand Lodge-Pennsylvania|2011}} | |||
| |url-status=dead | |||
| |deadurl=yes | |||
| | |
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120717073748/http://www.pagrandlodge.org/mlam/presidents/truman.html | ||
| | |
|archive-date=July 17, 2012 | ||
| |df= | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| Line 1,500: | Line 1,645: | ||
| | title = Harry S. Truman, 34th Vice President (1945) | | title = Harry S. Truman, 34th Vice President (1945) | ||
| | url = https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/generic/VP_Harry_Truman.htm | | url = https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/generic/VP_Harry_Truman.htm | ||
| | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190503151956/https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/generic/VP_Harry_Truman.htm | |||
| | accessdate = July 30, 2012 | |||
| | archive-date=May 3, 2019 | |||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|United States Senate|2012}} | |||
| | access-date = July 30, 2012 | |||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|United States Senate|2012}} | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| |publisher |
|publisher = Missouri State Parks and Historic Sites | ||
| |year |
|year = 2012 | ||
| |title |
|title = Harry S. Truman Birthplace State Historic Site | ||
| |url |
|url = http://www.mostateparks.com/trumansite.htm | ||
| | |
|access-date = July 30, 2012 | ||
| |ref = {{sfnRef|Truman Birthplace|2012}} | |||
| | |
|url-status = dead | ||
| | |
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101125063144/http://mostateparks.com/trumansite.htm | ||
| | |
|archive-date = November 25, 2010 | ||
| |df = mdy-all | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| Line 1,520: | Line 1,666: | ||
| | title = Inauguration of the President: Fact & Firsts | | title = Inauguration of the President: Fact & Firsts | ||
| | url = http://inaugural.senate.gov/history/factsandfirsts/index.cfm | | url = http://inaugural.senate.gov/history/factsandfirsts/index.cfm | ||
| | |
| access-date = September 3, 2012 | ||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|United States Senate|2005}} | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| | work = The American Experience | |||
| | publisher = PBS | | publisher = PBS | ||
| | year = 2012 | | year = 2012 | ||
| | work = The American Experience | |||
| | title = Interview Transcripts: The Potsdam Conference | | title = Interview Transcripts: The Potsdam Conference | ||
| | url = https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/truman/filmmore/it_3.html | | url = https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/truman/filmmore/it_3.html | ||
| | |
| access-date = July 31, 2012 | ||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|PBS|2012}} | |||
| | archive-date = April 19, 2008 | |||
| | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080419065921/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/truman/filmmore/it_3.html | |||
| | url-status = dead | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| |publisher=Roper Center | |||
| |work=Public Opinion Archives | |work=Public Opinion Archives | ||
| |publisher=Roper Center | |||
| |year=2010 | |year=2010 | ||
| |title=Job Performance Ratings for President Truman | |title=Job Performance Ratings for President Truman | ||
| |url=http://webapps.ropercenter.uconn.edu/CFIDE/roper/presidential/webroot/presidential_rating_detail.cfm?allRate=True&presidentName=Truman | |url=http://webapps.ropercenter.uconn.edu/CFIDE/roper/presidential/webroot/presidential_rating_detail.cfm?allRate=True&presidentName=Truman | ||
| | |
|access-date=September 7, 2012 | ||
| |ref={{sfnRef|Roper|2010}} | |||
| |url-status=dead | |||
| |deadurl=yes | |||
| | |
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130208072927/http://webapps.ropercenter.uconn.edu/CFIDE/roper/presidential/webroot/presidential_rating_detail.cfm?allRate=True&presidentName=Truman | ||
| | |
|archive-date=February 8, 2013 | ||
| |df= | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| Line 1,549: | Line 1,697: | ||
| | title = Truman Fellowship | | title = Truman Fellowship | ||
| | url = http://www.sandia.gov/careers/fellowships.html#truman | | url = http://www.sandia.gov/careers/fellowships.html#truman | ||
| | |
| access-date = September 8, 2012 | ||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|Truman Fellowship|2012}} | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| |url |
|url = http://truman.gov/about-us/our-history | ||
| |title |
|title = Our History: A Living Memorial | ||
| |publisher |
|publisher = Harry S. Truman Scholarship Foundation | ||
| | |
|access-date = September 8, 2012 | ||
| |ref = {{sfnRef|Truman Scholarship|2012}} | |||
| | |
|url-status = dead | ||
| | |
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121103135955/http://www.truman.gov/about-us/our-history | ||
| | |
|archive-date = November 3, 2012 | ||
| |df = mdy-all | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| | url = http://truman.missouri.edu | | url = http://truman.missouri.edu | ||
| | title = Harry S Truman School of Public Affairs | | title = Harry S. Truman School of Public Affairs | ||
| | publisher = Truman School of Public Affairs, University of Missouri | | publisher = Truman School of Public Affairs, University of Missouri | ||
| | |
| access-date = June 18, 2008 | ||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|Truman School of Public Affairs|2010}} | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| | publisher = United States Senate | | publisher = United States Senate | ||
| | title = March 1, 1941: The Truman Committee | | title = March 1, 1941: The Truman Committee | ||
| | url = https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/The_Truman_Committee.htm | | url = https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/The_Truman_Committee.htm | ||
| | |
| access-date = November 18, 2012 | ||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|Senate Truman Committee|2012}} | |||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| | url = https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/325.html | | url = https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/325.html | ||
| | title = Records of the Committee on Government Contract Compliance | | title = Records of the Committee on Government Contract Compliance | ||
| | publisher = United States Federal Archives | |
| publisher = United States Federal Archives | access-date = September 7, 2012 | ||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|National Archives|1953}}}} | |||
| * {{cite news | * {{cite news | ||
| | title = State Department headquarters named for Harry S. Truman | | title = State Department headquarters named for Harry S. Truman | ||
| | url = http://archives.cnn.com/2000/ALLPOLITICS/stories/09/22/truman.building.ap/index.html | | url = http://archives.cnn.com/2000/ALLPOLITICS/stories/09/22/truman.building.ap/index.html | ||
| | |
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20041208101632/http://archives.cnn.com/2000/ALLPOLITICS/stories/09/22/truman.building.ap/ | archive-date = December 8, 2004 | ||
| | agency = Associated Press | publisher = CNN | date = September 22, 2000 | |||
| | access-date = April 4, 2010 | |||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|CNN|2000}}}} | |||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| | publisher = White House Museum | year = 1952 | | publisher = White House Museum | year = 1952 | ||
| | title = Truman Reconstruction: 1948–1952 | | title = Truman Reconstruction: 1948–1952 | ||
| | url = http://www.whitehousemuseum.org/special/renovation-1948.htm | | url = http://www.whitehousemuseum.org/special/renovation-1948.htm | ||
| | |
| access-date = September 3, 2012 | ||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|White House Museum|1952}}}} | |||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| |url=http://people.cohums.ohio-state.edu/childs1/HIS565PoliticalChronology1947-61.htm | |url=http://people.cohums.ohio-state.edu/childs1/HIS565PoliticalChronology1947-61.htm | ||
| |title=U.S. Domestic Politics in the Early Cold War Era, 1947–1961 | |title=U.S. Domestic Politics in the Early Cold War Era, 1947–1961 | ||
| |publisher=The Ohio State University | |publisher=The Ohio State University | ||
| | |
|access-date=September 7, 2012 | ||
| |ref={{sfnRef|Ohio State|2012}} | |||
| |url-status=dead | |||
| |deadurl=yes | |||
| | |
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605232844/http://people.cohums.ohio-state.edu/childs1/HIS565PoliticalChronology1947-61.htm | ||
| | |
|archive-date=June 5, 2011 | ||
| }} | }} | ||
| * {{cite web | * {{cite web | ||
| | publisher = NavSource Online |
| publisher = NavSource Online | date = July 10, 2012 | ||
| | title = USS Harry S. Truman (CVN-75) | |||
| | url = http://www.navsource.org/archives/02/75.htm | | url = http://www.navsource.org/archives/02/75.htm | ||
| | |
| access-date = September 8, 2012 | ||
| | ref = {{sfnRef|NavSource Online|2012}}}} | |||
| == External links == | == External links == | ||
| Line 1,623: | Line 1,770: | ||
| '''Official''' | '''Official''' | ||
| * | * | ||
| * | * | ||
| * | * | ||
| '''Media coverage''' | '''Media coverage''' | ||
| Line 1,635: | Line 1,782: | ||
| * | * | ||
| * from the ] | * from the ] | ||
| * , an ] documentary | * {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226174734/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/films/truman/player/ |date=December 26, 2016 }}, an ] documentary | ||
| * {{Internet Archive author |sname=Harry S. Truman}} | * {{Internet Archive author |sname=Harry S. Truman}} | ||
| * {{Librivox author |id=11300}} | * {{Librivox author |id=11300}} | ||
| * , from ]'s '']'', October 18, 1999 | * , from ]'s '']'', October 18, 1999 | ||
| * {{C-SPAN| |
* {{C-SPAN|2412}} | ||
| * | * | ||
| * {{IMDb name}} | * {{IMDb name}} | ||
| * {{Gutenberg author|id=1664}} | |||
| * | |||
| {{NARA|url=https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/407.html|article=Records of the Adjutant General's Office}} | {{NARA|url=https://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/407.html|article=Records of the Adjutant General's Office}} | ||
| {{Harry S. Truman}} | {{Harry S. Truman}} | ||
| {{Navboxes | {{Navboxes | ||
| |title=Offices and distinctions | |title=Offices and distinctions | ||
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| {{s-bef|before=]}} | {{s-bef|before=]}} | ||
| {{s-ttl|title=]|years=1927–1935}} | {{s-ttl|title=]|years=1927–1935}} | ||
| {{s-aft|after=]}} | {{s-aft|after=]}} | ||
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| {{s-ttl|title=] nominee for ] from ]<br>(])|years=], ]}} | {{s-ttl|title=] nominee for ] from ]<br />(])|years=], ]}} | ||
| {{s-aft|after=]}} | {{s-aft|after=]}} | ||
| {{s-bef|before=]}} | {{s-bef|before=]}} | ||
| {{s-ttl|title=] ] for Vice President of the United States|years=]}} | {{s-ttl|title=] ] for Vice President of the United States|years=]}} | ||
| {{s-aft|after=]}} | {{s-aft|after=]}} | ||
| {{s-bef|before=]}} | {{s-bef|before=]}} | ||
| {{s-ttl|title=] ] for President of the United States|years=]}} | {{s-ttl|title=] ] for President of the United States|years=]}} | ||
| {{s-aft|after=]}} | {{s-aft|after=]}} | ||
| {{s-par|us-sen}} | {{s-par|us-sen}} | ||
| {{s-bef|before=]}} | {{s-bef|before=]}} | ||
| {{s-ttl|title=]|years=1935–1945|alongside=], ]}} | {{s-ttl|title=]|years=1935–1945|alongside=], ]}} | ||
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| {{s-end}} | {{s-end}} | ||
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| {{navboxes | {{navboxes | ||
| |title=Articles related to Harry S. Truman | |title=Articles related to Harry S. Truman | ||
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| {{US Vice Presidents}} | {{US Vice Presidents}} | ||
| {{Democratic Party (United States)}} | {{Democratic Party (United States)}} | ||
| {{United States |
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| {{Cold War}} | {{Cold War}} | ||
| {{Time Persons of the Year|27–50}} | {{Time Persons of the Year|27–50}} | ||
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Latest revision as of 06:28, 22 December 2024
President of the United States from 1945 to 1953 "Harry Truman" redirects here. For other uses, see Harry Truman (disambiguation).
| Harry S. Truman | |
|---|---|
.jpg) Official portrait, c. 1947 | |
| 33rd President of the United States | |
| In office April 12, 1945 – January 20, 1953 | |
| Vice President |
|
| Preceded by | Franklin D. Roosevelt |
| Succeeded by | Dwight D. Eisenhower |
| 34th Vice President of the United States | |
| In office January 20, 1945 – April 12, 1945 | |
| President | Franklin D. Roosevelt |
| Preceded by | Henry A. Wallace |
| Succeeded by | Alben W. Barkley |
| United States Senator from Missouri | |
| In office January 3, 1935 – January 17, 1945 | |
| Preceded by | Roscoe C. Patterson |
| Succeeded by | Frank P. Briggs |
| Personal details | |
| Born | (1884-05-08)May 8, 1884 Lamar, Missouri, U.S. |
| Died | December 26, 1972(1972-12-26) (aged 88) Kansas City, Missouri, U.S. |
| Resting place | Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum, Independence, Missouri |
| Political party | Democratic |
| Spouse |
Bess Wallace (m. 1919) |
| Children | Margaret Truman |
| Parent |
|
| Relatives |
|
| Occupation |
|
| Signature |  |
| Military service | |
| Allegiance | United States |
| Branch/service | United States Army |
| Years of service |
|
| Rank | Colonel (Army Reserve) |
| Commands |
|
| Battles | |
| Awards | |
|
Harry S. Truman's voice
Excerpt from a radio broadcast regarding the Potsdam Conference Recorded November 1948 | |
Harry S. Truman (May 8, 1884 – December 26, 1972) was the 33rd president of the United States, serving from 1945 to 1953. A member of the Democratic Party, he assumed the presidency after Franklin D. Roosevelt's death, as he was vice president at the time. Truman implemented the Marshall Plan in the wake of World War II to rebuild the economy of Western Europe and established both the Truman Doctrine and NATO to contain the expansion of Soviet communism. He proposed numerous liberal domestic reforms, but few were enacted by the conservative coalition that dominated Congress.
Truman was raised in Independence, Missouri, and during World War I fought in France as a captain in the Field Artillery. Returning home, he opened a haberdashery in Kansas City, Missouri, and was elected as a judge of Jackson County in 1922. Truman was elected to the United States Senate from Missouri in 1934. Between 1940 and 1944, he gained national prominence as chairman of the Truman Committee, which was aimed at reducing waste and inefficiency in wartime contracts.
Truman was elected vice president in the 1944 presidential election and became president upon Roosevelt's death in April 1945. Only then was he told about the ongoing Manhattan Project and the atomic bomb. Truman authorized the first and only use of nuclear weapons in war against the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Truman's administration engaged in an internationalist foreign policy by working closely with Britain. Truman staunchly denounced isolationism. He energized the New Deal coalition during the 1948 presidential election, despite a divided Democratic Party, and won a surprise victory against Republican Party nominee Thomas E. Dewey that secured his own presidential term.
Truman presided over the onset of the Cold War in 1947. He oversaw the Berlin Airlift and Marshall Plan in 1948. With the involvement of the US in the Korean War of 1950–1953, South Korea repelled the invasion by North Korea. Domestically, the postwar economic challenges such as strikes and inflation created a mixed reaction over the effectiveness of his administration. In 1948, he proposed Congress pass comprehensive civil rights legislation. Congress refused, so Truman issued Executive Order 9980 and Executive Order 9981, which prohibited discrimination in federal agencies and desegregated the U.S. Armed Forces.
Investigations revealed corruption in parts of the Truman administration, and this became a major campaign issue in the 1952 presidential election, although they did not implicate Truman himself. He was eligible for reelection in 1952 but, with poor polling, he chose not to run. Truman went into a retirement marked by the founding of his presidential library and the publication of his memoirs. It was long thought that his retirement years were financially difficult for Truman, resulting in Congress establishing a pension for former presidents, but evidence eventually emerged that he amassed considerable wealth, some of it while still president. When he left office, Truman's administration was heavily criticized. Despite this controversy, scholars rank Truman in the first quartile of American presidents. In addition, critical reassessment of his presidency has improved his reputation among historians and the general population.
Early life, family, and education
Truman was born in Lamar, Missouri, on May 8, 1884, the oldest child of John Anderson Truman and Martha Ellen Young Truman. He was named for his maternal uncle, Harrison "Harry" Young. His middle initial, "S", is not an abbreviation of one particular name. Rather, it honors both his grandfathers, Anderson Shipp Truman and Solomon Young, a somewhat common practice in the American South at the time. A brother, John Vivian, was born soon after Harry, followed by sister Mary Jane. While Truman's ancestry was primarily English, he also had some Scots-Irish, German, and French ancestry.
John Truman was a farmer and livestock dealer. The family lived in Lamar until Harry was ten months old, when they moved to a farm near Harrisonville, Missouri. They next moved to Belton and in 1887 to his grandparents' 600-acre (240 ha) farm in Grandview. When Truman was six, his parents moved to Independence, Missouri, so he could attend the Presbyterian Church Sunday School. He did not attend a conventional school until he was eight years old. While living in Independence, he served as a Shabbos goy for Jewish neighbors, doing tasks for them on Shabbat that their religion prevented them from doing on that day.
Truman was interested in music, reading, history, and math, all encouraged by his mother, with whom he was very close. As president, he solicited political as well as personal advice from her. Truman learned to play the piano at age seven and took lessons from Mrs. E.C. White, a well-respected teacher in Kansas City. He got up at five o'clock every morning to practice the piano, which he studied more than twice a week until he was fifteen, becoming quite a skilled player. Truman worked as a page at the 1900 Democratic National Convention in Kansas City; his father had many friends active in the Democratic Party who helped young Harry to gain his first political position.
After graduating from Independence High School in 1901, Truman took classes at Spalding's Commercial College, a Kansas City business school. He studied bookkeeping, shorthand, and typing but stopped after a year.
Segregation was practiced and largely accepted where Truman grew up. While he later came to support civil rights, early letters of the young Truman reflected his upbringing and prejudices against African and Asian Americans.
Working career
Truman was employed briefly in the mailroom of The Kansas City Star before making use of his business college experience to obtain a job as a timekeeper for construction crews on the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway, which required him to sleep in workmen's camps along the rail lines. Truman and his brother Vivian later worked as clerks at the National Bank of Commerce in Kansas City.
In 1906, Truman returned to the Grandview farm, where he lived until entering the army in 1917. During this period, he courted Bess Wallace. He proposed in 1911, but she turned him down. Believing Wallace turned him down because he did not have much money, Truman later said he intended to propose again, but he wanted to have a better income than that earned by a farmer. In fact, Wallace later told Truman she did not intend to marry, but if she did, it would be to him. Still determined to improve his finances, during his years on the farm and immediately after World War I, Truman became active in several business ventures. These included a lead and zinc mine near Commerce, Oklahoma, a company that bought land and leased the oil drilling rights to prospectors, and speculation in Kansas City real estate. Truman occasionally derived some income from these enterprises, but none proved successful in the long term.
Truman is the only president since William McKinley (elected in 1896) who did not earn a college degree. In addition to having briefly attended business college, from 1923 to 1925 he took night courses toward an LL.B. at the Kansas City Law School (now the University of Missouri–Kansas City School of Law) but dropped out after losing reelection as county judge. He was informed by attorneys in the Kansas City area that his education and experience were probably sufficient to receive a license to practice law but did not pursue it because he won election as presiding judge.
While serving as president in 1947, Truman applied for a law license. A friend who was an attorney began working out the arrangements, and informed Truman that his application had to be notarized. By the time Truman received this information he had changed his mind, so he never followed up. After the discovery of Truman's application in 1996 the Missouri Supreme Court issued him a posthumous honorary law license.
Military service
National Guard
Due to the lack of funds for college, Truman considered attending the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York, which had no tuition, but he was refused an appointment because of poor eyesight. He enlisted in the Missouri National Guard in 1905 and served until 1911 in the Kansas City-based Battery B, 2nd Missouri Field Artillery Regiment, in which he attained the rank of corporal. At his induction, his eyesight without glasses was unacceptable 20/50 in the right eye and 20/400 in the left (past the standard for legal blindness). The second time he took the test, he passed by secretly memorizing the eye chart. He was described as 5 feet 10 inches tall, gray eyed, dark haired and of light complexion.
World War I
When the United States entered World War I on April 6, 1917, Truman rejoined Battery B, successfully recruiting new soldiers for the expanding unit, for which he was elected as their first lieutenant. Before deployment to France, Truman was sent for training to Camp Doniphan, Fort Sill, near Lawton, Oklahoma, when his regiment was federalized as the 129th Field Artillery. The regimental commander during its training was Robert M. Danford, who later served as the Army's Chief of Field Artillery. Truman recalled that he learned more practical, useful information from Danford in six weeks than from six months of formal Army instruction, and when Truman served as an artillery instructor, he consciously patterned his approach on Danford's.
Truman also ran the camp canteen with Edward Jacobson, a clothing store clerk he knew from Kansas City. Unlike most canteens funded by unit members, which usually lost money, the canteen operated by Truman and Jacobson turned a profit, returning each soldier's initial $2 investment and $10,000 in dividends in six months. At Fort Sill, Truman met Lieutenant James M. Pendergast, nephew of Tom Pendergast, a Kansas City political boss, a connection that had a profound influence on Truman's later life.
In mid-1918, about one million soldiers of the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) were in France. Truman was promoted to captain effective April 23, and in July became commander of the newly arrived Battery D, 129th Field Artillery, 35th Division. Battery D was known for its discipline problems, and Truman was initially unpopular because of his efforts to restore order. Despite attempts by the men to intimidate him into quitting, Truman succeeded by making his corporals and sergeants accountable for discipline. He promised to back them up if they performed capably and reduce them to private if they did not. In an event memorialized in battery lore as "The Battle of Who Run", his soldiers began to flee during a sudden night attack by the Germans in the Vosges Mountains; Truman succeeded at ordering his men to stay and fight, using profanity from his railroad days. The men were so surprised to hear Truman use such language that they immediately obeyed.
Truman's unit joined in a massive prearranged assault barrage on September 26, 1918, at the opening of the Meuse–Argonne offensive. They advanced with difficulty over pitted terrain to follow the infantry, and set up an observation post west of Cheppy. On September 27, Truman saw through his binoculars an enemy artillery battery deploying across a river in a position which would allow them to fire upon the neighboring 28th Division. Truman's orders limited him to targets facing the 35th Division, but he ignored this and patiently waited until the Germans had walked their horses well away from their guns, ensuring they could not relocate out of range of Truman's battery. He then ordered his men to open fire, and their attack destroyed the enemy battery. His actions were credited with saving the lives of 28th Division soldiers who otherwise would have come under fire from the Germans. Truman was given a dressing down by his regimental commander, Colonel Karl D. Klemm, who threatened to convene a court-martial, but Klemm never followed through, and Truman was not punished.
In other action during the Meuse–Argonne offensive, Truman's battery provided support for George S. Patton's tank brigade, and fired some of the last shots of the war on November 11, 1918. Battery D did not lose any men while under Truman's command in France. To show their appreciation for his leadership, his men presented him with a large loving cup upon their return to the United States after the war.
The war was a transformative experience in which Truman manifested his leadership qualities. He had entered the service in 1917 as a family farmer who had worked in clerical jobs that did not require the ability to motivate and direct others, but during the war, he gained leadership experience and a record of success that greatly enhanced and supported his post-war political career in Missouri.
Truman was brought up in the Presbyterian and Baptist churches, but avoided revivals and sometimes ridiculed revivalist preachers. He rarely spoke about religion, which to him, primarily meant ethical behavior along traditional Protestant lines. Truman once wrote in a letter to his future wife, Bess: "You know that I know nothing about Lent and such things..." Most of the soldiers he commanded in the war were Catholics, and one of his close friends was the 129th Field Artillery's chaplain, Monsignor L. Curtis Tiernan. The two remained friends until Tiernan's death in 1960. Developing leadership and interpersonal skills that later made him a successful politician helped Truman get along with his Catholic soldiers, as he did with soldiers of other Christian denominations and the unit's Jewish members.
Officers' Reserve Corps
Truman was honorably discharged from the Army as a captain on May 6, 1919. In 1920, he was appointed a major in the Officers Reserve Corps. He became a lieutenant colonel in 1925 and a colonel in 1932. In the 1920s and 1930s he commanded 1st Battalion, 379th Field Artillery Regiment, 102nd Infantry Division. After promotion to colonel, Truman advanced to command of the regiment.
After his election to the U.S. Senate, Truman was transferred to the General Assignments Group, a holding unit for less active officers, although he had not been consulted in advance. Truman protested his reassignment, which led to his resumption of regimental command. He remained an active reservist until the early 1940s. Truman volunteered for active military service during World War II, but was not accepted, partly because of age, and partly because President Franklin D. Roosevelt desired that senators and congressmen who belonged to the military reserves support the war effort by remaining in Congress, or by ending their active duty service and resuming their congressional seats. He was an inactive reservist from the early 1940s until retiring as a colonel in the then redesignated U.S. Army Reserve on January 20, 1953.
Military awards and decorations
Truman was awarded a World War I Victory Medal with two battle clasps (for St. Mihiel and Meuse-Argonne) and a Defensive Sector Clasp. He was also the recipient of two Armed Forces Reserve Medals.
Politics
Jackson County judge
After his wartime service, Truman returned to Independence, where he married Bess Wallace on June 28, 1919. The couple had one child, Mary Margaret Truman.
Shortly before the wedding, Truman and Jacobson opened a haberdashery together at 104 West 12th Street in downtown Kansas City. After brief initial success, the store went bankrupt during the recession of 1921. Truman did not pay off the last of the debts from that venture until 1935, when he did so with the aid of banker William T. Kemper, who worked behind the scenes to enable Truman's brother Vivian to buy Truman's $5,600 promissory note during the asset sale of a bank that had failed in the Great Depression. The note had risen and fallen in value as it was bought and sold, interest accumulated and Truman made payments, so by the time the last bank to hold it failed, it was worth nearly $9,000. Thanks to Kemper's efforts, Vivian Truman was able to buy it for $1,000. Jacobson and Truman remained close friends even after their store failed, and Jacobson's advice to Truman on Zionism later played a role in the U.S. Government's decision to recognize Israel.
With the help of the Kansas City Democratic machine led by Tom Pendergast, Truman was elected in 1922 as County Court judge of Jackson County's eastern district—Jackson County's three-judge court included judges from the western district (Kansas City), the eastern district (the county outside Kansas City), and a presiding judge elected countywide. This was an administrative rather than a judicial court, similar to county commissions in many other jurisdictions. Truman succeeded James E. Gilday and served from January 1, 1923 to January 1, 1925. He lost his 1924 reelection campaign to Henry Rummel in a Republican wave led by President Calvin Coolidge's landslide election to a full term. Two years selling automobile club memberships convinced him that a public service career was safer for a family man approaching middle age, and he planned a run for presiding judge in 1926.
Truman won the job in 1926 with the support of the Pendergast machine, and succeeded Elihu W. Hayes. Truman was re-elected in 1930; he served from January 1, 1927 to January 1, 1935 and was succeeded by Eugene I. Purcell. As presiding judge, Truman helped coordinate the Ten Year Plan, which transformed Jackson County and the Kansas City skyline with new public works projects, including an extensive series of roads and construction of a new Wight and Wight-designed County Court building. Also in 1926, he became president of the National Old Trails Road Association, and during his term he oversaw dedication of 12 Madonna of the Trail monuments to honor pioneer women.
In 1933, Truman was named Missouri's director for the Federal Re-Employment program (part of the Civil Works Administration) at the request of Postmaster General James Farley. This was payback to Pendergast for delivering the Kansas City vote to Franklin D. Roosevelt in the 1932 presidential election. The appointment confirmed Pendergast's control over federal patronage jobs in Missouri and marked the zenith of his power. It also created a relationship between Truman and Roosevelt's aide Harry Hopkins and assured Truman's avid support for the New Deal.
U.S. Senator from Missouri
After serving as a county judge, Truman wanted to run for governor of Missouri or Congress, but Pendergast rejected these ideas. Truman then thought he might serve out his career in some well-paying county sinecure; circumstances changed when Pendergast reluctantly backed him as the machine's choice in the 1934 Democratic primary election for the U.S. Senate from Missouri, after Pendergast's first four choices had declined to run. In the primary, Truman defeated Congressmen John J. Cochran and Jacob L. Milligan with the solid support of Jackson County, which was crucial to his candidacy. Also critical were the contacts he had made statewide in his capacity as a county official, member of the Freemasons, military reservist, and member of the American Legion. In the general election, Truman defeated incumbent Republican Roscoe C. Patterson by nearly 20 percentage points in a continuing wave of pro-New Deal Democrats elected during the Great Depression.
Truman assumed office with a reputation as "the Senator from Pendergast". He referred patronage decisions to Pendergast but maintained that he voted with his own conscience. He later defended the patronage decisions by saying that "by offering a little to the machine, saved a lot". In his first term, Truman spoke out against corporate greed and the dangers of Wall Street speculators and other moneyed special interests attaining too much influence in national affairs. Though he served on the high-profile Appropriations and Interstate Commerce Committees, he was largely ignored by President Roosevelt and had trouble getting calls returned from the White House.
During the U.S. Senate election in 1940, U.S. Attorney Maurice Milligan (former opponent Jacob Milligan's brother) and former governor Lloyd Stark both challenged Truman in the Democratic primary. Truman was politically weakened by Pendergast's imprisonment for income tax evasion the previous year; the senator had remained loyal, having claimed that Republican judges (not the Roosevelt administration) were responsible for the boss's downfall. St. Louis party leader Robert E. Hannegan's support of Truman proved crucial; he later brokered the deal that put Truman on the national ticket. In the end, Stark and Milligan split the anti-Pendergast vote in the Senate Democratic primary and Truman won by a total of 8,000 votes. In the November election, Truman defeated Republican Manvel H. Davis by 51–49 percent. As senator, Truman opposed both Nazi Germany and Communist Russia. Two days after Hitler invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, Truman said:
If we see that Germany is winning we ought to help Russia, and if Russia is winning we ought to help Germany, and that way let them kill as many as possible although I don't want to see Hitler victorious under any circumstances.
This quote without its last part later became a staple in Soviet and later Russian propaganda as "evidence" of an American conspiracy to destroy the country.
Truman Committee
Further information: Truman CommitteeIn late 1940, Truman traveled to various military bases. The waste and profiteering he saw led him to use his chairmanship of the Committee on Military Affairs Subcommittee on War Mobilization to start investigations into abuses while the nation prepared for war. A new special committee was set up under Truman to conduct a formal investigation; the White House supported this plan rather than weather a more hostile probe by the House of Representatives. The main mission of the committee was to expose and fight waste and corruption in the gigantic government wartime contracts.
Truman's initiative convinced Senate leaders of the necessity for the committee, which reflected his demands for honest and efficient administration and his distrust of big business and Wall Street. Truman managed the committee "with extraordinary skill" and usually achieved consensus, generating heavy media publicity that gave him a national reputation. Activities of the Truman Committee ranged from criticizing the "dollar-a-year men" hired by the government, many of whom proved ineffective, to investigating a shoddily built New Jersey housing project for war workers. In March 1944, Truman attempted to probe the expensive Manhattan Project but was persuaded by Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson to discontinue with the investigation.
The committee reportedly saved as much as $15 billion (equivalent to $260 billion in 2023), and its activities put Truman on the cover of Time magazine. According to the Senate's historical minutes, in leading the committee, "Truman erased his earlier public image as an errand-runner for Kansas City politicos", and "no senator ever gained greater political benefits from chairing a special investigating committee than did Missouri's Harry S. Truman."
Vice presidency (1945)
See also: 1944 Democratic Party vice presidential candidate selection
Truman visits his mother in Grandview, Missouri, after being nominated the Democratic candidate for vice president, July 1944.
Roosevelt–Truman poster from 1944
Roosevelt's advisors knew that Roosevelt might not live out a fourth term and that his vice president would very likely become the next president. Henry Wallace had served as Roosevelt's vice president for four years and was popular on the left, but he was viewed as too far to the left and too friendly to labor for some of Roosevelt's advisers. The President and several of his confidantes wanted to replace Wallace with someone more acceptable to Democratic Party leaders. Outgoing Democratic National Committee chairman Frank C. Walker, incoming chairman Hannegan, party treasurer Edwin W. Pauley, Bronx party boss Ed Flynn, Chicago Mayor Edward Joseph Kelly, and lobbyist George E. Allen all wanted to keep Wallace off the ticket. Roosevelt told party leaders that he would accept either Truman or Supreme Court Justice William O. Douglas.
State and city party leaders strongly preferred Truman, and Roosevelt agreed. Truman had repeatedly said that he was not in the race and that he did not want the vice presidency, and he remained reluctant. One reason was that his wife and sister Mary Jane were both on his Senate staff payroll, and he feared negative publicity. Truman did not campaign for the vice-presidential spot, though he welcomed the attention as evidence that he had become more than the "Senator from Pendergast". Truman's nomination was dubbed the "Second Missouri Compromise" and was well received. The Roosevelt–Truman ticket achieved a 432–99 electoral-vote victory in the election, defeating the Republican ticket of Governor Thomas E. Dewey of New York and running mate Governor John Bricker of Ohio. Truman was sworn in as vice president on January 20, 1945. After the inauguration, Truman called his mother, who instructed him, "Now you behave yourself."
Truman's brief vice-presidency was relatively uneventful. Truman mostly presided over the Senate and attended parties and receptions. He kept the same offices from his Senate years, mostly only using the Vice President's official office in the Capitol to greet visitors. Truman was the first vice president to have a Secret Service agent assigned to him. Truman envisioned the office as a liaison between the Senate and the president. On April 10, 1945, Truman cast his only tie-breaking vote as president of the Senate, against a Robert A. Taft amendment that would have blocked the postwar delivery of Lend-Lease Act items contracted for during the war. Roosevelt rarely contacted him, even to inform him of major decisions; the president and vice president met alone together only twice during their time in office.
In one of his first acts as vice president, Truman created some controversy when he attended the disgraced Pendergast's funeral. He brushed aside the criticism, saying simply, "He was always my friend and I have always been his." He had rarely discussed world affairs or domestic politics with Roosevelt; he was uninformed about major initiatives relating to the war and the top-secret Manhattan Project, which was about to test the world's first atomic bomb. In an event that generated negative publicity for Truman, he was photographed with actress Lauren Bacall sitting atop the piano at the National Press Club as he played for soldiers.
Truman had been vice president for 82 days when President Roosevelt died on April 12, 1945. Truman, presiding over the Senate, as usual, had just adjourned the session for the day and was preparing to have a drink in House Speaker Sam Rayburn's office when he received an urgent message to go immediately to the White House, where Eleanor Roosevelt told him that her husband had died after a massive cerebral hemorrhage. Truman asked her if there was anything he could do for her; she replied, "Is there anything we can do for you? For you are the one in trouble now!" He was sworn in as president at 7:09 p.m. in the West Wing of the White House, by Chief Justice Harlan F. Stone.
Presidency (1945–1953)
Main article: Presidency of Harry S. Truman Further information: Foreign policy of the Harry S. Truman administrationAt the White House, Truman replaced Roosevelt holdovers with old confidants. The White House was badly understaffed with no more than a dozen aides; they could barely keep up with the heavy workflow of a greatly expanded executive department. Truman acted as his own chief of staff on a daily basis, as well as his own liaison with Congress—a body he already knew very well. He was not well prepared to deal with the press, and never achieved the jovial familiarity of FDR. Filled with latent anger about all the setbacks in his career, he bitterly mistrusted journalists. He saw them as enemies lying in wait for his next careless miscue. Truman was a very hard worker, often to the point of exhaustion, which left him testy, easily annoyed, and on the verge of appearing unpresidential or petty. In terms of major issues, he discussed them in depth with top advisors. He mastered the details of the federal budget as well as anyone. Truman was a poor speaker reading a text. However, his visible anger made him an effective stump speaker, denouncing his enemies as his supporters hollered back at him "Give Em Hell, Harry!"
Truman surrounded himself with friends and appointed several to high positions that seemed beyond their competence, including his two secretaries of the treasury, Fred Vinson and John Snyder. His closest friend in the White House was his military aide Harry H. Vaughan, who knew little of military or foreign affairs and was criticized for trading access to the White House for expensive gifts. Truman loved to spend as much time as possible playing poker, telling stories and sipping bourbon. Alonzo Hamby notes that:
... to many in the general public, gambling and bourbon swilling, however low-key, were not quite presidential. Neither was the intemperant "give 'em hell" campaign style nor the occasional profane phrase uttered in public. Poker exemplified a larger problem: the tension between his attempts at an image of leadership necessarily a cut above the ordinary and an informality that at times appeared to verge on crudeness.
First term (1945–1949)
Assuming office
On his first full day, Truman told reporters: "Boys, if you ever pray, pray for me now. I don't know if you fellas ever had a load of hay fall on you, but when they told me what happened yesterday, I felt like the moon, the stars, and all the planets had fallen on me."
Truman asked all the members of Roosevelt's cabinet to remain in place, but he soon replaced almost all of them, especially with friends from his Senate days.
Dropping atomic bombs on Japan
Further information: Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and NagasakiTruman benefited from a honeymoon period from the success in defeating Nazi Germany in Europe and the nation celebrated V-E Day on May 8, 1945, his 61st birthday.
Although Truman was told briefly on the afternoon of April 12 that the United States had a new, highly destructive weapon, it was not until April 25 that Secretary of War Henry Stimson told him the details:
We have discovered the most terrible bomb in the history of the world. It may be the fire destruction prophesied in the Euphrates Valley Era, after Noah and his fabulous Ark.
— Harry Truman, writing about the atomic bomb in his diary on July 25, 1945
Truman journeyed to Berlin for the Potsdam Conference with Joseph Stalin and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill. He was there when he learned the Trinity test—the first atomic bomb—on July 16 had been successful. He hinted to Stalin that he was about to use a new kind of weapon against the Japanese. Though this was the first time the Soviets had been officially given information about the atomic bomb, Stalin was already aware of the bomb project—having learned about it through atomic espionage long before Truman did.
In August, the Japanese government refused surrender demands as specifically outlined in the Potsdam Declaration. With the invasion of Japan imminent, Truman approved the schedule for dropping the two available bombs. Truman maintained the position that attacking Japan with atomic bombs saved many lives on both sides; a military estimate for the invasion of Japan submitted to Truman by Herbert Hoover indicated that an invasion could take at least a year and result in 500,000 to 1,000,000 Allied casualties. A study done for the staff of Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson by William Shockley estimated that invading Japan would cost 1.7–4 million American casualties, including 400,000–800,000 fatalities, and five to ten million Japanese fatalities if Japanese civilians participated in the defense of Japan. The U.S. Army Service Forces estimated in their document "Redeployment of the United States Army after the Defeat of Germany," that between June 1945 and December 1946 the Army would be required to furnish replacements for 43,000 dead and evacuated wounded every month during this period. From analysis of the replacement schedule and projected strengths in overseas theaters, it suggested that Army losses alone in those categories, excluding the Navy and Marine Corps, would be approximately 863,000 through the first part of 1947, of whom 267,000 would be killed or missing.
Hiroshima was bombed on August 6, and Nagasaki three days later, leaving 105,000 dead. The Soviet Union declared war on Japan on August 9 and invaded Manchuria. Japan agreed to surrender the following day.
Supporters of Truman's decision argue that, given the tenacious Japanese defense of the outlying islands, the bombings saved hundreds of thousands of lives of Allied prisoners, Japanese civilians, and combatants on both sides that would have been lost in an invasion of Japan. Some modern criticism has argued that the use of nuclear weapons was unnecessary, given that conventional attacks or a demonstrative bombing of an uninhabited area might have forced Japan's surrender, and therefore assert that the attack constituted a crime of war. In 1948 Truman defended his decision to use atomic bombs:
As President of the United States, I had the fateful responsibility of deciding whether or not to use this weapon for the first time. It was the hardest decision I ever had to make. But the President cannot duck hard problems—he cannot pass the buck. I made the decision after discussions with the ablest men in our Government, and after long and prayerful consideration. I decided that the bomb should be used to end the war quickly and save countless lives—Japanese as well as American.
Truman continued to strongly defend himself in his memoirs in 1955–1956, stating many lives could have been lost had the United States invaded mainland Japan without the atomic bombs. In 1963, he stood by his decision, telling a journalist "it was done to save 125,000 youngsters on the U.S. side and 125,000 on the Japanese side from getting killed and that is what it did. It probably also saved a half million youngsters on both sides from being maimed for life."
Labor unions, strikes and economic issues
See also: Strike wave of 1946The end of World War II was followed by an uneasy transition from war to a peacetime economy. The costs of the war effort had been enormous, and Truman was intent on diminishing military services as quickly as possible to curtail the government's military expenditures. The effect of demobilization on the economy was unknown, proposals were met with skepticism and resistance, and fears existed that the nation would slide back into depression. In Roosevelt's final years, Congress began to reassert legislative power and Truman faced a congressional body where Republicans and conservative southern Democrats formed a powerful "conservative coalition" voting bloc. The New Deal had greatly strengthened labor unions and they formed a major base of support for Truman's Democratic Party. The Republicans, working with big business, made it their highest priority to weaken those unions. The unions had been promoted by the government during the war and tried to make their gains permanent through large-scale strikes in major industries. Meanwhile, price controls were slowly ending, and inflation was soaring. Truman's response to the widespread dissatisfaction was generally seen as ineffective.
When a national rail strike threatened in May 1946, Truman seized the railroads in an attempt to contain the issue, but two key railway unions struck anyway. The entire national railroad system was shut down, immobilizing 24,000 freight trains and 175,000 passenger trains a day. For two days, public anger mounted. His staff prepared a speech that Truman read to Congress calling for a new law, whereby railroad strikers would be drafted into the army. As he concluded his address, he was handed a note that the strike had been settled on presidential terms; nevertheless, a few hours later, the House voted to draft the strikers. The bill died in the Senate.
Approval rating falls; Republicans win Congress in 1946
The president's approval rating dropped from 82 percent in the polls in January 1946 to 52 percent by June. This dissatisfaction led to large Democratic losses in the 1946 midterm elections, and Republicans took control of Congress for the first time since 1930. When Truman dropped to 32 percent in the polls, Democratic Arkansas Senator William Fulbright suggested that Truman resign; the president said he did not care what Senator "Halfbright" said.
Truman cooperated closely with the Republican leaders on foreign policy but fought them bitterly on domestic issues. The power of the labor unions was significantly curtailed by the Taft–Hartley Act which was enacted over Truman's veto. Truman twice vetoed bills to lower income tax rates in 1947. Although the initial vetoes were sustained, Congress overrode his veto of a tax cut bill in 1948. In one notable instance of bipartisanship, Congress passed the Presidential Succession Act of 1947, which replaced the secretary of state with the Speaker of the House and the president pro tempore of the Senate as successor to the president after the vice president.
Proposes "Fair Deal" liberalism
As he readied for the 1948 election, Truman made clear his identity as a Democrat in the New Deal tradition, advocating for national health insurance, and repeal of the Taft–Hartley Act. He broke with the New Deal by initiating an aggressive civil rights program which he termed a moral priority. His economic and social vision constituted a broad legislative agenda that came to be called the "Fair Deal." Truman's proposals were not well received by Congress, even with renewed Democratic majorities in Congress after 1948. The Solid South rejected civil rights as those states still enforced segregation. Only one of the major Fair Deal bills, the Housing Act of 1949, was ever enacted. Many of the New Deal programs that persisted during Truman's presidency have since received minor improvements and extensions.
Marshall Plan, Cold War, and China
As a Wilsonian internationalist, Truman supported Roosevelt's policy in favor of the creation of the United Nations and included Eleanor Roosevelt on the delegation to the first UN General Assembly. With the Soviet Union expanding its sphere of influence through Eastern Europe, Truman and his foreign policy advisors took a hard line against the USSR. In this, he matched U.S. public opinion which quickly came to believe the Soviets were intent upon world domination.
Although he had little personal expertise on foreign matters, Truman listened closely to his top advisors, especially George Marshall and Dean Acheson. The Republicans controlled Congress in 1947–1948, so he worked with their leaders, especially Senator Arthur H. Vandenburg, chairman of the powerful Foreign Relations Committee. He won bipartisan support for both the Truman Doctrine, which formalized a policy of Soviet containment, and the Marshall Plan, which aimed to help rebuild postwar Europe.
To get Congress to spend the vast sums necessary to restart the moribund European economy, Truman used an ideological argument, arguing that communism flourishes in economically deprived areas. As part of the U.S. Cold War strategy, Truman signed the National Security Act of 1947 and reorganized military forces by merging the Department of War and the Department of the Navy into the National Military Establishment (later the Department of Defense) and creating the U.S. Air Force. The act also created the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and the National Security Council. On November 4, 1952, Truman authorized the official, though at the time, confidential creation of the National Security Agency (NSA).
Truman did not know what to do about China, where the Nationalists and Communists were fighting a large-scale civil war. The Nationalists had been major wartime allies and had large-scale popular support in the United States, along with a powerful lobby. General George Marshall spent most of 1946 in China trying to negotiate a compromise but failed. He convinced Truman the Nationalists would never win on their own and a very large-scale U.S. intervention to stop the Communists would significantly weaken U.S. opposition to the Soviets in Europe. By 1949, the Communists under Mao Zedong had won the civil war, the United States had a new enemy in Asia, and Truman came under fire from conservatives for "losing" China.
Berlin airlift
Further information: Berlin BlockadeOn June 24, 1948, the Soviet Union blocked access to the three Western-held sectors of Berlin. The Allies had not negotiated a deal to guarantee supply of the sectors deep within the Soviet-occupied zone. The commander of the U.S. occupation zone in Germany, General Lucius D. Clay, proposed sending a large armored column across the Soviet zone to West Berlin with instructions to defend itself if it were stopped or attacked. Truman believed this would entail an unacceptable risk of war. He approved Ernest Bevin's plan to supply the blockaded city by air.
On June 25, the Allies initiated the Berlin Airlift, a campaign to deliver food, coal and other supplies using military aircraft on a massive scale. Nothing like it had ever been attempted before, and no single nation had the capability, either logistically or materially, to accomplish it. The airlift worked; ground access was again granted on May 11, 1949. Nevertheless, the airlift continued for several months after that. The Berlin Airlift was one of Truman's great foreign policy successes; it significantly aided his election campaign in 1948.
Recognition of Israel
Truman had long taken an interest in the history of the Middle East and was sympathetic to Jews who sought to re-establish their ancient homeland in Mandatory Palestine. As a senator, he announced support for Zionism; in 1943 he called for a homeland for those Jews who survived the Nazi regime. However, State Department officials were reluctant to offend the Arabs, who were opposed to the establishment of a Jewish state in the large region long populated and dominated culturally by Arabs. Secretary of Defense James Forrestal warned Truman of the importance of Saudi Arabian oil in another war; Truman replied he would decide his policy on the basis of justice, not oil. U.S. diplomats with experience in the region were opposed, but Truman told them he had few Arabs among his constituents.
Palestine was secondary to the goal of protecting the "Northern Tier" of Greece, Turkey, and Iran from communism, as promised by the Truman Doctrine. Weary of both the convoluted politics of the Middle East and pressure by Jewish leaders, Truman was undecided on his policy and skeptical about how the Jewish "underdogs" would handle power. He later cited as decisive in his recognition of the Jewish state the advice of his former business partner, Eddie Jacobson, a non-religious Jew whom Truman absolutely trusted.
Truman decided to recognize Israel over the objections of Secretary of State George Marshall, who feared it would hurt relations with the populous Arab states. Marshall believed the paramount threat to the United States was the Soviet Union and feared Arab oil would be lost to the United States in the event of war; he warned Truman the United States was "playing with fire with nothing to put it out". Truman recognized the State of Israel on May 14, 1948, eleven minutes after it declared itself a nation. Of his decision to recognize the Israeli state, Truman said in an interview years later: "Hitler had been murdering Jews right and left. I saw it, and I dream about it even to this day. The Jews needed some place where they could go. It is my attitude that the American government couldn't stand idly by while the victims Hitler's madness are not allowed to build new lives."
Calls for civil rights
Under his predecessor, Franklin D. Roosevelt, the Fair Employment Practices Committee was created to address racial discrimination in employment, and in 1946, Truman created the President's Committee on Civil Rights. On June 29, 1947, Truman became the first president to address the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). The speech took place at the Lincoln Memorial during the NAACP convention and was carried nationally on radio. In that speech, Truman laid out the need to end discrimination, which would be advanced by the first comprehensive, presidentially proposed civil rights legislation. Truman on "civil rights and human freedom", declared:
It is my deep conviction that we have reached a turning point in the long history of our country's efforts to guarantee freedom and equality to all our citizens … it is more important today than ever before to ensure that all Americans enjoy these rights. … When I say all Americans, I mean all Americans … Our immediate task is to remove the last remnants of the barriers which stand between millions of our citizens and their birthright. There is no justifiable reason for discrimination because of ancestry, or religion, or race, or color. We must not tolerate such limitations on the freedom of any of our people and on their enjoyment of basic rights which every citizen in a truly democratic society must possess. Every man should have the right to a decent home, the right to an education, the right to adequate medical care, the right to a worthwhile job, the right to an equal share in making the public decisions through the ballot, and the right to a fair trial in a fair court. We must ensure that these rights – on equal terms – are enjoyed by every citizen. To these principles I pledge my full and continued support. Many of our people still suffer the indignity of insult, the harrowing fear of intimidation, and, I regret to say, the threat of physical injury and mob violence. Prejudice and intolerance in which these evils are rooted still exist. The conscience of our nation, and the legal machinery which enforces it, have not yet secured to each citizen full freedom from fear.
In February 1948, Truman delivered a formal message to Congress requesting adoption of his 10-point program to secure civil rights, including anti-lynching, voter rights, and elimination of segregation. "No political act since the Compromise of 1877," argued biographer Taylor Branch, "so profoundly influenced race relations; in a sense it was a repeal of 1877."
1948 election
Main article: Harry S. Truman 1948 presidential campaign Further information: 1948 United States presidential election.jpg)
The 1948 presidential election is remembered for Truman's stunning come-from-behind victory. In the spring of 1948, Truman's public approval rating stood at 36 percent, and the president was nearly universally regarded as incapable of winning the general election. At the 1948 Democratic National Convention, Truman attempted to unify the party with a vague civil rights plank in the party platform. His intention was to assuage the internal conflicts between the northern and southern wings of his party. Events overtook his efforts. A sharp address given by Mayor Hubert Humphrey of Minneapolis—as well as the local political interests of a number of urban bosses—convinced the convention to adopt a stronger civil rights plank, which Truman approved wholeheartedly. Truman delivered an aggressive acceptance speech attacking the 80th Congress, which Truman called the "Do Nothing Congress," and promising to win the election and "make these Republicans like it."
Republicans approve of the American farmer, but they are willing to help him go broke. They stand four-square for the American home—but not for housing. They are strong for labor—but they are stronger for restricting labor's rights. They favor minimum wage—the smaller the minimum wage the better. They endorse educational opportunity for all—but they won't spend money for teachers or for schools. They think modern medical care and hospitals are fine—for people who can afford them ... They think American standard of living is a fine thing—so long as it doesn't spread to all the people. And they admire the Government of the United States so much that they would like to buy it.
— Harry S. Truman, October 13, 1948, St. Paul, Minnesota, Radio Broadcast
Within two weeks of the 1948 convention Truman issued Executive Order 9981, ending racial discrimination in the Armed Services, and Executive Order 9980 to end discrimination in federal agencies. Truman took a considerable political risk in backing civil rights, and many seasoned Democrats were concerned the loss of Dixiecrat support might seriously weaken the party. South Carolina Governor Strom Thurmond, a segregationist, declared his candidacy for the presidency on a Dixiecrat ticket and led a full-scale revolt of Southern "states' rights" proponents. This rebellion on the right was matched by one on the left, led by Wallace on the Progressive Party ticket. The Democratic Party was splitting three ways and victory in November seemed unlikely. For his running mate, Truman accepted Kentucky Senator Alben W. Barkley, though he really wanted Justice William O. Douglas, who turned down the nomination.
Truman's political advisors described the political scene as "one unholy, confusing cacophony." They told Truman to speak directly to the people, in a personal way. Campaign manager William J. Bray said Truman took this advice, and spoke personally and passionately, sometimes even setting aside his notes to talk to Americans "of everything that is in my heart and soul."
The campaign was a 21,928-mile (35,290 km) presidential odyssey. In a personal appeal to the nation, Truman crisscrossed the United States by train; his "whistle stop" speeches from the rear platform of the presidential car, Ferdinand Magellan, came to represent his campaign. His combative appearances captured the popular imagination and drew huge crowds. Six stops in Michigan drew a combined half-million people; a full million turned out for a New York City ticker-tape parade.
The large crowds at Truman's whistle-stop events were an important sign of a change in momentum in the campaign, but this shift went virtually unnoticed by the national press corps. It continued reporting Republican Thomas Dewey's apparent impending victory as a certainty. The three major polling organizations stopped polling well before the November 2 election date—Roper in September, and Crossley and Gallup in October—thus failing to measure the period when Truman appears to have surged past Dewey.
In the end, Truman held his progressive Midwestern base, won most of the Southern states despite the civil rights plank, and squeaked through with narrow victories in a few critical states, notably Ohio, California, and Illinois. The final tally showed the president had secured 303 electoral votes, Dewey 189, and Thurmond only 39. Henry Wallace got none. The defining image of the campaign came after Election Day, when an ecstatic Truman held aloft the erroneous front page of the Chicago Tribune with a huge headline proclaiming "Dewey Defeats Truman."
Full elected term (1949–1953)
Truman's second inauguration on January 20, 1949, was the first ever televised nationally.
Hydrogen bomb decision
The Soviet Union's atomic bomb project progressed much faster than had been expected, and they detonated their first bomb on August 29, 1949. Over the next several months there was an intense debate that split the U.S. government, military, and scientific communities regarding whether to proceed with the development of the far more powerful hydrogen bomb. The debate touched on matters from technical feasibility to strategic value to the morality of creating a massively destructive weapon. On January 31, 1950, Truman made the decision to go forward on the grounds that if the Soviets could make an H-bomb, the United States must do so as well and stay ahead in the nuclear arms race. The development achieved fruition with the first U.S. H-bomb test on October 31, 1952, which was officially announced by Truman on January 7, 1953.
Korean War
Further information: Korean War
On June 25, 1950, the North Korean army under Kim Il-sung invaded South Korea, starting the Korean War. In the early weeks of the war, the North Koreans easily pushed back their southern counterparts. Truman called for a naval blockade of Korea, only to learn that due to budget cutbacks, the U.S. Navy could not enforce such a measure.
Truman promptly urged the United Nations to intervene; it did, authorizing troops under the UN flag led by U.S. General Douglas MacArthur. Truman decided he did not need formal authorization from Congress, believing that most legislators supported his position; this would come back to haunt him later when the stalemated conflict was dubbed "Mr. Truman's War" by legislators. Rockoff writes that "President Truman responded quickly to the June invasion by authorizing the use of U.S. troops and ordering air strikes and a naval blockade. He did not, however, seek a declaration of war, or call for full mobilization, in part because such actions might have been misinterpreted by Russia and China. Instead, on July 19 he called for partial mobilization and asked Congress for an appropriation of $10 billion for the war." Cohen writes that: "All of Truman's advisers saw the events in Korea as a test of American will to resist Soviet attempts to expand their power, and their system. The United States ordered warships to the Taiwan Strait to prevent Mao's forces from invading Taiwan and mopping up the remnants of Chiang Kai-shek's army there."
However, on July 3, 1950, Truman did give Senate Majority Leader Scott W. Lucas a draft resolution titled "Joint Resolution Expressing Approval of the Action Taken in Korea". Lucas stated Congress supported the use of force, the formal resolution would pass but was unnecessary, and the consensus in Congress was to acquiesce. Truman responded he did not want "to appear to be trying to get around Congress and use extra-Constitutional powers," and added that it was "up to Congress whether such a resolution should be introduced."
By August 1950, U.S. troops pouring into South Korea under UN auspices were able to stabilize the situation. Responding to criticism over readiness, Truman fired his secretary of defense, Louis A. Johnson, replacing him with the retired General Marshall. With UN approval, Truman decided on a "rollback" policy—liberation of North Korea. UN forces led by General Douglas MacArthur led the counterattack, scoring a stunning surprise victory with an amphibious landing at the Battle of Inchon that nearly trapped the invaders. UN forces marched north, toward the Yalu River boundary with China, with the goal of reuniting Korea under UN auspices.
China surprised the UN forces with a large-scale invasion in November. The UN forces were forced back to below the 38th parallel, then recovered. By early 1951 the war became a fierce stalemate at about the 38th parallel where it had begun. Truman rejected MacArthur's request to attack Chinese supply bases north of Yalu, but MacArthur promoted his plan to Republican House leader Joseph Martin, who leaked it to the press. Truman was gravely concerned further escalation of the war might lead to open conflict with the Soviet Union, which was already supplying weapons and providing warplanes (with Korean markings and Soviet aircrew). Therefore, on April 11, 1951, Truman fired MacArthur from his commands.
—Truman to biographer Merle Miller, 1972, posthumously quoted in Time magazine, 1973I fired him because he wouldn't respect the authority of the President ... I didn't fire him because he was a dumb son of a bitch, although he was, but that's not against the law for generals. If it was, half to three-quarters of them would be in jail.
The dismissal of General Douglas MacArthur was among the least politically popular decisions in presidential history. Truman's approval ratings plummeted, and he faced calls for his impeachment from, among others, Senator Robert A. Taft. Fierce criticism from virtually all quarters accused Truman of refusing to shoulder the blame for a war gone sour and blaming his generals instead. Others, including Eleanor Roosevelt and all of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, publicly supported Truman's decision. MacArthur meanwhile returned to the United States to a hero's welcome, and addressed a joint session of Congress, a speech the president called "a bunch of damn bullshit."
Truman and his generals considered the use of nuclear weapons against the Chinese army, but ultimately chose not to escalate the war to a nuclear level. The war remained a frustrating stalemate for two years, with over 30,000 Americans killed, until an armistice ended the fighting in 1953.
In February 1952, Truman's approval mark stood at 22 percent according to Gallup polls, which is the all-time lowest approval mark for a sitting U.S. president, though it was matched by Richard Nixon in 1974.
Worldwide defense
The escalation of the Cold War was highlighted by Truman's approval of NSC 68, a secret statement of foreign policy. It called for tripling the defense budget, and the globalization and militarization of containment policy whereby the United States and its NATO allies would respond militarily to actual Soviet expansion. The document was drafted by Paul Nitze, who consulted State and Defense officials and was formally approved by President Truman as the official national strategy after the war began in Korea. It called for partial mobilization of the U.S. economy to build armaments faster than the Soviets. The plan called for strengthening Europe, weakening the Soviet Union, and building up the United States both militarily and economically.
Truman was a strong supporter of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), which established a formal peacetime military alliance with Canada and democratic European nations of the Western Bloc following World War II. The treaty establishing it was widely popular and easily passed the Senate in 1949; Truman appointed General Dwight D. Eisenhower as commander. NATO's goals were to contain Soviet expansion in Europe and to send a clear message to communist leaders that the world's democracies were willing and able to build new security structures in support of democratic ideals. The United States, Britain, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Norway, Denmark, Portugal, Iceland, and Canada were the original treaty signatories. The alliance resulted in the Soviets establishing a similar alliance, called the Warsaw Pact.
General Marshall was Truman's principal adviser on foreign policy matters, influencing such decisions as the U.S. choice against offering direct military aid to Chiang Kai-shek and his nationalist Chinese forces in the Chinese Civil War against their communist opponents. Marshall's opinion was contrary to the counsel of almost all of Truman's other advisers; Marshall thought propping up Chiang's forces would drain U.S. resources necessary for Europe to deter the Soviets. When the communists took control of the mainland, establishing the People's Republic of China and driving the nationalists to Taiwan, Truman would have been willing to maintain some relationship between the United States and the new government, but Mao was unwilling. Truman announced on January 5, 1950, that the United States would not engage in any dispute involving the Taiwan Strait, and that he would not intervene in the event of an attack by the PRC.
On June 27, 1950, after the outbreak of fighting in Korea, Truman ordered the U.S. Navy's Seventh Fleet into the Taiwan Strait to prevent further conflict between the communist government on the China mainland and the Republic of China (ROC) in Taiwan.
Truman usually worked well with his top staff – the exceptions were Israel in 1948 and Spain in 1945–1950. Truman was a very strong opponent of Francisco Franco, the right-wing dictator of Spain. He withdrew the American ambassador (but diplomatic relations were not formally broken), kept Spain out of the UN, and rejected any Marshall Plan financial aid to Spain. However, as the Cold War escalated, support for Spain was strong in Congress, the Pentagon, the business community and other influential elements especially Catholics and cotton growers.
Liberal opposition to Spain had faded after the Wallace element broke with the Democratic Party in 1948; the CIO became passive on the issue. As Secretary of State Acheson increased his pressure on Truman, the president stood alone in his administration as his own top appointees wanted to normalize relations. When China entered the Korean War and pushed American forces back, the argument for allies became irresistible. Admitting he was "overruled and worn down," Truman relented and sent an ambassador and made loans available.
Soviet espionage and McCarthyism
In August 1948, Whittaker Chambers, a former spy for the Soviets and a senior editor at Time magazine, testified before the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC). He said an underground communist network had worked inside the U.S. government during the 1930s, of which Chambers had been a member, along with Alger Hiss, until recently a senior State Department official. Chambers did not allege any spying during the Truman presidency. Although Hiss denied the allegations, he was convicted in January 1950 for perjury for denials under oath.
The Soviet Union's success in exploding an atomic weapon in 1949 and the fall of the nationalist Chinese the same year led many Americans to conclude subversion by Soviet spies was responsible and to demand that communists be rooted out from the government and other places of influence. Hoping to contain these fears, Truman began a "loyalty program" with Executive Order 9835 in 1947. However, Truman got himself into deeper trouble when he called the Hiss trial a "red herring". Wisconsin Senator Joseph McCarthy accused the State Department of harboring communists and rode the controversy to political fame, leading to the Second Red Scare, also known as McCarthyism. McCarthy's stifling accusations made it difficult to speak out against him. This led Truman to call McCarthy "the greatest asset the Kremlin has" by "torpedo the bipartisan foreign policy of the United States."
Charges that Soviet agents had infiltrated the government were believed by 78 percent of the people in 1946 and became a major campaign issue for Eisenhower in 1952. Truman was reluctant to take a more radical stance, because he felt it could threaten civil liberties and add to a potential hysteria. At the same time, he felt political pressure to indicate a strong national security. It is unclear to what extent President Truman was briefed of the Venona intercepts, which discovered widespread evidence of Soviet espionage on the atom bomb project and afterward. Truman continued his own loyalty program for some time while believing the issue of communist espionage was overstated. In 1949, Truman described American communist leaders, whom his administration was prosecuting, as "traitors". Truman would later state in private conversations with friends that his creation of a loyalty program had been a "terrible" mistake.
In 1950, Truman vetoed the McCarran Internal Security Act, which was passed by Congress just after the start of the Korean War and was aimed at controlling communists in America. Truman called the Act, "the greatest danger to freedom of speech, press, and assembly since the Alien and Sedition Laws of 1798," a "mockery of the Bill of Rights" and a "long step toward totalitarianism". His veto was immediately overridden by Congress and the Act became law. In the mid-1960s, parts of the Act were found to be unconstitutional by the United States Supreme Court.
Blair House and assassination attempt
Main articles: White House Reconstruction and Attempted assassination of Harry S. Truman
In 1948, Truman ordered an addition to the exterior of the White House: a second-floor balcony in the south portico, which came to be known as the Truman Balcony. The addition was unpopular. Some said it spoiled the appearance of the south facade, but it gave the First Family more living space. Meanwhile, structural deterioration and a near-imminent collapse of the White House led to a comprehensive dismantling and rebuilding of the building's interior from 1949 to 1952. Architectural and engineering investigations during 1948 deemed it unsafe for occupancy. Truman, his family, and the entire residence staff were relocated across the street into Blair House during the renovations. As the newer West Wing, including the Oval Office, remained open, Truman walked to and from his work across the street each morning and afternoon.
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 Newsreel scenes in English of the assassination attempt on U.S. President Harry S. Truman |
On November 1, 1950, Puerto Rican nationalists Griselio Torresola and Oscar Collazo attempted to assassinate Truman at Blair House. On the street outside the residence, Torresola mortally wounded a White House policeman, Leslie Coffelt. Before he died, the officer shot and killed Torresola. Collazo was wounded and stopped before he entered the house. He was found guilty of murder and sentenced to death in 1952. Truman commuted his sentence to life in prison. To try to settle the question of Puerto Rican independence, Truman allowed a plebiscite in Puerto Rico in 1952 to determine the status of its relationship to the United States. Nearly 82 percent of the people voted in favor of a new constitution for the Estado Libre Asociado, a continued 'associated free state.'
Steel and coal strikes
Further information: 1952 steel strikeIn response to a labor/management impasse arising from bitter disagreements over wage and price controls, Truman instructed his Secretary of Commerce, Charles W. Sawyer, to take control of a number of the nation's steel mills in April 1952. Truman cited his authority as commander in chief and the need to maintain an uninterrupted supply of steel for munitions for the war in Korea. The Supreme Court found Truman's actions unconstitutional, however, and reversed the order in a major separation-of-powers decision, Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer (1952). The 6–3 decision, which held that Truman's assertion of authority was too vague and was not rooted in any legislative action by Congress, was delivered by a court composed entirely of justices appointed by either Truman or Roosevelt. The high court's reversal of Truman's order was one of the notable defeats of his presidency.
Scandals and controversies
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In 1950, the Senate, led by Estes Kefauver, investigated numerous charges of corruption among senior administration officials, some of whom received fur coats and deep freezers in exchange for favors. A large number of employees of the Internal Revenue Bureau (today the IRS) were accepting bribes; 166 employees either resigned or were fired in 1950, with many soon facing indictment. When Attorney General J. Howard McGrath fired the special prosecutor in early 1952 for being too zealous, Truman fired McGrath. Truman submitted a reorganization plan to reform the IRB; Congress passed it, but corruption was a major issue in the 1952 presidential election.
On December 6, 1950, Washington Post music critic Paul Hume wrote a critical review of a concert by the president's daughter Margaret Truman:
Miss Truman is a unique American phenomenon with a pleasant voice of little size and fair quality ... cannot sing very well ... is flat a good deal of the time—more last night than at any time we have heard her in past years ... has not improved in the years we have heard her ... still cannot sing with anything approaching professional finish.
Truman wrote a scathing response:
I've just read your lousy review of Margaret's concert. I've come to the conclusion that you are an 'eight ulcer man on four ulcer pay.' It seems to me that you are a frustrated old man who wishes he could have been successful. When you write such poppy-cock as was in the back section of the paper you work for it shows conclusively that you're off the beam and at least four of your ulcers are at work. Some day I hope to meet you. When that happens you'll need a new nose, a lot of beefsteak for black eyes, and perhaps a supporter below! Pegler, a gutter snipe, is a gentleman alongside you. I hope you'll accept that statement as a worse insult than a reflection on your ancestry.
Truman was criticized by many for the letter. However, he pointed out that he wrote it as a loving father and not as the president.
In 1951, William M. Boyle, Truman's longtime friend and chairman of the Democratic National Committee, was forced to resign after being charged with financial corruption.
Civil rights
Further information: President's Committee on Civil RightsA 1947 report by the Truman administration titled To Secure These Rights presented a detailed ten-point agenda of civil rights reforms. Speaking about this report, international developments have to be taken into account, for with the UN Charter being passed in 1945, the question of whether international human rights law could be applicable also on an inner-land basis became crucial in the United States. Though the report acknowledged such a path was not free from controversy in the 1940s United States, it nevertheless raised the possibility for the UN-Charter to be used as a legal tool to combat racial discrimination in the United States.
In February 1948, the president submitted a civil rights agenda to Congress that proposed creating several federal offices devoted to issues such as voting rights and fair employment practices. This provoked a storm of criticism from southern Democrats in the runup to the national nominating convention, but Truman refused to compromise, saying: "My forebears were Confederates ... but my very stomach turned over when I had learned that Negro soldiers, just back from overseas, were being dumped out of Army trucks in Mississippi and beaten."
Tales of the abuse, violence, and persecution suffered by many African American veterans upon their return from World War II infuriated Truman and were major factors in his decision to issue Executive Order 9981, in July 1948, requiring equal opportunity in the armed forces. In the early 1950s after several years of planning, recommendations and revisions between Truman, the Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity and the various branches of the military, the services became racially integrated. Truman later appointed people who aligned with his civil rights agenda. He appointed fellow colonel and civil rights icon Blake R. Van Leer to the board of the United States Naval Academy and UNESCO who had a focus to work against racism through influential statements on race. Truman made a historic move in 1949, when he gave a recess appointment to William H. Hastie for the Court of Appeals, the first African-American federal judge in the United States.
Executive Order 9980, also in 1948, made it illegal to discriminate against persons applying for civil service positions based on race. A third, in 1951, established the Committee on Government Contract Compliance, which ensured defense contractors did not discriminate because of race.
Administration and cabinet
Main article: Presidency of Harry S. Truman § Administration and cabinetForeign policy
Main article: Foreign policy of the Harry S. Truman administrationFrom 1947 until 1989, world affairs were dominated by the Cold War, in which the U.S. and its allies faced the Soviet Union and its allies. There was no large-scale fighting but instead several local civil wars as well as the ever-present threat of a catastrophic nuclear war.
Unlike Roosevelt, Truman distrusted Stalin and the Soviet Union, and did not have FDR's faith in the UN to soften major tensions. Nevertheless, he cooperated in terms of dividing control over Germany. Soviet efforts to use its army to control politics in Eastern Europe and Iran angered Washington. The final break came in 1947 when the Labour government in London could no longer afford to help Greece fight communism and asked Washington to assume responsibility for suppressing the Communist uprising there. The result was the Truman Doctrine of 1947–48 which made it national policy to contain Communist expansion.
Truman was supported by the great majority of Democrats, after he forced out the Henry Wallace faction that wanted good terms with Moscow. Truman's policy had the strong support of most Republicans, who led by Senator Arthur Vandenberg overcame the isolationist Republicans led by Senator Robert A. Taft.
In 1948, Truman signed the Marshall Plan, which supplied Western Europe—including Germany—with US$13 billion in reconstruction aid. Stalin vetoed any participation by East European nations. A similar program was operated by the United States to restore the Japanese economy. The U.S. actively sought allies, which it subsidized with military and economic "foreign aid", as well as diplomatic support. The main diplomatic initiative was the establishment of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1949, committing the United States to nuclear defense of Western Europe. The result was a peace in Europe, coupled with the fear of Soviet invasion and a reliance on American protection. The United States operated a worldwide network of bases for its Army, Navy and Air Force, with large contingents stationed in Germany, Japan and South Korea. Washington had a weak intelligence community before 1942, and the Soviets had a very effective network of spies. The solution was to create the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) in 1947. Economic and propaganda warfare against the communist world became part of the American toolbox.
The containment policy was developed by State Department official George Kennan in 1947. Kennan characterized the Soviet Union as an aggressive, anti-Western power that necessitated containment, a characterization which would shape US foreign policy for decades to come. The idea of containment was to match Soviet aggression with force wherever it occurred while not using nuclear weapons. The policy of containment created a bipolar, zero-sum world where the ideological conflicts between the Soviet Union and the United States dominated geopolitics. Due to the antagonism on both sides and each countries' search for security, a tense worldwide contest developed between the two states as the two nations' governments vied for global supremacy militarily, culturally, and politically.
The Cold War was characterized by a lack of global hot wars. Instead there were proxy wars, fought by client states and proxies of the United States and Soviet Union. The most important was Korean War (1950–1953), a stalemate that drained away Truman's base of support. Truman made five international trips during his presidency.
1952 election
Further information: 1952 United States presidential election
In 1951, the United States ratified the 22nd Amendment, making a president ineligible for election to a third term or for election to a second full term after serving more than two remaining years of a term of a previously elected president. The latter clause did not apply to Truman's situation in 1952 because of a grandfather clause exempting the incumbent president.
Therefore, he seriously considered running for another term in 1952 and left his name on the ballot in the New Hampshire primary. However, all his close advisors, pointing to his age, his failing abilities, and his poor showing in the polls, talked him out of it. At the time of the 1952 New Hampshire primary (March 11, 1952), no candidate had won Truman's backing. His first choice, Chief Justice Fred M. Vinson, had declined to run. Illinois Governor Adlai Stevenson had also turned Truman down, Vice President Barkley was considered too old, and Truman distrusted and disliked Senator Kefauver, who had made a name for himself by his investigations of the Truman administration scandals.
Truman let his name be entered in the New Hampshire primary by supporters. The highly unpopular Truman was handily defeated by Kefauver; 18 days later the president formally announced he would not seek a second full term. Truman was eventually able to persuade Stevenson to run, and the governor gained the nomination at the 1952 Democratic National Convention.
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Eisenhower gained the Republican nomination, with Senator Nixon as his running mate, and campaigned against what he denounced as Truman's failures: "Korea, communism and corruption". He pledged to clean up the "mess in Washington," and promised to "go to Korea." Eisenhower defeated Stevenson decisively in the general election, ending 20 years of Democratic presidents. While Truman and Eisenhower had previously been on good terms, Truman felt annoyed that Eisenhower did not denounce Joseph McCarthy during the campaign. Similarly, Eisenhower was outraged when Truman accused the former general of disregarding "sinister forces ... Anti-Semitism, anti-Catholicism, and anti-foreignism" within the Republican Party.
Post-presidency (1953–1972)
Financial situation
Before being elected as Jackson County judge, Truman had earned little money, and was in debt from the failure of his haberdashery. His election as senator in 1934 carried with it a salary of $10,000 (equivalent to $228,000 in 2023), high for the time, but the need to maintain two homes, with one in expensive Washington, Margaret Truman's college expenses, and contributions to the support of needy relatives, left the Trumans little extra money. He likely had around $7,500 (equivalent to $127,000 in 2023) in cash and government bonds when nominated for vice president.
His finances were transformed by his accession to the presidency, which carried with it a salary of $75,000 (equivalent to $1,269,000 in 2023), which was increased to $100,000 (equivalent to $1,281,000 in 2023) in 1949. This was a higher salary than any Major League Baseball star, except Joe DiMaggio, who also earned $100,000 in his final two seasons (1950 and 1951). Beginning in 1949, the president was also granted a $50,000 (equivalent to $640,000 in 2023) expense allowance, which was initially tax-free, and did not have to be accounted for. Although the allowance became taxable later in his presidency, Truman never reported it on his tax return, and converted some of the funds to cash he kept in the White House safe and later in a safe deposit box in Kansas City.
Upon leaving the presidency, Truman returned to Independence, Missouri, to live at the Wallace home he and Bess had shared for years with her mother. In a biography that contributed greatly to the myth that Truman was near penury after departing the White House, David McCullough stated that the Trumans had little alternative than to return to Independence, for his only income was his army pension of $112.56 per month (equivalent to $1,282 in 2023), and he had only been able to save a modest amount from his salary as president. In February 1953, Truman signed a book deal for his memoirs, and in a draft will dated December of that year listed land worth $250,000 (equivalent to $2,847,000 in 2023), savings bonds of the same amount, and cash of $150,000 (equivalent to $1,708,000 in 2023). He wrote, "Bonds, land, and cash all come from savings of presidential salary and free expense account. It should keep you and Margaret comfortably."
The writing of the memoirs was a struggle for Truman, and he went through a dozen collaborators during the project, not all of whom served him well, but he remained heavily involved in the result. For the memoirs, Truman received a payment of $670,000 (equivalent to $7,620,522 in 2023). The memoirs were a commercial and critical success. They were published in two volumes: Memoirs by Harry S. Truman: Year of Decisions (1955) and Memoirs by Harry S. Truman: Years of Trial and Hope (1956).
Former members of Congress and the federal courts received a federal retirement package; President Truman himself ensured that former servants of the executive branch of government received similar support. In 1953, however, there was no such benefit package for former presidents, and Congressional pensions were not approved until 1946, after Truman had left the Senate, so he received no pension for his Senate service. Truman, behind the scenes, lobbied for a pension, writing to congressional leaders that he had been near penury but for the sale of family farmlands, and in February 1958, in the first televised interview of a former US president that aired on CBS, Truman claimed that "If I hadn't inherited some property that finally paid things through, I'd be on relief right now." That year, Congress passed the Former Presidents Act, offering a $25,000 (equivalent to $264,014 in 2023) yearly pension to each former president, and it is likely that Truman's claim to be in difficult financial straits played a role in the law's enactment. The only other living former president at the time, Herbert Hoover, also took the pension, even though he did not need the money; reportedly, he did so to avoid embarrassing Truman.
Truman's net worth improved further in 1958 when he and his siblings sold most of the family farm to a Kansas City real estate developer. When he was serving as a county judge, Truman borrowed $31,000 (equivalent to $353,030 in 2023) by mortgaging the farm to the county school fund, which was legal at the time. When Republicans controlled the court in 1940, they foreclosed in an effort to embarrass Truman politically, and his mother and sister Mary Jane had to vacate the home. In 1945, Truman organized a syndicate of supporters who purchased the farm with the understanding that they would sell it back to the Trumans. Harry and Vivian Truman purchased 87 acres in 1945, and Truman purchased another portion in 1946. In January 1959, Truman calculated his net worth as $1,046,788.86 (equivalent to $10,941,000 in 2023), including a share in the Los Angeles Rams football team. Nevertheless, the Trumans always lived modestly in Independence, and when Bess Truman died in 1982, almost a decade after her husband, the house was found to be in poor condition due to deferred maintenance.
Bess Truman's personal papers were made public in 2009, including financial records and tax returns. The myth that Truman had been in straitened circumstances after his presidency was slow to dissipate; Paul Campos wrote in 2021, "The current, 20,000-plus-word Misplaced Pages biography of Truman goes so far as to assert that, because his earlier business ventures had failed, Truman left the White House with 'no personal savings.' Every aspect of this narrative is false."
Truman Library and academic positions
See also: Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and MuseumTruman's predecessor, Franklin D. Roosevelt, had organized his own presidential library, but legislation to enable future presidents to do something similar had not been enacted. Truman worked to garner private donations to build a presidential library, which he donated to the federal government to maintain and operate—a practice adopted by his successors.
He testified before Congress to have money appropriated to have presidential papers copied and organized. He was proud of the bill's passage in 1957. Max Skidmore, in his book on the life of former presidents, wrote that Truman was a well-read man, especially in history. Skidmore added that the presidential papers legislation and the founding of his library "was the culmination of his interest in history. Together they constitute an enormous contribution to the United States—one of the greatest of any former president."
Truman taught occasional courses at universities, including Yale, where he was a Chubb Fellow visiting lecturer in 1958. In 1962, Truman was a visiting lecturer at Canisius College.
Politics
Truman supported Adlai Stevenson's second bid for the White House in 1956, although he had initially favored Democratic governor W. Averell Harriman of New York. He continued to campaign for Democratic senatorial candidates for many years.
In 1960 Truman gave a public statement announcing he would not attend the Democratic Convention that year, citing concerns about the way that the supporters of John F. Kennedy had gained control of the nominating process, and called on Kennedy to forgo the nomination for that year. Kennedy responded with a press conference where he bluntly rebuffed Truman's advice.
Despite his supportive stance on civil rights during his presidency, Truman expressed criticism of the civil rights movement during the 1960s. In 1960, he stated that he believed the sit-in movement to be part of a Soviet plot. Truman's statement garnered a response from Martin Luther King Jr., who wrote a letter to the former president stating that he was "baffled" by the accusation, and demanded a public apology. Truman would later criticize King following the Selma march in 1965, believing the protest to be "silly" and claiming that it "can't accomplish a darn thing except to attract attention." In 1963, Truman voiced his opposition to interracial marriage, believing that daughters of white people would never love someone of an opposite color.
On December 22, 1963, Truman published an article in The Washington Post entitled ‘Limit CIA Role to Intelligence' where he said that “for some time I have been disturbed by the way CIA has been diverted from its original assignment. It has become an operational and at times a policy-making arm of the Government” and that he “never had any thought that when I set up the CIA that it would be injected into peacetime cloak and dagger operations”. He concluded that “there is something about the way the CIA has been functioning that is casting a shadow over our historic position and I feel that we need to correct it”.
Upon turning 80 in 1964, Truman was feted in Washington, and addressed the Senate, availing himself of a new rule that allowed former presidents to be granted privilege of the floor.
Medicare
After a fall in his home in late 1964, Truman's physical condition declined. In 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Medicare bill at the Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum and gave the first two Medicare cards to Truman and his wife Bess to honor the former president's fight for government health care while in office.
Death
On December 5, 1972, Truman was admitted to Kansas City's Research Hospital and Medical Center with pneumonia. He developed multiple organ failure, fell into a coma, and died at 7:50 a.m. on December 26, at the age of 88. At the time of his death, Truman had been the oldest living president, a distinction he held from the time of Hoover's death in 1964.
Bess Truman opted for a simple private service at the library rather than a state funeral in Washington. A week after the funeral, foreign dignitaries and Washington officials attended a memorial service at Washington National Cathedral.
Bess Truman died in 1982 and was buried next to her husband at the Harry S. Truman Library and Museum in Independence, Missouri.
Tributes and legacy
Legacy
When he left office in 1953, Truman was one of the most unpopular chief executives in history. His job approval rating of 22% in the Gallup Poll of February 1952 was lower than Richard Nixon's 24% in August 1974, the month that Nixon resigned. American public feeling towards Truman grew steadily warmer with the passing years; as early as 1962, a poll of 75 historians conducted by Arthur M. Schlesinger, Sr. ranked Truman among the "near great" presidents. The period following his death consolidated a partial rehabilitation of his legacy among both historians and members of the public. Truman died when the nation was consumed with crises in Vietnam and Watergate, and his death brought a new wave of attention to his political career. In the early and mid-1970s, Truman captured the popular imagination much as he had in 1948, this time emerging as a kind of political folk hero, a president who was thought to exemplify an integrity and accountability many observers felt was lacking in the Nixon White House. This public reassessment of Truman was aided by the popularity of a book of reminiscences which Truman had told to journalist Merle Miller beginning in 1961, with the agreement that they would not be published until after Truman's death.
Truman had his latter-day critics as well. After a review of information available to Truman about the presence of espionage activities in the U.S. government, Democratic Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan concluded that Truman was "almost willfully obtuse" concerning the danger of American communism. In 2010, historian Alonzo Hamby concluded that "Harry Truman remains a controversial president." However, Truman has fared well in polls ranking the presidents, consistently being listed in the top ten; this includes a 2022 poll by the Siena College Research Institute, which placed him in seventh.
The fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 caused Truman advocates to claim vindication for Truman's decisions in the postwar period. According to Truman biographer Robert Dallek, "His contribution to victory in the cold war without a devastating nuclear conflict elevated him to the stature of a great or near-great president." The 1992 publication of David McCollough's favorable biography of Truman further cemented the view of Truman as a highly regarded chief executive. According to historian Daniel R. McCoy in his book on the Truman presidency:
Harry Truman himself gave a strong and far-from-incorrect impression of being a tough, concerned and direct leader. He was occasionally vulgar, often partisan, and usually nationalistic ... On his own terms, Truman can be seen as having prevented the coming of a third world war and having preserved from Communist oppression much of what he called the free world. Yet clearly he largely failed to achieve his Wilsonian aim of securing perpetual peace, making the world safe for democracy, and advancing opportunities for individual development internationally.
Sites and honors
In 1956, Truman traveled to Europe with his wife. In Britain, he received an honorary degree in Civic Law from Oxford University and met with Winston Churchill. In 1959, he was given a 50-year award by the Masons, recognizing his longstanding involvement: he was initiated on February 9, 1909, into the Belton Freemasonry Lodge in Missouri. In 1911, he helped establish the Grandview Lodge, and he served as its first Worshipful Master. In September 1940, during his Senate re-election campaign, Truman was elected Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of Missouri; Truman said later that the Masonic election assured his victory in the general election. In 1945, he was made a 33° Sovereign Grand Inspector General and an Honorary Member of the supreme council at the Supreme Council A.A.S.R. Southern Jurisdiction Headquarters in Washington D.C. Truman was also a member of Sons of the American Revolution (SAR) and a card-carrying member of the Sons of Confederate Veterans. Two of his relatives were Confederate soldiers.
In 1975, the Truman Scholarship was created as a federal program to honor U.S. college students who exemplified dedication to public service and leadership in public policy.
In 1983 the Harry S. Truman State Office Building in Jefferson City was completed.
In 2004, the President Harry S. Truman Fellowship in National Security Science and Engineering was created as a distinguished postdoctoral three-year appointment at Sandia National Laboratories. In 2001, the University of Missouri established the Harry S. Truman School of Public Affairs to advance the study and practice of governance. The University of Missouri's Missouri Tigers athletic programs have an official mascot named Truman the Tiger. On July 1, 1996, Northeast Missouri State University became Truman State University—to mark its transformation from a teachers' college to a highly selective liberal arts university and to honor the only Missourian to become president. A member institution of the City Colleges of Chicago, Harry S. Truman College in Chicago, Illinois, is named in his honor for his dedication to public colleges and universities. In 2000, the headquarters for the State Department, built in the 1930s but never officially named, was dedicated as the Harry S. Truman Building.
Despite Truman's attempt to curtail the naval carrier arm, which led to the 1949 Revolt of the Admirals, an aircraft carrier is named after him. The USS Harry S. Truman (CVN-75) was christened on September 7, 1996. The 129th Field Artillery Regiment is designated "Truman's Own" in recognition of Truman's service as commander of its D Battery during World War I.
In 1991, Truman was inducted into the Hall of Famous Missourians, and a bronze bust depicting him is on permanent display in the rotunda of the Missouri State Capitol. In 2006, Thomas Daniel, grandson of the Trumans, accepted a star on the Missouri Walk of Fame to honor his late grandfather. In 2007, John Truman, a nephew, accepted a star for Bess Truman. The Walk of Fame is in Marshfield, Missouri, a city Truman visited in 1948.
In 2004, international relations scholars Rachel Kleinfeld and Matthew Spence founded the Truman National Security Project. In 2013, they launched the Truman Center for National Policy. Both organizations were named after Truman.
A statue of Harry S. Truman was installed in the U.S. Capitol, in Washington, D.C., on September 29, 2022, as part of the National Statuary Hall Collection.
On the 70th anniversary of the Korean War armistice in 2023, South Korea erected a statue of Truman in Dabu-dong, Gyeongsangbuk-do to commemorate him sending US troops to defend the country.
Other sites associated with Truman include:
- Harry S. Truman National Historic Site includes the Wallace House at 219 N. Delaware in Independence and the family farmhouse at Grandview, Missouri (Truman sold most of the farm for Kansas City suburban development including the Truman Corners Shopping Center).
- Harry S Truman Birthplace State Historic Site is the house where Truman was born and spent 11 months in Lamar, Missouri.
- Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum – The Presidential library in Independence
- Harry S. Truman Little White House – Truman's winter getaway at Key West, Florida
See also
- Electoral history of Harry S. Truman
- "Harry Truman", hit song by the band Chicago, 1975
- List of members of the American Legion
- List of presidents of the United States
- List of presidents of the United States by previous experience
- Truman, 1995 film
- Truman Day, Missouri state holiday, 1995
Notes
- Truman was vice president under Franklin D. Roosevelt and became president upon Roosevelt's death on April 12, 1945. As this was prior to the adoption of the Twenty-fifth Amendment in 1967, a vacancy in the office of vice president was not filled until the next election and inauguration.
- Truman was given the initial S as a middle name. There is disagreement over whether the period after the S should be included or omitted, or if both forms are equally valid. Truman's own archived correspondence shows that he regularly used the period when writing his name.
- Truman hald several leadership positions at the local and state level and in 1940 was elected to a one year term as Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of Missouri. In October 1945 he received the 33rd degree of the Scottish Rite.
- Truman was a founder of the Reserve Officers Association and organized Missouri's first chapter, Chapter 1.
- Truman organized the first American Legion post in Missouri, aided in organizing several others, and attended numerous annual conventions as a delegate.
- For example, see Fussell, Paul (1988). "Thank God for the Atomic Bomb". Thank God for the Atomic Bomb and Other Essays. New York Summit Books.
- That claim was removed from this article on August 1, 2021, with this edit.
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Main articles: Bibliography of Harry S. Truman and Presidency of Harry S. TrumanBiographies of Truman
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- Smith, J. Y. (November 28, 2001). "Paul Hume: Music Critic Who Panned Truman Daughter's Singing and Drew Presidential Wrath". The Washington Post. Retrieved July 22, 2012.
The New York Times
- Nevins, Allan (November 6, 1955). "Year of Decisions a 'volume of distinction'". The New York Times Book Review.
- Weintraub, Stanley (2000). "MacArthur's War Korea and the Undoing of an American Hero". The New York Times. Retrieved September 3, 2012.
Harry S. Truman Library and Museum
- McCray, Suzanne, and Tara Yglesias, eds. Wild about Harry: Everything You Have Ever Wanted to Know about the Truman Scholarship (University of Arkansas Press, 2021), how to work at this Library. online
- Giangreco, D. M.; Griffin, Robert E (1988). "The Airlift Begins: Airbridge to Berlin – The Berlin Crisis of 1948, its Origins and Aftermath". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Archived from the original on May 6, 2016. Retrieved July 28, 2012.
- Marks, Ted (1962). "Oral History Interview with Ted Marks". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Retrieved July 27, 2012.
- Southern, Mrs. William (June 28, 1919). "Wedding of Bess Wallace and Capt. Harry S. Truman". The Examiner. Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Retrieved July 29, 2012.
- Strout, Richard L. (February 5, 1971). "Oral History Interview with Richard L. Strout". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Retrieved July 27, 2012.
- Truman, Harry (May 14, 1948). "Memo recognizing the state of Israel". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Archived from the original on May 9, 2020. Retrieved July 28, 2012.
- Truman, Harry (November 11, 1918). "WWI Letter from Harry to Bess". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Archived from the original on October 12, 2017. Retrieved July 24, 2012.
- Vest, Kathleen. "Truman's First Democratic Convention". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Retrieved November 18, 2012.
- "Background Information". The Truman Balcony. Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Archived from the original on October 12, 2017. Retrieved October 16, 2012.
- "Background Information (Continued)". The Truman Balcony. Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Archived from the original on November 5, 2018. Retrieved October 16, 2012.
- "Biographical sketch of Mrs. Harry S. Truman". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Retrieved July 29, 2012.
- "Birthplace of Harry S. Truman". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. 1988. Archived from the original on May 3, 2019. Retrieved July 25, 2012.
- "'The Buck Stops Here' Desk sign". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Retrieved September 13, 2020.
- "Chronological Record of the 129th Field Artillery 1917–1919". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Archived from the original on May 3, 2019. Retrieved July 27, 2012.
- "Desegregation of the Armed Forces". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Archived from the original on April 5, 2019. Retrieved July 28, 2012.
- "Drugstore Clerk at 14 His First Job". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Retrieved July 25, 2012.
- "Eleanor and Harry: The Correspondence of Eleanor Roosevelt and Harry S. Truman". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Archived from the original on October 8, 2018. Retrieved July 28, 2012.
- "FAQ: Is the letter on display that Truman wrote in defense of his daughter's singing?". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. December 6, 1950. Retrieved July 29, 2012.
- "Harry S. Truman Post-Presidential Papers". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Retrieved July 28, 2012.
- "Harry Truman joins Battery B of the Missouri National Guard". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Archived from the original on November 5, 2018. Retrieved July 27, 2012.
- "Memorandum of Information for the Secretary – Blockade of Korea". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. July 6, 1950. Archived from the original on August 9, 2007. Retrieved July 28, 2012.
- "Military Personnel File of Harry S. Truman". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Retrieved July 27, 2012.
- "President Lyndon B. Johnson Signs Medicare Bill". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. July 30, 1965. Archived from the original on May 27, 2019. Retrieved July 29, 2012.
- "President Truman Addresses Congress on Proposed Health Program, Washington, D.C." This Day in Truman History. Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. November 19, 1945. Archived from the original on June 14, 2019. Retrieved July 27, 2012.
- McDonald, John W. (May 1984). "10 of Truman's Happiest Years Spent in Senate". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Retrieved May 10, 2014. Originally published in the Independence Examiner, Truman Centennial Edition.
- "Special Message to the Congress on Civil Rights". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Archived from the original on May 9, 2020. Retrieved December 2, 2012.
- "Use of the Period After the "S" in Harry S. Truman's Name". Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. Retrieved July 24, 2012.
Online sources
- Roberts, Christopher N.J. (1949). "William H. Fitzpatrick's Editorials on Human Rights". Quellen zur Geschichte der Menschenrechte. Retrieved November 4, 2017., published by Arbeitskreis Menschenrechte im 20. Jahrhundert
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- Berdichevsky, Norman (May 2012). "Israel: From Darling of the Left to Pariah State". New English Review. Archived from the original on October 12, 2017. Retrieved September 3, 2012.
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- "U.S. Constitution: Twenty-second Amendment". Find Law. Retrieved September 7, 2012.
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- "Hall of Famous Missourians". Missouri House of Representatives. Retrieved September 7, 2012.
- "Harry S. Truman: 2nd Confederate President". The Missouri Partisan Ranger. 1995. Retrieved July 29, 2012.
- "Harry S. Truman – 1948". United States Federal Archives. Retrieved September 7, 2012.
- "Harry S. Truman (1884–1972) Thirty-third President (1945–1952)". The Grand Lodge of Free and Accepted Masons of Pennsylvania. 2011. Archived from the original on July 17, 2012. Retrieved July 29, 2012.
- "Harry S. Truman, 34th Vice President (1945)". United States Senate. 2012. Archived from the original on May 3, 2019. Retrieved July 30, 2012.
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- "Truman Fellowship". Sandia National Laboratories. Retrieved September 8, 2012.
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- "USS Harry S. Truman (CVN-75)". NavSource Online. July 10, 2012. Retrieved September 8, 2012.
External links
Official
Media coverage
- Harry S. Truman collected news and commentary at The New York Times
- Newspaper clippings about Harry S. Truman in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW
Other
- United States Congress. "Harry S. Truman (id: T000387)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress.
- Harry S. Truman: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress
- Federal Bureau of Investigation Records: The Vault – Harry S. Truman
- Essays on Harry S. Truman, each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs
- The Presidents: Truman Archived December 26, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, an American Experience documentary
- Works by or about Harry S. Truman at the Internet Archive
- Works by Harry S. Truman at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
- "Life Portrait of Harry S. Truman", from C-SPAN's American presidents: Life Portraits, October 18, 1999
- Appearances on C-SPAN
- Harry S. Truman Personal Manuscripts
- Harry S. Truman at IMDb
- Works by Harry S. Truman at Project Gutenberg
- 1948 election episode in CNN's Race for the White House
This article incorporates public domain material from Records of the Adjutant General's Office. National Archives and Records Administration.
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