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{{Short description|Abrahamic monotheistic religion}} | |||
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{{About|the religion||Islam (disambiguation)}} | ||
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'''Islam''' (]: {{Audio|ar-al_islam.ogg|الإسلام; ''al-'islām''}}) is a ] ] originating with the teachings of ], a 7th-century ] religious and political figure. The word ''Islam'' means "submission," or the total surrender of one's self to ] (Arabic: ]). Islam's adherents are known as ]s, meaning "one who submits (to God)".<ref name="EoI-Islam">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | coauthors=J. Jomier | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> There are between 0.9 and 1.3 billion Muslims, making Islam the ], after ].<ref>Teece (2003), p.10</ref> | |||
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2022}} | |||
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=May 2022}} | |||
{{Infobox religion | |||
| native_name = {{lang|ar|{{Script|Arab|ٱلْإِسْلَام}}}}<br/>{{transliteration|ar|al-Islām}} | |||
| image = The Kaaba during Hajj.jpg | |||
| imagewidth = 275px | |||
| caption = The ] at ] in ], Saudi Arabia, the ] | |||
| type = | |||
| main_classification = ] | |||
| scripture = ] | |||
| theology = ] | |||
| area = ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Center |first=Pew Research |date=2013-04-30 |title=The World's Muslims: Religion, Politics and Society |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2013/04/30/the-worlds-muslims-religion-politics-society-overview/ |access-date=2024-03-20 |website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project |language=en-US |archive-date=25 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231025124036/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2013/04/30/the-worlds-muslims-religion-politics-society-overview/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://spice.fsi.stanford.edu/docs/the_spread_of_islam_in_west_africa_containment_mixing_and_reform_from_the_eighth_to_the_twentieth_century#:~:text=While%20the%20motivations%20of%20early,intensified%20the%20Trans%2DSaharan%20trade | title=The Spread of Islam in West Africa: Containment, Mixing, and Reform from }}</ref> | |||
| language = ] | |||
| territory = ] | |||
| separated_from = ] | |||
| founder = ]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Welch |first1=Alford T. |last2=Moussalli |first2=Ahmad S. |last3=Newby |first3=Gordon D. |date=2009 |title=Muḥammad |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World |editor=John L. Esposito |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0550 |quote= |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211050118/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0550 |archive-date=11 February 2017 }}</ref> | |||
| founded_date = 610 CE | |||
| founded_place = ]<!-- Beginnings are understood to be where Muhammad is said to have received his first ever revelation, which was inside a cave in this mountain -->, ], ], ] | |||
| number_of_followers = {{circa}} ]<ref name="pewresearch.orgReligion">{{Cite web |title=Religious Composition by Country, 2010-2050 |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/interactives/religious-composition-by-country-2010-2050/ |access-date=2024-03-09 |website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project |date=21 December 2022 |language=en-US |archive-date=28 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230128120036/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/interactives/religious-composition-by-country-2010-2050/ |url-status=live }}</ref> {{increase}} (individually referred to as ], collectively referred to as the {{transliteration|ar|]}}) | |||
| separations = ]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islam |year=1999 |article=Bāb |publisher=Koninklijke Brill NV |location=Leiden, The Netherlands |first=A. |last=Bausani}}</ref><br />]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Van der Vyer |first=J.D. |year=1996 |title=Religious human rights in global perspective: religious perspectives |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers |isbn=90-411-0176-4 |page=449|url=https://archive.org/details/religioushumanri0000unse |url-access=registration}}</ref><br />]<ref>{{cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of American Islam| first=Yvonne |last=Yazbeck Haddad|year=2014| isbn=9780199862634|page = 142|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref> | |||
}} | |||
{{Islam|expanded=}}{{Islam and iman}} | |||
'''Islam'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɪ|z|l|ɑː|m|,_|ˈ|ɪ|z|l|æ|m}} {{respell|IZ|la(h)m}};<ref>{{cite web |title=English pronunciation of Islam |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/pronunciation/english/islam |website=Cambridge Dictionary |access-date=19 Dec 2023 |archive-date=22 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122222922/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/pronunciation/english/islam |url-status=live }}</ref> {{langx|ar|{{Script|Arab|ٱلْإِسْلَام|al-Islām}}}}, {{small|romanized:}} ''al-Islām'', {{IPA|ar|alʔɪsˈlaːm|IPA}}, {{lit|submission ]]}}}} is an ] ] centered on the ] and the teachings of ],<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-04-10 |title=Muhammad: Biography, Prophet, Founder of Islam |url=https://www.biography.com/religious-figures/muhammad |access-date=2024-11-29 |website=Biography |language=en-US}}</ref> the religion's founder. Adherents of Islam are called ], who are estimated to number approximately ] and are the world's ] after ].<ref name="www.pewresearch.org-2022">{{Cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/topic/religion/religious-demographics/pew-templeton-global-religious-futures-project/|title=Pew-Templeton Global Religious Futures Project - Research and data from Pew Research Center|date=21 December 2022 |access-date=27 November 2023|archive-date=5 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205195540/https://www.pewresearch.org/topic/religion/religious-demographics/pew-templeton-global-religious-futures-project/|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
Muslims believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a ] that was revealed many times through earlier ], including ], ], ], ], and ]. Muslims consider the Quran to be the verbatim word of ] and the unaltered, final revelation. Alongside the Quran, Muslims also believe in previous ]s, such as the ] (the ]), the ] (]), and the ] (]). They believe that ] is the main and ], through whom the religion was completed. The teachings and normative examples of Muhammad, called the ], documented in accounts called the ], provide a constitutional model for Muslims. Islam is based on the belief in oneness and uniqueness of the God ('']''), and belief in an afterlife ('']'') with the ]—wherein the righteous will be rewarded in paradise ({{Transliteration|ar|]}}) and the unrighteous will be punished in hell ({{Transliteration|ar|]}}). The ]—considered ] acts of worship—are the Islamic oath and creed ({{Transliteration|ar|]}}), daily prayers ({{Transliteration|ar|]}}), almsgiving ({{Transliteration|ar|]}}), fasting ({{Transliteration|ar|]}}) in the month of ], and a pilgrimage ({{Transliteration|ar|]}}) to ]. Islamic law, '']'', touches on virtually every aspect of life, from ] and ] to ] and ] and the ]. The two main ] are ] and ]. The three ] are ] in Mecca, ] in ], and ] in ]. | |||
Muslims believe that God ] the ] to Muhammad, God's ], and regard the Qur'an and the ] (the words and deeds of Muhammad) as the fundamental sources of Islam.<ref>See: | |||
*Esposito (1996), p.41 | |||
*Ghamidi (2001): </ref> They do not regard Muhammad as the founder of a new religion, but as the restorer of the original monotheistic faith of ], ], ], and other ]. Islamic tradition holds that ] and ] ] the messages of these prophets over time either in interpretation, in text, or both.<ref name="Distorted">See: | |||
*Accad (2003): According to Ibn Taymiya, although only some Muslims accept the textual veracity of the entire Bible, most Muslims will grant the veracity of most of it. | |||
*Esposito (1998), pp.6,12 | |||
*Esposito (2002b), pp.4–5 | |||
*F. E. Peters (2003), p.9 | |||
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Muhammad | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=F. Buhl | coauthors=A. T. Welch | accessdate=2007-05-02}} | |||
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Tahrif | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=Hava Lazarus-Yafeh | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
The religion of Islam originated in Mecca in 610 ]. Muslims believe this is when ]. By the time of his death, most of the ] had ]. Muslim rule expanded outside Arabia under the ] and the subsequent ] ruled from the ] to the ]. In the ], specifically during the reign of the ], most of the Muslim world experienced a ], ] and ]. The ] involved ] as well as extensive trade and religious conversion as a result of ] ('']''), as well as through ], ], and ]. | |||
Islam includes many religious practices. Adherents are generally required to observe the ], which are five duties that unite Muslims into a community.<ref>Esposito (2002b), p.17</ref> In addition to the Five Pillars, ] (''Sharia'') has developed a tradition of rulings that touch on virtually all aspects of life and society. This tradition encompasses everything from practical matters like ] and ] to practices like ].<ref>See: | |||
*Esposito (2002b), pp.111,112,118 | |||
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Shari'ah | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
The two main ] are ] (85–90%) and ] (10–15%). While the ] initially arose from disagreements over the ], they grew to cover a broader dimension, both ] and ]. The Sunni canonical hadith collection consists of ], while the Shia canonical hadith collection consists of ]. Muslims make up a majority of the population in 49 countries. Approximately 12% of the world's Muslims live ], the most populous Muslim-majority country; {{#expr: 100 * 480/1570 round 0}}% live ]; 20% live ]; and 15% live ]. Muslim communities are also present ], ], and ]. Muslims are the ] major religious group, according to ]. This is due primarily to a higher ] and younger age structure compared to other major religions.<!--Do NOT add citations to the lead, except for material likely to be challenged, per ] (]. Move unneeded citations to the body.--> | |||
Almost all Muslims belong to one of two major denominations, the ] and ]. The schism developed in the late 7th century following disagreements over the religious and political leadership of the Muslim community. Roughly 85 percent of Muslims are Sunni and 15 percent are Shi'a. Islam is the predominant religion throughout the ], as well as in parts of ], ], ], and ]. Large communities are also found in ], ], the ], and ]. Only about 20 percent of Muslims come from ].<ref>See: | |||
* Esposito (2002b), p.21 | |||
* Esposito (2004), pp.2,43</ref> | |||
== Etymology{{anchor|Etymology}}<!-- Linked from many articles. If changing the section title, please let this anchor remain unchanged --> == | |||
==Etymology and meaning== | |||
{{See also|Muslims#Etymology}} | |||
The word ''islām'' is derived from the ] ''aslama'', which means to accept, surrender, or submit. Thus, Islam means submission to and acceptance of God, and believers must demonstrate this by worshiping him, following his commands, and avoiding ]. The word is given a number of meanings in the ]. In some verses ('']''), the quality of Islam as an internal conviction is stressed: "Whomsoever God desires to guide, He expands his breast to Islam."<ref>{{cite quran|6|125|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|61|7|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|39|22|style=ref}}</ref> Other verses connect ''islām'' and '']'' (usually translated as "religion"): "Today, I have perfected your religion (''dīn'') for you; I have completed My blessing upon you; I have approved Islam for your religion."<ref>{{cite quran|5|3|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|3|19|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|3|83|style=ref}}</ref> Still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God — more than just a verbal affirmation of faith.<ref>See: | |||
In Arabic, ''Islam'' ({{langx|ar|إسلام|lit=submission }})<ref name="Schimmel" /><ref>{{cite web |title=Definition of Islam {{!}} Dictionary.com |url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/islam |access-date=2022-05-09 |website=www.dictionary.com |language=en |archive-date=9 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220509110220/https://www.dictionary.com/browse/islam |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Haywood |first=John |title=Historical Atlas of the Medieval World (AD 600 - 1492) |publisher=Barnes & Noble, Inc. |year=2002 |isbn=0-7607-1975-6 |edition=1st |location=Spain |pages=3.13 |language=en}}</ref> is the verbal noun of ] originating from the verb {{lang|ar|سلم}} ({{transliteration|ar|salama}}), from the ] {{lang|ar|س-ل-م}} ({{transliteration|ar|]}}), which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of submission, safeness, and peace.<ref>" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110907230044/http://www.studyquran.co.uk/20_SIIN.htm |date=7 September 2011 }}." ''Lane's Lexicon'' 4. – via '']''.</ref> In a religious context, it refers to the total surrender to the will of ].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=Barnard |last2=Churchill |first2=Buntzie Ellis |url=https://archive.org/details/islamreligionpeo00lewi |title=Islam: The Religion and The People |publisher=Wharton School Publishing |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-13-223085-8 |page=}}</ref> A '']'' ({{lang|ar|مُسْلِم}}), the word for a follower of Islam,<ref>"." '']''. UK: ]. 2020.</ref> is the ] of the same verb form, and means "submitter (to God)" or "one who surrenders (to God)". In the ], ''Islam'' is presented as one part of a triad that also includes {{transliteration|ar|]}} (faith), and {{transliteration|ar|]}} (excellence).{{sfnp|Esposito|2000|pp=}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mahmutćehajić |first=Rusmir |url=https://archive.org/details/mosqueheartsubmi00mahm |title=The mosque: the heart of submission |publisher=] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8232-2584-2 |page= |url-access=registration}}</ref> | |||
* {{cite quran|9|74|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|49|14|style=ref}} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | coauthors=J. Jomier | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
Islam itself was historically called ] in the ]. This term has fallen out of use and is sometimes said to be ], as it suggests that a human being, rather than God, is central to Muslims' religion.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = Oxford University Press| last = Gibb| first = Sir Hamilton| title = Mohammedanism: an historical survey|isbn=9780195002454| year = 1969| page=1 | quote=Modern Muslims dislike the terms Mohammedan and Mohammedanism, which seem to them to carry the implication of worship of Mohammed, as Christian and Christianity imply the worship of Christ.}}</ref> | |||
==Beliefs== | |||
{{main|Aqidah}} | |||
According to the Qur'an all Muslims should believe in God, his revelations, his ], his ], and in the "]".<ref>{{cite quran|2|4|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|2|285|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|4|136|style=ref}}</ref> Also, there are other beliefs that differ between ]. The ] concept of predestination is called ],<ref>{{Muslim|1|1}}</ref> while the ] version is called ]. Unique to the Shi'a is the doctrine of '']'', or the political and spiritual leadership of the ]s.<ref>See: | |||
* Farah (2003), p.109 | |||
* Momen (1987), p.176</ref> | |||
== Articles of faith == | |||
Muslims believe that God ] his final message to humanity through the Islamic prophet Muhammad via the ]. For them, Muhammad was God's final prophet and the Qur'an is the revelations he received over more than two decades.<ref>Esposito (2004), pp.17,18,21</ref> In Islam, prophets are men selected by God to be his messengers. Muslims believe that prophets are human and not divine, though some are able to perform miracles to prove their claim. Islamic prophets are considered to be the closest to perfection of all humans, and are uniquely the recipients of divine ] — either directly from God or through angels.<ref>See: | |||
{{Main|Aqidah|Iman (Islam)|l2 = Iman}} | |||
* Momem (1987), p.176 | |||
The Islamic ] ('']'') requires belief in ]: God, ], revelation, prophets, the ], and the divine predestination.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Sourcebook of the World's Religions: An Interfaith Guide to Religion and Spirituality|publisher=New World Library|pages=68–9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dbSPOoQfu0IC&pg=PA68|editor-first=Joel|editor-last=Beversluis|year=2011|isbn=9781577313328|access-date=15 January 2023|archive-date=28 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228022948/https://books.google.com/books?id=dbSPOoQfu0IC&pg=PA68#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-20}}</ref> Islamic theology says that all of God's messengers since ] preached the message of Islam — submission to the will of the one God. Islam is described in the Qur'an as "the primordial nature upon which God created mankind",<ref>{{cite quran|30|30|style=ref}}</ref> and the Qur'an states that the ] ''Muslim'' was given by ].<ref>See: | |||
* {{cite quran|22|78|style=ref}} | |||
* "Islam", ''Encyclopedia of Religion''</ref> | |||
=== God === | |||
As a historical phenomenon, Islam originated in ] in the early 7th century.<ref>"Islam", ''Encyclopedia of Religion''</ref> Islamic texts depict Judaism and Christianity as prophetic successor traditions to the teachings of Abraham. The Qur'an calls ]s and ]s "]" (''ahl al-kitāb''), and distinguishes them from polytheists. Muslims believe that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, the '']'' (]) and the '']'' (]), had become ]—either in interpretation, in text, or both.<ref name="Distorted"/> | |||
] in Arabic in ], ], ]]] | |||
{{Main|God in Islam}} | |||
The central concept of Islam is '']'' ({{langx|ar|توحيد|link=no}}), the oneness of God. It is usually thought of as a ''precise ]'', but is also ] in Islamic mystical teachings.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/tawhid |title=Tawhid |encyclopedia=] |access-date=17 September 2021 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=7 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211107041300/https://www.britannica.com/topic/tawhid |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{harvc |last=Gimaret|first=D.|year=2012|c=Tawḥīd |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)}} {{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_7454}}</ref> God is seen as incomparable and without multiplicity of persons such as in the ], and associating multiplicity to God or attributing God's attributes to others is seen as ], called ]. God is described as ] so is beyond comprehension. {{under discussion inline|Al-Ghayb}} Thus, Muslims are not ]s and do not attribute forms to God. God is instead described and referred to by several ], the most common being ''Ar-Rahmān'' ({{lang|ar|الرحمان}}) meaning "The Entirely Merciful", and ''Ar-Rahīm'' ({{lang|ar|الرحيم}}) meaning "The Especially Merciful" which are invoked at the beginning of most chapters of the Quran.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ali |first1=Kecia |title=Islam : the key concepts |date=2008 |publisher=] |last2=Leaman |first2=Oliver |isbn=978-0-415-39638-7 |location=London |oclc=123136939}}</ref>{{sfnp|Campo|2009|p=34|loc="Allah"}} | |||
Islam teaches that the creation of everything in the ] was brought into being by God's command as expressed by the wording, "],"<ref group="lower-roman">{{qref|2|117|b=yl}}</ref><ref name="Schimmel">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Schimmel |first=Annemarie |author-link=Annemarie Schimmel |title=Islam |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islam |encyclopedia=] |access-date=17 September 2021 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=4 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150504201633/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/295507/Islam |url-status=live }}</ref> and that the ] is to worship God.<ref>Leeming, David. 2005. ''The Oxford Companion to World Mythology''. Oxford: ]. {{ISBN|978-0-195-15669-0}}. p. 209.</ref> He is viewed as a personal god<ref name="Schimmel" /> and there are no intermediaries, such as ], to contact God. Consciousness and awareness of God is referred to as ]. '']'' is a term with no ] or ] being ascribed to it and is also used by Muslims and Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews in reference to God, whereas ''{{transliteration|ar|ISO|]}}'' ({{lang|ar|إله}}) is a term used for a deity or a god in general.<ref>{{cite web |title=God |url=https://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/faithgod.html |access-date=18 December 2010 |website=Islam: Empire of Faith |publisher=] |archive-date=27 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140327034958/http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/faithgod.html |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
===God=== | |||
{{main|Allah}} | |||
{{seealso|Islamic concept of God}} | |||
Islam's fundamental theological concept is '']''—the belief that there is only one God. The Arabic term for God is ''Allāh''; most scholars believe it was derived from a contraction of the words '']'' (the) and ''{{ArabDIN|]}}'' (deity, masculine form), meaning "the God" (''{{ArabDIN|al-ilāh}}''), but others trace its origin to the Aramaic ''Alāhā''.<ref>See: | |||
* "Islam and Christianity", ''Encyclopedia of Christianity'' (2001): Arabic-speaking ]s and ]s also refer to God as ''Allāh''. | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Allah | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> The first of the Five Pillars of Islam, ''tawhīd'' is expressed in the '']'' (testification), which declares that there is no god but God, and that Muhammad is God's messenger. In traditional Islamic theology, God is beyond all comprehension; Muslims are not expected to visualize God but to worship and adore him as a protector. Although Muslims believe that ] was a prophet, they reject the Christian doctrine of the ], comparing it to polytheism. In Islamic theology, ] is just a man and not the son of God;<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title=Tathlith, Trinity | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | author=David Thomas | accessdate=2007-05-11}}: Contrary to Muslim understanding, some scholars have suggested that the Qur'an only opposes certain deviant forms of Trinitarian belief.</ref> God is described in a chapter ('']'') of the Qu'ran as "…God, the One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him."<ref>See: | |||
* {{cite quran|112|1|end=4|style=ref}} | |||
* Esposito (2002b), pp.74–76 | |||
* Esposito (2004), p.22 | |||
* Griffith (2006), p.248 | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Allah, Tawhid | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | author=D. Gimaret | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
=== |
=== Angels === | ||
] by ], 1307.]] | |||
] in a Qur'anic manuscript by ]]] | |||
{{ |
{{Main|Angels in Islam}} | ||
Angels ({{langx|ar|ملك|link=no}}, ''{{transliteration|ar|ALA|malak}}'') are beings described in the Quran{{sfnp|Burge|2015|p=23}} and hadith.{{sfnp|Burge|2015|p=79}} They are described as created to worship God and also to serve in other specific duties such as communicating ]s from God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's ] at the time of death. They are described as being created variously from 'light' (])<ref>" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220423085030/https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/nur |date=23 April 2022 }}." '']''. – via '']''.</ref><ref>{{harvc|last1=Hartner, W.|last2=Tj Boer |year=2012 |c=Nūr |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)}} {{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0874}}</ref><ref>{{harvc |last=Elias |first=Jamal J. |year=2003|c=Light |in=McAuliffe}} {{doi|10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00261}}</ref> or 'fire' (''nār'').<ref>{{harvc |last=Campo |first=Juan E. |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/nar |c=Nar |in=Martin |year=2004}}. – via ].</ref><ref>{{harvc|last=Fahd, T. |year=2012 |c=Nār |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)}} {{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0846}}</ref><ref>{{harvc |last=Toelle |first=Heidi |year=2002 |c=Fire |in=McAuliffe}} {{doi|10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00156}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|McAuliffe|2003|p=45}}</ref> Islamic angels are often represented in ] combined with ] images, such as wings, being of great size or wearing heavenly articles.{{sfnp|Burge|2015|pp=97–99}}<ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2002b|pp=26–28}}</ref><ref>{{harvc |last=Webb |first=Gisela |c=Angel |year=n.d. |in=McAuliffe}}</ref><ref>{{harvc|last1=MacDonald, D. B.|last2=Madelung, W. |year=2012 |c=Malāʾika |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)}}{{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0642}}</ref> Common characteristics for angels include a lack of bodily needs and desires, such as eating and drinking.{{sfnp|Çakmak|2017|p=140}} Some of them, such as ] (''Jibrīl'') and ] (''Mika'il''), are mentioned by name in the Quran. Angels play a significant role in literature about the ], where Muhammad encounters several angels during his journey through the heavens.{{sfnp|Burge|2015|p=79}} Further angels have often been featured in ], ] and ].{{sfnp|Burge|2015|p=22}} | |||
{{Seealso|Origin and development of the Qur'an}} | |||
Muslims consider the Qur'an to be the literal word of God; it is the central ] of Islam.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title=Qur'an| encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-17}}</ref> Muslims believe that the verses of the Qur'an were revealed to Muhammad by God through the angel Gabriel on many occasions between the years 610 and his death on ] ]. The Qur'an was written down by Muhammad's companions ('']'') while he was alive, although the prime method of transmission was orally. It was compiled in the time of ], the first caliph, and was standardized in the time of ], the third caliph. From textual evidence, modern Western academics find that the Qur'an of today has not changed significantly over the years.<ref>See: | |||
*William Montgomery Watt in ''The Cambridge History of Islam'', p.32 | |||
*F. E. Peters (1991), pp.3–5: "Few have failed to be convinced that … the Quran is … the words of Muhammad, perhaps even dictated by him after their recitation."</ref> | |||
=== Scriptures === | |||
The Qur'an is divided into 114 ]s, or chapters, which combined, contain 6,000 '']s'', or poetic verses. The chronologically earlier suras, revealed at Mecca, are primarily concerned with ethical and spiritual topics. The later Medinan suras mostly discuss social and moral issues relevant to the Muslim community.<ref>See: | |||
] manuscript resting on a ], a book rest for the holy text]] | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-17}} | |||
{{Main|Islamic holy books|Quran|Wahy}} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Qur'an | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-17}} | |||
{{See also|History of the Quran}} | |||
</ref> The Qur'an is more concerned with moral guidance than legal instruction, and is considered the "sourcebook of Islamic principles and values".<ref>Esposito (2004), p.79</ref> Muslim jurists consult the ''hadith'', or the written record of Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Qur'an and assist with its interpretation. The science of Qur'anic commentary and exegesis is known as '']''.<ref>See: | |||
The pre-eminent holy text of Islam is the ]. Muslims believe that the verses of the Quran were revealed to Muhammad by God, through the ] Gabriel, on multiple occasions between 610 CE<ref name="610CE">{{harvc|c=Muhammad|in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|year=n.d.|last2=Welch|first2=A.T.|last1=Buhl|first1=F.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Watt |first=William Montgomery |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AQUZ6BGyohQC&pg=PA5 |title=Islam and the Integration of Society |date=2003 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-415-17587-6 |pages=5 |access-date=15 June 2021 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228022949/https://books.google.com/books?id=AQUZ6BGyohQC&pg=PA5#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> and 632, the year Muhammad died.{{sfnp|Esposito|2004|pp=17–18, 21}} While Muhammad was alive, these revelations were written down by ], although the primary method of transmission was orally through ].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Al Faruqi |first1=Lois Ibsen |author-link=Lois Lamya al-Faruqi |year=1987 |title=The Cantillation of the Qur'an |journal=] |issue=Autumn – Winter 1987 |pages=3–4}}</ref> The Quran is divided into 114 chapters ('']'') which contain a combined 6,236 verses ('']''). The chronologically earlier chapters, revealed at ], are concerned primarily with spiritual topics, while the later ]n chapters discuss more social and legal issues relevant to the Muslim community.<ref name="Schimmel" /><ref name="Ringgren">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Ringgren |first=Helmer |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Quran |title=Qurʾān |encyclopedia=] |access-date=17 September 2021 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=5 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150505001543/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/487666/Quran |url-status=live }} "The word ''Quran'' was invented and first used in the Quran itself. There are ] about this term and its formation."</ref> Muslim jurists consult the ''hadith'' ('accounts'), or the written record of Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Quran and assist with its interpretation. The science of Quranic commentary and exegesis is known as '']''.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=] |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/tafsir |title=Tafsīr |access-date=17 September 2021 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=19 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019035210/https://www.britannica.com/topic/tafsir |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfnp|Esposito|2004|pp=79–81}} In addition to its religious significance, the Quran is widely regarded as the finest work in ],<ref>{{cite book|first=Alan|last=Jones|location=London|publisher=]|year=1994|page=1|title=The Koran|quote="Its outstanding literary merit should also be noted: it is by far, the finest work of Arabic prose in existence."|isbn=1842126091}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Arthur|last=Arberry|title=The Koran Interpreted|location=London|publisher=]|year=1956|quote="It may be affirmed that within the literature of the Arabs, wide and fecund as it is both in poetry and in elevated prose, there is nothing to compare with it."|page=191|isbn=0684825074}}</ref> and has influenced art and the Arabic language.<ref>Kadi, Wadad, and Mustansir Mir. "Literature and the Quran." In '']'' 3. pp. 213, 216.</ref> | |||
* Esposito (2004), pp.79–81 | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Tafsir | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-17}}</ref> | |||
Islam also holds that God has sent revelations, called '']'', to different prophets numerous times throughout history. However, Islam teaches that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, such as the '']'' (]) and the '']'' (]), have become ]—either in interpretation, in text, or both,<ref name="harvp|Esposito|2002b|pp=4–5">{{harvp|Esposito|2002b|pp=4–5}}</ref><ref name="harvp|Peters|2003|p=9">{{harvp|Peters|2003|p=9}}</ref><ref>{{harvc|c=Muhammad |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|year=n.d. |last2=Welch |first2=A.T. |last1=Buhl |first1=F.}}</ref><ref>{{harvc|c=Tahrif |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|year=n.d. |author=]}}</ref> while the Quran (lit. 'Recitation') is viewed as the final, verbatim and unaltered word of God.<ref name="Ringgren" /><ref>{{harvp|Teece|2003|pp=12–13}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Turner|2006|p=42}}</ref>{{sfnp|Bennett|2010|p=101}} | |||
The word ''Qur'an'' means "recitation". When Muslims speak in the abstract about "the Qur'an", they usually mean the scripture as recited in Arabic rather than the printed work or any translation of it. To Muslims, the Qur'an is perfect only as revealed in the original Arabic; translations are necessarily deficient because of language differences, the fallibility of translators, and the impossibility of preserving the original's inspired style. Translations are therefore regarded only as commentaries on the Qur'an, or "interpretations of its meaning", not as the Qur'an itself.<ref>See: | |||
* Teece (2003), pp.12,13 | |||
* C. Turner (2006), p.42 | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Qu'ran | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}: The word ''Qur'an'' was invented and first used in the Qur'an itself. There are ] about this term and its formation.</ref> | |||
=== |
=== Prophets === | ||
{{ |
{{Main|Prophets and messengers in Islam|Sunnah|Hadith}} | ||
] |access-date=7 September 2023 |archive-date=9 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230909130407/https://gallica.bnf.fr/view3if/ga/ark:/12148/btv1b8427195m/f16 |url-status=live }}</ref> ] depicting ] leading ], ], ] and other prophets in prayer]] | |||
Belief in angels is crucial to the faith of Islam. The Arabic word for Angels (''malak'') means "messenger", like its counterparts in Hebrew (''malʾak'') and Greek (''angelos''). According to the Qur'an, angels do not possess ], and worship God in perfect obedience.<ref>{{cite quran|21|19|end=20|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|35|1|style=ref}}</ref> Angels' duties include communicating revelations from God, glorifying God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's soul at the time of death. They are also thought to intercede on man's behalf. The Qur'an describes angels as "messengers with wings—two, or three, or four (pairs): He adds to Creation as He pleases…"<ref>See: | |||
Prophets (Arabic: {{langx|ar|أنبياء|label=none|translit=anbiyāʾ}}) are believed to have been chosen by God to preach a divine message. Some of these prophets additionally deliver a new book and are called "messengers" ({{langx|ar| رسول‎|label=none|translit=rasūl}}).<ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2003|p=225}}</ref> Muslims believe prophets are human and not divine. All of the prophets are said to have preached the same basic message of Islam – submission to the will of God – to various nations in the past, and this is said to account for many similarities among religions. The Quran recounts the names of numerous figures considered ], including ], ], ], ] and ], among others.<ref name="Schimmel" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Reeves |first=J. C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WNId86Eu4TEC |title=Bible and Qurʼān: Essays in scriptural intertextuality |publisher=] |year=2004 |isbn=90-04-12726-7 |location=] |page=177 |access-date=21 August 2019 |archive-date=19 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230419164019/https://books.google.com/books?id=WNId86Eu4TEC |url-status=live }}</ref> The stories associated with the prophets beyond the Quranic accounts are collected and explored in the '']'' (Stories of the Prophets). | |||
* {{cite quran|35|1|style=ref}} | |||
* Esposito (2002b), pp.26–28 | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Malā'ika | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=W. Madelung | accessdate=2007-05-02}} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Angel | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | author=Gisela Webb | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
Muslims believe that God sent Muhammad as the final prophet ("]") to convey the completed message of Islam.<ref>Esposito, John L. 2009. "Islam." In ''{{Doi-inline|10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001|''The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World''}}'', edited by J. L. Esposito. Oxford: ]. {{ISBN|978-0-19-530513-5}}. (See also: {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110124812/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100012298 |date=10 January 2021 }}.) "Profession of Faith...affirms Islam's absolute monotheism and acceptance of Muḥammad as the messenger of Allah, the last and final prophet."</ref><ref>Peters, F. E. 2009. "Allāh." In {{Doi-inline|10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001|''The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World''}}, edited by J. L. Esposito. Oxford: ]. {{ISBN|978-0-19-530513-5}}. (See also: {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200926053837/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095403960 |date=26 September 2020 }}.) "he Muslims' understanding of Allāh is based...on the Qurʿān's public witness. Allāh is Unique, the Creator, Sovereign, and Judge of mankind. It is Allāh who directs the universe through his direct action on nature and who has guided human history through his prophets, Abraham, with whom he made his covenant, Moses/Moosa, Jesus/Eesa, and Muḥammad, through all of whom he founded his chosen communities, the 'Peoples of the Book.{{'"}}</ref> In Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the '']'' (literally "trodden path"). Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's moral behaviors in their daily lives, and the sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Quran.<ref>{{harvp|Martin|2004|p=666}}</ref><ref>{{harvc|c=Hadith|in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|year=n.d.|author=J. Robson}}</ref><ref>{{harvc|c=Sunna|in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|year=n.d.|author=D.W. Brown}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Goldman |first=Elizabeth |title=Believers: Spiritual Leaders of the World |date=1995 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-19-508240-1 |location=Oxford |page=63}}</ref> This example is preserved in traditions known as ], which are accounts of his words, actions, and personal characteristics. ] is a sub-category of hadith, regarded as God's verbatim words quoted by Muhammad that are not part of the Quran. A hadith involves two elements: a chain of narrators, called ], and the actual wording, called '']''. There are various methodologies to classify the authenticity of hadiths, with the commonly used grading grading scale being "authentic" or "correct" ({{langx|ar|صحيح|links=no|translit=]|label=none}}); "good" ({{langx|ar|حسن|links=no|label=none|translit=]}}); or "weak" ({{langx|ar|ضعيف|label=none|translit=]}}), among others. The '']'' are a collection of six books, regarded as the most authentic reports in ]. Among them is '']'', often considered by Sunnis to be one of the most ] sources after the Quran.<ref>], ed. 1990. '']''. Cairo: Dar al-Ma'arif, 1990. pp. 160–69</ref> Another well-known source of hadiths is known as '']'', which Shias consider as the most authentic hadith reference.<ref>Awliya'i, Mustafa. " {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170912144702/https://www.al-islam.org/al-tawhid/vol1-n12-3/outlines-development-science-hadith-dr-mustafa-awliyai/part-1#four-books |date=12 September 2017 }}." In ''Outlines of the Development of the Science of Hadith'' 1, translated by A. Q. Qara'i. – via ]. Retrieved 24 May 2020.</ref><ref>]. " {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170912191319/https://www.al-islam.org/quran-and-hadith-allamah-sayyid-saeed-akhtar-rizvi/chapter-4-hadith#four-books-al-kutubul-arbah |date=12 September 2017 }}." Ch 4 in ''The Qur'an and Hadith''. Tanzania: ]. – via ]. Retrieved 24 May 2020.</ref> | |||
===Muhammad=== | |||
{{main|Muhammad}} | |||
=== Resurrection and judgment === | |||
Muhammad (c. ] – ] ]) was an Arab religious, political, and military leader who founded the religion of Islam as a historical phenomenon. Muslims view him not as the creator of a new religion, but as the restorer of the original, uncorrupted monotheistic faith of Adam, Abraham and others. In Muslim tradition, Muhammad is viewed as the last and the greatest in a series of ]—as the man closest to perfection, the possessor of all virtues.<ref>See: | |||
] in ], where according to Islamic tradition ] (Jesus, seen as an Islamic prophet) will appear close to the ]]] | |||
* Esposito (1998), p.12 | |||
{{Main|Islamic eschatology}} | |||
* Esposito (2002b), pp.4–5 | |||
Belief in the "Day of Resurrection" or '']'' ({{langx|ar|يوم القيامة|link=no}}) is also crucial for Muslims. It is believed that the time of ''Qiyāmah'' is preordained by God, but unknown to man. The Quran and the hadith, as well as the commentaries of ], describe the trials and ] preceding and during the ''Qiyāmah''. The Quran emphasizes ], a break from the ]n understanding of death.<ref>{{harvp|Glassé|2003|loc="Resurrection"|pp=382–383}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)|2012|loc="Avicenna"}}. {{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_DUM_0467}}: "Ibn Sīnā, Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAbd Allāh b. Sīnā is known in the West as 'Avicenna'."</ref><ref>{{harvc|c=Qiyama |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|year=n.d. |author=Gardet, L.}}</ref> | |||
* F. E. Peters (2003), p.9 | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Muhammad | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-17}}</ref> For the last 23 years of his life, beginning at age 40, Muhammad reported receiving revelations from God. The content of these revelations, known as the Qur'an, was memorized and recorded by his companions.<ref>See: | |||
* {{cite quran|18|110|style=ref}} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Muhammad | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=F. Buhl | coauthors=A. T. Welch | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
On Yawm al-Qiyāmah, Muslims believe all humankind will be judged by their good and bad deeds and consigned to '']'' (paradise) or '']'' (hell).<ref>{{cite web |editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=John L. |editor-link=John Esposito |title=Eschatology |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e588 |url-access=subscription |work=] |via=Oxford Islamic Studies Online |access-date=18 April 2017 |archive-date=13 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100913062714/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e588 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Quran in ] describes this as: "So whoever does an atom's weight of good will see it. And whoever does an atom's weight of evil will see it." The Quran ] that can condemn a person to ]. However, the Quran makes it clear that God will forgive the sins of those who repent if he wishes. Good deeds, like charity, prayer, and compassion towards animals{{sfnp|Esposito|2011|p=130}} will be rewarded with entry to heaven. Muslims view heaven as a place of joy and blessings, with Quranic references describing its features. Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.<ref>{{harvp|Smith|2006|p=89}}; ''Encyclopedia of Islam and Muslim World'', p. 565</ref><ref>{{harvc |c=Garden |first=Asma |last=Afsaruddin |year=n.d. |in=McAuliffe}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Paradise|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online}}</ref> ''Yawm al-Qiyāmah'' is also identified in the Quran as ''Yawm ad-Dīn'' ({{lang|ar|يوم الدين}} "Day of Religion");<ref group="lower-roman">{{qref|1|4|b=y}};</ref> ''as-Sāʿah'' ({{lang|ar|الساعة}} "the Last Hour");<ref group="lower-roman">{{qref|6|31|b=y}};</ref> and '']'' ({{lang|ar|القارعة}} "The Clatterer").<ref group="lower-roman">{{qref|101|1|b=y}}</ref> | |||
] ("Mosque of the Prophet") in ] is the site of Muhammad's tomb.]] | |||
During this time, Muhammad preached to the people of ], imploring them to abandon polytheism. Although some converted to Islam, Muhammad and his followers were persecuted by the leading Meccan authorities. After 13 years of preaching, Muhammad and the Muslims performed the '']'' ("emigration") to the city of ] (formerly known as ''Yathrib'') in 622. There, with the Medinan converts ('']'') and the Meccan migrants ('']''), Muhammad established his political and ]. Within years, two battles had been fought against Meccan forces: the ] in 624, which was a Muslim victory, and the ] in 625, which ended inconclusively. Conflict with Medinan Jewish clans who opposed the Muslims led to their exile, enslavement or death, and the Jewish enclave of ] was subdued. At the same time, Meccan trade routes were cut off as Muhammad brought surrounding desert tribes under his control.<ref>See: | |||
* F.E.Peters(2003), pp.78,79,194 | |||
* Lapidus (2002), pp.23-28</ref> By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless ], and by the time of his death in 632 he ruled over the ].<ref name="EoI-Muhammad">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Muhammad | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=F. Buhl | coauthors=A. T. Welch | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
=== Divine predestination === | |||
In Islam, the "]" example of Muhammad's life is called the '']'' (literally "trodden path"). This example is preserved in traditions known as ] ("reports"), which recount his words, his actions, and his personal characteristics. The classical Muslim jurist ] (d. 820) established the importance of the Sunnah in ], and Muslims were encouraged to emulate Muhammad's actions in their daily lives. The Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Qur'an.<ref>See: | |||
{{Main|Predestination in Islam}} | |||
* ''Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World'' (2003), p.666 | |||
The concept of divine predestination in Islam ({{langx|ar|القضاء والقدر}}, ''{{transliteration|ar|DIN|al-qadāʾ wa l-qadar}}'') means that every matter, good or bad, is believed to have been decreed by God. ''Al-qadar'', meaning "power", derives from a root that means "to measure" or "calculating".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.freeweb.hu/etymological/AEDweb.htm |date=2002 |title=Andras Rajki's A. E. D. (Arabic Etymological Dictionary) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111208204654/http://www.freeweb.hu/etymological/AEDweb.htm |archive-date=8 December 2011 |access-date=13 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Cohen-Mor|2001|p=4}}: "The idea of predestination is reinforced by the frequent mention of events 'being written' or 'being in a book' before they happen": Say: "Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us..."</ref><ref>{{harvc |last=Karamustafa |first=Ahmet T. |c=Fate |year=n.d. |in=McAuliffe}}: The verb ''qadara'' literally means "to measure, to determine". Here it is used to mean that "God measures and orders his creation".</ref><ref>{{harvc |last=Gardet|first=L.|year=2012|c=al-Ḳaḍāʾ Wa 'l-Ḳadar |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)}} {{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0407}}</ref> Muslims often express this belief in divine destiny with the phrase ] ({{langx|ar|إن شاء الله}}) meaning "if God wills" when speaking on future events.<ref>{{cite web |title=Muslim beliefs – Al-Qadr |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z43pfcw/revision/4 |access-date=13 November 2020 |publisher=BBC |work=Bitesize – GCSE – Edexcel |archive-date=15 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115112558/https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z43pfcw/revision/4 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Hadith | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=J. Robson | accessdate=2007-05-02}} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Sunna | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=D. W. Brown | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
== Acts of worship == | |||
===Resurrection and judgment=== | |||
{{Main|Five Pillars of Islam|Ibadah}} | |||
{{main|Qiyama}} | |||
There are five acts of worship that are considered ]–the ] (declaration of faith), the five daily prayers, ] (almsgiving), ], and the ] pilgrimage–collectively known as "The Pillars of Islam" (''Arkān al-Islām'').<ref name="www.britannica.com-2023">{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pillars-of-Islam|title=Pillars of Islam | Islamic Beliefs & Practices | Britannica|website=www.britannica.com|date=3 May 2023|access-date=16 December 2021|archive-date=5 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905102524/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pillars-of-Islam|url-status=live}}</ref> In addition, Muslims also perform other optional ] acts that are encouraged but not considered to be duties.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=ZAROUG|first=ABDULLAHI HASSAN|date=1985|title=THE CONCEPT OF PERMISSION, SUPEREROGATORY ACTS AND ASETICISM [sic] IN ISLAMIC JURISPRUDENCE|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20847307|journal=Islamic Studies|volume=24|issue=2|pages=167–180|jstor=20847307|issn=0578-8072|access-date=7 January 2023|archive-date=7 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207140013/https://www.jstor.org/stable/20847307|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
Belief in the "Day of Resurrection", '']'' (also known as ''yawm ad-dīn'', "Day of Judgment" and ''as-sā`a'', "the Last Hour") is also crucial for Muslims. They believe that the time of ''Qiyāmah'' is preordained by God but unknown to man. The trials and ]s preceding and during the ''Qiyāmah'' are described in the Qur'an and the ], and also in the commentaries of ]s. The Qur'an emphasizes ], a break from the ]n understanding of death. It states that resurrection will be followed by the gathering of mankind, culminating in their judgment by God.<ref>See: | |||
* "Resurrection", ''The New Encyclopedia of Islam'' (2003) | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Avicenna | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}: Ibn Sīnā, Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAbd Allāh b. Sīnā is known in the West as "Avicenna". | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Qiyama | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
=== Declaration of faith === | |||
The Qur'an lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell, such as disbelief, ] and dishonesty. Muslims view paradise ('']'') as a place of joy and bliss, with Qur'anic references describing its features and the physical pleasures to come. There are also references to a greater joy—acceptance by God (''ridwān'').<ref>{{cite quran|9|72|style=ref}}</ref> Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.<ref>See: | |||
] ], c. 16th century, inscribed with the ''Shahadah'']] | |||
* Smith (2006), p.89; ''Encyclopedia of Islam and Muslim World'', p.565 | |||
{{Main|Shahada}} | |||
* "Heaven", ''The Columbia Encyclopedia'' (2000) | |||
The ]h{{sfnp|Nasr|2003|pp=3, 39, 85, 270–272}} is an ] declaring belief in Islam. The expanded statement is "{{transliteration|ar|DIN|ʾašhadu ʾal-lā ʾilāha ʾillā-llāhu wa ʾašhadu ʾanna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh}}" ({{langx|ar|أشهد أن لا إله إلا الله وأشهد أن محمداً رسول الله|label=none}}), or, "I testify that there is no ] except ] and I testify that Muhammad is the messenger of God."<ref>Mohammad, N. 1985. "The doctrine of jihad: An introduction." '']'' 3(2):381–97.</ref> Islam is sometimes argued to have a very simple creed with the shahada being the premise for the rest of the religion. Non-Muslims wishing to ] are required to recite the shahada in front of witnesses.<ref>{{harvc |last=Kasim |first=Husain |year=2004 |c=Islam |pp=195–197 |in=Salamone}}</ref><ref>Galonnier, Juliette. "Moving In or Moving Toward? Reconceptualizing Conversion to Islam as a Liminal Process1". Moving In and Out of Islam, edited by Karin van Nieuwkerk, New York, US: University of Texas Press, 2021, pp. 44-66. https://doi.org/10.7560/317471-003 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023001/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.7560/317471-003/html |date=28 December 2023 }}</ref> | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Garden | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | author=Asma Afsaruddin | accessdate=2007-05-08}} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Paradise | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
=== |
=== Prayer === | ||
{{Main|Salah}} | |||
{{main|Predestination in Islam|Adalah}} | |||
{{See also|Mosque|Jumu'ah}} | |||
] in prayer, at the ], ]]] | |||
Prayer in Islam, called ] or aṣ-ṣalāt ({{langx|ar|الصلاة|link=no}}), is seen as a personal communication with God and consists of repeating units called ] that include ] and ] to God. There are five timed prayers each day that are considered duties. The prayers are recited in the Arabic language and performed in ] of the ]. The act also requires a state of ritual purity achieved by means of either a routine '']'' ritual wash or, in certain circumstances, a '']'' full body ritual wash.<ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2002b|pp=18, 19}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Hedayetullah|2006|pp=53–55}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Kobeisy|2004|pp=22–34}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Momen|1987|p=178}}</ref> | |||
A ] is a ] for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name ''masjid''. Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also an important social center for the ]. For example, the ] ("Prophetic Mosque") in Medina, ], used to also serve as a shelter for the poor.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Mattson |first=Ingrid |year=2006 |title=Women, Islam, and Mosques |pages=615–629 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Women and Religion in North America |series=Volume 2, Part VII. Islam |editor1=R. S. Keller |name-list-style=and |editor2=R. R. Ruether |place=Bloomington and Indianapolis |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-253-34687-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WPILfbtT5tQC&pg=PA615 |access-date=2 October 2021 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023019/https://books.google.com/books?id=WPILfbtT5tQC&pg=PA615#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> ]s are towers used to call the ], a vocal call to signal the prayer time.<ref>Pedersen, J., R. Hillenbrand, ], et al. 2010. "{{Doi-inline|10.1163/9789004206106_eifo_COM_0694|Masd̲j̲id}}." ''Encyclopedia of Islam''. Leiden: ]. Retrieved 25 May 2020.</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/mosque |title=Mosque |encyclopedia=] |access-date=17 September 2021 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=28 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928065350/https://www.britannica.com/topic/mosque |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
In accordance with the Islamic belief in ], or divine preordainment (''al-qadā wa'l-qadar''), God has full knowledge and control over all that occurs. This is explained in Qur'anic verses such as "Say: 'Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us: He is our protector'…"<ref>See: | |||
* {{cite quran|9|51|style=ref}} | |||
* D. Cohen-Mor (2001), p.4: "The idea of predestination is reinforced by the frequent mention of events 'being written' or 'being in a book' before they happen: 'Say: "Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us…" ' " | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Fate | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | author=Ahmet T. Karamustafa | accessdate=2007-05-02}}: The verb ''qadara'' literally means "to measure, to determine". Here it is used to mean that "God measures and orders his creation".</ref> For Muslims, everything in the world that occurs, good or evil, has been preordained and nothing can happen unless permitted by God. In Islamic theology, divine preordainment does not suggest an absence of God's indignation against evil, because any evils that do occur are thought to result in future benefits men may not be able to see. According to Muslim theologians, although events are pre-ordained, man possesses free will in that he has the faculty to choose between right and wrong, and is thus responsible for his actions. According to Islamic tradition, all that has been decreed by God is written in ''al-Lawh al-Mahfūz'', the "Preserved Tablet".<ref>See: | |||
* Farah (2003), pp.119–122 | |||
* Patton (1900), p.130</ref> | |||
=== Almsgiving === | |||
The Shi'a understanding of predestination is called "divine justice" (''Adalah''). This doctrine, originally developed by the ], stresses the importance of man's responsibility for his own actions. In contrast, the Sunni deemphasize the role of individual free will in the context of God's creation and foreknowledge of all things.<ref>Momen (1987), pp.177,178</ref> | |||
{{Main|Zakat}} | |||
{{See also|Sadaqah}} | |||
] in ]]] | |||
] (]: {{langx|ar|زكاة|translit=zakāh|label=none}}), also spelled ''Zakāt'' or ''Zakah'', is a type of ] characterized by the giving of a fixed portion (2.5% annually)<ref>Ahmed, Medani, and Sebastian Gianci. "Zakat." p. 479 in ''Encyclopedia of Taxation and Tax Policy''.</ref> of ] by those who can afford it to help the poor or needy, such as for freeing captives, those in ], or for (stranded) travellers, and for those employed to collect zakat. It acts as a form of ] in Muslim societies.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ariff |first=Mohamed |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NP4ZL0TJ9s4C&pg=PA55 |title=The Islamic Voluntary Sector in Southeast Asia: Islam and the Economic Development of Southeast Asia |publisher=] |year=1991 |isbn=978-981-3016-07-1 |pages=55– |access-date=7 October 2017 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023007/https://books.google.com/books?id=NP4ZL0TJ9s4C&&pg=PA55 |url-status=live }}</ref> It is considered a religious obligation that the well-off owe the needy because their wealth is seen as a trust from God's bounty,<ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2010|p=109-110}}: This is not regarded as charity because it is not really voluntary but instead is owed, by those who have received their wealth as a trust from God's bounty, to the poor.</ref> and is seen as a purification of one's excess wealth.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = RoutledgeCurzon| isbn = 9780415297967| title =Major World Religions: From Their Origins to the Present.| location = United Kingdom| year = 2003| last=Ridgeon| first=Lloyd| url = | page = 258|quote=Aside from its function of purifying believers' wealth, the payment of zakat may have contributed in no small way to the economic welfare of the Muslim community in Mecca.}}</ref> The total annual value contributed due to zakat is 15 times greater than global humanitarian aid donations, using conservative estimates.<ref>{{Cite news |date=1 June 2012 |title=A faith-based aid revolution in the Muslim world |work=] |url=https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/report/95564/analysis-faith-based-aid-revolution-muslim-world |access-date=27 August 2023 |archive-date=14 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210114014900/https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/report/95564/analysis-faith-based-aid-revolution-muslim-world |url-status=live }}</ref> ], as opposed to Zakat, is a much-encouraged optional charity.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Said |first=Abdul Aziz |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4bs7g0O4eLYC&pg=PA145 |title=Contemporary Islam: Dynamic, Not Static |publisher=] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-415-77011-8 |page=145 |display-authors=etal |access-date=7 October 2017 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023121/https://books.google.com/books?id=4bs7g0O4eLYC&pg=PA145 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfnp|Stefon|2010|p=}} A ] is a perpetual ], which finances hospitals and schools in Muslim societies.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hudson |first=A. |title=Equity and Trusts |year=2003 |edition=3rd |page=32 |location=London |publisher=Cavendish Publishing |isbn=1-85941-729-9}}</ref> | |||
== |
=== Fasting === | ||
]'', is served traditionally with ].]] | |||
===Five Pillars=== | |||
{{ |
{{Main|Fasting in Islam}} | ||
{{See also|Fasting during Ramadan}} | |||
]'') written on a plaque in the ], ]]] | |||
In Islam, fasting (]: {{langx|ar|صوم|translit=ṣawm|label=none}}) precludes food and drink, as well as other forms of consumption, such as ], and is performed from dawn to sunset. During the month of ], it is considered a duty for Muslims to fast.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ramadan |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ramadan |access-date=2023-08-16 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en |archive-date=9 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231009215438/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ramadan |url-status=live }}</ref> The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God by restraining oneself for God's sake from what is otherwise permissible and to think of the needy. In addition, there are other days, such as the ], when fasting is optional.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher =Tughra Books | isbn = 9781597846110| title = Fasting In Islam And The Month Of Ramadan| location = United States| year =2006 | last=Ramadanali| url = |page=51 | |||
| quote = }}</ref> | |||
=== Pilgrimage === | |||
] (pilgrimage) include walking seven times around the ] in Mecca.]] | |||
{{Main|Hajj|Umrah}} | |||
{{See also|Holiest sites in Islam}} | |||
] during the ] season]] | |||
The Islamic ], called the {{transliteration|ar|ALA|ḥajj}} ({{langx|ar|حج|link=no}}), is to be done at least once a lifetime by every Muslim with the means to do so during the ] of ]. Rituals of the Hajj mostly imitate the story of the family of ]. In ], pilgrims walk seven times around the ], which Muslims believe Abraham built as a place of worship, and they walk seven times between Mount ], recounting the steps of Abraham's wife, ], who was looking for water for her baby ] in the desert before Mecca developed into a settlement.<ref>{{harvp|Goldschmidt|Davidson|2005|p=48}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Farah|1994|pp=145–147}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Hajj |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online}}</ref> The pilgrimage also involves spending a day praying and worshipping in the plain of ] as well as symbolically ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Peters |first=F.E. |title=Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians |date=2009 |isbn=978-1-4008-2548-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HYJ2c9E9IM8C&pg=PA19 |page=20 |publisher=Princeton University Press |access-date=7 October 2014 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023112/https://books.google.com/books?id=HYJ2c9E9IM8C&pg=PA19#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> All Muslim men wear only two simple white unstitched pieces of cloth called ], intended to bring continuity through generations and uniformity among pilgrims despite class or origin.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cornell |first=Vincent J. |title=Voices of Islam: Voices of tradition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g5LNUS0ciAAC&pg=PA29 |access-date=26 August 2012 |year=2007 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-275-98733-6 |page=29}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Glassé|2003|p=}}</ref> Another form of pilgrimage, ], is optional and can be undertaken at any time of the year. Other sites of Islamic pilgrimage are ], where Muhammad died, as well as ], a city of many Islamic prophets and the site of ], which was the direction of prayer before Mecca.<ref>{{cite book|author=Michigan Consortium for Medieval and Early Modern Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p44kAQAAMAAJ|title=The Meeting of Two Worlds: Cultural Exchange Between East and West During the Period of the Crusades|publisher=Medieval Institute Publications, Western Michigan University|year=1986|isbn=0918720583|editor1=Goss, V. P.|volume=21|page=208|editor2=Bornstein, C. V.|access-date=15 January 2023|archive-date=28 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023032/https://books.google.com/books?id=p44kAQAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>]. 2008. ''The Siege of Mecca: The 1979 Uprising at Islam's Holiest Shrine''. ]. New York. {{ISBN|978-0-307-47290-8}}. p. 79.</ref> | |||
] (Arabic: اركان الدين) are five practices essential to Sunni Islam. Shi'a Muslims subscribe to eight ritual practices which substantially overlap with the Five Pillars.<ref>See: | |||
* Momem (1987), p.178 | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Pillars of Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> They are: | |||
=== Other acts of worship === | |||
* The ''''']''''', which is the basic creed or tenet of Islam: "''{{ArabDIN|'ašhadu 'al-lā ilāha illā-llāhu wa 'ašhadu 'anna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh}}''", or "I testify that there is none worthy of worship except God and I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of God." This testament is a foundation for all other beliefs and practices in Islam (although technically the Shi'a do not consider the ''shahadah'' to be a separate pillar, just a belief). Muslims must repeat the ''shahadah'' in prayer, and non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the creed.<ref>See: | |||
] | |||
* Farah (1994), p.135 | |||
{{Seealso|Quran#Recitation|Dua|Dhikr}} | |||
* Momen (1987), p.178 | |||
Muslims recite and memorize the whole or parts of the Quran as acts of virtue. ] refers to the set of rules for the proper ] of the Quran.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = | isbn = | title = Foundation of Tajweed| location = | year = 2013|edition=2| last=Aboo Yahyaa| url = | page = 1 | |||
* "Islam", ''Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals''(2004)</ref> | |||
| quote = }}</ref> Many Muslims recite the whole Quran during the month of Ramadan.{{sfnp|Stefon|2010|p=}} One who has memorized the whole Quran is called a hafiz ("memorizer"), and hadiths mention that these individuals will be able to intercede for others on Judgment Day.{{sfnp|Nigosian|2004|p=}} | |||
Supplication to God, called in Arabic {{transl|ar|DIN|duʿāʾ}} ({{langx|ar|دعاء}} {{IPA|ar|dʊˈʕæːʔ|IPA}}) has its own etiquette such as ] as if begging.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = Brill| isbn = 9789004335523| title = The Quṣṣāṣ of Early Islam| location = Netherlands| year = 2016| last=Armstrong| first=Lyall| url = | page = 184| quote = }}</ref> | |||
* ''''']''''', or ritual prayer, which must be performed five times a day. (However, the Shi'a are permitted to run together the noon with the afternoon prayers, and the evening with the night prayers). Each salah is done facing towards the ] in Mecca. Salah is intended to focus the mind on God, and is seen as a personal communication with him that expresses gratitude and worship. Salah is compulsory but flexibility in the specifics is allowed depending on circumstances. In many Muslim countries, reminders called ] (call to prayer) are broadcast publicly from local mosques at the appropriate times. The prayers are recited in the ], and consist of verses from the Qur'an.<ref>See: | |||
* Esposito (2002b), pp.18,19 | |||
* Hedáyetullah (2006), pp.53–55 | |||
* Kobeisy (2004), pp.22–34 | |||
* Momen (1987), p.178</ref> | |||
{{Listen | |||
* ''''']''''', or ]. This is the practice of giving based on accumulated wealth, and is obligatory for all Muslims who can afford it. A fixed portion is spent to help the poor or needy, and also to assist the spread of Islam. The zakat is considered a religious obligation (as opposed to voluntary charity) that the well-off owe to the needy because their wealth is seen as a "trust from God's bounty". The Qur'an and the hadith also suggest a Muslim give even more as an act of voluntary alms-giving ('']''). Many Shi'ites are expected to pay an additional amount in the form of a '']'' tax, which they consider to be a separate ritual practice.<ref>See: | |||
|filename=112.AlIkhlas-MisharyRashedAlafasy.ogg | |||
* {{cite quran|2|177|style=ref}} | |||
|title=''Al-Ikhlas'' | |||
* Esposito (2004), p.90 | |||
|pos=right | |||
* Momen (1987), p.179 | |||
|description= '']'' is the Quran's ] ] as recited by ] ] | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Zakat | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-11}} | |||
|format=] | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Zakat | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
}} | |||
Remembrance of God ({{langx|ar|ذكر|translit=Dhikr'|label=none}}) refers to phrases repeated referencing God. Commonly, this includes Tahmid, declaring ] ({{langx|ar|الحمد لله|translit=al-Ḥamdu lillāh|label=none}}) during prayer or when feeling thankful, ], declaring glory to God during prayer or when in awe of something and saying ']' ({{lang|ar|بسملة}}, {{transliteration|ar|ALA-LC|basmalah}}) before starting an act such as eating.<ref>{{Cite web|title=alhamdulillah |url=https://www.lexico.com/definition/alhamdulillah|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227042540/https://www.lexico.com/definition/alhamdulillah|url-status=dead|archive-date=February 27, 2020|access-date=2021-10-16|website=Lexico}}</ref> | |||
* ''''']''''', or ]. Muslims must not eat or drink (among other things) from dawn to dusk during this month, and must be mindful of other sins. The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God, and during it Muslims should express their gratitude for and dependence on him, atone for their past sins, and think of the needy. ''Sawm'' is not obligatory for several groups for whom it would constitute an undue burden. For others, flexibility is allowed depending on circumstances, but missed fasts usually must be made up quickly.<ref>See: | |||
* {{cite quran|2|184|style=ref}} | |||
* Esposito (2004), pp.90,91 | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}} | |||
* {{cite web | url=http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/pillars/fasting/tajuddin/fast_21.html#HEADING20 | title=For whom fasting is mandatory | publisher=USC-MSA | work=Compendium of Muslim Texts | accessdate=2007-04-18}}</ref> | |||
== History == | |||
* The ''''']''''', which is the pilgrimage during the ] of '']'' in the city of ]. Every ] Muslim who can afford it must make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his or her lifetime. When the pilgrim is about ten kilometers from Mecca, he must dress in ], which consists of two white seamless sheets. Rituals of the Hajj include walking seven times around the ], touching the ], running seven times between ] and ], and symbolically ] in ]. The pilgrim, or the ''hajji'', is honored in his or her community, although Islamic teachers say that the Hajj should be an expression of devotion to God instead of a means to gain social standing.<ref>See: | |||
{{Main|History of Islam}} | |||
* Farah (1994), pp.145–147 | |||
{{For timeline|Timeline of the history of Islam}} | |||
* Goldschmidt (2005), p.48 | |||
{{See also|List of Muslim empires and dynasties}} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Hajj | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
{{wide image|Madina Haram at evening.jpg|1000px|align-cap=center|A panoramic view of ] (the Mosque of the Prophet) in ], ] region, today's ], the second most sacred mosque in Islam}} | |||
=== Muhammad and the beginning of Islam (570–632) === | |||
In addition to the ''khums'' tax, Shi'a Muslims consider three additional practices essential to the religion of Islam. The first is jihad, which is also important to the Sunni, but not considered a pillar. The second is '']'', the "Enjoining to Do Good", which calls for every Muslim to live a virtuous life and to encourage others to do the same. The third is '']'', the "Exhortation to Desist from Evil", which tells Muslims to refrain from vice and from evil actions and to also encourage others to do the same.<ref>Momen (1987), p.180</ref> | |||
{{Main|Muhammad|Muhammad in Islam}} | |||
{{See also|Early social changes under Islam}} | |||
]]] | |||
According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad was born in ] in ] ] and was orphaned early in life. Growing up as a trader, he became known as the "]" ({{langx|ar|الامين}}) and was sought after as an impartial arbitrator. He later married his employer, the businesswoman ].{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=6}} In the year 610 CE, troubled by the moral decline and idolatry prevalent in Mecca and seeking seclusion and spiritual contemplation, Muhammad retreated to the ] in the mountain ], near Mecca. It was during his time in the cave that he is said to have ] of the ] from the angel ].<ref>{{harvc |c=Muhammad |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online |year=n.d. |last2=Welch |first2=A.T. |last1=Buhl |first1=F.}}</ref> The event of Muhammad's retreat to the cave and subsequent revelation is known as the "]" (''Laylat al-Qadr'') and is considered a significant event in Islamic history. During the next 22 years of his life, from age 40 onwards, Muhammad continued to receive revelations from God, becoming the last or ] sent to mankind.<ref name="harvp|Esposito|2002b|pp=4–5"/><ref name="harvp|Peters|2003|p=9"/><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Muhammad |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online}}</ref> | |||
]''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ottomans : religious painting |url=http://www.ee.bilkent.edu.tr/~history/ottoman33.html |access-date=1 May 2016}}</ref> Muhammad is shown with veiled face, {{Circa|1595}}.]] | |||
During this time, ] preached first in secret and then in public, imploring his listeners to abandon ] and worship one God. Many early converts to Islam were women, the poor, foreigners, and slaves like the first ] ].<ref>Rabah, Bilal B. ''].''</ref> The Meccan elite felt Muhammad was destabilizing their social order by preaching about one God and giving questionable ideas to the poor and slaves because they profited from the pilgrimages to the idols of the Kaaba.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ünal |first=Ali |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DyuqdDIjaswC&pg=PA1323 |title=The Qurʼan with Annotated Interpretation in Modern English |publisher=Tughra Books |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-59784-000-2 |pages=1323– |access-date=7 October 2017 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024048/https://books.google.com/books?id=DyuqdDIjaswC&pg=PA1323#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Holt|Lambton|Lewis|1977|p=36}}</ref> | |||
After 12 years of the ], Muhammad and his ] performed the '']'' ("emigration") in 622 to the city of Yathrib (current-day Medina). There, with the Medinan converts (the '']'') and the Meccan migrants (the '']''), ] established his ]. The ] was signed by all the tribes of Medina. This established religious freedoms and freedom to use their own laws among the Muslim and non-Muslim communities as well as an agreement to defend Medina from external threats.{{sfnp|Serjeant|1978|p=4}} Meccan forces and their allies lost against the Muslims at the ] in 624 and then fought an inconclusive battle in the ]<ref>{{Citation |last=Peter Crawford |title=The War of the Three Gods: Romans, Persians and the Rise of Islam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d-oHBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA83 |page=83 |publisher=Pen & Sword Books Limited |isbn=9781473828650 |date=2013-07-16 |access-date=5 August 2022 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023957/https://books.google.com/books?id=d-oHBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA83 |url-status=live }}.</ref> before unsuccessfully besieging Medina in the ] (March–April 627). In 628, the ] was signed between Mecca and the Muslims, but it was broken by Mecca two years later. As more tribes converted to Islam, Meccan trade routes were cut off by the Muslims.<ref>{{harvp|Peters|2003|pp=78–79, 194}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Lapidus|2002|pp=23–28}}</ref> By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless ], and by the time of his death in 632 (at age 62) he had united the ] into a single religious ].<ref>{{harvc|c=Muhammad |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online |year=n.d. |last2=Welch |first2=A.T. |last1=Buhl |first1=F.}}</ref><ref name="610CE" /> | |||
===Law=== | |||
{{main|Sharia|Fiqh}} | |||
=== Early Islamic period (632–750) === | |||
The ''Sharia'' (literally: "the path leading to the watering place") is Islamic law formed by traditional Islamic scholarship. In Islam, Sharia is the expression of the divine will, and "constitutes a system of duties that are incumbent upon a Muslim by virtue of his religious belief".<ref name="BritannicaShariah">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Shari'ah | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
{{Further|Succession to Muhammad|Early Muslim conquests}} | |||
{{See also|Event of Ghadir Khumm|Saqifa}} | |||
]]] | |||
] in ] built by caliph ]; completed at the end of the ]]] | |||
Muhammad died in 632 and the first successors, called ]s – ], ], ], ] and sometimes ]<ref>{{Cite book| last1 = Melchert| first1 = Christopher| date = 2020| contribution = The Rightly Guided Caliphs: The Range of Views Preserved in Ḥadīth| editor1-last = al-Sarhan| editor1-first = Saud| title = Political Quietism in Islam: Sunni and Shi'i Practice and Thought| location = London and New York| publisher = ]| isbn = 978-1-83860-765-4| pages = 70–71| contribution-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=96TDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA63| access-date = 17 February 2022| archive-date = 28 December 2023| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023957/https://books.google.com/books?id=96TDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA63#v=onepage&q&f=false| url-status = live}}</ref> – are known in Sunni Islam as ''al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn'' ("]").{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=40}} Some tribes left Islam and rebelled under leaders who declared themselves new prophets but were crushed by Abu Bakr in the ].<ref>{{harvp|Holt|Lewis|1977|p=57}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Hourani|2002|p=22}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Lapidus|2002|p=32}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Madelung|1996|p=43}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Ṭabāṭabāʼī|1979|pp=30–50}}</ref> Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and heretics and taxed heavily, often helped Muslims take over their lands,{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=38}} resulting in rapid expansion of the caliphate into the ] and ] empires.<ref>{{harvp|Holt|Lewis|1977|p=74}}</ref><ref name="harvp|Gardet|Jomier|2012">{{harvp|Gardet|Jomier|2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=J. Kuiper |first=Matthew |title=Da'wa: A Global History of Islamic Missionary Thought and Practice |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2021 |isbn=9781351510721 |page=85}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Lapidus |first=Ira M. |title=A History of Islamic Societies |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-521-51430-9 |pages=60–61 |author-link=Ira M. Lapidus}}</ref> Uthman ] and his assassination by rebels led to Ali being elected the next Caliph. In the ], Muhammad's widow, ], raised an army against Ali, attempting to avenge the death of Uthman, but was defeated at the ]. Ali attempted to remove the governor of Syria, ], who was seen as corrupt. Mu'awiya then declared war on Ali and was defeated in the ]. Ali's decision to arbitrate angered the ], an extremist sect, who felt that by not fighting a sinner, Ali became a sinner as well. The Kharijites rebelled and were defeated in the ] but a Kharijite assassin later killed Ali. Ali's son, Hasan ibn Ali, was elected Caliph and signed a ] to avoid further fighting, abdicating to Mu'awiya in return for Mu'awiya not appointing a successor.{{sfnp|Holt|Lewis|1977|pp=67–72}} Mu'awiya began the ] with the appointment of his son ] as successor, sparking the ]. During the ], ] was killed by Yazid's forces; the event has been ] by Shias ever since. Sunnis, led by ] and opposed to a dynastic caliphate, were defeated in the ]. These disputes over leadership would give rise to the ]-] schism,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Harney |first=John |date=3 January 2016 |title=How Do Sunni and Shia Islam Differ? |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/04/world/middleeast/q-and-a-how-do-sunni-and-shia-islam-differ.html |access-date=4 January 2016 |archive-date=11 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200511081444/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/04/world/middleeast/q-and-a-how-do-sunni-and-shia-islam-differ.html |url-status=live }}</ref> with the Shia believing leadership belongs to Muhammad's family through Ali, called the ].{{sfnp|Waines|2003|p=46}} | |||
Abu Bakr's leadership oversaw the beginning of the compilation of the Quran. The Caliph ] set up the committee, ],{{sfnp|Ismāʻīl ibn ʻUmar Ibn Kathīr|2012|p=505}}<ref>''Umar Ibn Abdul Aziz'' By Imam Abu Muhammad Abdullah ibn Abdul Hakam died 214 AH 829 C.E. Publisher Zam Zam Publishers Karachi, pp. 54–59</ref> and ] wrote one of the earliest books on Islamic jurisprudence, the '']'', as a consensus of the opinion of those jurists.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Noel James Coulson |title=History of Islamic Law |year=1964 |isbn=978-0-7486-0514-9 |page=103 |publisher=King Abdulaziz Public Library |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d5Ks31qHlSYC |access-date=7 October 2014 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023959/https://books.google.com/books?id=d5Ks31qHlSYC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |editor-last1=Houtsma |editor-first1=M.T. |editor-last2=Wensinck |editor-first2=A.J. |editor-last3=Lévi-Provençal |editor-first3=E. |editor-last4=Gibb |editor-first4=H.A.R. |editor-last5=Heffening |editor-first5=W. |series=Volume V: L—Moriscos |title=E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936 |publisher=] |year=1993 |edition=reprint |isbn=978-90-04-09791-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Va6oSxzojzoC |pages=207– |access-date=19 September 2021 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024105/https://books.google.com/books?id=Va6oSxzojzoC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor=] |title=Studies in Islamic History and Civilization: In Honour of Professor David Ayalon |year=1986 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789652640147 |page=264 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0_wUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA264 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024050/https://books.google.com/books?id=0_wUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA264#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> The ] believed there was no compromised middle ground between good and evil, and any Muslim who committed a grave sin would become an unbeliever. The term "kharijites" would also be used to refer to later groups such as ].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Mamouri|first=Ali|date=8 January 2015|title=Who are the Kharijites and what do they have to do with IS?|work=Al-monitor|url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2015/01/islamic-state-kjarijites-continuation.html|access-date=6 March 2022|archive-date=6 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220306213145/https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2015/01/islamic-state-kjarijites-continuation.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The ] taught that people's righteousness could be judged by God alone. Therefore, wrongdoers might be considered misguided, but not denounced as unbelievers.{{sfnp|Blankinship|2008|p=43}} This attitude came to prevail into mainstream Islamic beliefs.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=87}} | |||
The Umayyad dynasty conquered the ], the ], ] and ].<ref>{{cite book |first=Donald |last=Puchala |title=Theory and History in International Relations |page=137 |publisher=Routledge |year=2003}}</ref> The Umayyads struggled with a lack of legitimacy and relied on a heavily patronized military.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=45}} Since the ] tax was a tax paid by non-Muslims which exempted them from military service, the Umayyads denied recognizing the conversion of non-Arabs, as it reduced revenue.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=87}} While the Rashidun Caliphate emphasized austerity, with Umar even requiring an inventory of each official's possessions,<ref>{{cite book |first1=Ahmad Ibn Jabir|last1=Al-Biladhuri |first2=Philip|last2=Hitti|title=Kitab Futuhu'l-Buldan|page=219 |publisher=AMS Press |year=1969}}</ref> Umayyad luxury bred dissatisfaction among the pious.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=87}} The Kharijites led the ], leading to the first Muslim states independent of the Caliphate. In the ], non-Arab converts ('']''), Arab clans pushed aside by the Umayyad clan, and some Shi'a rallied and overthrew the Umayyads, inaugurating the more cosmopolitan Abbasid dynasty in 750.{{sfnp|Lapidus|2002|p=56}}{{sfnp|Lewis|1993|pp=71–83}} | |||
Islamic law covers all aspects of life, from matters of state, like governance and ], to issues of daily living. The Qur'an defines '']'' as the punishments for five specific crimes: unlawful intercourse, false accusation of unlawful intercourse, consumption of alcohol, theft, and highway robbery. The Qur'an and Sunnah also contain laws of ], ], and ], as well as rules for ], ], and ]. However, these ] and ] may be broad, so their application in practice varies. ] (known as ''ulema'') have elaborated systems of law on the basis of these rules and their interpretations.<ref>See: | |||
* Menski (2006), p.290 | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Hadd | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=B. Carra de Vaux | coauthors=J. Schacht, A.M. Goichon | accessdate=2007-05-02}} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Sharia | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=N. Calder | coauthors=M. B. Hooker | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
=== Classical era (750–1258) === | |||
'']'', or "jurisprudence", is defined as the knowledge of the practical rules of the religion. The method Islamic jurists use to derive rulings is known as '']'' ("legal theory", or "principles of jurisprudence"). According to Islamic legal theory, law has four fundamental roots, which are given precedence in this order: the Qur'an, the Sunnah (actions and sayings of Muhammad), the consensus of the Muslim jurists ('']''), and analogical reasoning ('']''). For early Islamic jurists, theory was less important than pragmatic application of the law. In the 9th century, the jurist ] provided a theoretical basis for Islamic law by codifying the principles of jurisprudence (including the four fundamental roots) in his book ''ar-Risālah''.<ref>Weiss (2002), pp.xvii,162</ref> | |||
{{Further|Hadith studies|Islamic philosophy}} | |||
{{See also|Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe|Turco-Persian tradition}} | |||
Al-Shafi'i codified a method to determine the reliability of hadith.{{sfnp|Lapidus|2002|p=86}} During the early Abbasid era, scholars such as ] and ] compiled the major ] while scholars like ] and ] compiled major Shia hadith collections. The four Sunni ]s, the Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki, and Shafi'i, were established around the teachings of ], ], Malik ibn Anas and ]. In contrast, the teachings of ] formed the ]. In the 9th century, ] completed the first commentary of the Quran, the '']'', which became one of the most cited commentaries in Sunni Islam. Some Muslims began questioning the piety of indulgence in worldly life and emphasized poverty, humility, and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Ascetics such as ] inspired a movement that would evolve into ''tasawwuf'' or ].<ref name=EB-Sufism />{{sfnp|Lapidus|2002|pp=90, 91}} | |||
====Religion and state==== | |||
At this time, theological problems, notably on free will, were prominently tackled, with Hasan al Basri holding that although God knows people's actions, good and evil come from abuse of free will and the ].{{sfnp|Blankinship|2008|pp=38-39}}{{efn|"Hasan al Basri is often considered one of the first who rejected an angelic origin for the devil, arguing that his fall was the result of his own free-will, not God's determination. Hasan al Basri also argued that angels are incapable of sin or errors and nobler than humans and even prophets. Both early Shias and Sunnis opposed his view.<ref>Omar Hamdan ''Studien zur Kanonisierung des Korantextes: al-Ḥasan al-Baṣrīs Beiträge zur Geschichte des Korans'' Otto Harrassowitz Verlag 2006 {{ISBN|978-3447053495}} pp. 291–292 (German)</ref>}} Greek rationalist philosophy influenced a speculative school of thought known as ], who famously advocated the notion of free-will originated by ].{{sfnp|Blankinship|2008|p=50}} Caliph ] made it an official creed and unsuccessfully attempted to force this position on the majority.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=88}} Caliph ] carried out ]s, with the traditionalist ] notably refusing to conform to the Muʿtazila idea that the Quran was ], which resulted in him being tortured and kept in an unlit prison cell for nearly thirty months.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Doi |first=Abdur Rahman |title=Shariah: The Islamic Law |location=London |publisher=Ta-Ha Publishers |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-907461-38-8 |page=110}}</ref> However, other ] of ] – ] founded by ] and ] founded by ] – were more successful in being widely adopted. Philosophers such as ], ] and ] sought to harmonize Aristotle's ideas with the teachings of Islam, similar to later ] within ] and ]' work within Judaism, while others like ] argued against such ] and ultimately prevailed.<ref>{{harvp|Lapidus|2002|p=160}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Waines|2003|pp=126–127}}</ref> | |||
Islamic law does not distinguish between "matters of church" and "matters of state"; the ulema function as both jurists and theologians. In practice, Islamic rulers frequently bypassed the Sharia courts with a parallel system of so-called "Grievance courts" over which they had sole control. As the Muslim world came into contact with Western secular ideals, Muslim societies responded in different ways. ] has been governed as a secular state ever since the reforms of ]. In contrast, the ] replaced a mostly secular regime with an ] led by the ].<ref>See: | |||
] from a manuscript dated c. 1200]] | |||
* Esposito (2004), p.84 | |||
This era is sometimes called the "]".<ref>{{harvp|Holt|Lewis|1977|pp=80, 92, 105}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Holt|Lambton|Lewis|1977|pp=661–663}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Lapidus|2002|p=56}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Lewis|1993|p=84}}</ref><ref name="harvp|Gardet|Jomier|2012"/> Islamic scientific achievements spanned a wide range of subject areas including ], ], ], and ] as well as ], ], ] and ].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=King |first=David A. |year=1983 |title=The Astronomy of the Mamluks |journal=] |volume=74 |issue=4 |pages=531–55 |doi=10.1086/353360 |s2cid=144315162 | issn=0021-1753}}</ref><ref>Hassan, Ahmad Y. 1996. "." Pp. 351–99 in ''Islam and the Challenge of Modernity'', edited by S. S. Al-Attas. Kuala Lumpur: ]. Archived from the on 2 April 2015.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ854295.pdf|title=Contributions of Islamic scholars to the scientific enterprise|access-date=13 December 2022|archive-date=23 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230523192533/https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ854295.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=The greatest scientific advances from the Muslim world|website=]|date=February 2010|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2010/feb/01/islamic-science|access-date=13 December 2022|archive-date=13 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221213154451/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2010/feb/01/islamic-science|url-status=live}}</ref> ] was a pioneer in ],<ref>Jacquart, Danielle (2008). "Islamic Pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Theories and Substances". European Review (Cambridge University Press) 16: 219–227.</ref><ref>David W. Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (August 2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine", Heart Views 4 (2).</ref> and his '']'' was used as a standard medicinal text in the Islamic world and ] for centuries. ] was the first to identify the diseases ] and ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/broughttolife/people/alrazi.aspx|title=Abu Bakr Mohammad Ibn Zakariya al-Razi (Rhazes) (c. 865-925)|publisher=sciencemuseum.org.uk|access-date=31 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150506072259/http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/broughttolife/people/alrazi.aspx|archive-date=6 May 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> ]s of the time issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Alatas |first=Syed Farid |year=2006 |title=From Jami'ah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian–Muslim Dialogue |url=https://zenodo.org/record/29439 |journal=] |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=112–132 |doi=10.1177/0011392106058837 |s2cid=144509355 |access-date=12 September 2019 |archive-date=23 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170923024727/https://zenodo.org/record/29439/files/6.1From_Jamiah_to_University.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Imamuddin |first=S.M. |title=Muslim Spain 711–1492 AD |publisher=] |year=1981 |isbn=978-90-04-06131-6 |page=169}}</ref> ] is regarded as the father of the modern ] and often referred to as the "world's first true scientist", in particular regarding his work in ].<ref>{{cite journal |author-link=Gerald J. Toomer|first=G. J. |last=Toomer |jstor=228328 |title=Review Work: Matthias Schramm (1963) ''Ibn Al-Haythams Weg zur Physik'' |journal=Isis |volume=55 |issue=4 |date=Dec 1964 |page=464 |quote=Schramm sums up achievement in the development of scientific method.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Al-Khalili |first=Jim |date=4 January 2009 |title=The 'first true scientist' |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7810846.stm |access-date=24 September 2013 |archive-date=26 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150426041228/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7810846.stm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gorini |first=Rosanna |date=October 2003 |title=Al-Haytham the man of experience. First steps in the science of vision |journal=Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=53–55 |url=http://www.ishim.net/ishimj/4/10.pdf |access-date=25 September 2008 |archive-date=17 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190717022851/http://www.ishim.net/ishimj/4/10.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In engineering, the ] brothers' ] ] player is considered to have been the first ].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Koetsier |first1=Teun |title=On the prehistory of programmable machines: musical automata, looms, calculators |journal=Mechanism and Machine Theory |date=May 2001 |volume=36 |issue=5 |pages=589–603 |doi=10.1016/S0094-114X(01)00005-2 }}</ref> In ], the concept of the ] is named after ], who is considered a founder of ], which is named after his book ], while others developed the concept of a ].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Katz |first1=Victor J. |last2=Barton |first2=Bill |title=Stages in the History of Algebra with Implications for Teaching |journal=Educational Studies in Mathematics |date=18 September 2007 |volume=66 |issue=2 |pages=185–201 |doi=10.1007/s10649-006-9023-7 |s2cid=120363574 }}</ref> The government paid scientists the equivalent salary of professional athletes today.<ref>{{harvp|Ahmed|2006|pp=23, 42, 84}}</ref> ] recognizes the ], founded in 859, as the world's oldest degree-granting university.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Young |first=Mark |url=https://archive.org/details/guinnessbookofwo1998newy |title=The Guinness Book of Records |year=1998 |page= |publisher=Bantam |isbn=978-0-553-57895-9}}</ref> Many non-Muslims, such as ], ] and ],<ref name="Brague 2009"/> ] in various fields,<ref>Hill, Donald. ''Islamic Science and Engineering''. 1993. Edinburgh Univ. Press. {{ISBN|0-7486-0455-3}}, p.4</ref><ref>Rémi Brague, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927015958/http://www.christiansofiraq.com/assyriancontributionstotheislamiccivilization.htm |date=2013-09-27 }}</ref> and the institution known as the ] employed ] and ] to both translate works into Arabic and to develop new knowledge.<ref>Meri, Josef W. and Jere L. Bacharach. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024001/https://books.google.com/books?id=MypbfKdMePIC&pg=PA304#v=onepage&q&f=false |date=28 December 2023 }}. 2006, p. 304.</ref><ref name="Brague 2009">{{cite book|title=The Legend of the Middle Ages: Philosophical Explorations of Medieval Christianity, Judaism, and Islam|first=Rémi |last=Brague|year= 2009| isbn=9780226070803| page =164|publisher=University of Chicago Press|quote=Neither were there any Muslims among the Ninth-Century translators. Amost all of them were Christians of various Eastern denominations: Jacobites, Melchites, and, above all, Nestorians... A few others were Sabians.}}</ref><ref>]. 1994. ''A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam''. New York: ]. {{ISBN|0-8147-8023-7}}. pp. 245, 250, 256–57.</ref> | |||
* Lapidus (2002), pp.502–507,845 | |||
* Lewis (2003), p.100</ref> | |||
Soldiers broke away from the Abbasid empire and established their own dynasties, such as the ]s in 868 in Egypt<ref>{{cite book|last=Holt|first=Peter Malcolm|author-link=Peter Holt (historian)|title=The Crusader States and Their Neighbours, 1098–1291|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A0qLHVGgH7AC&pg=PA8|year=2004|publisher=Pearson Longman|isbn=978-0-582-36931-3|page=6|access-date=2 February 2023|archive-date=28 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024001/https://books.google.com/books?id=A0qLHVGgH7AC&pg=PA8|url-status=live}}</ref> and the ] in 977 in Central Asia.<ref>{{cite book |title=Islamic Central Asia: an anthology of historical sources |editor-first1=Scott Cameron |editor-last1=Levi |editor-first2=Ron |editor-last2=Sela |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=2010 |page=83}}</ref> In this fragmentation came the ], roughly between 945 and 1055, which saw the rise of the ] ] Shi'a missionary movement. One Isma'ili group, the ], took control of North Africa in the 10th century<ref>Neue Fischer Weltgeschichte "Islamisierung in Zentralasien bis zur Mongolenzeit" Band 10: Zentralasien, 2012, p. 191 (German)</ref> and another Isma'ili group, the ], sacked Mecca and stole the ], a rock placed within the Kaaba, in their unsuccessful rebellion.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Glubb |first=John Bagot |title=Mecca (Saudi Arabia) |encyclopedia=] |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Mecca#ref887188 |access-date=18 September 2021 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=6 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200506004706/https://www.britannica.com/place/Mecca#ref887188 |url-status=live }}</ref> Yet another Isma'ili group, the ], conquered Baghdad and turned the Abbasids into a figurehead monarchy. The Sunni Seljuk dynasty campaigned to ] by promulgating the scholarly opinions of the time, notably with the construction of educational institutions known as ], which are associated with Al-Ghazali and ].<ref>Andreas Graeser ''Zenon von Kition: Positionen u. Probleme'' ] 1975 {{ISBN|978-3-11-004673-1}} p. 260</ref> | |||
===Etiquette and diet=== | |||
The expansion of the Muslim world continued with religious missions converting ] to Islam. The ] reached deep into the ] and many converted to Islam,{{sfnp|Arnold|1896|pp=227–228}} in particular ]s whose descendants make up the vast majority of Indian Muslims.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-36220329|title=Why are many Indian Muslims seen as untouchable?|publisher=BBCnews|date=10 May 2016|access-date=6 October 2022|archive-date=7 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221007024220/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-36220329|url-status=live}}</ref> Trade brought many ], where they virtually dominated the import and export industry of the ].<ref>{{cite web |title=Islam in China |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/china_1.shtml |access-date=10 August 2011 |publisher=BBC |archive-date=22 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181122142756/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/china_1.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> Muslims were recruited as a ] in the ].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lipman|first=Jonathan Newman|title=Familiar Strangers, a history of Muslims in Northwest China|location=Seattle, WA|publisher=University of Washington Press|year=1997|isbn=978-0-295-97644-0|page=33}}</ref> | |||
{{Main|Adab (behavior)|Islamic dietary laws}} | |||
=== Pre-modern era (1258 – 18th century) === | |||
Many practices fall in the category of ''adab'', or Islamic etiquette. This includes greeting others with "'']''" ("peace be unto you"), saying '']'' ("in ]") before meals, and using only the right hand for eating and drinking. ] practices mainly fall into the category of personal cleanliness and health, such as the circumcision of male offspring. ] include saying the '']'' ("funeral prayer") over the bathed and enshrouded dead body, and burying it in a grave. Muslims, like Jews, are restricted in their diet, and prohibited foods include pig products, blood, ], and ]. All meat must come from a ] animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, with the exception of game that one has hunted or fished for oneself. Food permissible for Muslims is known as ] food.<ref>See: | |||
{{Further|Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam}} | |||
* {{cite quran|5|5|style=ref}} | |||
], 7{{sup|th}} ] ruler of the ], converts to Islam. 14th-century depiction]] | |||
* Curtis (2005), p.164 | |||
Through Muslim trade networks and the activity of Sufi orders,{{sfnp|Arnold|1896|pp=125–258}} Islam spread into new areas<ref>{{cite web |title=The Spread of Islam |url=http://www.yale.edu/yup/pdf/cim6.pdf |access-date=2 November 2013 |archive-date=3 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103220022/http://www.yale.edu/yup/pdf/cim6.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> and Muslims assimilated into new cultures. | |||
* Esposito (2002b), p.111 | |||
* Ghamidi (2001): | |||
* Ghamidi (2001): | |||
* Ghamidi (2001): | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Slaughter | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | author=Ersilia Francesca | accessdate=2007-05-08}}</ref> | |||
Under the ], Islam spread to ].<ref>{{cite web |date=6 May 2008 |title=Ottoman Empire |publisher=Oxford Islamic Studies Online |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1801?_hi=41&_pos=3 |access-date=26 August 2010 |archive-date=10 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220610093907/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1801?_hi=41 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Conversion to Islam often involved a degree of ],<ref>{{Cite book |title=Islamic and European Expansion |publisher=] |year=1993 |editor-last=Adas |editor-first=Michael |location=Philadelphia |page=25}}</ref> as illustrated by Muhammad's appearance in ] folklore.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Metcalf |first=Barbara |title=Islam in South Asia in Practice |publisher=] |year=2009 |page=104}}</ref> Muslim Turks incorporated elements of ] to Islam.{{efn|"In recent years, the idea of syncretism has been challenged. Given the lack of authority to define or enforce an Orthodox doctrine about Islam, some scholars argue there had no prescribed beliefs, only prescribed practise, in Islam before the 16th century.{{sfnp|Peacock|2019|p=20–22}}}}{{sfnp|Çakmak|2017|pp=1425–1429}} ] who were descended from earlier immigrants were assimilated, sometimes through laws mandating assimilation,<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Farmer|editor1-first=Edward L.|title=Zhu Yuanzhang and Early Ming Legislation: The Reordering of Chinese Society Following the Era of Mongol Rule|date=1995|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9004103910|page=82|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TCIjZ7l6TX8C&pg=PA82|access-date=19 February 2023|archive-date=28 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024330/https://books.google.com/books?id=TCIjZ7l6TX8C&pg=PA82#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> by adopting Chinese names and ] while ] became an important center of Islamic study.<ref>Israeli, Raphael (2002). ''Islam in China''. p. 292. ]. {{ISBN|0-7391-0375-X}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dillon |first=Michael |year=1999 |title=China's Muslim Hui Community |publisher=Curzon |url=https://archive.org/details/chinasmuslimhuic00dill |isbn=978-0-7007-1026-3 |page= |url-access=registration}}</ref> | |||
===Jihad=== | |||
{{mainarticle|Jihad|Islamic military jurisprudence}} | |||
Jihad means "to strive or struggle," and is considered the "]" by a minority of Muslim authorities.<ref name="jih">Esposito (2003), p.93</ref> Within ], jihad is usually taken to mean military exertion against non-Muslim combatants in the ] or ] of the ], the ultimate purpose of which is to establish the universal domination of Islam. Jihad, the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law, may be declared against non-Muslims who refuse to convert to Islam or submit to Islamic rule.<ref name="jihad">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Djihād | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> Jihad is perpetual in nature; in theory, there can be no permanent peace with non-Muslim states, only truces which can be repudiated when circumstances become favorable for the resumption of hostilities. It ceases when Jews, Christians, and ]s submit to the authority of Islam and agree to pay the '']'' (a ]) and '']'' (a land tax), and when ]s convert to Islam. Those who do not accept these terms may be enslaved or killed.<ref name="jihad"/> For most ], jihad can only be waged in the presence of a divinely appointed leader of the Muslim community, and as such is suspended in their absence.<ref name="jihad"/> | |||
Cultural shifts were evident with the decrease in Arab influence after the ] of the Abbasid Caliphate.<ref>{{harvp|Bulliet|2005|p=497}}</ref> The Muslim Mongol Khanates in ] and ] benefited from increased cross-cultural access to East Asia under ] and thus flourished and developed more distinctively from Arab influence, such as the ] under the ].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Subtelny |first=Maria Eva |date=November 1988 |title=Socioeconomic Bases of Cultural Patronage under the Later Timurids |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-middle-east-studies/article/socioeconomic-bases-of-cultural-patronage-under-the-later-timurids/2A0F3018EE155F23FC4A7F5F25D7DE6D |journal=] |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=479–505 |doi=10.1017/S0020743800053861 |s2cid=162411014 |access-date=7 November 2016 |archive-date=13 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200813204329/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-middle-east-studies/article/socioeconomic-bases-of-cultural-patronage-under-the-later-timurids/2A0F3018EE155F23FC4A7F5F25D7DE6D |url-status=live }}</ref> ] (1201–1274) proposed the ] that was later argued to be adopted by ] unrevised in his ] model,<ref>{{cite web|date=1999|title=Nasir al-Din al-Tusi|publisher=University of St Andrews|url=https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Al-Tusi_Nasir/|access-date=27 August 2023|archive-date=6 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181006055638/http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Al-Tusi_Nasir.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and ]'s estimate of ] would not be surpassed for 180 years.<ref>{{cite web |date=1999 |title=Ghiyath al-Din Jamshid Mas'ud al-Kashi |publisher=University of St Andrews |url=https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Al-Kashi/ |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=4 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220104103227/https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Al-Kashi/ |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
Under most circumstances and for most Muslims, jihad is a collective duty (''fard kifaya''): its performance by some individuals exempts the others. Only for those vested with authority, especially the sovereign (]), does jihad become an individual duty. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a ].<ref name="jihad"/> Some Muslim authorities, especially among the Shi'a and ascetics, distinguish between the "greater jihad", which pertains to spiritual self-perfection, and the "lesser jihad", defined as warfare.<ref>See: | |||
*Firestone (1999) p.17 | |||
*"Djihad", ''Encyclopedia of Islam Online''.</ref> In modern usage, jihad also refers to one's striving to attain religious and moral perfection.<ref>See: | |||
*Brockopp (2003) pp. 99—100 | |||
*Esposito (2003), p.93 | |||
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=jihad | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-06-13}}</ref> | |||
After the introduction of gunpowder weapons, large and centralized Muslim states consolidated around ], these had been previously splintered amongst various territories. The ] was claimed by the ] of the Ottoman Empire and its claims were strengthened in 1517 as ] became the ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Drews |first=Robert |url=https://my.vanderbilt.edu/robertdrews/publications/ |title=Coursebook: Judaism, Christianity and Islam, to the Beginnings of Modern Civilization |date=August 2011 |publisher=] |chapter=Chapter Thirty – "The Ottoman Empire, Judaism, and Eastern Europe to 1648" |chapter-url=https://my.vanderbilt.edu/robertdrews/files/2014/01/Chapter-Thirty.-The-Ottoman-Empire-Judaism-and-Eastern-Europe-to-1648.pdf |access-date=21 April 2020 |archive-date=26 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221226173808/https://my.vanderbilt.edu/robertdrews/publications/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The Shia ] rose to power in 1501 and later conquered all of Iran.<ref>Peter B. Golden: An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples; In: Osman Karatay, Ankara 2002, p. 321</ref> In South Asia, ] founded the ].<ref>{{citation|last=Gilbert|first=Marc Jason|title=South Asia in World History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1dhKDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA75|year=2017|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-066137-3|pages=75|access-date=15 January 2023|archive-date=22 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922031915/https://books.google.com/books?id=1dhKDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA75|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
==History== | |||
{{main|Muslim history|Spread of Islam}} | |||
The religion of the centralized states of the gunpowder empires influenced the religious practice of their constituent populations. A ] between ] and Sufism strongly influenced Islamic reign by the Ottomans from the beginning. The ] and ] had a close relation to the sultans,<ref>Ga ́bor A ́goston, Bruce Alan Masters ''Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire'' ] 2010 {{ISBN|978-1-4381-1025-7}} p. 540</ref> as Sufi-mystical as well as ] and ] approaches to Islam flourished.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Algar |first=Ayla Esen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fc69BhBDjhwC&q=ottomans+sufism |title=The Dervish Lodge: Architecture, Art, and Sufism in Ottoman Turkey |page=15 |date=1 January 1992 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-520-07060-8 |access-date=29 April 2020 |via=Google Books |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024414/https://books.google.com/books?id=fc69BhBDjhwC&q=ottomans+sufism#v=snippet&q=ottomans%20sufism&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> The often forceful ] to the Twelver Shia Islam of the Safavid Empire ensured the final dominance of the ] within Shia Islam. Persian migrants to South Asia, as influential bureaucrats and landholders, helped spread Shia Islam, forming some of the largest Shia populations outside Iran.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/conversion-iii|title=CONVERSION To Imami Shiʿism in India|publisher=Iranica Online|language=English|access-date=6 October 2022|archive-date=7 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221007024220/https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/conversion-iii|url-status=live}}</ref> ], who overthrew the Safavids, attempted to improve relations with Sunnis by propagating the integration of Twelverism into Sunni Islam as a fifth ''madhhab'', called Ja'farism,<ref>{{cite journal |title=Nadir Shah and the Ja 'fari Madhhab Reconsidered |first=Ernest |last=Tucker |journal=Iranian Studies |volume=27 |issue=1–4 |date=1994 |pages=163–179 |doi=10.1080/00210869408701825 |jstor=4310891}}</ref> which failed to gain recognition from the Ottomans.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Nāder Shāh |encyclopedia=] |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/nader-shah |date=29 March 2006 |first=Ernest |last=Tucker |access-date=9 March 2021 |archive-date=25 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225103212/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/nader-shah%20 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
Islam's historical development resulted in major political, economic, and military effects inside and outside the ]. Within a century of Muhammad's first recitations of the ], an Islamic empire stretched from the ] in the west to ] in the east. This new polity soon broke into civil war, and successor states fought each other and outside forces. However, Islam continued to spread into regions like ], the ], and ]. The Islamic civilization was one of the most advanced in the world during the ], but was surpassed by Europe with the economic and military growth of the West. During the 18th and 19th centuries, Islamic dynasties such as the ] and ] fell under the sway of European imperial powers. In the 20th century ] and newfound wealth in the Islamic world led to both rebirth and conflict.<ref>See: | |||
* Lapidus (2002), pp.50,112,197,380,489,578,817 | |||
* Lewis (2004), pp.29,51–56</ref> | |||
=== |
=== Modern era (18th–20th centuries) === | ||
] was the last Caliph of Islam from the ].]] | |||
{{see|Succession to Muhammad|Muslim conquests|Arab Empire}} | |||
Muhammad began preaching Islam at ] before ] to ], from where he united the ] into a singular Arab Muslim religious polity under his rule. With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. ], a prominent ] of Muhammad, nominated ], who was Muhammad's intimate friend and collaborator. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first ]. This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who held that ], his cousin and son-in-law, had been designated his successor. Abu Bakr's immediate task was to avenge a recent defeat by ] (or ]) forces, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the ], or "Wars of Apostasy".<ref>See: | |||
* Holt (1977a), p.57 | |||
* Hourani (2003), p.22 | |||
* Lapidus (2002), p.32 | |||
* Madelung (1996), p.43 | |||
* Tabatabaei (1979), p.30-50</ref> | |||
] in the year 750]] | |||
Earlier in the 14th century, ] promoted a ]ical form of Islam,<ref name="ReferenceA">Mary Hawkesworth, Maurice Kogan ''Encyclopedia of Government and Politics: 2-volume set'' ] 2013 {{ISBN|978-1-136-91332-7}} pp. 270–271</ref> rejecting philosophical approaches in favor of simpler theology,<ref name="ReferenceA" /> and called to open the gates of ] rather than blind imitation of scholars.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=150}} He called for a jihad against those he deemed heretics,<ref>Richard Gauvain ''Salafi Ritual Purity: In the Presence of God'' ] 2013 {{ISBN|978-0-7103-1356-0}} p. 6</ref> but his writings only played a marginal role during his lifetime.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Spevack |first=Aaron |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=htx8BAAAQBAJ |title=The Archetypal Sunni Scholar: Law, Theology, and Mysticism in the Synthesis of al-Bajuri |date=2014 |publisher=] |isbn=978-1-4384-5371-2 |pages=129–130 |access-date=10 December 2018 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024415/https://books.google.com/books?id=htx8BAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> During the 18th century in Arabia, ], influenced by the works of Ibn Taymiyya and ], founded a movement called ] to return to what he saw as unadultered Islam.<ref>Donald Quataert ''The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922'' ] 2005 {{ISBN|978-0-521-83910-5}} p. 50</ref><ref name="ReferenceE">Ga ́bor A ́goston, Bruce Alan Masters ''Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire'' ] 2010 {{ISBN|978-1-4381-1025-7}} p. 260</ref> He condemned many local Islamic customs, such as visiting the grave of Muhammad or saints, as later ] and sinful<ref name="ReferenceE" /><ref name="Musa-2022">{{Cite thesis |title=The Emergence of a Scholar from a Garrison Society: A contextual analysis of Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhāb's doctrine in the light of the Qur'ān and Hadīth |url=https://repository.uwtsd.ac.uk/id/eprint/2096/ |publisher=University of Wales Trinity Saint David |date=2022-08-23 |degree=masters |language=en |first=Shahajada Md |last=Musa |access-date=19 December 2023 |archive-date=2 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230502100026/https://repository.uwtsd.ac.uk/id/eprint/2096/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and destroyed sacred rocks and trees, Sufi shrines, the ] and the tomb of Husayn at Karbala, a major Shia pilgrimage site.<ref name="Musa-2022" /><ref>{{Cite news |date=4 September 2013 |title=Graves desecrated in Mizdah |work=] |url=http://www.libyaherald.com/2013/09/04/graves-desecrated-in-mizdah/#axzz2jWG0vDDO |access-date=2 November 2013 |archive-date=3 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103172759/http://www.libyaherald.com/2013/09/04/graves-desecrated-in-mizdah/#axzz2jWG0vDDO |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=146}} He formed an alliance with the ], which, by the 1920s, completed their conquest of the area that would become ].<ref name="Musa-2022" /><ref>Nicolas Laos ''The Metaphysics of World Order: A Synthesis of Philosophy, Theology, and Politics'' ] Publishers 2015 {{ISBN|978-1-4982-0102-5}} p. 177</ref> ] and Ma Debao promoted salafist movements in the 19th century such as ] in China after returning from Mecca but were eventually persecuted and forced into hiding by Sufi groups.<ref>{{cite book|first=Barry M.|last=Rubin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wEih57-GWQQC&pg=PA79|page=79|title=Guide to Islamist Movements|year=2000|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|isbn=0-7656-1747-1|access-date=28 June 2010|archive-date=28 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024259/https://books.google.com/books?id=wEih57-GWQQC&pg=PA79#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> Other groups sought to reform Sufism rather than reject it, with the ] and ] both waging war and establishing states in Libya and Sudan respectively.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=147}} In India, ] attempted a more conciliatory style against Sufism and influenced the ] movement.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=149}} In response to the Deobandi movement, the ] movement was founded as a mass movement, defending popular ] and reforming its practices.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Robert L. Canfield |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g3JhKNSk8tQC&pg=PAPA131 |title=Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective |date=2002 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-521-52291-5 |pages=131– |access-date=1 December 2018 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024259/https://books.google.com/books?id=g3JhKNSk8tQC&pg=PAPA131#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sanyal |first=Usha |date=23 July 1998 |title=Generational Changes in the Leadership of the Ahl-e Sunnat Movement in North India during the twentieth Century |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/generational-changes-in-the-leadership-of-the-ahle-sunnat-movement-in-north-india-during-the-twentieth-century/8AAAC4CFEFC4F4084731C3964A5CAE84 |journal=] |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=635–656 |doi=10.1017/S0026749X98003059 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |via=Cambridge Core |access-date=23 February 2020 |archive-date=17 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200317013822/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/generational-changes-in-the-leadership-of-the-ahle-sunnat-movement-in-north-india-during-the-twentieth-century/8AAAC4CFEFC4F4084731C3964A5CAE84 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
His death in 634 resulted in the succession of Umar as the caliph, followed by ] and Ali ibn Abi Talib. These four are known as ''al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn'' ("]"). Under them, the territory under Muslim rule expanded deeply into ] and ] territories.<ref>See | |||
* Holt (1977a), p.74 | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | coauthors=J. Jomier | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> When Umar was assassinated in 644, ] as successor was met with increasing opposition. In 656, Uthman was also killed, and Ali assumed the position of caliph. After fighting off opposition in the ] (the "First Fitna"), Ali was assassinated by ] in 661. Following this, ], who was governor of ], seized power and began the ].<ref>Holt (1977a), pp.67–72</ref> | |||
The ] was generally in political decline starting the 1800s, especially compared to non-Muslim European powers. Earlier, in the 15th century, the ] succeeded in ending the ]. By the 19th century, the British ] had formally annexed the ] in India.{{sfnp|Lapidus|2002|pp=358, 378–380, 624}} As a response to ], many intellectuals sought to ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Buzpinar |first=Ş. Tufan |date=March 2007 |title=Celal Nuri's Concepts of Westernization and Religion |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=247–258 |doi=10.1080/00263200601114091 |jstor=4284539|s2cid=144461915 }}</ref> ], initially labelled by Western scholars as ], embraced modern values and institutions such as democracy while being scripture oriented. Notable forerunners in the movement include ] and ].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lauziere|first=Henri|title=The Making of Salafism: Islamic Reform in the Twentieth Century|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2016|isbn=978-0-231-17550-0|location=New York, Chichester, West Sussex|pages=231–232|quote="Beginning with Louis Massignon in 1919, it is true that Westerners played a leading role in labeling Islamic modernists as Salafis, even though the term was a misnomer. At the time, European and American scholars felt the need for a useful conceptual box to place Muslim figures such as Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, Muhammad Abduh, and their epigones, all of whom seemed inclined toward a scripturalist understanding of Islam but proved open to rationalism and Western modernity. They chose to adopt salafiyya—a technical term of theology, which they mistook for a reformist slogan and wrongly associated with all kinds of modernist Muslim intellectuals."}}</ref> ] helped influence modern ].<ref>{{Cite news |date=3 January 2014 |title=Political Islam: A movement in motion |work=] |url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/erasmus/2014/01/political-islam |access-date=1 January 2014 |archive-date=4 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140104032602/http://www.economist.com/blogs/erasmus/2014/01/political-islam |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Wilfred Cantwell |title=Islam in Modern History |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1957 |isbn=0-691-03030-8 |page=233 |author-link=Wilfred Cantwell Smith}}</ref> Similar to contemporary ], sharia was for the first time partially codified into law in 1869 in the Ottoman Empire's ] code.<ref name=Oxfordref>{{cite web |editor-link=John Esposito |editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=John L. |title=Mecelle |work=] |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100146176 |url-access=subscription |via=Oxford Islamic Studies Online |access-date=17 August 2023 |archive-date=17 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230817003534/https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100146176 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
These disputes over religious and political leadership would give rise to schism in the Muslim community. The majority accepted the legitimacy of the three rulers prior to Ali, and became known as ]s. A minority disagreed, and believed that Ali was the only rightful successor; they became known as the ].<ref>Waines (2003) p.46</ref> After Mu'awiyah's death in 680, conflict over succession broke out again in a civil war known as the "]". Afterward, the Umayyad dynasty prevailed for seventy years, and was able to conquer the ] as well as ] and the ]. While the Muslim-Arab elite engaged in conquest and empire other Muslims questioned the value of worldly life, emphasized poverty, humility and an avoidance of sins based on a lifestyle of renunciation of bodily desires. Devout Muslim ascetic exemplars such as ] would inspire a movement that would evolve into ].<ref>See: | |||
* Lapidus (2002), pp.90,91 | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Sufism | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-13}}</ref> | |||
The ] after ], the ] ]<ref>{{Cite news |date=29 June – 5 July 2000 |title=New Turkey |work=] |issue=488 |url=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2000/488/chrncls.htm |url-status=dead |access-date=16 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101004145229/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2000/488/chrncls.htm |archive-date=4 October 2010}}</ref> and the subsequent ] fell quickly,<ref>{{Cite web |last1=الوطن |first1=جريدة |last2=webmaster |date=2020-05-05 |title=«مملكة الحجاز».. وقــصـــة الـغــزو المـســلّـــح |url=https://www.al-watan.com/article/230610/NEWS/%C2%AB%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B2%C2%BB-%D9%88%D9%82%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B5%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%80%D8%BA%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B2%D9%88-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%80%D8%B3%D9%80%D9%80%D9%84%D9%91%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%AD |access-date=2023-12-19 |website=جريدة الوطن |language=ar |archive-date=16 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230516230552/https://www.al-watan.com/article/230610/NEWS/%C2%AB%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B2%C2%BB-%D9%88%D9%82%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B5%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%80%D8%BA%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B2%D9%88-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%80%D8%B3%D9%80%D9%80%D9%84%D9%91%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%AD |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bani Issa |first=Mohammad Saleh |date=2023-11-01 |title=Factors of stability and sustainable development in Jordan in its first centenary 1921–2021 (an analytical descriptive study) |journal=Heliyon |volume=9 |issue=11 |pages=e20993 |doi=10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e20993 |issn=2405-8440 |doi-access=free|pmid=37928029 |pmc=10623165 |bibcode=2023Heliy...920993B }}</ref><ref name="والخلفاء-2023">{{Cite book |last=والخلفاء |first=قصص الخلافة الإسلامية |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r-5EAAAQBAJ |title=قصص الخلافة الإسلامية والخلفاء |date=2023-03-31 |publisher=Austin Macauley Publishers |isbn=978-1-3984-9251-6 |language=en |access-date=26 December 2023 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024259/https://books.google.com/books?id=_r-5EAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> thus leaving Islam without a ].<ref name="والخلفاء-2023" /> ]ists attempted to unify Muslims and competed with growing nationalist forces, such as ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Doran |first=Michael |title=Pan-Arabism before Nasser: Egyptian power politics and the Palestine question |date=1999 |publisher=Oxford university press |isbn=978-0-19-512361-6 |series=Studies in Middle Eastern history |location=New York Oxford}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Landau |first=Yaʿaqov M. |title=The politics of Pan-Islam: ideology and organization |date=1994 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-827709-5 |edition= paperback (with additions and corr.) |location=Oxford}}</ref> The ] (OIC), consisting of ], was established in 1969 after the burning of the ] in ].<ref>{{Cite news |date=26 December 2010 |title=Organization of the Islamic Conference |work=] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/country_profiles/1555062.stm |access-date=24 September 2013 |archive-date=28 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180628190335/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/country_profiles/1555062.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
Under the Umayyads, Islam was viewed as a religion for Arabs only;<ref>Hawting (2000), p.4</ref> the economy of the Umayyad empire was based on the assumption that a majority of non-Muslims (dhimmis) would pay taxes to the minority of Muslim Arabs. A non-Arab who wanted to convert to Islam was supposed to first become a client of an Arab tribe. Even after conversion, these new Muslims ('']'') did not achieve social and economic equality with the Arabs. A revolutionary named ] rallied discontented ''mawali'', poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads, overthrowing them and inaugurating the ] in 750.<ref>Lapidus (2002), p.56; Lewis (1993), pp. 71–83</ref> Under the Abbasids, Islamic civilization flourished in the "]", with its capital at the cosmopolitan city of Baghdad.<ref>See: | |||
* Holt (1977a), pp.80,92,105 | |||
* Holt (1977b), pp.661–663 | |||
* Lapidus (2002), p.56 | |||
* Lewis (1993), p.84 | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | coauthors=J. Jomier | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
Contact with industrialized nations brought Muslim populations to new areas through economic migration. Many Muslims migrated as indentured servants (mostly from India and Indonesia) to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas.{{sfnp|Haddad|Smith|2002|p=271}} Migration from Syria and Lebanon contributed to the ].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Zabel|first=Darcy|title=Arabs in the Americas: Interdisciplinary Essays on the Arab Diaspora|publisher=Peter Lang|year=2006|isbn=9780820481111|location=Austria|page=5}}</ref> The resulting urbanization and increase in trade in sub-Saharan Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith,<ref name="Pew Research Center-2011">{{Cite report |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/ |title=The Future of the Global Muslim Population |date=27 January 2011 |publisher=] |access-date=27 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110209094904/http://www.pewforum.org/The-Future-of-the-Global-Muslim-Population.aspx |archive-date=9 February 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> likely doubling its Muslim population between 1869 and 1914.<ref>{{harvp|Bulliet|2005|p=722}}</ref> | |||
===Golden Age (750–1258)=== | |||
{{main|Islamic Golden Age}} | |||
] | |||
=== Contemporary era (20th century–present) === | |||
By the late 9th century, the Abbasid caliphate began to fracture as various regions gained increasing levels of autonomy. Across North Africa, Persia, and Central Asia provinces broke away, and the Shia ]s contested even the religous authority of the caliphate. By 1055 the ] had eliminated the Abbasids as a military power. Nevertheless, they continued to respect the caliph's religious position, and from then on he then became a ruler in name only.<ref>See: | |||
] in Istanbul, Turkey|upright=1.35]] | |||
* Lapidus (2002), p.107 | |||
Forerunners of Islamic modernism influenced Islamist political movements such as the ] and related parties in the Arab world,<ref>{{Cite news |date=9 August 2011 |title=Are secular forces being squeezed out of Arab Spring? |work=] |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14447820 |access-date=10 August 2011 |archive-date=4 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104171024/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14447820 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Slackman |first=Michael |date=23 December 2008 |title=Jordanian students rebel, embracing conservative Islam |work=] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/24/world/middleeast/24jordan.html |access-date=15 August 2011 |archive-date=4 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104153440/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/24/world/middleeast/24jordan.html |url-status=live }}</ref> which performed well in elections following the ],<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kirkpatrick |first=David D. |date=3 December 2011 |title=Egypt's vote puts emphasis on split over religious rule |work=] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/04/world/middleeast/egypts-vote-propels-islamic-law-into-spotlight.html |access-date=8 December 2011 |archive-date=4 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104153442/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/04/world/middleeast/egypts-vote-propels-islamic-law-into-spotlight.html |url-status=live }}</ref> ] in South Asia and the ], which has democratically been in power in Turkey for decades. In ], ] replaced a ] monarchy with an ]. Others such as ] broke away from Islamic modernists<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lauziere|first=Henri|title=The Making of Salafism: Islamic Reform in the Twentieth Century|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2016|isbn=978-0-231-17550-0|location=New York, Chichester, West Sussex|page=237|quote="Prior to the fall of the Ottoman Empire, leading reformers who happened to be Salafi in creed were surprisingly open-minded: although they adhered to neo-Hanbali theology. However, the aftermath of the First World War and the expansion of European colonialism paved the way for a series of shifts in thought and attitude. The experiences of Rida offer many examples... he turned against the Shi'is who dared, with reason, to express doubts about the Saudi-Wahhabi project... . Shi'is were not the only victims: Rida and his associates showed their readiness to turn against fellow Salafis who questioned some of the Wahhabis' religious interpretations."}}</ref> and pushed against embracing what he saw as Western influence.<ref>{{Cite book|last=G. Rabil|first=Robert|title=Salafism in Lebanon: From Apoliticism to Transnational Jihadism|publisher=Georgetown University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-1-62616-116-0|location=Washington DC, US|pages=32–33|quote="Western colonialists established in these countries political orders... that, even though not professing enmity to Islam and its institutions, left no role for Islam in society. This caused a crisis among Muslim reformists, who felt betrayed not only by the West but also by those nationalists, many of whom were brought to power by the West... Nothing reflects this crisis more than the ideological transformation of Rashid Rida (1865–1935)... He also revived the works of Ibn Taymiyah by publishing his writings and promoting his ideas. Subsequently, taking note of the cataclysmic events brought about by Western policies in the Muslim world and shocked by the abolition of the caliphate, he transformed into a Muslim intellectual mostly concerned about protecting Muslim culture, identity, and politics from Western influence. He supported a theory that essentially emphasized the necessity of an Islamic state in which the scholars of Islam would have a leading role... Rida was a forerunner of Islamist thought. He apparently intended to provide a theoretical platform for a modern Islamic state. His ideas were later incorporated into the works of Islamic scholars. Significantly, his ideas influenced none other than Hassan al-Bannah, founder of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt... The Muslim Brethren have taken up Rida's Islamic fundamentalism, a right-wing radical movement founded in 1928,.."}}</ref> The group ] would even attempt to recreate the modern gold dinar as their monetary system. While some of those who broke away were ], others believed in violence against those opposing them, even against other Muslims.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/nov/14/isis-gold-silver-copper-islamic-dinar-coins |title=Isis to mint own Islamic dinar coins in gold, silver and copper |work=The Guardian |date=21 November 2014 |access-date=31 July 2022 |archive-date=4 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104153442/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/nov/14/isis-gold-silver-copper-islamic-dinar-coins |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Abbasid Dynasty | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> During this time expansion continued, by both military warfare and by peaceful ], as the monolithic Arab empire gave way to a more homogenized ]. The first stage in the ] began around the year 1000, at the same time that both Islam and Muslim trade networks were extending into sub-Saharan ], ], ] and the ].<ref name="EoI-Islam"/> | |||
In opposition to Islamic political movements, in 20th century Turkey, the military carried out ] to oust Islamist governments, and headscarves were legally restricted, as also happened in Tunisia.<ref>{{Cite news |date=29 April 2011 |title=Huge rally for Turkish secularism |work=] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6604643.stm |access-date=6 December 2011 |archive-date=29 May 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120529003102/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6604643.stm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Saleh |first=Heba |date=15 October 2011 |title=Tunisia moves against headscarves |work=] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6053380.stm |access-date=6 December 2011 |archive-date=29 May 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120529003101/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6053380.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> In other places, religious authority was co-opted and is now often seen as puppets of the state. For example, in Saudi Arabia, the state monopolized religious scholarship<ref>{{Cite news |date=28 June 2007 |title=Laying down the law: Islam's authority deficit |newspaper=] |url=http://www.economist.com/node/9409354?story_id=9409354 |access-date=15 August 2011 |archive-date=6 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306094736/http://www.economist.com/node/9409354?story_id=9409354 |url-status=live }}</ref> and, in Egypt, the state nationalized ], previously an independent voice checking state power.<ref>{{cite book| title = The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought| last1 = Bowering | first1 = Gerhard | last2=Mirza |first2=Mahan |last3=Crone |first3=Patricia| year = 2013 | publisher = Princeton University Press | page=59| isbn = 9780691134840 | |||
The Golden Age saw new legal, philosophical, and religious developments. The ] were compiled and the four modern Sunni ]s were established even in the face of antagonistic regimes. Islamic law was advanced greatly by the efforts of the early 9th century jurist ]; he codified a method to establish the reliability of hadith, a topic which had been a locus of dispute among Islamic scholars.<ref>Lapidus (2002), p.86</ref> Philosophers ] (Avicenna) and ] sought to incorporate Greek principles into Islamic theology, while others like the 11th century theologian ] argued against them and ultimately prevailed.<ref>See: | |||
}}</ref> Salafism was funded in the Middle East for its quietism.<ref>{{cite web |date=18 October 2008 |title=Ultraconservative Islam on rise in Mideast |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna27256187 |access-date=24 September 2013 |publisher=] |archive-date=4 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104032423/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/27256187/page/2/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Saudi Arabia campaigned against revolutionary Islamist movements in the Middle East, in opposition to Iran.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Almukhtar |first1=Sarah |last2=Peçanha |first2=Sergio |last3=Wallace |first3=Tim |date=5 January 2016 |title=Behind Stark Political Divisions, a More Complex Map of Sunnis and Shiites |work=] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/01/04/world/middleeast/sunni-shiite-map-middle-east-iran-saudi-arabia.html |access-date=6 January 2016 |archive-date=4 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104153442/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/01/04/world/middleeast/sunni-shiite-map-middle-east-iran-saudi-arabia.html |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
* Lapidus (2002), p.160 | |||
* Waines (2003) p.126,127</ref> Finally, Sufism and Shi'ism both underwent major changes in the 9th century. ] became a full-fledged movement that had moved towards mysticism and away from its ascetic roots, while Shi'ism split due to disagreements over the succession of Imams.<ref>See: | |||
* Esposito (2004), pp.44–45 | |||
* Lapidus (2002), pp.90-94 | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Sufism | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
Muslim minorities of various ethnicities have been persecuted as a religious group.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Thames |first1=Knox |title=Why the Persecution of Muslims Should Be on Biden's Agenda |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/01/06/muslims-islam-china-india-myanmar-persecution-repression-biden-human-rights/ |work=] |date=6 January 2021 |language=English |access-date=5 February 2022 |archive-date=11 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220211114303/https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/01/06/muslims-islam-china-india-myanmar-persecution-repression-biden-human-rights/ |url-status=live }}</ref> This has been undertaken by communist forces like the ], who viewed them as their primary enemy to be exterminated since their religious practice made them stand out from the rest of the population,<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Perrin |first=Andrew |date=10 October 2003 |title=Weakness in numbers |magazine=] |url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,428133,00.html |access-date=24 September 2013 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=24 September 2013 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130924035829/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,428133,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> the ] in ]<ref>{{cite web |last1=Beydoun |first1=Khaled A. |title=For China, Islam is a 'mental illness' that needs to be 'cured' |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/china-islam-mental-illness-cured-181127135358356.html |publisher=] |language=English |access-date=5 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181210012542/https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/china-islam-mental-illness-cured-181127135358356.html |archive-date=10 December 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> and by nationalist forces such as during the ].<ref>{{cite book |last=Mojzes |first=Paul |title=Balkan Genocides: Holocaust and Ethnic Cleansing in the Twentieth Century |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-4422-0663-2|page=178}}</ref> Myanmar military's ] targeting of ] has been labeled as a crime against humanity by the UN and Amnesty International,<ref>{{cite news |author=Oliver Holmes |date=19 December 2016 |title=Myanmar's Rohingya campaign 'may be crime against humanity' |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/dec/19/myanmars-rohingya-campaign-may-be-against-humanity |url-status=live |access-date=5 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106013700/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/dec/19/myanmars-rohingya-campaign-may-be-against-humanity |archive-date=6 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=19 December 2016|title=Rohingya abuse may be crimes against humanity: Amnesty|website=Al Jazeera|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/12/19/rohingya-abuse-may-be-crimes-against-humanity-amnesty/|access-date=2023-02-21|archive-date=22 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922232529/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/12/19/rohingya-abuse-may-be-crimes-against-humanity-amnesty/|url-status=live}}</ref> while the ] Fact-Finding Mission identified ], ethnic cleansing, and other crimes against humanity.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/MyanmarFFM/Pages/ReportoftheMyanmarFFM.aspx|title=Report of Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Myanmar |date=27 August 2018|website=ohchr.org|access-date=14 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181019232309/https://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/MyanmarFFM/Pages/ReportoftheMyanmarFFM.aspx|archive-date=19 October 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
Starting in the 9th century, Muslim conquests in Christian Europe began to be reversed. The ] was launched against Muslim ] in Spain, and Muslim ] were lost to the ]. At the behest of the ], the ] were launched in response to Muslim gains in the Mediterranean and in support of the Byzantine empire against the ]. Successful at first, the Crusaders' advance was halted by the Muslim general ], who regained Jerusalem at the ] in 1187.<ref>Lapidus (2002), pp.288–290,310</ref> The ] put an end to the Abbasid dynasty at the ], which saw the Muslims overrun by the superior Mongol army. Meanwhile in Egypt, the slave-soldier ]s took control in an uprising in 1250.<ref>See: | |||
* Lapidus (2002), p.292 | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Islamic World | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
The advancement of global communication has facilitated the widespread dissemination of religious knowledge. The adoption of the ] has grown more common<ref>{{Cite news |last=Slackman |first=Michael |date=28 January 2007 |title=In Egypt, a new battle begins over the veil |work=] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/28/weekinreview/28slackman.html |access-date=15 August 2011 |archive-date=3 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190503150409/https://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/28/weekinreview/28slackman.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and some Muslim intellectuals are increasingly striving to separate scriptural Islamic beliefs from cultural traditions.{{sfnp|Nigosian|2004|p=41}} Among other groups, this access to information has led to the rise of popular "]" preachers, such as ], who compete with the traditional ] in their reach and have decentralized religious authority.<ref>{{Cite news|last=|first=|title=Islamic televangelist; holy smoke|agency=]|url=http://www.economist.com/node/21534763|access-date=5 February 2022|archive-date=4 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130904164441/http://www.economist.com/node/21534763|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=263}} More "individualized" interpretations of Islam<ref>V. Šisler: ''The Internet and the Construction of Islamic Knowledge in Europe'' p. 212</ref> notably involve ] who attempt to align religious traditions with contemporary secular governance,{{sfnp|Esposito|2004|pp=118–119, 179}}{{sfnp|Rippin|2001|p=288}} an approach that has been criticized by some regarding its compatibility.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Adams, Charles J.|editor1-last=Esposito|editor1-first=John L.|title=Voices of Resurgent Islam|url=https://archive.org/details/voicesofresurgen00hcen|url-access=registration|date=1983|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages= |chapter=Maududi and the Islamic State|quote= when religion is relegated to the personal realm, men inevitably give way to their bestial impulses and perpetrate evil upon one another. In fact it is precisely because they wish to escape the restraints of morality and the divine guidance that men espouse secularism.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Meisami|first=Sayeh|date=2013|title='Abdolkarim Soroush |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195390155/obo-9780195390155-0034.xml|url-status=live|access-date=2021-10-12 |website=Oxford Bibliographies|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105164410/http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195390155/obo-9780195390155-0034.xml |archive-date=2013-11-05 }}</ref> Moreover, secularism is perceived as a foreign ideology imposed by invaders and perpetuated by post-colonial ],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Secularism, State Neutrality, and Islam|author=Abdullah Saeed|encyclopedia=The Oxford Handbook of Secularism|editor1=Phil Zuckerman|editor2=John R. Shook |url=http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/abstract/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199988457.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199988457-e-12|year=2017|page=188 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199988457.013.12|isbn=978-0-19-998845-7|access-date=7 August 2023|archive-date=3 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210903020955/https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/abstract/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199988457.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199988457-e-12|url-status=live}}{{subscription required}}</ref> and is frequently understood to be equivalent to ].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|author=Nader Hashemi|title=Secularism|encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World|editor=John L. Esposito|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2009|isbn=978-0-19-530513-5 |url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001/acref-9780195305135-e-0714|access-date=7 August 2023|archive-date=6 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221206153300/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001/acref-9780195305135-e-0714|url-status=live}}{{subscription required}}</ref> | |||
===Ottomans and Mughals (1258–1918)=== | |||
The Seljuk Turks fell apart rapidly in the second half of the 13th century. In the 13th and 14th centuries the ] (named after ]) was established with a string of conquests that included the ], parts of ], and western ]. In 1453 under ] the Ottomans laid siege to ], the capital of Byzantium. The Byzantine fortress ] shortly afterward, having been battered by the Ottoman's superior ].<ref>See: | |||
* Holt (1977a), p.263 | |||
* Lapidus (2002), p.250 | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Istanbul | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
== Demographics == | |||
Beginning in the 13th century, Sufism underwent a transformation, largely as a result of the efforts of ] to legitimize and reorganize the movement. He developed the model of the Sufi order—a community of spiritual teachers and students.<ref>Esposito (2004), pp.104,105</ref> Also of importance to Sufism was the creation of the ], a collection of mystical poetry by the 13th century ] poet ]. The Masnavi had a profound influence on the development of Sufi religious thought; to many Sufis it is second in importance only to the Qur'an.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title=Islamic Art | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
{{Main|Muslim world|Ummah}} | |||
In the early 16th century, the Shi'ite ] assumed control in Persia and established Shi'a Islam as an official religion in Persia, and despite periodic setbacks, the Safavids remained powerful for two centuries. Meanwhile, Mamluk Egypt fell to the Ottomans in 1517, who then launched a European campaign which reached as far as ] in 1529.<ref>See: | |||
{{See also|Islam by country|Muslim population growth}} | |||
* Lapidus (2002), pp.198,234,244,245,254 | |||
] | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | coauthors=J. Jomier | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> During the early 16th century the Muslim ] was formed in the ], but by the mid-18th century the ] had ended the Mughal dynasty.<ref>Lapidus (2002), pp.358,378–380,624</ref> The Mughals were noted for their achievements in art and architecture, exemplified by the ], which Shah Jahan built as a memorial to his wife.<ref>Esposito (2004), p.65</ref> Simultaneously the ] movement took hold in Saudi Arabia. Founded by the preacher ], Wahhabism is a fundamentalist ideology that condemns practices like Sufism and the veneration of saints as un-Islamic.<ref>See: | |||
As of 2020, about 24% of the global population, or about 1.9 billion people, are Muslims.<ref name="pewresearch.orgReligion"/><ref name="www.pewresearch.org-2022"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/muslim-population-by-country|title=Muslim Population by Country 2023|website=worldpopulationreview.com|access-date=14 August 2021|archive-date=31 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221031214555/https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/muslim-population-by-country|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/|title=The Future of the Global Muslim Population|date=27 January 2011|access-date=26 October 2022|archive-date=30 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230930233955/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/08/09/muslims-and-islam-key-findings-in-the-u-s-and-around-the-world/ | title=Muslims and Islam: Key findings in the U.S. and around the world | date=9 August 2017 | access-date=19 December 2022 | archive-date=8 November 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221108121140/https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/08/09/muslims-and-islam-key-findings-in-the-u-s-and-around-the-world/ | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Lipka, Michael, and Conrad Hackett. 6 April 2017. " {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190514123559/https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/04/06/why-muslims-are-the-worlds-fastest-growing-religious-group/ |date=14 May 2019 }}" (data analysis). ''Fact Tank''. ].</ref> In 1900, this estimate was 12.3%,<ref>David B. Barrett, George T. Kurian, and Todd M. Johnson, World Christian Encyclopedia: A comparative survey of churches and religions in the modern world, Vol. 1: The world by countries: religionists, churches, ministries 2d ed. (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2001), 4.</ref> in 1990 it was 19.9%<ref name="Pew Research Center-2011" /> and projections suggest the proportion will be 29.7% by 2050.<ref name=pew2015 /> The ] estimates that 87–90% of Muslims are Sunni and 10–13% are Shia.{{sfnp|Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life|2009|p=1|ps=. "Of the total Muslim population, 10–13% are Shia Muslims and 87–90% are Sunni Muslims."}} Approximately 49 countries are ],{{sfnp|Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life|2009|p=11}}<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ba-Yunus |first1=Ilyas |title=Muslims in the United States |last2=Kone, Kassim |publisher=] Group |year=2006 |page= |url=https://archive.org/details/muslimsunitedsta00bayu |url-access=registration |isbn=978-0-313-32825-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Muslim Majority Countries 2021 |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/muslim-majority-countries |access-date=25 July 2021 |website=worldpopulationreview.com |archive-date=1 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220101055328/https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/muslim-majority-countries |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>]. December 2012. " {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180323215026/http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2014/01/global-religion-full.pdf |date=23 March 2018 }}." DC: Pew Research Center. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180926222120/http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-exec/ |date=26 September 2018 }}.</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=7 March 2018 |title=Islam in Russia |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/amp/features/2018/03/07/islam-in-russia/ |access-date=15 June 2021 |website=] |publisher=] |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024349/https://www.aljazeera.com/amp/features/2018/3/7/islam-in-russia |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Book review: Russia's Muslim Heartlands reveals diverse population |date=21 April 2018 |url=https://www.thenational.ae/arts-culture/book-review-russia-s-muslim-heartlands-reveals-diverse-population-1.723230 |work=] |access-date=13 January 2019 |archive-date=14 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190114210257/https://www.thenational.ae/arts-culture/book-review-russia-s-muslim-heartlands-reveals-diverse-population-1.723230 |url-status=live }}</ref> with 62% of the world's Muslims living in Asia, and 683 million adherents in ],<ref>Pew Forum for Religion and Public Life. April 2015. " {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170207115222/http://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/muslims/pf_15-04-02_projectionstables74/ |date=7 February 2017 }}" (projections table). ].</ref> ], ], and ] alone.<ref>{{cite web |title=Secrets of Islam |url=https://www.usnews.com/usnews/graphics/religion/islams_global_reach.htm |access-date=24 September 2013 |website=] |archive-date=22 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110122200555/http://www.usnews.com/usnews/graphics/religion/islams_global_reach.htm |url-status=live }} Information provided by the International Population Center, Department of Geography, ] (2005).</ref>{{sfnp|Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life|2009|pp=15, 17}}<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Pechilis |first1=Karen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kaubzRxh-U0C |title=South Asian Religions: Tradition and Today |last2=Raj |first2=Selva J. |date=2013 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-415-44851-2 |page= |access-date=3 May 2019 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024331/https://books.google.com/books?id=kaubzRxh-U0C |url-status=live }}</ref> ] form the ] in the world,<ref>Margaret Kleffner Nydell {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024737/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZNoiieefqAcC |date=28 December 2023 }}, Intercultural Press, 2005, {{ISBN|1931930252}}, page xxiii, 14</ref> followed by ]<ref>{{cite book|author=Richard Eaton|editor=Barbara D. Metcalf|title=Islam in South Asia in Practice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pR0LzVCpfw8C|date=8 September 2009|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-3138-8|page=275|chapter=Forest Clearing and the Growth of Islam in Bengal}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=haGORCJRlOUC&pg=PA50 |title=The Bangladesh Reader: History, Culture, Politics |author1=Meghna Guhathakurta |author2=Willem van Schendel |page=50 |date=30 April 2013 |publisher=Duke University Press |access-date=7 November 2016 |isbn=978-0822353188 |archive-date=7 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230707092408/https://books.google.com/books?id=haGORCJRlOUC&pg=PA50 |url-status=live }}</ref> and ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Gandhi|first=Rajmohan|title=Punjab: A History from Aurangzeb to Mountbatten|year=2013|page=1|publisher=Aleph Book Company|location=New Delhi, India, Urbana, ]|isbn=978-93-83064-41-0}}.</ref> Most estimates indicate ] has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the population).<ref>{{cite web |work=] |title=Explore All Countries – China |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/china/ |access-date=15 September 2009 |publisher=] |archive-date=13 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213122152/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/china/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=China (includes Hong Kong, Macau, and Tibet) |website=Archived Content |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2006/71338.htm |access-date=24 September 2013 |publisher=U.S. Department of State |archive-date=10 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190710075050/https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2006/71338.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> ] is the second-largest religion after ] in many countries, with growth rates due primarily to immigration and higher birth rates of Muslims in 2005,<ref>{{Cite news |date=23 December 2005 |title=Muslims in Europe: Country guide |work=] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4385768.stm |access-date=1 April 2010 |archive-date=29 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090929213440/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4385768.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> accounting for 4.9% of all of Europe's population in 2016.<ref>{{citation|url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/11/29/5-facts-about-the-muslim-population-in-europe/|title=5 facts about the Muslim population in Europe|date=November 29, 2017|work=]|first=Conrad|last=Hackett|access-date=17 January 2023|archive-date=5 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190105202657/http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/11/29/5-facts-about-the-muslim-population-in-europe/|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
* Lapidus (2002), p.572 | |||
* Watt (1973), p.18: Wahhabism should not be confused with the early Kharijite sect of Wahabiyya, which was named after Abd-Allah ibn-Wahb ar-Rasibi, who opposed Ali at Nahrawan.</ref> | |||
] has no net impact on the Muslim population growth as "the number of people who ] seems to be roughly equal to the number of Muslims who leave the faith."<ref>{{Cite report |title=The Future of the Global Muslim Population |section=Conversion |date=27 January 2011 |publisher=Pew Research Center |section-url=https://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-related-factors/#conversion |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/ |quote=there is no substantial net gain or loss in the number of Muslims through conversion globally; the number of people who become Muslims through conversion seems to be roughly equal to the number of Muslims who leave the faith |access-date=12 May 2020 |archive-date=24 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224211126/http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Although, Islam is expected to experience a modest gain of 3 million through religious conversion between 2010 and 2050, mostly from ] (2.9 million).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/files/2015/03/PF_15.04.02_ProjectionsFullReport.pdf|title=Cumulative Change Due to Religious Switching, 2010–2050, p.43|access-date=4 May 2016|archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20150429153811/http://www.pewforum.org/files/2015/03/PF_15.04.02_ProjectionsFullReport.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pewforum.org/2017/04/05/the-changing-global-religious-landscape/|title=The Changing Global Religious Landscape|work=Pew Research Center|date=5 April 2017|access-date=17 December 2022|archive-date=18 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220218030628/https://www.pewforum.org/2017/04/05/the-changing-global-religious-landscape/|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
By the 17th and 18th centuries, the Ottoman empire had begun to feel threatened by European economic and military advantages despite attempts at modernization. In the 19th century, the ] resulted in Greece declaring and winning independence in 1829, and several Balkan states followed suit after the Ottomans suffered defeat in the ]. The end of the Ottoman empire would not come until after ]'s end in 1918, however.<ref>Lapidus (2002), pp.380,489–493</ref> | |||
According to a report by ], "Islam has drawn converts from all walks of life, most notably African-Americans".<ref>{{cite news|title=Fast-growing Islam winning converts in Western world|publisher=]|url=http://edition.cnn.com/WORLD/9704/14/egypt.islam/|access-date=6 May 2016|archive-date=15 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181015114027/http://edition.cnn.com/WORLD/9704/14/egypt.islam/|url-status=live}}</ref> ], around 6,000 people convert to Islam per year and, according to an article in the British Muslims Monthly Survey, the majority of new Muslim converts in Britain were women.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://artsweb.bham.ac.uk/bmms/2000/06June00.asp#Women%20convert |title=British Muslims Monthly Survey for June 2000, Vol. VIII, No. 6 |at=Women convert |access-date=2020-09-28 |archive-date=2008-02-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080214160750/http://artsweb.bham.ac.uk/bmms/2000/06June00.asp#Women%20convert |url-status=live }}</ref> According to ''The Huffington Post'', "observers estimate that as many as 20,000 Americans convert to Islam annually", most of them being ] and ].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2011-08-24|title=Conversion To Islam One Result Of Post-9/11 Curiosity|url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/post-911-islam-converts_n_935572|access-date=2020-11-26|website=HuffPost|language=en|archive-date=2021-01-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210111201117/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/post-911-islam-converts_n_935572|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author-first=Julie|author-last=Bindel|author-link=Julie Bindel|title=Why do Western Women Convert?|url=http://standpointmag.co.uk/features-may-10-why-do-western-women-convert-julie-bindel-islam-female-conversion|access-date=8 May 2016|work=]|date=26 April 2010|archive-date=6 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006102003/http://standpointmag.co.uk/features-may-10-why-do-western-women-convert-julie-bindel-islam-female-conversion|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
===Modern times (1918–present)=== | |||
After ] losses, the remnants of the empire were parceled out as European ]s or ]. Since then most Muslim societies have become independent nations, and new issues such as oil wealth and relations with the state of ] have assumed prominence.<ref>Lapidus (2002), pp.281–282,380,489–493,556,578,823,835</ref> | |||
By both percentage and total numbers, Islam is the world's fastest growing major religious group, and is projected to be the world's largest by the end of the 21st century, surpassing that of ].<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lipka |first1=Michael |last2=Hackett |first2=Conrad |date=April 6, 2017 |title=Why Muslims are the world's fastest-growing religious group |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/04/06/why-muslims-are-the-worlds-fastest-growing-religious-group/ |access-date=2022-11-21 |website=Pew Research Center |language=en-US |archive-date=14 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190514123559/https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/04/06/why-muslims-are-the-worlds-fastest-growing-religious-group/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="pew2015" /> It is estimated that, by 2050, the number of Muslims will nearly equal the number of Christians around the world, "due to the young age and high ] of Muslims relative to other religious groups."<ref name="pew2015">Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life. April 2015. " {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201211090450/http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2015/03/PF_15.04.02_ProjectionsFullReport.pdf |date=11 December 2020 }}." ]. p. 70 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201207093700/https://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projections-2010-2050/ |date=7 December 2020 }}.</ref> | |||
The 20th century saw the creation of many new Islamic "revivalist" movements. Groups such as the ] in Egypt and ] in Pakistan advocate a totalistic and theocratic alternative to secular political ideologies. Sometimes called ], they see Western cultural values as a threat, and promote Islam as a comprehensive solution to every public and private question of importance. In countries like Iran and Afghanistan (under the ]), revolutionary movements replaced existing regimes with Islamist states, while transnational groups like ]'s ] engage in ] to further their goals. In contrast, ] is a movement that attempts to reconcile religious tradition with modern norms of secular governance and ]. Its supporters say that there are multiple ways to read Islam's sacred texts, and stress the need to leave room for "independent thought on religious matters".<ref>See: | |||
* Esposito (2004), pp.118,119,179 | |||
* Lapidus (2002), pp.823–830</ref> | |||
==Main branches or denominations== | |||
==Community== | |||
{{Main|Islamic schools and branches#Main branches or denominations}}{{See also|Shia–Sunni relations}} | |||
] in ] as it exists today]] | |||
{{main|Muslim world}} | |||
=== |
=== Sunni === | ||
{{ |
{{Main|Sunni Islam}} | ||
], one of the ]]] | |||
Sunni Islam, or Sunnism, is the name for the largest denomination in Islam.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sunni |title=Sunni |encyclopedia=] |access-date=17 September 2021 |archive-date=30 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150430101807/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/574006/Sunnite |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Sunni Islam |editor-first=John L. |editor-last=Esposito |encyclopedia=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=2014 |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e2280 |access-date=10 January 2010 |archive-date=5 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181005013247/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e2280 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>Denny, Frederick. 2010. . Oxford: ]. p. 3. "Sunni Islam is the dominant division of the global Muslim community, and throughout history it has made up a substantial majority (85 to 90%) of that community."</ref> The term is a contraction of the phrase "ahl as-sunna wa'l-jamaat", which means "people of the ] (the traditions of Muhammad) and the community".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Ahl as-Sunnah |encyclopedia=] |publisher=Turkish Diyanet Foundation |location=Istanbul |url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ehl-i-sunnet |last=Yavuz |first=Yusuf Şevki |date=1994 |volume=10 |pages=525–530 |lang=tr |access-date=28 December 2021 |archive-date=28 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211228114411/https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ehl-i-sunnet |url-status=live }}</ref> Sunni Islam is sometimes referred to as "orthodox Islam",<ref>{{cite book |author1=John Richard Thackrah |title=Dictionary of Terrorism |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1135165956 |edition=2, revised |page=252}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Status of Women Under Islamic Law and Modern Islamic Legislation |date=2009 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-9004172739 |editor1-last=Nasir |editor1-first=Jamal J. |edition=revised |page=11}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=George W. Braswell |title=What You Need to Know about Islam & Muslims |date=2000 |publisher=B&H Publishing Group |isbn=978-0805418293 |edition=illustrated |page=62}}</ref> though some scholars view this as inappropriate, and many non-Sunnis may find this offensive.<ref>An Introduction to the Hadith. John Burton. Published by Edinburgh University Press. 1996. p. 201. Cite: "Sunni: Of or pertaining ''sunna'', especially the ''Sunna'' of the Prophet. Used in conscious opposition to Shi'a, Shi'í. There being no ecclesia or centralized magisterium, the translation 'orthodox' is inappropriate. To the Muslim 'unorthodox' implies heretical, ''mubtadi'', from ''bid'a'', the contrary of ''sunna'' and so 'innovation'."</ref> Sunnis, or sometimes Sunnites, believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad and primarily reference ] for legal matters, while following one of the four traditional schools of jurisprudence: ], ], ] or ].<ref name="Lexico">{{cite web |title=sharia |url=https://www.lexico.com/definition/sharia |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200122164555/https://www.lexico.com/definition/sharia |archive-date=22 January 2020 |website=Lexico |publisher=] |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2003|pp=275, 306}}</ref> | |||
] is a Sunni school of thought, prominently advocated by ] (780–855 CE), that is characterized by its adherence to a ] understanding of the Quran and the sunnah, the belief that the Quran is uncreated and eternal, and opposition to speculative theology, called ], in religious and ethical matters.<ref>Hadi Enayat ''Islam and Secularism in Post-Colonial Thought: A Cartography of Asadian Genealogies'' ], 30 June 2017 {{ISBN|978-3-319-52611-9}} p.48</ref> ] is a Sunni school of thought inspired by Ancient Greek Philosophy. ], founded by ] (853–944 CE), asserts that scripture is not needed for basic ethics and that ''good'' and ''evil'' can be understood by reason alone,<ref>Rico Isaacs, Alessandro Frigerio ''Theorizing Central Asian Politics: The State, Ideology and Power'' ] 2018 {{ISBN|978-3-319-97355-5}} p. 108</ref> but people rely on revelation, for matters beyond human's comprehension. ], founded by ] (c. 874–936), holds that ethics can derive just from divine revelation but accepts reason regarding exegetical matters and combines Muʿtazila approaches with traditionalist ideas.{{sfnp|Esposito|1999|p=280}} | |||
Commonly cited estimates of the Muslim population in 2007, range from 900 million to 1.3 billion. Approximately 85% are ] and 15% are ], with a small minority belonging to other sects. Some 30-40 countries are Muslim-majority, and Arabs account for around 20% of all Muslims worldwide. ] and ] contain the most populous Muslim countries, with ], ], ], and ] having more than 100 million adherents each.<ref name=Islam_by_country>{{cite web | |||
|url=http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/rel_isl_num_of_mus-religion-islam-number-of-muslim | |||
|title=Number of Muslim by country | |||
|publisher=nationmaster.com | |||
|accessdate=2007-05-30}}</ref> According to U.S. government figures, in 2006 there were 20 million Muslims in ].<ref>{{cite web | |||
|url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71338.htm | |||
|title=International Religious Freedom Report 2006 - China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau) | |||
|year=] | |||
|publisher=U.S. department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor | |||
|accessdate=2007-05-30}}</ref> | |||
] is a revival movement advocating the return to the practices of the earliest generations of Muslims. In the 18th century, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab led a ], referred by outsiders as Wahhabism, in modern-day Saudi Arabia.<ref>Richard Gauvain ''Salafi Ritual Purity: In the Presence of God'' ] 2013 {{ISBN|978-0-7103-1356-0}} page 8</ref> A similar movement called ] also de-emphasized the centuries' old Sunni legal tradition, preferring to directly follow the Quran and Hadith. The '']'' Sunni movement was by ] (1877–1960);<ref name="Svante E. Cornell p. 283">Svante E. Cornell ''Azerbaijan Since Independence'' ] {{ISBN| 9780765630049}} p. 283</ref> it incorporates elements of Sufism and science.<ref name="Svante E. Cornell p. 283" /><ref>Robert W. Hefner ''Shariʻa Politics: Islamic Law and Society in the Modern World'' ] 2011 {{ISBN|978-0-253-22310-4}} p. 170</ref> | |||
In the ], the non-Arab countries of ] and ] are the largest Muslim-majority countries, while in ], ] and ] lead the pack.<ref name=Islam_by_country/> | |||
Islam is the second largest religion after ] in many ] countries, such as ].<ref>See: | |||
*Esposito (2004) pp.2,43 | |||
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Islamic World | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}<br>{{cite web | url=http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html | title=Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents | publisher=Adherents.com | accessdate=2007-01-09}} | |||
*{{cite web | title=Muslims in Europe: Country guide | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4385768.stm | publisher=BBC | work=BBC News | date=] | accessdate=2006-09-28}} | |||
* {{cite web | title=Religion In Britain | url= http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=293 | publisher=Office for National Statistics | work=National Statistics | date=] | accessdate=2006-08-27}}</ref> | |||
=== |
=== Shia === | ||
{{Main| |
{{Main|Shia Islam}} | ||
], collection of sermons, letters, and sayings attributed to ].]] | |||
]s on the holiday of Eid al-Fitr at the ], ]. The days of Eid are important occasions on the Islamic calendar.]] | |||
Shia Islam, or Shi'ism, is the second-largest Muslim denomination.<ref>{{cite web |title=Field Listing :: Religions |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100706231326/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html |archive-date=6 July 2010 |access-date=25 October 2010 |website=] |publisher=] |quote=Sunni Islam accounts for over 75% of the world's Muslim population." ... "Shia Islam represents 10–15% of Muslims worldwide.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Sunni |url=https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/sunni |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200614103622/https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/sunni |archive-date=14 June 2020 |access-date=24 May 2020 |publisher=] |quote=Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam, comprising about 85% of the world's over 1.5 billion Muslims.}}</ref>{{sfnp|Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life|2009|p=1|ps=. "Of the total Muslim population, 10–13% are Shia Muslims and 87–90% are Sunni Muslims."}} Shias, or Shiites, maintain that Muhammad's ] as leader, must be from certain descendants of Muhammad's family known as the ] and those leaders, referred to as ]s, have additional spiritual authority.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shii|title=Shiʿi|last=Newman|first=Andrew J.|publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=28 December 2021|archive-date=20 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190720054917/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shii|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2004 |title=Sunni Islam |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and North Africa |publisher=] Reference |editor-last=Philip Mattar |edition=2nd |author=Tayeb El-Hibri, Maysam J. al Faruqi}}</ref> Shias are guided by the ].<ref>{{Cite book |author=John Corrigan, Frederick Denny, Martin S Jaffee, Carlos Eire |year=2011 |title=Jews, Christians, Muslims: A Comparative Introduction to Monotheistic Religions |publisher= Cambridge University Press |id=978-0205026340 }}</ref> | |||
A mosque is a ] for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name, ''masjid''. The word ''mosque'' in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated to Islamic worship, although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller, privately owned mosque and the larger, "collective" mosque (''masjid jāmi`''). Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also important to the ] as a place to meet and study. Modern mosques have evolved greatly from the early designs of the 7th century, and contain a variety of architectural elements such as ]s.<ref>See: | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Masdjid | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author= J. Pedersen | coauthors=R. Hillenbrand, J. Burton-Page, et al. | accessdate=2007-05-02}} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Mosque | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
According to both Sunni and Shia Muslims, a significant event took place at ] during Muhammad's return from his final pilgrimage to Mecca, where he stopped thousands of Muslims in the midday heat.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Charismatic Community: Shi'ite Identity in Early Islam |author-first=Maria Massi |author-last=Dakake |year=2007 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=9780791470336 |author-link=Maria Massi Dakake}}</ref> Muhammad appointed his cousin ] as the executor of his last will and testament, as well as his ] (authority).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Veccia Vaglieri|first=L.|date=2012|title=Encyclopaedia of Islam |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/*-SIM_2439|section=G̲h̲adīr K̲h̲umm|publisher=Brill|access-date=July 14, 2023|isbn=9789004161214|archive-date=14 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230714174420/https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/*-SIM_2439|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfnp|Campo|2009|pp=257–258}} Shias recognize that Muhammad designated Ali as his successor (khalīfa) and ] (spiritual and political leader) after him, but was prevented from succeeding Muhammad as the leader of the ] because of some ] who selected ] as ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Foody |first=Kathleen |date=September 2015 |title=Interiorizing Islam: Religious Experience and State Oversight in the Islamic Republic of Iran |editor-last=Jain |editor-first=Andrea R. |journal=] |volume=83 |issue=3 |pages=599–623 |doi=10.1093/jaarel/lfv029 |doi-access=free |location=Oxford |publisher=] on behalf of the ] |eissn=1477-4585 |issn=0002-7189 |jstor=24488178 |lccn=sc76000837 |oclc=1479270 |quote=For Shiʿi Muslims, Muhammad not only designated Ali as his friend, but appointed him as his successor—as the "lord" or "master" of the new Muslim community. Ali and his descendants would become known as the Imams, divinely guided leaders of the Shiʿi communities, sinless, and granted special insight into the Qurʾanic text. The theology of the Imams that developed over the next several centuries made little distinction between the authority of the Imams to politically lead the Muslim community and their spiritual prowess; quite to the contrary, their right to political leadership was grounded in their special spiritual insight. While in theory, the only just ruler of the Muslim community was the Imam, the Imams were politically marginal after the first generation. In practice, Shiʿi Muslims negotiated varied approaches to both interpretative authority over Islamic texts and governance of the community, both during the lifetimes of the Imams themselves and even more so following the disappearance of the twelfth and final Imam in the ninth century.}}</ref> Sunnis, instead believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor before ] and consider Abū Bakr to be the first ] caliph after Muhammad.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Foody |first=Kathleen |date=September 2015 |editor-last=Jain |editor-first=Andrea R. |title=Interiorizing Islam: Religious Experience and State Oversight in the Islamic Republic of Iran |journal=] |location=Oxford |publisher=] on behalf of the ] |volume=83 |issue=3 |pages=599–623 |doi=10.1093/jaarel/lfv029 |issn=0002-7189 |eissn=1477-4585 |jstor=24488178 |lccn=sc76000837 |oclc=1479270 |quote=For Shiʿi Muslims, Muhammad not only designated Ali as his friend, but appointed him as his successor—as the "lord" or "master" of the new Muslim community. Ali and his descendants would become known as the Imams, divinely guided leaders of the Shiʿi communities, sinless, and granted special insight into the Qurʾanic text. The theology of the Imams that developed over the next several centuries made little distinction between the authority of the Imams to politically lead the Muslim community and their spiritual prowess; quite to the contrary, their right to political leadership was grounded in their special spiritual insight. While in theory, the only just ruler of the Muslim community was the Imam, the Imams were politically marginal after the first generation. In practice, Shiʿi Muslims negotiated varied approaches to both interpretative authority over Islamic texts and governance of the community, both during the lifetimes of the Imams themselves and even more so following the disappearance of the twelfth and final Imam in the ninth century. |doi-access=free}}</ref> Shias state the community deliberately ignored Ali's nomination,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Daftary |first1=Farhad |title=A History Of Shi'i Islam |url=https://archive.org/details/shii-heritage-series-farhad-daftary-a-history-of-shii-islam-i.-b.-tauris-2013_202104/mode/2up |website=Internet Archive |access-date=July 22, 2024 |date=2013}}</ref> citing ]'s appointment by Abu Bakr,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lalani |first1=Arzina R. |title=Early Shi'i Thought: The Teachings of Imam Muhammad al-Baqir |date=2000 |publisher=I.B. Tauris |isbn=1850435928}}</ref> other historical evidence,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |author-last=Amir-Moezzi |author-first=Mohammad Ali |title=Ghadīr Khumm |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam |edition=Third |editor1-first=Kate |editor1-last=Fleet |editor2-first=Gudrun |editor2-last=Krämer |editor3-first=Denis |editor3-last=Matringe |editor4-first=John |editor4-last=Nawas |editor5-first=Devin J. |editor5-last=Stewart |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_27419 |year=2014 |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_27419 |isbn=9789004269613 |author-link=Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi |url-access=subscription}}</ref> and the ] stance that majority does not imply legitimacy.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Mavani|first=Hamid|url=https://archive.org/details/religiousauthori0000mava/mode/|title=Religious Authority and Political Thought in Twelver Shi'ism: From Ali to Post-Khomeini|publisher=Routledge|year=2013|isbn=9780415624404|url-access=registration}}</ref> | |||
===Family life=== | |||
{{seealso|Women and Islam}} | |||
The basic unit of Islamic society is the ]. Islam prescribes mutual respect and responsibility among family members, along with legal rights and obligations. The father is seen as financially responsible for the family, and is obliged to cater for their well-being. The division of ] is specified in the Qur'an, which states that most of it is to pass to the immediate family, while a portion is set aside for the payment of debts and the making of bequests. ] is a civil ] which consists of an offer and acceptance between two qualified parties in the presence of two witnesses. The groom is required to pay a ] ('']'') to the bride, as stipulated in the contract.<ref> | |||
* Waines (2003) pp. 93—96 | |||
* The Oxford Dictionary of Islam (2003), p.339 | |||
* Esposito (1998) p. 79</ref> | |||
Some of the first Shia Imams are revered by all Shia and Sunnis Muslims, such as Ali and ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Armajani |first=Jon |title=Shia Islam and Politics: Iran, Iraq, and Lebanon |date=2020 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-1-7936-2136-8 |location=Lanham (Md.) |pages=11}}</ref> ], the largest Shia branch and most influential, believe in ], the last of whom went into ] to return one day. They recognize that the prophecy of the Twelve Imams has been foretold in the ] which is recorded by both Sunni and Shia sources.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kohlberg|first=Etan|title=From Imāmiyya to Ithnā-'ashariyya|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bulletin-of-the-school-of-oriental-and-african-studies/article/abs/from-imamiyya-to-ithnaashariyya/32F60507F79BEE8C3732011F4D092CAF|journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies|year=1976|volume=39|issue=3|pages=521–534|doi=10.1017/S0041977X00050989|s2cid=155070530|access-date=July 14, 2023|archive-date=14 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230714174420/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bulletin-of-the-school-of-oriental-and-african-studies/article/abs/from-imamiyya-to-ithnaashariyya/32F60507F79BEE8C3732011F4D092CAF|url-status=live}}</ref> ] rejects special powers of Imams and are sometimes considered a 'fifth school' of Sunni Islam rather than a Shia denomination.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social and Military History |editor-first1=Spencer C. |editor-last1=Tucker |editor2=Priscilla Mary Roberts |year=2008 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-842-2 |page=917 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YAd8efHdVzIC&pg=PA917 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024726/https://books.google.com/books?id=YAd8efHdVzIC&pg=PA917 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Iraq Effect: The Middle East After the Iraq War |first=Frederic M. |last=Wehrey |year=2010 |publisher=Rand Corporation |isbn=978-0-8330-4788-5 |page=91 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i-3LAlfW7DIC&pg=PA91 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024742/https://books.google.com/books?id=i-3LAlfW7DIC&pg=PA91#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> They differed with other Shias over the status of the fifth imam and are sometimes known as "Fivers".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Peterson |first=Daniel |title=Zaydiyya |url=|journal=Islamic Studies |year=2011 |language=en |volume= |issue= |pages= |doi=10.1093/obo/9780195390155-0153 |issn=}}</ref> The ] split with the Twelvers over who was the seventh Imam and have further fragmented into more groups over the status of successive Imams, with the largest group being the ]s.<ref>{{cite book|last=Newman|first=Andrew J.|author-link=Andrew J. Newman|title=Twelver Shiism: Unity and Diversity in the Life of Islam, 632 to 1722|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-_M8BQAAQBAJ|year=2013|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=978-0-7486-7833-4|chapter=Introduction|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-_M8BQAAQBAJ&pg=PP18|page=2|access-date=13 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160501201413/https://books.google.com/books?id=-_M8BQAAQBAJ|archive-date=1 May 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
A man may marry up to four wives if he believes he can treat them equally, while a woman may marry one man only. The process of divorce in Islam is known as '']'', which is more easily initiated by the husband than by the wife. Scholars disagree whether Islamic holy texts justify traditional Islamic practices such as ] and seclusion (]). Starting in the 20th century, Muslim social reformers argued against these restrictions and other practices such as ], with varying success. At the same time, many Muslim women have attempted to reconcile tradition with modernity by combining an active life with outward modesty. ] groups and regimes like the ] mostly seek to continue traditional law as applied to women.<ref> | |||
* Esposito (2004), pp.95,96,235–241 | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Marriage and Divorce | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an | author=Harald Motzki | accessdate=2007-05-15}} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Marriage Practices | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures | author=Lori Peek | accessdate=2007-05-15}} | |||
</ref> | |||
For Shias, the ] in Najaf, the ] in Karbala, and the ] in ] are also among the ].<ref name="Sardeg2">{{cite web |last=Escobar |first=Pepe |date=May 24, 2002 |title=Knocking on heaven's door |url=http://www.atimes.com/c-asia/DE24Ag04.html |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020603155002/http://atimes.com/c-asia/DE24Ag04.html |archive-date=June 3, 2002 |access-date=2006-11-12 |work=] |quote=our sixth imam, Imam Sadeg, says that we have five definitive holy places... first is Mecca... second is Medina... third belongs to our first imam of Shia, Ali, which is in Najaf. The fourth belongs to our third imam, Hussein, in Kerbala. The last one belongs to the daughter of our seventh imam and sister of our eighth imam, who is called Fatemah, and will be buried in Qom. |department=Central Asia/Russia}}</ref> | |||
===Calendar=== | |||
{{main|Islamic calendar}} | |||
{{multiple image | |||
The formal beginning of the Muslim era was chosen to be the ] in 622CE, which was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes. The assignment of this year as the year 1 AH (''Anno Hegirae'') in the Islamic calendar was reportedly made by ]. It is a ], with nineteen ordinary years of 354 days and eleven leap years of 355 days in a thirty-year cycle. Islamic dates cannot be converted to CE/AD dates simply by adding 622 years: allowance must also be made for the fact that each Hijri century corresponds to only 97 years in the Christian calendar.<ref>See: | |||
| align = center | |||
* Adil (2002), p.288 | |||
| image1 = Imam_Ali_shrine_-_1_May_2015_19.jpg | |||
* F. E. Peters (2003), p.67 | |||
| width1 = 217 | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Tarikh̲ | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=B. van Dalen | coauthors=R. S. Humphreys, Manuela Marín, et al. | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
| alt1 = | |||
The year 1428AH coincides almost completely with 2007CE. | |||
| caption1 = ] in ], the third holiest place for Shia Muslims after Mecca and Medina. | |||
| image2 = حرم الامام الحسين.jpg | |||
| width2 = 200 | |||
| alt2 = | |||
| caption2 = ] in ], a holy site for Shia Muslims. | |||
| width3 = 289 | |||
| alt3 = | |||
| footer = | |||
| image3 = ImamReza(A).jpg | |||
| caption3 = ], the world's largest mosque, in ], ]. 25 million Shias visiting the shrine each year. | |||
}} | |||
=== Muhakkima === | |||
Islamic ] fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, which means that they occur in ] in different years in the ]. The most important Islamic festivals are '']'' (Arabic: عيد الفطر) on the 1<sup>st</sup> of '']'', marking the end of the fasting month '']'', and '']'' (Arabic: عيد الأضحى) on the 10<sup>th</sup> of '']'', coinciding with the pilgrimage to Mecca.<ref>Ghamidi (2001): </ref> | |||
{{Main|Muhakkima|Ibadi Islam|Kharijites}} | |||
] or ] is practised by 1.45 million Muslims around the world (~0.08% of all Muslims), most of them in ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Robert Brenton Betts |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vFq_KUqqWJMC&pg=PA15 |title=The Sunni-Shi'a Divide: Islam's Internal Divisions and Their Global Consequences |date=31 July 2013 |isbn=978-1-61234-522-2 |pages=14–15 |publisher=Potomac Books |access-date=7 January 2015 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024743/https://books.google.com/books?id=vFq_KUqqWJMC&pg=PA15#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> Ibadism is often associated with and viewed as a moderate variation of the ], though Ibadis themselves object to this classification. The kharijites were groups that rebelled against Caliph Ali for his acceptance of arbitration with someone they viewed as a sinner. Unlike most kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers. Ibadi hadiths, such as the ] collection, use chains of narrators from early Islamic history they consider trustworthy, but most Ibadi hadiths are also found in standard Sunni collections and contemporary Ibadis often approve of the standard Sunni collections.<ref>{{Cite book|first= Valerie Jon|last= Hoffman|title= The Essentials of Ibadi Islam|location= ]|pages=3–4|publisher= ]|year= 2012|isbn= 9780815650843|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=JNxvMRJM3EAC}}</ref> | |||
==Other religions== | |||
] | |||
] on the ] in ], a holy site in both Islam and ] that has been a source of controversy]] | |||
] congregation building. Muslims believe that Muhammad ascended to heaven on this site.]] | |||
{{main|Islam and other religions}} | |||
=== Other denominations === | |||
Islam views itself as the primordial religion of mankind, professed by ].<ref>Friedmann (2003), pp. 14–16</ref> Like the entire humanity, every child is born Muslim, but if he is born to a non-Muslim family, then these are his parents who turn him away from Islam and convert to their faith.<ref>Friedmann (2003), p. 18</ref> At some point, a religious split occurred, and God began sending prophets to bring his revelations to the people.<ref>Friedmann (2003), pp. 18–19</ref> According to the Islamic tradition, ], ], ], and ] were all ], but their message and the texts of the ] and the ] were ] by ]s and Christians. ]s and Christians are grouped together as ] and treated identically in the Islamic law. | |||
* The ] was founded in British India in 1889 by ] of ], who claimed to be the promised ] ("] of ]"), the ] awaited by the Muslims as well as a ] to the Islamic prophet Muhammad.<ref name="Upal 2021">{{cite book |author-last=Upal |author-first=M. Afzal |author-link=Afzal Upal |title=Handbook of Islamic Sects and Movements |publisher=] |year=2021 |isbn=978-90-04-43554-4 |editor1-last=Cusack |editor1-first=Carole M. |editor1-link=Carole M. Cusack |series=Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion |volume=21 |location=] and ] |pages=637–657 |chapter=The Cultural Genetics of the Aḥmadiyya Muslim Jamāʿat |doi=10.1163/9789004435544_034 |issn=1874-6691 |editor2-last=Upal |editor2-first=M. Afzal |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Turner 2003">{{cite book |last=Turner |first=Richard Brent |title=Islam in the African-American Experience |publisher=] |year=2003 |isbn=9780253216304 |edition=2nd |location=] and ] |pages=109–146 |chapter=The Ahmadiyya Mission to America: A Multi-Racial Model for American Islam |lccn=2003009791 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4XMuLWlTgjMC&pg=PA109 }}</ref> There are a wide variety of distinct beliefs and teachings of Ahmadis compared to those of ''most other'' Muslims,<ref name="Upal 2021" /><ref name="Drover 2020">{{cite book |author-last=Drover |author-first=Lauren |title=New Religious Movements in Modern Asian History: Socio-Cultural Alternatives |publisher=] |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-7936-3403-0 |editor-last=Kim |editor-first=David W. |series=Ethnographies of Religion |location=] |pages=21–36 |chapter=The Ahmadiyya Muslim Jamaat: A New Religious Movement Derived from Islam? |oclc=1220880253 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9WQGEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA21}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Korbel |first1=Jonathan |title=Religious Dynamics under the Impact of Imperialism and Colonialism |last2=Preckel |first2=Claudia |publisher=] |year=2016 |isbn=978-90-04-32511-1 |editor1-last=Bentlage |editor1-first=Björn |series=Numen Book Series |volume=154 |location=] |pages=426–442 |chapter=Ghulām Aḥmad al-Qādiyānī: The Messiah of the Christians—Peace upon Him—in India (India, 1908) |doi=10.1163/9789004329003_034 |editor2-last=Eggert |editor2-first=Marion |editor3-last=Krämer |editor3-first=Hans-Martin |editor4-last=Reichmuth |editor4-first=Stefan |editor4-link=Stefan Reichmuth (academic) |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZtY6DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA426}}</ref><ref name="Turner 2003" /> which include the interpretation of the Quranic title '']''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Balzani |first=Marzia |title=Ahmadiyya Islam and the Muslim Diaspora: Living at the End of Days |isbn=978-1-315-19728-9 |location=Abingdon, Oxon |pages=6–8 |oclc=1137739779}}</ref> and interpretation of the ].<ref name="Drover 2020" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-03-23 |title=What are the Signs of the Second Coming of the Messiah? |url=https://www.reviewofreligions.org/12457/what-are-the-signs-of-the-second-coming-of-the-messiah/ |access-date=2020-06-23 |website=Review of Religions |language=en-GB}}</ref> These perceived deviations from normative Islamic thought have resulted in rejection by most Muslims as heretics<ref>{{Cite web |last=Paracha |first=Nadeem F. |date=2013-11-21 |title=The 1974 ouster of the 'heretics': What really happened? |url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1057427 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150613025520/http://www.dawn.com/news/1057427 |archive-date=13 June 2015 |access-date=2024-03-19 |website=DAWN.COM |language=en}}</ref> and ] in various countries,<ref name="Drover 2020" /> particularly ],<ref name="Drover 2020" /><ref>{{cite book |last=Uddin |first=Asma T. |title=State Responses to Minority Religions |publisher=]/] |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-4724-1647-6 |editor-last=Kirkham |editor-first=David M. |series=Ashgate Inform Series on Minority Religions and Spiritual Movements |location=] and ] |pages=81–98 |chapter=A Legal Analysis of Ahmadi Persecution in Pakistan |lccn=2013019344 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k9TVCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA81 |via=]}}</ref> where they have been officially declared as non-Muslims by the ].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution (Second Amendment) Act, 1974 |url=https://pakistani.org/pakistan/constitution/amendments/2amendment.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170717144752/http://www.pakistani.org/pakistan/constitution/amendments/2amendment.html |archive-date=17 July 2017 |access-date=2024-03-19 |website=pakistani.org}}</ref> The followers of the Ahmadiyya Movement in Islam are divided into two groups: the first being the ], currently the dominant group, and the ].<ref name="Drover 2020" /> | |||
Islam maintains a hierarchy of religions wherein it occupies the uppermost place followed, in descending order, by ], ], ], and ].<ref>Friedmann (2003), p. 38</ref> This idea of Islamic supremacy is encapsulated in the formula "Islam is exalted and nothing is exalted above it."<ref>Friedmann (2003), p. 35</ref> Accordingly, Muslims are not allowed to place themselves in a position inferior to that of the followers of other religions.<ref>Friedmann (2003), p. 37</ref> Pursuant to this principle, Muslim women may not marry non-Muslim men, non-Muslims may not inherit from their Muslim relatives, and a testimony of a non-Muslim is inadmissible against a Muslim.<ref>Friedmann (2003), p. 35</ref> A non-Muslim who insults Islam must be put to death, according to most schools of Islamic jurisprudence, or flogged and imprisoned, according to others.<ref>Lewis (1984), p. 39</ref> | |||
* ] is a ] and ] local Islamic tradition, whose adherents follow the mystical (]) teachings of Ali and ].<ref>{{cite web |title=Bektāšīya |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bektasiya |website=Encyclopaedia Iranica |first1=Hamid |last1=Algar |date=December 15, 1989 |access-date=13 February 2019 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910201955/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bektasiya |url-status=live }}</ref> Alevism is a blend of traditional 14th century Turkish beliefs,<ref>Jorgen S Nielsen Muslim ''Political Participation in Europe'' ] 2013 {{ISBN|978-0-748-67753-5}} page 255</ref> with possible syncretist origins in ] and ], alongside Shia and Sufi beliefs. It has been estimated that there are 10 million to over 20 million (~0.5–1% of all Muslims) Alevis worldwide.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161130111738/http://www.alevi.dk/ENGELSK/Turkish_Alevis_Today.pdf |date=30 November 2016 }}, PDF-Datei, See also {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613045624/https://i-cias.com/e.o/alevi.htm |date=13 June 2021 }}, consulted on 30 May 2017.</ref> | |||
Islamic law divides non-Muslims into several categories, depending on their relation with the Islamic state. Those who live under the Islamic rule are known as '']''; they must pay tribute to the Islamic state, and as such receive permanent protection. They are permitted to practice their religion to a certain extent, and to enjoy a measure of communal autonomy.<ref>Lewis (1984), pp.9,27</ref> Dhimmis are subject to some legal and social restrictions, and humiliating regulations imposed on dhimmis are also meant to highlight the superiority of Islam and the inferiority of its non-Muslim subjects.<ref>See: | |||
*] is a religious movement of Islam based on the belief that Islamic law and guidance should only be based on the ] and not the ] or ],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Musa |first=Aisha Y. |date=2010 |title=The Qur'anists |journal=Religion Compass |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=12–21 |doi=10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00189.x}}</ref> with Quranists notably differing in their approach to the ].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Musa |first=Aisha Y. |title=The Qur'anists |url=https://www.academia.edu/1035742 |journal=Religion Compass |year=2010 |language=en |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=12–21 |doi=10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00189.x |issn=1749-8171 |access-date=8 June 2021 |archive-date=28 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220128062123/https://www.academia.edu/1035742 |url-status=live }}</ref> The movement developed from the 19th century onwards, with thinkers like ], Abdullah Chakralawi and ] in India questioning the hadith tradition.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brown |first=Daniel W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6RPcYgx5u_MC |title=Rethinking Tradition in Modern Islamic Thought |date=1999-03-04 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-65394-7 |pages=7–45, 68 |language=en}}</ref> In Egypt, ] penned the article ''Islam is the Quran alone'' in the magazine '']'', arguing for the sole authority of the Quran.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Juynboll |first=G. H. A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xAUVAAAAIAAJ |title=The Authenticity of the Tradition Literature: Discussions in Modern Egypt,... G.H.A. Juynboll,... |date=1969 |publisher=Brill Archive |pages=23–25 |language=en}}</ref> A prominent late 20th century Quranist was ], an Egyptian-American biochemist who claimed to have discovered a ] ], and founded the Quranist organization ].<ref>{{Cite journal |date=September 1989 |title=Why the name change? |url=http://www.quranalone.com/SP/57_1989_09.pdf |journal=Submission Perspective |volume=57 |page=1 |access-date=29 August 2022 |archive-date=31 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210731115713/https://www.quranalone.com/SP/57_1989_09.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
*Friedmann (2003), p. 37 | |||
*Lewis (1984), p. 36</ref> Those who live in non-Muslim lands (]) are known as '']''s, and upon entering into an alliance with the Muslim state become known as ''ahl al-ahd''. Those who receive a guarantee of safety while residing temporarily in Muslim lands are known as ''ahl al-amān''. Their legal position is similar to that of the dhimmi except that they are not required to pay the jizya. The people of armistice (''ahl al-hudna'') are those who live outside of Muslim territory and agree to refrain from attacking the Muslims.<ref>Friedmann (2003), p. 55</ref><ref>"Aman", ''Encyclopaedia of Islam''</ref> Under Islamic law, ] is prohibited. A Muslim man who converts to another religion must be executed, while a woman who does so must be imprisoned, according to some views, or also put to death, according to others.<ref>"Murtadd", ''Encyclopaedia of Islam''</ref> | |||
=== Non-denominational Muslims === | |||
==Denominations== | |||
{{Main|Non-denominational Muslim}} | |||
{{main|Divisions of Islam}} | |||
Non-denominational Muslims is an ] that has been used for and by Muslims who do not belong to or do not self-identify with a specific ].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Benakis |first=Theodoros |date=13 January 2014 |title=Islamophoobia in Europe! |work=New Europe |location=Brussels |url=http://neurope.eu/article/islamophobia-europe/ |url-status=dead |access-date=20 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160131145036/http://neurope.eu/article/islamophobia-europe/ |archive-date=31 January 2016 |quote=Anyone who has travelled to Central Asia knows of the non-denominational Muslims—those who are neither Shiites nor Sounites, but who accept Islam as a religion generally.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Pollack |first=Kenneth |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=jQGZBAAAQBAJ|page=29}} |title=Unthinkable: Iran, the Bomb, and American Strategy |date=2014 |isbn=978-1-4767-3393-7 |page=29 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |quote=Although many Iranian hardliners are Shi'a chauvinists, Khomeini's ideology saw the revolution as pan-Islamist, and therefore embracing Sunni, Shi'a, Sufi, and other, more nondenominational Muslims}}</ref> Recent surveys report that large proportions of Muslims in some parts of the world self-identify as "just Muslim", although there is little published analysis available regarding the motivations underlying this response.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Burns |first=Robert |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=akWUGyN7fwEC|page=55}} |title=Christianity, Islam, and the West |date=2011 |isbn=978-0-7618-5560-6 |page=55 |publisher=University Press of America |quote=40 per cent called themselves "just a Muslim" according to the Council of American-Islamic relations}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Tatari |first=Eren |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=x_4QBQAAQBAJ|page=111}} |title=Muslims in British Local Government: Representing Minority Interests in Hackney, Newham and Tower Hamlets |date=2014 |isbn=978-90-04-27226-2 |page=111 |publisher=BRILL |quote=Nineteen said that they are Sunni Muslims, six said they are just Muslim without specifying a sect, two said they are Ahmadi, and two said their families are Alevi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Lopez |first=Ralph |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=vuNfXxnYWPIC|page=65}} |title=Truth in the Age of Bushism |date=2008 |isbn=978-1-4348-9615-5 |page=65 |publisher=Lulu.com |quote=Many Iraqis take offense at reporters' efforts to identify them as Sunni or Shiite. A 2004 Iraq Centre for Research and Strategic Studies poll found the largest category of Iraqis classified themselves as "just Muslim."}}</ref> The ] reports that respondents self-identifying as "just Muslim" make up a majority of Muslims in seven countries (and a plurality in three others), with the highest proportion in ] at 74%. At least one in five Muslims in at least 22 countries self-identifies in this way.<ref name="Pew" /> | |||
] | |||
Islam consists of a number of ]s that are essentially similar in belief but which have significant theological and legal differences. The major division is between the ] and the ], while ]sm is generally considered to be a mystical inflection of Islam rather than a distinct school. According to most sources, approximately 85% of the world's Muslims are Sunni and approximately 15% are Shi'a, with a small minority who are members of other ].<ref>See: | |||
* Esposito (2002b), p.2 | |||
* {{cite web | url=http://countrystudies.us/afghanistan/61.htm | title=Sunni and Shia Islam | work=Country Studies | publisher=U.S. Library of Congress | accessdate=2007-01-09}}</ref> | |||
===Sunni=== | |||
{{main|Sunni}} | |||
== Mysticism == | |||
] Muslims are the largest group in Islam. In ], ''as-Sunnah'' literally means "principle" or "path". The Sunnah (the example of Muhammad's life) as recorded in the Qur'an and the hadith is the main pillar of Sunni doctrine. Sunnis believe that the first four ]s were the rightful successors to Muhammad; since God did not specify any particular leaders to succeed him, those leaders had to be elected. Sunnis recognize four major legal traditions, or ]s: ], ], ] and ]. All four accept the validity of the others and a Muslim might choose any one that he or she finds agreeable, but other Islamic sects are believed to have departed from the majority by introducing innovations ('']''). There are also several orthodox theological or philosophical traditions within Sunnism. For example, the recent ] movement sees itself as restorationist and claims to derive its teachings from the original sources of Islam.<ref>See: | |||
{{Main|Sufism}} | |||
* Esposito (2003), pp.275,306 | |||
{{See also|Sufi–Salafi relations}} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Shariah | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}} | |||
] by the tomb of Sufi-mystic ]]] | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Sunnite | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
] in ], ]]] | |||
Sufism (Arabic: {{langx|ar|تصوف|translit=tasawwuf|label=none}}), is a ]-] approach to Islam that seeks to find a direct ]. Classical Sufi scholars defined ''tasawwuf'' as "a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God", through "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use.<ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2003|p=302}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Malik|Hinnells|2006|p=3}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Turner|1998|p=145}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Trimingham|1998|p=1}}</ref> ] defined tasawwuf as "a return to the tradition, and its beginning is knowledge, its middle is action , and its end is a gift ."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ibn-ʿAǧība |first1=Aḥmad Ibn-Muḥammad |last2=Aresmouk |first2=Mohamed Fouad |last3=Fitzgerald |first3=Michael Abdurrahman |last4=Ibn-ʿAǧība |first4=Aḥmad Ibn-Muḥammad |title=The Book of ascension to the essential truths of Sufism: a lexicon of Sufic terminology = Miʿrāj al-tashawwuf ilā ḥaqāʾiq al-taṣawwuf |date=2011 |publisher=Fons Vitae |location=Louisville, KY |isbn=978-1891785849}}</ref> It is not a sect of Islam, and its adherents belong to the various Muslim denominations. ], whose teachings are rooted in ] and ]<ref>Andani, Khalil. "A Survey of Ismaili Studies Part 1: Early Ismailism and Fatimid Ismailism." Religion Compass 10.8 (2016): 191–206.</ref> as well as by the ] and ] schools of Islamic philosophy, has developed mystical interpretations of Islam.<ref>]. 2016. "." '']'', edited by ]. Retrieved 25 May 2020.</ref> ], the early Sufi ascetic often portrayed as one of the earliest Sufis,<ref>Knysh, Alexander. 2015. ''Islam in Historical Perspective''. Routledge. {{ISBN|978-1-317-34712-5}}. p. 214.</ref> emphasized fear of failing God's expectations of obedience. In contrast, later prominent Sufis, such as ] and ], emphasized religiosity based on love towards God. Such devotion would also have an impact on the arts, with Rumi still one of the bestselling poets in America.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Haviland |first=Charles |date=30 September 2007 |title=The roar of Rumi – 800 years on |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7016090.stm |access-date=10 August 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=1 September 2009 |title=Islam: Jalaluddin Rumi |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/art/rumi_1.shtml |access-date=10 August 2011 |publisher=BBC}}</ref> | |||
Sufis see ''tasawwuf'' as an inseparable part of Islam.{{sfnp|Chittick|2008|pp=3–4, 11}} Traditional Sufis, such as ], Jalaluddin Rumi, ], ], and Al-Ghazali, argued for Sufism as being based upon the tenets of Islam and the teachings of the prophet.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nasr |first=Seyyed Hossein |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontois00nasr |access-date=17 January 2015 |title=An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines |date=1993 |isbn=978-0-7914-1515-3 |page=|publisher=SUNY Press }}</ref>{{sfnp|Chittick|2008|pp=3–4, 11}} Historian ] argued that Islam in the Medieval period was more or less Sufism.{{sfnp|Peacock|2019|p=24,77}} Followers of the Sunni ] movement known as ] have viewed popular devotional practices, such as the veneration of Sufi saints, as innovations from the original religion. Salafists have sometimes physically attacked Sufis, leading to a deterioration in ].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |author-last=Cook |author-first=David |author-link=David Cook (historian) |date=May 2015 |title=Mysticism in Sufi Islam |url=https://oxfordre.com/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-51 |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion |location=] |publisher=] |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.51 |isbn=9780199340378 |doi-access=free |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181128012740/http://oxfordre.com/religion/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-51 |archive-date=28 November 2018 |url-status=live |access-date=15 January 2023}}</ref> | |||
===Shi'a=== | |||
{{main|Shi'a}} | |||
{{see also|Historic background of the Sunni-Shi'a split}} | |||
The ], who constitute the second-largest branch of Islam, believe in the political and religious ] of ] ]s from the progeny of ]. They believe that he, as the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, was his rightful successor, and they call him the first ''Imam'' (leader), rejecting the legitimacy of the previous Muslim caliphs. To them, an Imam rules by right of divine appointment and holds "absolute spiritual authority" among Muslims, having final say in matters of doctrine and revelation.<ref>See | |||
* Lapidus (2002), p.46 | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Imam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Shi'ite | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref><ref>]]</ref> Although the Shi'a share many core practices with the Sunni, the two branches disagree over the proper importance and validity of specific collections of hadith. The Shi'a follow a legal tradition called ].<ref>See: | |||
*Ahmed (1999), pp.44–45 | |||
*Nasr (1994), p.466</ref> Shi'a Islam has several branches, the largest of which is the ] (''{{ArabDIN|iṯnāʿašariyya}}''), while the others are the ], the ]s, and the ].<ref>See: | |||
* Kramer (1987), | |||
* </ref> | |||
Sufi congregations form orders ('']'') centered around a teacher ('']'') who traces a spiritual chain back to Muhammad.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url= https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/583591/tariqa |title= tariqa | Islam |encyclopedia= Britannica.com |date= 4 February 2014 |access-date= 29 May 2015}}</ref> Sufis played an important role in the formation of Muslim societies through their missionary and educational activities.<ref name=EB-Sufism>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Schimmel |first=Annemarie |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sufism |title=Sufism |encyclopedia=] |access-date=17 September 2021 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> The Sufism-influenced Ahle Sunnat movement or ] movement claims over 200 million followers in South Asia.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bowker |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780192800947 |title=The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-19-280094-7 |doi=10.1093/acref/9780192800947.001.0001}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sanyal |first=Usha |date=1998 |url=http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayFulltext?type=1&fid=69415&jid=ASS&volumeId=32&issueId=03&aid=69414 |title=Generational Changes in the Leadership of the Ahl-e Sunnat Movement in North India during the Twentieth Century |journal=] |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=635–656 |doi=10.1017/S0026749X98003059|doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2003|loc=}} – via Oxford Reference.</ref> Sufism is prominent in Central Asia,<ref>{{cite web |last=Alvi |first=Farhat |title=The Significant Role of Sufism in Central Asia |url=http://pu.edu.pk/images/journal/uoc/PDF-FILES/(2)%20The%20Significant%20Role%20of%20Sufism%20in%20Central%20Asia%20(Dr.%20Farh.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Johns |first=Anthony H |year=1995 |title=Sufism in Southeast Asia: Reflections and Reconsiderations |journal=] |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=169–183 |doi=10.1017/S0022463400010560 |jstor=20071709|s2cid=154870820 }}</ref> as well as in African countries like ], ], ], ], ] and ].<ref name="Pew">{{cite web|date=9 August 2012|title=Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-1-religious-affiliation/#identity|access-date=4 September 2013|website=The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity|publisher=]'s Religion & Public Life Project}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Babou |first=Cheikh Anta |date=2007 |title=Sufism and Religious Brotherhoods in Senegal |journal=] |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=184–186}}</ref> | |||
===Sufism=== | |||
{{main|Sufism}} | |||
== Law and jurisprudence == | |||
Not strictly a denomination, ] is a mystical-ascetic form of Islam. By focusing on the more spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis strive to obtain direct experience of God by making use of "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use.<ref>Trimingham (1998), p.1</ref> Sufism and ] are usually considered to be complementary, although Sufism has been criticized by some Muslims for being an unjustified ]. Most Sufi orders, or '']s'', can be classified as either Sunni or Shi'a.<ref>See: | |||
{{Main|Sharia|Fiqh}} | |||
* Esposito (2003), p.302 | |||
{{See also|Logic in Islamic philosophy#Islamic law and theology}} | |||
* Malik (2006), p.3 | |||
] in the ]|upright=1.35]] | |||
* B. S. Turner (1998), p.145 | |||
] is the body of Islamic ].<ref name="Lexico" />{{sfnp|Esposito|2002b|pp=17, 111–112, 118}} The desire to delineate and discover laws in a comprehensive and consistent method led to the development of the ], called ].<ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2010|p=96}}</ref><ref name="vikor">Vikør, Knut S. 2014. "." In ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics'', edited by ]. Oxford: ]. Archived from the on 4 June 2014. Retrieved 25 May 2020.</ref> Conversely, ] is used to refer to unlawful innovations in matters of religion.<ref>{{cite book|last1 = A.C. Brown|first1 = Jonathan|author-link=Jonathan A.C. Brown|title = Hadith: Muhammad's Legacy in the Medieval and Modern World ''(Foundations of Islam)''|date = 2009|publisher = ]|isbn = 978-1851686636|page = 277}}</ref> Differing methodologies, called principles of fiqh or '']'', have developed and a school of jurisprudence arising around a methodology is known as a ''madhhab'' ({{langx|ar|مذهب}}). The conformity in following of decisions by a religious expert or school is called '']''. The term '']'' refers to those who do not use taqlid and, by extension, do not have a madhab.<ref>Bharathi, K. S. 1998. ''Encyclopedia of Eminent Thinkers''. p. 38.</ref> The practice of an individual interpreting law with independent reasoning is called '']''.{{sfnp|Weiss|2002|pp=3, 161}}<ref name="ODI">{{cite web |editor-link=John Esposito|editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=John L. |title=Islamic Law |work=] |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t125/e1107 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170203033813/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t125/e1107 |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 February 2017 |via=Oxford Islamic Studies Online}}</ref> Those who interpret shariah are known as ]s and their legal opinions are called ]s.<ref name="ODI" /><ref name="vikor" /> | |||
* {{cite web | url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/aftoc.html | work=Country Studies | publisher=U. S. Library of Congress (Federal Research Division) | title=Afghanistan: A Country Study | accessdate=2007-04-18 | pages=150}}</ref> | |||
The primary sources of Shariah are the Quran and Sunnah.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Esposito |first1=John L. |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=MOmaDq8HKCgC|page=2}} |title=Women in Muslim Family Law |last2=DeLong-Bas |first2=Natana J. |publisher=] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-8156-2908-5 |pages=2– |author-link=John Esposito |author-link2=Natana J. DeLong-Bas}} Quote: ", by the ninth century, the classical theory of law fixed the sources of Islamic law at four: the ''Quran'', the ''Sunnah'' of the Prophet, ''qiyas'' (analogical reasoning), and ''ijma'' (consensus)."</ref> A common third source is ] (analogical reasoning) which is used for legal questions not dealt with literally in the Qur’ān or Sunnah. Parallels would be searched for to find the ‘’illah’’, or effective cause, which is the reason behind the existing ruling.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095957640|publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=1 October 2024 |location=Oxford |title=illah}}</ref> For example, from the specific prohibition of wine is deduced a broad prohibition on alcohol as they share the operative cause identified as the mind-altering nature of all alcoholic drinks.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Fairak |first1= A. |title= Analogy (Islamic)|edition=2014|page=56|year=2014|publisher=Springer |location=Boston|isbn= 978-1-4614-6085-5|language=English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last= Fairak |first= A. |year=2014 |title= Analogy (Islamic)|journal= Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion|volume=74 |issue=4 |pages=531–55 |doi=10.1086/353360 |s2cid=144315162 | issn=0021-1753}}</ref> The ] adheres to strict literalism and thus rejects qiyas. Consensus of opinion is ], while ] refers to scholarly disagreement. Rulings assign actions to one of five categories called ]: mandatory ('']''), recommended ('']''), permitted ('']''), abhorred ('']''), and prohibited ('']'').<ref name="ODI" /><ref name="vikor" /> | |||
===Others=== | |||
In the modern era, sharia-based criminal laws were widely replaced by statutes inspired by European models.<ref name="vikor" /> The ]'s 19th century ] reforms led to the ] civil code and represented the first attempt to ] sharia.<ref name=Oxfordref/> While the constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references to sharia, its classical rules were largely retained only in ] (family) laws.<ref name="vikor" /> Legislative bodies which codified these laws sought to modernize them without abandoning their foundations in traditional jurisprudence.<ref name="vikor" /><ref name="mayer">Mayer, Ann Elizabeth. 2009. "." In ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World'', edited by J. L. Esposito. Oxford: ].</ref> The ] of the late 20th century brought along calls by ] movements for complete implementation of sharia.<ref name="vikor" /><ref name="mayer" /> The role of sharia has become a contested topic around the world. There are ongoing debates as to whether sharia is compatible with secular forms of government, human rights, ], and ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=An-Na'im |first=Abdullahi A. |title=Religious Human Rights in Global Perspective: Religious Perspectives |year=1996 |isbn=978-90-411-0179-2 |editor-last=Witte |editor-first=John |pages=337–359 |chapter=Islamic Foundations of Religious Human Rights |publisher=BRILL |editor-last2=van der Vyver |editor-first2=Johan D. |chapter-url={{Google books|aqyWwF5YA1gC|page=337|plainurl=yes}}}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hajjar |first=Lisa |year=2004 |title=Religion, State Power, and Domestic Violence in Muslim Societies: A Framework for Comparative Analysis |journal=] |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=1–38 |doi=10.1111/j.1747-4469.2004.tb00329.x |jstor=4092696 |s2cid=145681085}}</ref> | |||
The ] are a sect that dates back to the early days of Islam. The only surviving branch of the Kharijites (which was itself divided into numerous sub-sects) is the ]. Ibadism is distinguished from Sunni Islam by its rejection of ] and ], and from Shi'ism by its belief that the Muslim leader should be chosen on the basis of his faith rather than his ancestry. Ibadi Islam is noted for its strictness, but unlike the Kharijites proper, Ibadis do not regard major sins as automatically rendering a Muslim an unbeliever. Most Ibadi Muslims live in ].<ref>See: | |||
* J. A. Williams (1994), p.173 | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=al-Ibāḍiyya | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
== Society == | |||
The ], ], ], ], ], ] and ] religions either emerged out of Islam or came to share certain beliefs with Islam. ]'s holy book, the ], contains some writings by Muslim figures, as well as by Sikh and Hindu ]s.<ref name="parrinderp259">Parrinder (1971), p.259</ref> | |||
=== Religious personages === | |||
{{Main|Ulama}} | |||
] Muslim students (1856)]] | |||
Islam has no clergy in the ] sense, such as priests who mediate between God and people. '']'' ({{langx|ar|إمام|label=none}}) is the religious title used to refer to an Islamic leadership position, often in the context of conducting an Islamic worship service.<ref>{{cite web |title=Imam|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/imam|access-date=15 January 2023|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> Religious interpretation is presided over by the '''ulama'' (Arabic: علماء), a term used describe the body of Muslim scholars who have received training in ]. A scholar of the hadith is called a '']'', a scholar of jurisprudence is called a '']'' ({{langx|ar|فقيه|label=none}}), a jurist who is qualified to issue legal opinions or '']'' is called a ], and a '']'' is an Islamic judge. ] titles given to scholars include ], ] and '']''. Some Muslims also venerate ] associated with ] ({{langx|ar|كرامات|translit=karāmāt|label=none}}).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Radtke |first1=B. |last2=Lory |first2=P. |last3=Zarcone |first3=Th. |last4=DeWeese |first4=D. |last5=Gaborieau |first5=M. |last6=Denny |first6=F. M. |last7=Aubin |first7=F. |last8=Hunwick |first8=J. O. |last9=Mchugh |first9=N. |title=Walī |orig-year=1993 |year=2012 |editor1-last=Bearman |editor1-first=P. J. |editor1-link=Peri Bearman |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor2-first=Th. |editor2-link=Thierry Bianquis |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor3-first=C. E. |editor3-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |editor4-last=van Donzel |editor4-first=E. J. |editor4-link=Emeri Johannes van Donzel |editor5-last=Heinrichs |editor5-first=W. P. |editor5-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs |encyclopedia=] |edition=2nd |location=] |publisher=] |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_1335 |isbn=978-90-04-16121-4}}</ref> | |||
== |
=== Governance === | ||
{{main|Criticism of Islam}} | |||
{{seealso|Criticism of Muhammad|Criticism of the Qur'an}} | |||
The earliest surviving written criticisms of Islam are found in the writings of ]s like ] (born c. 676). In the ], a few Arab philosophers like the poet ] adopted a critical approach to Islam, and the Jewish philosopher ] contrasted Islamic views of morality to Jewish views that he himself elaborated.<ref>See: | |||
* Novak (February 1999) | |||
* Sahas (1997), pp.76–80 | |||
* Warraq (2003), p.67</ref> Medieval Christian ecclesiastical writers emphatically denied the validity of Islamic beliefs and portrayed Muhammad as possessed by ]. More recently, in the 19th century, the ] scholar ] wrote harshly about the Qu'ran.<ref>See: | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | author=Gabriel Oussani | encyclopedia=Catholic Encyclopedia | url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10424a.htm | title=Mohammed and Mohammedanism}} | |||
* {{cite news | url=http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/199901/koran | publisher=The Atlantic Monthly Group | work=The Atlantic Monthly | title=What Is the Koran? | author=Toby Lester |date=January 1999}}</ref> | |||
{{See also|Political aspects of Islam|Islamic economics|Islamic military jurisprudence|tasamuh|Jihad}} | |||
Modern critiques of Islam include accusations that it is intolerant of criticism and that ] is too hard on ]. Critics such as ] and ] question the morality of the Qu'ran; for example, they say that its contents both justify the ill-treatment of women and encourage ] remarks by Muslim theologians.<ref>See: | |||
In ], hoarding of wealth is reviled and thus ] behavior is frowned upon.<ref>Iqbal, Zamir, Abbas Mirakhor, Noureddine Krichenne, and Hossein Askari. ''The Stability of Islamic Finance: Creating a Resilient Financial Environment''. p. 75.</ref> Attempts to comply with sharia has led to the development of ]. Islam prohibits '']'', usually translated as ], which refers to any unfair gain in trade and is most commonly used to mean ].<ref>{{harvc |c=Riba |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online |year=n.d. |last1= Schacht|first1=Joseph}}</ref> Instead, Islamic banks go into partnership with the borrower, and both share from the profits and any losses from the venture. Another feature is the avoidance of uncertainty, which is seen as gambling<ref>{{Cite news |last=Foster|first=John |date=1 December 2009|title=How Islamic finance missed heavenly chance|work=BBC |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/8388644.stm|access-date=13 February 2022}}</ref> and Islamic banks traditionally avoid derivative instruments such as futures or options which has historically protected them from market downturns.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Domat|first=Chloe|date=20 October 2020|title=What Is Islamic Finance And How Does It Work?|work=Global Finance magazine|url=https://www.gfmag.com/topics/blogs/islamic-finance-faq-what-islamic-finance-and-how-does-it-work|access-date=13 February 2022}}</ref> The Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphate used to be involved in distribution of charity from the treasury, known as ], before it became a largely individual pursuit around the year 720. The first ], ], distributed zakat as one of the first examples of a ], with each citizen getting 10 to 20 ] annually.<ref>{{cite web |last=Merchant, Brian |date=14 November 2013 |title=Guaranteeing a Minimum Income Has Been a Utopian Dream for Centuries |url=https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/z4mbg3/guaranteeing-a-minimum-income-has-been-a-utopian-dream-for-centuries |access-date=3 June 2019 |website=]}}</ref> During the reign of the second Caliph Umar, ] was introduced and the old and disabled were entitled to stipends,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Al-Buraey |first=Muhammad |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=lT8OAAAAQAAJ|page=}} |title=Administrative Development: An Islamic Perspective |publisher=KPI |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-7103-0059-1 |pages=252–}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Akgündüz |first1=Ahmed |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=EnT_zhqEe5cC|page=539}} |title=Ottoman History: Misperceptions and Truths |last2=Öztürk |first2=Said |publisher=IUR Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-90-90-26108-9 |pages=539– |access-date=7 October 2014}}</ref> while the Umayyad Caliph ] assigned a servant for each blind person and for every two chronically ill persons.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Al-Jawzi|first1=Ibn |url=|title=The Biography and Virtues of Omar Bin Abd al-Aziz – The Ascetic Caliph |publisher=IUR Press |year=2001 |isbn= |page=130 }}</ref> | |||
* Spencer (2005), p.358 | |||
* Warraq (2000), p.103 | |||
* {{cite news | publisher=NYRB | work=] | date=10-05-2006 | title=Islam in Europe | author=Timothy Garton Ash | url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/19371}} | |||
* {{cite news | last=Bostom | first=Andrew | title=Islamic Apostates' Tales—A Review of ''Leaving Islam'' by Ibn Warraq | date=July 21, 2003 | publisher=FrontPageMagazine.com | work=FrontPage Magazine | url=http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/ReadArticle.asp?ID=9000}}</ref> Others like ] and ] focus more on criticizing the spread of Islamic fundamentalism, a danger they feel has been ignored.<ref>{{cite news | last=Bernstein | first=Richard | title= Experts on Islam Pointing Fingers At One Another | url=http://select.nytimes.com/search/restricted/article?res=F70D16F734540C708CDDA80994D9404482 | publisher=] | accessdate=2007-05-14}}</ref> ] and Norman Daniel dismiss many of the criticisms as the product of old myths and polemics, while ] says that "]" has played a part.<ref>See: | |||
* Ernst (2004), p.11 | |||
* Seibert (1994), pp.88–89 | |||
* Watt (1974), p.231</ref> Notable Muslim ]s include ],<ref>For example see ''Major Themes of the Qur'an'' by Fazlur Rahman in which he argues against the treatment of the Qur'an as either a piecemeal or an evolutionary progression of ideas. See review by William A. Graham (1983), p.446.</ref> ],<ref>For example see ''The Spirit of Islam'' by Syed Ameer Ali (1849-1928). It is described by ] (1905) as "probably the best achievement in the way of an apology for Mohammed". See Margoliouth, preface ''Mohammed and the Rise of Islam''.</ref> ],<ref>Westerlund (2003)</ref> and ].<ref>{{cite news | publisher=Advance, ] | date=11-17-2003 | title=Ramadan Awareness Event Designed To Debunk Negative Images | author=Elizabeth Omara-Otunnu | url=http://advance.uconn.edu/2003/031117/03111715.htm}}</ref> | |||
] means "to strive or struggle " and, in its broadest sense, is "exerting one's utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of ]".{{sfnp|Firestone|1999|pp=17–18}} Shias in particular emphasize the "greater jihad" of striving to attain spiritual ]<ref name="Afsaruddin">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Afsaruddin |first=Asma |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/jihad |title=Jihad |encyclopedia=] |access-date=17 September 2021 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Brockopp|2003|pp=99–100}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2003|p=93}}</ref> while the "lesser jihad" is defined as warfare.{{sfnp|Firestone|1999|p=17}}<ref name="EI2">{{harvc|last=Tyan, E. |year=2012 |c=D̲j̲ihād |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)}}. {{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0189}}</ref> When used without a qualifier, jihad is often understood in its military form.{{sfnp|Firestone|1999|pp=17–18}}<ref name="Afsaruddin" /> Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against illegal works, terrorists, criminal groups, rebels, ], and leaders or states who oppress Muslims.{{sfnp|Firestone|1999|p=17}}<ref name="EI2" /> Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare.<ref>Habeck, Mary R. ''Knowing the Enemy: Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror''. ]. pp. 108–109, 118.</ref> Jihad only becomes an individual duty for those vested with authority. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a ].<ref name="EI2" /> For most ], ] can only be declared by a ] of the Muslim community, and as such, is suspended since ]'s ] in 868 CE.{{sfnp|Sachedina|1998|pp=105–106}}{{sfnp|Nasr|2003|p=72}} | |||
==See also== | |||
=== Daily and family life === | |||
{{portal}} | |||
{{See also|Adab (Islam)|Islamic dietary laws|Islam and children|Marriage in Islam|Women in Islam|Polygyny in Islam}} | |||
{{Further|]}} | |||
] represent ]]] | |||
Many daily practices fall in the category of ''adab'', or etiquette. Specific prohibited foods include pork products, blood and ]. Health is viewed as a trust from God and ], such as ]s, are prohibited.<ref>{{cite book|author=Fahd Salem Bahammam|title=Food and Dress in Islam: An explanation of matters relating to food and drink and dress in Islam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CRojJ7lnb18C&pg=PP1|publisher=Modern Guide|isbn=978-1-909322-99-8|page=1}}</ref> All meat must come from a ] animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, except for game that one has hunted or fished for oneself.<ref>{{harvp|Curtis|2005|p=164}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2002b|p=111}}</ref><ref>{{harvc |c=Slaughter |first=Ersilia |last=Francesca |year=n.d. |in=McAuliffe}}</ref> Beards are often encouraged among men as something natural<ref>{{Cite news |last=De Sondy |first=Amanullah |date=28 January 2016|title=The relationship between Muslim men and their beards is a tangled one|work=] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/jan/28/muslim-men-beards-facial-hair-islam |access-date=7 March 2022}}</ref> and body modifications, such as ], are usually forbidden as violating the creation.{{efn|Some Muslims in dynastic era China resisted ] of girls for the same reason.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/religionsofchina00legg|quote=mohammedan.|title=The religions of China: Confucianism and Tâoism described and compared with Christianity|first=James|last=Legge|year=1880|publisher=Hodder and Stoughton|location=London|page=|access-date=28 June 2010}}(Original from Harvard University)</ref> }}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.learnreligions.com/tattoos-in-islam-2004393|title=Are Muslims Allowed to Get Tattoos? |website=|access-date=7 March 2022 }}</ref> Silk and gold are prohibited for men in Islam to maintain a state of sobriety.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Glassé |first1=Cyril |title=The New Encyclopedia of Islam |publisher=AltaMira Press |page=158 |language=en|year=2001}}</ref> '']'', often translated as "shame" or "modesty", is sometimes described as the innate character of Islam<ref>{{cite book |last1=Zine |first1=Jasmin |last2=Babana-Hampton |first2=Safoi |last3=Mazid |first3=Nergis |last4=Bullock |first4=Katherine |last5=Chishti |first5=Maliha |title=American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 19:4 |publisher=International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT) |page=59 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0JM4DwAAQBAJ&q=haya+islam&pg=PA59 |access-date=4 June 2020 |language=en}}</ref> and informs much of Muslim daily life. For example, ] emphasizes a standard of modesty, which has included the '']'' for women. Similarly, ] is encouraged with certain requirements.<ref>{{cite web |last=Esposito |first=John |title=Oxford Islamic Studies Online |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t243/e4 |access-date=3 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161114153249/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t243/e4 |archive-date=14 November 2016}}</ref> | |||
] | |||
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In ], the groom is required to pay a bridal gift ('']'').<ref>{{harvp|Waines|2003|pp=93–96}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2003|p=339}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Esposito|1998|p=79}}</ref> | |||
Most families in the Islamic world are monogamous.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Newby |first=Gordon D. |url=https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope00newb |title=A concise encyclopedia of Islam |publisher=] |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-85168-295-9 |location=Oxford |page=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Nasr |first=Seyyed Hossein |url=https://archive.org/details/islamreligionhis00nasr_0/page/68 |title=Islam : religion, history, and civilization |publisher=] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-06-050714-5 |location=New York |page=}}</ref> Muslim men are allowed to practice ] and can have up to four wives simultaneously. Islamic teachings strongly advise that if a man cannot ensure equal financial and emotional support for each of his wives, it is recommended that he marry just one woman. One reason cited for polygyny is that it allows a man to give financial protection to multiple women, who might otherwise not have any support (e.g. widows). However, the first wife can set a condition in the ] that the husband cannot marry another woman during their marriage.<ref>{{cite book|author=Ratno Lukito|title=Legal Pluralism in Indonesia: Bridging the Unbridgeable|page=81|publisher=]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.islamweb.net/ver2/fatwa/ShowFatwa.php?lang=A&Id=18444&Option=FatwaId |title=IslamWeb |publisher=IslamWeb |date=7 February 2002 |access-date=13 September 2011}}</ref> There are also cultural variations in weddings.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eaton |first=Gai |url=https://archive.org/details/rememberinggodre0000eato |title=Remembering God: Reflections on Islam |publisher=The ] |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-946621-84-2 |location=Cambridge |pages=}}</ref> ], a practice wherein a woman takes on two or more husbands, is prohibited in Islam.<ref>{{cite web |title=Why Can't a Woman have 2 Husbands? |url=http://www.14publications.com/question-and-answer/why-cant-a-woman-have-2-husbands/ |access-date=27 December 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223012707/http://www.14publications.com/question-and-answer/why-cant-a-woman-have-2-husbands/ |archive-date=23 December 2015 |website=14 Publications}}</ref> | |||
] girls studying the ] placed atop folding ]s (]) during ] in ], ]]] | |||
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After the birth of a child, the '']'' is pronounced in the right ear.{{sfnp|Campo|2009|p=106}} On the seventh day, the '']'' ceremony is performed, in which an animal is sacrificed and its meat is distributed among the poor.{{sfnp|Nigosian|2004|p=}} The child's head is shaved, and an amount of money equaling the weight of its hair is donated to the poor.{{sfnp|Nigosian|2004|p=}} Male ], called '']'',<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2014 |title=Khitān |encyclopedia=] |publisher=] |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/khitan-Islam |access-date=27 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200127165754/https://www.britannica.com/topic/khitan-Islam |archive-date=27 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> is often practised in the Muslim world.<ref>{{cite journal |date=January 2017 |title=Reported Male Circumcision Practices in a Muslim-Majority Setting |journal=] |publisher=] |volume=2017 |pages=1–8 |doi=10.1155/2017/4957348 |pmc=5282422 |pmid=28194416 |doi-access=free |author1-last=Anwer |author1-first=Abdul Wahid |author2-last=Samad |author2-first=Lubna |author3-last=Baig-Ansari |author3-first=Naila |author4-last=Iftikhar |author4-first=Sundus}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=13 August 2009 |title=Islam: Circumcision of boys |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/islamethics/malecircumcision.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121112170938/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/islamethics/malecircumcision.shtml |archive-date=12 November 2012 |access-date=27 May 2020 |work=Religion & ethics—Islam |publisher=]}}</ref> Respecting and obeying one's parents, and taking care of them especially in their old age is a religious obligation.{{sfnp|Campo|2009|p=136}} | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
A ] is encouraged to pronounce the ''Shahada'' as their last words.<ref>{{Cite book| isbn = 9783643900678| title =Changing European Death Ways| location = Austria| year = 2013| last1=Mathijssen| first1=Brenda|last2=Venhorst|first2=Claudia|last3=Venbrux|first3=Eric|last4=Quartier|first4=Thomas| url =| page = 265 |publisher=Lit }}</ref> Paying respects to the dead and attending funerals in the community are considered among the virtuous acts. In ], burial is encouraged as soon as possible, usually within 24 hours. The body is washed, except for martyrs, by members of the same gender and enshrouded in a garment that must not be elaborate called ''kafan''.{{sfnp|Stefon|2010|p=}} A "funeral prayer" called '']'' is performed. Wailing, or loud, mournful outcrying, is discouraged. Coffins are often not preferred and graves are often unmarked, even for kings.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rahman|first=Rema |date=25 October 2011|title=Who, What, Why: What are the burial customs in Islam?|work=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-15444275|access-date=28 January 2022}}</ref> | |||
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=== Arts and culture === | |||
{{Col-end}} | |||
{{Main|Islamic culture}} | |||
{{See also|Islamic art|Islamic architecture|Islamic literature|Islam in association football|Cultural Muslims}} | |||
The term "]" can be used to mean aspects of culture that pertain to the religion, such as ] and ]. It is also controversially used to denote the cultural aspects of traditionally Muslim people.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Melikian |first=Souren |author-link=Souren Melikian |date=4 November 2011 |title='Islamic' Culture: A Groundless Myth |work=] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/05/arts/05iht-rartmelikian05.html |url-access=subscription |access-date=25 November 2013}}</ref> Finally, "Islamic civilization" may also refer to the aspects of the synthesized culture of the early Caliphates, including that of non-Muslims,{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=56}} sometimes referred to as "]".<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = Wiley| isbn = 9781405155144| title =Islamicate Cosmopolitan Spirit | location = United Kingdom| year = 2021| last=Lawrence| first=Bruce| url =| page = xii| quote = }}</ref> | |||
] encompasses the ] including fields as varied as architecture, ], painting, and ], among others.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ettinghausen |first1=Richard |first2=Oleg |last2=Grabar |first3=Marilyn |last3=Jenkins-Madina |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780300088670/page/3 |title=Islamic Art and Architecture 650-1250 |publisher=] |year=2003 |isbn=0-300-08869-8 |edition=2nd |page=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Suarez|first=Michael F.|title=The Oxford companion to the book|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2010|isbn=9780198606536|location=Oxford and New York|pages=331ff|chapter=38 The History of the Book in the Muslim World|oclc=50238944}}</ref> While the making of images of animate beings has often been frowned upon in connection with ], this rule has been interpreted in different ways by different scholars and in different historical periods. This stricture has been used to explain the prevalence of ], ], and pattern as key aspects of Islamic artistic culture.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Salim Ayduz |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=or-6BwAAQBAJ&q=islamic+art+idolatry+geometry&pg=PA263 |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam |last2=Ibrahim Kalin |last3=Caner Dagli |date=2014 |page=263|publisher=] |isbn=978-0-19-981257-8 |quote=Figural representation is virtually unused in Islamic art because of Islam's strong antagonism of idolatry. It was important for Muslim scholars and artists to find a style of art that represented the Islamic ideals of unity (''tawhid'') and order without figural representation. Geometric patterns perfectly suited this goal.}}</ref> Additionally, the ] is a contentious issue among Muslims.<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=860736| title = An Indian Picture of Muhammad and His Companions | |||
==Notes== | |||
| author = T. W. Arnold| journal = The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs | |||
{{reflist|3}} | |||
| author-link = T. W. Arnold| date = June 1919| volume = 34| issue = 195 | |||
| publisher = The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs, Vol. 34, No. 195. | |||
| pages = 249–252}}</ref> In ], varying cultures show influence such as North African and Spanish Islamic architecture such as the ] containing ] and ] columns from Roman and Byzantine buildings,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Isichei |first=Elizabeth Allo |url={{Google books|LgnhYDozENgC|page=PA175|keywords=mosque%20kairouan%20roman columns|text=mosque+kairouan+roman+columns|plainurl=yes}} |title=A history of African societies to 1870 |publisher=] |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-521-45599-2 |location=Cambridge |pages=175 |access-date=6 August 2010}}</ref> while ] often have multi-tiered roofs from local ]nese styles.<ref>{{cite book |first=Gunawan |last=Tjahjono |title=Indonesian Heritage-Architecture |url=https://archive.org/details/architecture00indo/page/88 |year=1998 |publisher=Archipelago Press |location=Singapore |isbn=981-3018-30-5 |pages= }}</ref> | |||
The ] is a ] that begins with the ] of 622 CE, a date that was reportedly chosen by Caliph Umar as it was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Muslim-calendar|title=Islamic calendar|website=www.britannica.com|date=|access-date=8 August 2022}}</ref> Islamic ] fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, meaning they occur in ] in different years in the ]. The most important Islamic festivals are '']'' ({{langx|ar|عيد الفطر}}) on the 1st of '']'', marking the end of the fasting month ''Ramadan'', and '']'' ({{lang|ar|عيد الأضحى}}) on the 10th of ''Dhu al-Hijjah'', coinciding with the end of the ] (pilgrimage).<ref>{{Cite book| publisher =Oxford University Press| isbn =9780195165203| title =The Islamic World: Past and Present| year = 2004| last=Esposito| first=John| pages = 75–76 |ref=none}}</ref><ref name="www.britannica.com-2023" /> | |||
] are religiously non-practicing individuals who still identify with Islam due to family backgrounds, personal experiences, or the social and cultural environment in which they grew up.<ref>{{cite book|first1= Cara|last1= Aitchison|author1-link= Cara Aitchison|first2= Peter E.|last2= Hopkins|author3-link= Mei-Po Kwan|author3= Mei-Po Kwan|title= Geographies of Muslim Identities: Diaspora, Gender and Belonging|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=DRnthQxB8lYC&pg=PA147|access-date= 30 June 2013|year= 2007|publisher= Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn= 978-1-4094-8747-0|pages=147}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Islamic Counselling: An Introduction to theory and practice|first=G. Hussein|last= Rassool|year= 2015| isbn=9781317441250| page =10|publisher=Routledge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o_QsCgAAQBAJ&dq=Muslims+who+are+religiously+unobservant,+secular+or+irreligious+individuals+who+still+identify+with+the+Muslim&pg=PA10|quote=The label 'Cultural Muslim' is used in the literature to describe those Muslims who are religiously unobservant, secular or irreligious individuals who still identify with the Muslim culture due to family background, personal experiences, or the social and cultural environment in which they grew up... For Cultural Muslim the declaration of faith is superficial and has no effect of their religious practices.}}</ref> | |||
<gallery class="left"> | |||
File:Sixty Dome Mosque,Bagerhat.jpg|14th century ], in ], ] | |||
File:Djenne great mud mosque.jpg|], in the ]n country of ] | |||
File:Closeup of Mir-i-Arab Madrasa.jpg|Dome in ], ], ] | |||
File:1 great mosque xian 2011.JPG|14th century ] in China | |||
File:Masjid Menara Kudus.jpg|16th century ] in Indonesia showing Indian influence | |||
File:Basmalah-1wm.svg|The phrase '']'' in an 18th-century Islamic calligraphy from the ] region | |||
File:Roof hafez tomb.jpg|Geometric arabesque tiling on the underside of the dome of Hafiz Shirazi's tomb in ], ] | |||
</gallery> | |||
== Influences on other religions == | |||
{{See also|Islam and Druze}} | |||
Some movements, such as the ],<ref>{{Cite book |last=De McLaurin |first=Ronald |url=https://archive.org/details/politicalroleofm0000unse |title=The Political Role of Minority Groups in the Middle East |publisher=Michigan University Press |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-03-052596-4 |page= |quote=Theologically, one would have to conclude that the Druze are not Muslims. They do not accept the five pillars of Islam. In place of these principles, the Druze have instituted the seven precepts noted above...}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hunter |first=Shireen |url=https://archive.org/details/politicsofislami0000unse |title=The Politics of Islamic Revivalism: Diversity and Unity: Center for Strategic and International Studies (Washington, D.C.), Georgetown University. Center for Strategic and International Studies |publisher=] |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-253-34549-3 |page= |quote=Druze – An offshoot of Shi'ism; its members are not considered Muslims by orthodox Muslims.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=R. Williams |first=Victoria |title=Indigenous Peoples: An Encyclopedia of Culture, History, and Threats to Survival |publisher=] |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-4408-6118-5 |page=318 |quote=As Druze is a nonritualistic religion without requirements to pray, fast, make pilgrimages, or observe days of rest, the Druze are not considered an Islamic people by Sunni Muslims.}}</ref> ] and ], either emerged from Islam or came to share certain beliefs with Islam, and whether each is a separate religion or a sect of Islam is sometimes controversial.<ref>{{Cite book |last=D. Grafton |first=David |title=Piety, Politics, and Power: Lutherans Encountering Islam in the Middle East |publisher=] |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-63087-718-7 |page=14 |quote=In addition, there are several quasi-Muslim sects, in that, although they follow many of the beliefs and practices of orthodox Islam, the majority of Sunnis consider them heretical. These would be the Ahmadiyya, Druze, Ibadi, and the Yazidis.}}</ref> The ] faith further split from ] as it developed its own unique doctrines, and finally separated from both Ismāʿīlīsm and Islam altogether; these include the belief that the Imam ] was ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Poonawala |first=Ismail K. |date=July–September 1999 |title=Review: ''The Fatimids and Their Traditions of Learning'' by Heinz Halm |journal=] |publisher=] |volume=119 |issue=3 |page=542 |doi=10.2307/605981 |issn=0003-0279 |jstor=605981 |lccn=12032032 |oclc=47785421}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last = Bryer | first = David R. W. | title = The Origins of the Druze Religion (Fortsetzung) | journal = ] | year = 1975 | volume = 52 | issue = 2 | pages = 239–262 | doi = 10.1515/islm.1975.52.2.239 | s2cid = 162363556 | url = https://doi.org/10.1515/islm.1975.52.2.239 | issn = 1613-0928 | ref = {{harvid|Bryer|1975b}} }}</ref> ] is seen as a blend of local Kurdish beliefs and Islamic Sufi doctrine introduced to ] by ] in the 12th century.<ref>{{cite book |last=Foltz |first=Richard |title=Religions of Iran: From Prehistory to the Present |date=7 November 2013 |isbn=978-1-78074-307-3 |page=219 |chapter=Two Kurdish Sects: The Yezidis and the Yaresan |publisher=Oneworld Publications |chapter-url= |chapter-url-access=}}</ref> ] stems from Twelver Shia passed through ] while one of his followers Mirza Husayn 'Ali Nuri ] founded the ].<ref>{{cite web |last=House of Justice |first=Universal |title=One Common Faith |url=http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/bic/OCF/ocf-8.html |access-date=1 April 2017 |website=reference.bahai.org}}</ref> ], founded by ] in late 15th century ], primarily incorporates aspects of ], with some Islamic influences.<ref>Elsberg, Constance (2003), ''Graceful Women.'' ]. {{ISBN|978-1-57233-214-0}}. pp. 27–28.</ref> | |||
== Criticism == | |||
{{Main|Criticism of Islam}} | |||
{{see also|Criticism of Muhammad|Criticism of the Quran}} | |||
], under the ], viewed Islamic doctrines as a hodgepodge from the ].<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/general/stjohn_islam.aspx |title=Writings by St John of Damascus |publisher=Catholic University of America Press |year=1958 |series=The Fathers of the Church |volume=37 |location=Washington, DC |pages=153–160 |chapter=St. John of Damascus's Critique of Islam |access-date=8 July 2019}}</ref>]] | |||
Criticism of Islam has existed since its formative stages. Early criticism came from Jewish authors, such as ], and Christian authors, many of whom viewed Islam as a ] or a form of ], often explaining it in apocalyptic terms.{{sfnp|Fahlbusch et al|2001|p=}} | |||
Christian writers criticized Islam's sensual descriptions of paradise. ] defended the Quranic description of paradise by asserting that the Bible also implies such ideas, such as drinking wine in the ]. Catholic theologian ]'s doctrines led to the broad repudiation of bodily pleasure in both life and the afterlife.<ref>''Christian Lange Paradise and Hell in Islamic Traditions'' ], 2015 {{ISBN|978-0-521-50637-3}} pp. 18–20</ref> | |||
Defamatory images of ], derived from early 7th-century depictions of the ],<ref>], and P. J. Stewart. 2003. ''Muhammad in Europe: A Thousand Years of Western Myth-Making''. ]. {{ISBN|978-0-8147-7564-6}}. p. 93–96.</ref> appear in the 14th-century epic poem '']'' by ].<ref name="Stone">Stone, G. 2006. ''Dante's Pluralism and the Islamic Philosophy of Religion''. ]. {{ISBN|978-1-4039-8309-1}}. p. 53-54.</ref> Here, Muhammad is depicted in the eighth circle of hell, along with Ali. Dante does not blame Islam as a whole but accuses Muhammad of ], by establishing another religion after Christianity.<ref name="Stone" /> | |||
Other criticisms center on the ], including issues related to human rights, particularly in relation to the application of Islamic law.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Yohanan|last1=Friedmann|year=2003|title=Tolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith Relations in the Muslim Tradition|url=https://archive.org/details/tolerancecoercio00frie|url-access=limited|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=, 35|isbn=978-0-521-02699-4}}</ref> Furthermore, in the wake of the recent ] trend, Islam's influence on the ability of ] in the West to assimilate has been ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Modood |first=Tariq |url=https://archive.org/details/multiculturalism00modo |title=Multiculturalism, Muslims and Citizenship: A European Approach |date=6 April 2006 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-415-35515-5 |edition=1st |page= |url-access=registration}}</ref> | |||
== See also == | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
==References== | ==References== | ||
===Footnotes=== | |||
;Books and journals | |||
{{notelist}} | |||
<div class="references-small"> | |||
* {{cite journal | last=Accad | first=Martin | title=The Gospels in the Muslim Discourse of the Ninth to the Fourteenth Centuries: An Exegetical Inventorial Table (Part I) | journal=Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations | volume=14 | issue=1 | date=2003 | id=ISSN 0959-6410}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Adil | first=Hajjah Amina | coauthors=Shaykh Nazim Adil Al-Haqqani, Shaykh Muhammad Hisham Kabbani | title=Muhammad: The Messenger of Islam | publisher=Islamic Supreme Council of America | year=2002 | id=ISBN 978-1930409118}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Ahmed | first=Akbar | title=Islam Today: A Short Introduction to the Muslim World | publisher=I. B. Tauris | edition=2.00 | year=1999 | id=ISBN 978-1860642579}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Brockopp | first=Jonathan E. | title=Islamic Ethics of Life: abortion, war and euthanasia | publisher=University of South Carolina press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 1570034710}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Cohen-Mor | first=Dalya | title=A Matter of Fate: The Concept of Fate in the Arab World as Reflected in Modern Arabic Literature | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2001 | id=ISBN 0195133986}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Curtis | first=Patricia A. | year=2005 | title=A Guide to Food Laws and Regulations | publisher=Blackwell Publishing Professional | id=ISBN 978-0813819464}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Eglash | first=Ron | year=1999 | title=African Fractals: Modern Computing and Indigenous Design | publisher=Rutgers University Press | id=ISBN 0-8135-2614-0}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Ernst | first=Carl | authorlink=Carl Ernst | year=2004 | title = Following Muhammad: Rethinking Islam in the Contemporary World | publisher=University of North Carolina Press | id=ISBN 0-8078-5577-4}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | coauthors=John Obert Voll | title=Islam and Democracy | year=1996 | | publisher=Oxford University Press | id=ISBN 0-19-510816-7}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | title=Islam: The Straight Path | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1998 | edition=3rd | id=ISBN 978-0195112344}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | coauthors=Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad | title=Muslims on the Americanization Path? | year=2000a | publisher=Oxford University Press | id=ISBN 0-19-513526-1}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | year=2000b | title=Oxford History of Islam | publisher=Oxford University Press | id=978-0195107999}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | year=2002a | title=Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam | publisher=Oxford University Press | id=ISBN 978-0195168860}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | year=2002b | title=What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam | publisher=Oxford University Press | id=ISBN 0-19-515713-3}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | title=] | publisher=] | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0-19-512558-4}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | title=Islam: The Straight Path | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2004 | edition=3rd Rev Upd | id=ISBN 978-0195182668}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Farah | first=Caesar | authorlink=Caesar E. Farah | title=Islam: Beliefs and Observances | publisher=Barron's Educational Series | year=1994 | edition=5th | id=ISBN 978-0812018530}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Farah | first=Caesar | authorlink=Caesar E. Farah | title=Islam: Beliefs and Observances | publisher=Barron's Educational Series | year=2003 | edition=7th | id=ISBN 978-0764122266}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Friedmann | first=Yohanan | authorlink=Yohanan Friedmann | title=Tolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith Relations in the Muslim Tradition | publisher= Cambridge University Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 978-0521026994}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Ghamidi | first=Javed | authorlink=Javed Ahmed Ghamidi | title=] | publisher=] | year=2001 | id={{OCLC|52901690}}}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Goldschmidt, Jr. | first=Arthur | coauthors=Lawrence Davidson | title=A Concise History of the Middle East | publisher=Westview Press | year=2005 | edition=8th | id=ISBN 978-0813342757}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Griffith | first=Ruth Marie | coauthors=Barbara Dianne Savage | title=Women and Religion in the African Diaspora: Knowledge, Power, and Performance | publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press | year=2006 | id=ISBN 0801883709}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Hawting| first=G. R. | authorlink= G.R. Hawting | title=The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661-750 | publisher=Routledge | year=2000 | id=ISBN 0415240735}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Hedayetullah | first=Muhammad | title=Dynamics of Islam: An Exposition | publisher=Trafford Publishing | year=2006 | id=ISBN 978-1553698425}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Holt | first=P. M. | coauthors=] | title=Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1 | year=1977a | publisher=Cambridge University Press | id=ISBN 0521291364}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Holt | first=P. M. | coauthors=Ann K. S. Lambton, ] | title=Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 2 | year=1977b | publisher=Cambridge University Press | id=ISBN 0521291372}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Hourani | first=Albert | authorlink=Albert Hourani | coauthor=] | title=A History of the Arab Peoples | year=2003 | publisher=Belknap Press; Revised edition | id=ISBN 978-0674010178}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Kobeisy | first=Ahmed Nezar | title=Counseling American Muslims: Understanding the Faith and Helping the People | publisher=Praeger Publishers | year=2004 | id=ISBN 978-0313324727}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Koprulu | first=Mehmed Fuad | coauthors=Leiser, Gary | title=The Origins of the Ottoman Empire | publisher=SUNY Press | year=1992 | id=ISBN 0791408191}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Kramer | first=Martin | title=Shi'Ism, Resistance, and Revolution | publisher=Westview Press | year=1987 | id=ISBN 978-0813304533}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Kugle | first=Scott Alan | title=Rebel Between Spirit And Law: Ahmad Zarruq, Sainthood, And Authority in Islam | publisher=Indiana University Press| year=2006 | id=ISBN 0253347114}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Lapidus| first=Ira | title=A History of Islamic Societies | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2002 | edition=2nd | id=ISBN 978-0521779333}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=The Jews of Islam | publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul | year=1984 | id=ISBN 0-7102-0462-0}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=The Arabs in History | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1993 | id=ISBN 0-1928-5258-2}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=The Middle East | publisher=Scribner | year=1997 | id=ISBN 978-0684832807}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East | publisher=Open Court | edition=2nd | year=2001 | id=ISBN 978-0812695182}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=What Went Wrong?: The Clash Between Islam and Modernity in the Middle East | publisher=Harper Perennial | edition=Reprint | year=2003 | id=ISBN 978-0060516055}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror | publisher=Random House, Inc., New York | year=2004 | id=ISBN 978-0812967852}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Madelung | first=Wilferd | authorlink=Wilferd Madelung | title=The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=1996 | id=ISBN 0521646960}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Malik| first=Jamal| coauthors=John R Hinnells, Inc NetLibrary | title=Sufism in the West | publisher= Routledge | year=2006 | id=ISBN 0415274087}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Menski | first=Werner F. | title=Comparative Law in a Global Context: The Legal Systems of Asia and Africa | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2006 | id=ISBN 0521858593}} | |||
* {{cite journal | last=Mohammad | first=Noor | title=The Doctrine of Jihad: An Introduction | journal=Journal of Law and Religion | volume=3 | issue=2 | date=1985}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Momen | first=Moojan | title=An Introduction to Shi`i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi`ism | publisher=Yale University Press | year=1987 | id=ISBN 978-0300035315}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Nasr | first=Seyed Muhammad | title=Our Religions: The Seven World Religions Introduced by Preeminent Scholars from Each Tradition (Chapter 7) | publisher=HarperCollins | year=1994| id=ISBN 0-06067-700-7}} | |||
* {{cite journal | last=Novak | first=David | title=The Mind of Maimonides | journal=] |date=February 1999}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Parrinder | first=Geoffrey | authorlink=Geoffrey Parrinder | title=World Religions: From Ancient History to the Present | publisher=Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited | year=1971 | id=ISBN 0-87196-129-6}} | |||
* {{cite journal | last=Patton | first=Walter M. | title=The Doctrine of Freedom in the Korân | journal=The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures |date=April 1900 | volume=16 | issue=3 | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | id=ISBN 9004103147}} | |||
* {{cite journal | last=Peters | first=F. E. | authorlink=F. E. Peters | title=The Quest for Historical Muhammad | journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies | date=1991}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Peters | first=F. E. | authorlink=F. E. Peters | title=Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians | publisher=Princeton University Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0-691-11553-2}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Peters | first=Rudolph | authorlink=Rudolph Peters | title=Jihad in Medieval and Modern Islam | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | year=1977 | id = ISBN 90-04-04854-5}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Ruthven | first=Malise | title=Fundamentalism: The Search for Meaning | publisher= Oxford University Press | year=2005 | id = ISBN 01-92-80606-8}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Sahas | first=Daniel J. | title=John of Damascus on Islam: The Heresy of the Ishmaelites | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | year=1997 | id=ISBN 978-9004034952}} | |||
* {{cite journal | last=Seibert | first=Robert F. | title=Review: Islam and the West: The Making of an Image (Norman Daniel)| journal=Review of Religious Research | date=1994 | volume=36 | issue=1}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Sells | first=Michael Anthony | authorlink=Michael Anthony Sells | coauthors=Emran Qureshi | title=The New Crusades: Constructing the Muslim Enemy | publisher=Columbia University Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0231126670}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Smith | first=Jane I. | title=The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2006 | id=ISBN 978-0195156492}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Spencer | first=Robert | title=The Myth of Islamic Tolerance: How Islamic Law Treats Non-Muslims | publisher=Prometheus Books | year=2005 | id=ISBN 978-1591022497}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Stillman | first=Norman | authorlink=Norman Stillman | title=The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book | publisher=Jewish Publication Society of America | location=Philadelphia | year=1979 | id=ISBN 1-82760-198-1}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Tabatabae | first=Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn | coauthors=Seyyed Hossein Nasr (translator) | authorlink=Allameh Tabatabaei | title= Shi'ite Islam | |||
| publisher=Suny press| year=1979 | id=ISBN 0-87395-272-3}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Tabatabae | first=Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn | coauthors=R. Campbell (translator) | authorlink=Allameh Tabatabaei | title= Islamic teachings: An Overview and a Glance at the Life of the Holy Prophet of Islam | publisher=Green Gold | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0-922817-00-6}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Teece | first=Geoff | title=Religion in Focus: Islam | publisher=Franklin Watts Ltd | year=2003 | id=ISBN 978-0749647964}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Trimingham| first=John Spencer | title=The Sufi Orders in Islam | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1998| id=ISBN 0195120582}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Tritton | first=Arthur S. | authorlink=Arthur Stanley Tritton| title=The Caliphs and their Non-Muslim Subjects: A Critical Study of the Covenant of Umar | publisher=Frank Cass Publisher | location=London | year=1970 |origyear = 1930 | id=ISBN 0-7146-1996-5}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Turner | first=Colin | title=Islam: the Basics | publisher=Routledge (UK) | year=2006 | id=ISBN 041534106X}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Turner | first=Bryan S. | title=Weber and Islam | publisher=Routledge (UK) | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0415174589}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Waines | first=David | title=An Introduction to Islam | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0521539064}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Warraq | first=Ibn | title=The Quest for Historical Muhammad | publisher=Prometheus | year=2000 | id=ISBN 978-1573927871}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Warraq | first=Ibn | title=Leaving Islam: Apostates Speak Out | publisher=Prometheus | year=2003 | id=ISBN 1-59102-068-9}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Watt | first=W. Montgomery | authorlink=William Montgomery Watt | title=The Formative Period of Islamic Thought | publisher=University Press Edinburgh| year=1973 | id=ISBN 0-85-224254-X}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Watt | first=W. Montgomery | authorlink=William Montgomery Watt | title=Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman | publisher=Oxford University Press | edition=New | year=1974 | id=ISBN 0-19-881078-4}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Weiss | first=Bernard G. | title=Studies in Islamic Legal Theory | year=2002 | location=Boston | publisher=Brill Academic publishers | id=ISBN 9004120661}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Williams | first=John Alden | title=The Word of Islam | year=1994 | publisher=University of Texas Press | id=ISBN 0-292-79076-7}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Williams | first=Mary E. | title=The Middle East | year=2000 | publisher=Greenhaven Pr | id=ISBN 0737701331}} | |||
</div> | |||
;Encyclopedias | |||
<div class="references-small"> | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=William H. McNeill, Jerry H. Bentley, David Christian | encyclopedia=Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History | publisher=Berkshire Publishing Group | year=2005 | id=ISBN 978-0974309101}} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=Gabriel Oussani | encyclopedia=] | year=1910}} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=Paul Lagasse, Lora Goldman, Archie Hobson, Susan R. Norton | encyclopedia=The Columbia Encyclopedia | publisher=Gale Group | year=2000 | edition=6th | id=ISBN 978-1593392369}} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | encyclopedia=] | publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.}} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=Erwin Fahlbusch, William Geoffrey Bromiley | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Christianity | publisher=Eerdmans Publishing Company, and Brill| year=2001 | edition=1st| id=ISBN 0-8028-2414-5}} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=John Bowden | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Christianity | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2005 | edition=1st | id=ISBN 0-19-522393-4}} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=George Thomas Kurian, Graham T. T. Molitor | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Future | publisher=MacMillan Reference Books | year=1995 | id=ISBN 978-0028972053}} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs | encyclopedia=] | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | id=ISSN 1573-3912}} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=Richard C. Martin, Said Amir Arjomand, Marcia Hermansen, Abdulkader Tayob, Rochelle Davis, John Obert Voll | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World | publisher=MacMillan Reference Books | year=2003 | id=ISBN 978-0028656038}} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=Jane Dammen McAuliffe | encyclopedia=] | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers}} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=Lindsay Jones | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Religion | publisher=MacMillan Reference Books | year=2005 | edition=2nd | id=ISBN 978-0028657332}} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=Salamone Frank | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals | publisher=Routledge | edition=1st | year=2004 | id=ISBN 978-0415941808}} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=Peter N. Stearns | edition=6th | year=2000 | encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of World History Online | publisher=Bartleby}} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=Glasse Cyril | encyclopedia=New Encyclopedia of Islam: A Revised Edition of the Concise Encyclopedia of Islam | | publisher=AltaMira Press | year=2003 | id=ISSN 978-0759101906}} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=Edward Craig | encyclopedia=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy | publisher=Routledge | year=1998 | edition=1st| id=ISBN 978-0415073103}} | |||
</div> | |||
== |
===Quran and hadith=== | ||
{{Reflist|group=lower-roman}} | |||
<div class="references-small"> | |||
* {{cite book | last=Arberry | first=A. J. | authorlink=A. J. Arberry | title=The Koran Interpreted: A Translation | publisher=Touchstone | edition=1st | year=1996 | id=ISBN 978-0684825076}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Hawting | first=Gerald R. | authorlink=Gerald R. Hawting | title=The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyard Caliphate AD 661–750 | publisher=Routledge | year=2000 | id=ISBN 0415240727}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Khan | first=Muhammad Muhsin | authorlink=Muhammad Muhsin Khan | coauthors=Al-Hilali Khan, Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din | title=Noble Quran | year=1999 | publisher=Dar-us-Salam Publications | edition=1st | id=ISBN 978-9960740799}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Kramer (ed.) | first=Martin | authorlink=Martin Kramer | title=The Jewish Discovery of Islam: Studies in Honor of Bernard Lewis | publisher=Syracuse University | year=1999 | id=ISBN 978-9652240408}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Kuban | first=Dogan | title=Muslim Religious Architecture | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | year=1974 | id=ISBN 9004038132}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East | publisher=Open Court | year=1993 | id=ISBN 978-0812692174}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=Islam and the West | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1994 | id=ISBN 978-0195090611}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=Cultures in Conflict: Christians, Muslims, and Jews in the Age of Discovery | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1996 | id=ISBN 978-0195102833}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Mubarkpuri | first=Saifur-Rahman | title=]: Biography of the Prophet | publisher=Dar-us-Salam Publications | year=2002 | id=ISBN 978-1591440710}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Najeebabadi | first=Akbar Shah | title=History of Islam | publisher=Dar-us-Salam Publications | year=2001 | id=ISBN 978-1591440345}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Nigosian | first=S. A. | title=Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices | publisher=Indiana University Press | year=2004 | edition=New Edition | id=ISBN 978-0253216274}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Rahman | first=Fazlur | authorlink=Fazlur Rahman | title=Islam | publisher=University of Chicago Press | year=1979 | edition=2nd | id=ISBN 0-226-70281-2}} | |||
* {{cite book | last=Walker | first=Benjamin | authorlink=Benjamin Walker | title=Foundations of Islam: The Making of a World Faith | publisher=Peter Owen Publishers | year=1998 | id=ISBN 978-0720610383}} | |||
</div> | |||
==External links== | |||
{{sisterlinks}} | |||
;Academic resources | |||
<div class="references-small"> | |||
* | |||
* | |||
* from the ] Arab Culture and Civilization Online Resource | |||
* , article at ''Enyclopaedia Britannica Online'' | |||
</div> | |||
;Directories | |||
<div class="references-small"> | |||
* Islam in , , and | |||
* {{dmoz|Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Islam/}} | |||
* at ] | |||
;Islam - text, audio and video | |||
<div class="references-small"> | |||
* | |||
* | |||
</div> | |||
;Islam and the arts | |||
<div class="references-small"> | |||
* | |||
* | |||
* (Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation, UK) | |||
* illustrated descriptions and reviews of a large number of mosques, palaces, and monuments. | |||
</div> | |||
===Citations=== | |||
{{featured article}} | |||
{{reflist}} | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
===Sources=== | |||
{{Link FA|id}} | |||
{{ |
{{Refbegin|30em}} | ||
* {{cite book |last=Ahmed |first=Imad-ad-Dean |title=Signs in the heavens |volume=2 |publisher=Amana Publications |year=2006 |isbn=1-59008-040-8}} | |||
{{Link FA|pt}} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Arnold|first=Thomas |title=The Preaching of Islam: A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith.|volume= |publisher= |year=1896 |isbn=}} | |||
{{Link FA|ru}} | |||
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* {{cite book |last=Blankinship |first=K. |year=2008 |chapter=The early creed |editor=T. Winter |title=The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology |series=Cambridge Companions to Religion |pages=33–54 |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/CCOL9780521780582.003|isbn=978-0-521-78058-2 }} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Brockopp |first=Jonathan E. |title=Islamic Ethics of Life: abortion, war and euthanasia |publisher=] |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-57003-471-8}} | |||
*{{Cite book|last=Bulliet|first=Richard| publisher = ]| isbn = 0-618-42770-8| title = The Earth and Its Peoples | |||
| location = Boston| year = 2005| url = | page = | quote = }} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Burge|first=Stephen|year=2015|title=Angels in Islam: Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti's al-Haba'ik fi akhbar al-mala'ik |place=London |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-50473-0}} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Çakmak |first=Cenap |title=Islam: A Worldwide Encyclopedia |series=4 volumes |publisher=] |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-61069-217-5}} | |||
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* {{Cite book |last1=Esposito |first1=John |url=https://archive.org/details/muslimsonamerica00yvon |title=Muslims on the Americanization Path? |last2=Haddad |first2=Yvonne Yazbeck |publisher=] |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-19-513526-8}} | |||
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* {{Cite book |last1=Griffith |first1=Ruth Marie |author1-link=Ruth Marie Griffith |title=Women and Religion in the African Diaspora: Knowledge, Power, and Performance |last2=Savage |first2=Barbara Dianne |author2-link=Barbara D. Savage |publisher=] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8018-8370-5}} | |||
* {{Cite book |last1=Haddad |first1=Yvonne Yazbeck |last2=Smith |first2=Jane I. |author-link=Jane Idleman Smith |title=Muslims in the West: Visible and Invisible |place=Walnut Creek, CA |publisher=Altamira |year=2002}} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Hedayetullah |first=Muhammad |title=Dynamics of Islam: An Exposition |publisher=] |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-55369-842-5}} | |||
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* {{Cite book |editor-last1=Holt |editor-first1=P.M. |editor-last2=Lambton |editor-first2=Ann K.S. |editor2-link=Ann Lambton |editor-last3=Lewis |editor-first3=Bernard |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1977 |isbn=978-0-521-29137-8 |title=The Cambridge History of Islam |volume=2}} | |||
* {{Cite book |editor-last1=Holt |editor-first1=P.M. |editor-last2=Lambton |editor-first2=Ann K.S. |editor-last3=Lewis |editor-first3=Bernard |title=The Cambridge History of Islam |volume=1A |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-521-21946-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistory00holt_798 |url-access=registration}} | |||
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* {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |title=The Arabs in History |publisher=] |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-19-285258-8 |author-mask=1}} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |url=https://archive.org/details/middleeastbriefh0000lewi |title=The Middle East |publisher=] |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-684-83280-7 |author-mask=1}} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |url=https://archive.org/details/islaminhistory00bern |title=Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East |publisher=]|year=2001 |isbn=978-0-8126-9518-2 |edition=2nd |author-mask=1 |url-access=registration}} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |url=https://archive.org/details/whatwentwrongcl00lewi |title=What Went Wrong?: The Clash Between Islam and Modernity in the Middle East |publisher=] |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-06-051605-5 |edition=reprint |author-mask=1}} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |url=https://archive.org/details/crisisofislam00bern |title=The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror |publisher=], New York |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-8129-6785-2 |author-mask=1}} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Madelung |first=Wilferd |title=The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate |publisher=] |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-521-64696-3 |author-link=Wilferd Madelung}} | |||
* {{Cite book |last1=Malik |first1=Jamal |title=Sufism in the West |last2=Hinnells |first2=John R. |publisher=] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-415-27408-1}} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Momen |first=Moojan |title=An Introduction to Shi'i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi'ism |publisher=] |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-300-03531-5}} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Nasr |first=Seyed Hossein |author-link=Seyyed Hossein Nasr |year=2003 |title=The Heart of Islam: Enduring Values for Humanity}} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Nasr |first=Seyed Muhammad |url=https://archive.org/details/ourreligions00shar |title=Our Religions: The Seven World Religions Introduced by Preeminent Scholars from Each Tradition (Chapter 7) |publisher=] |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-06-067700-8}} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Nigosian |first=Solomon Alexander |title=Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices |publisher=] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-253-21627-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/islamitshistoryt0000nigo |url-access=registration}} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Peacock|first=A.C.S.|title=Islam, Literature and Society in Mongol Anatolia|date=2019 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume= |page=|doi= 10.1017/9781108582124|isbn=978-1-108-58212-4|s2cid=211657444}} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Peters |first=F. E. |url=https://archive.org/details/islamguideforjew00fepe |title=Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians |publisher=] |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-691-11553-5}} | |||
* {{Cite report |date=October 2009 |title=Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population |publisher=] |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/7/2009/10/Muslimpopulation.pdf |access-date=25 May 2020 |ref={{sfnref|Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life|2009}} }} . | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Rippin |first=Andrew |url=https://archive.org/details/muslimstheirreli0000ripp |title=Muslims: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices |publisher=] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-415-21781-1 |edition=2nd |author-link=Andrew Rippin}} | |||
* {{cite journal |last=Serjeant |first=R.B. |date=1978 |title=Sunnah Jami'ah, pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrim of Yathrib |journal=] |volume=41 |pages=1–42 |publisher=]|doi=10.1017/S0041977X00057761 |s2cid=161485671 }} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Sachedina |first=Abdulaziz |title=The Just Ruler in Shi'ite Islam: The Comprehensive Authority of the Jurist in Imamite Jurisprudence |publisher=] US |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-511915-2 |author-link=Abdulaziz Sachedina}} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Jane I. |author-link=Jane Idleman Smith |title=The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection |publisher=] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-19-515649-2}} | |||
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Stefon |editor-first=Matt |title=Islamic Beliefs and Practices |publisher=] |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-61530-060-0 |location=New York |url=https://archive.org/details/islamicbeliefspr0000stef |url-access=registration}} | |||
* {{Cite book |last1=Ṭabāṭabāʼī |first1=Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn |title=Shi'ite Islam |translator-last=Nasr |translator-first=Seyyed Hossein |publisher=] |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-87395-272-9 |author-link=Allameh Tabatabaei}} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Teece |first=Geoff |url=https://archive.org/details/islam0000teec_a5d6 |title=Religion in Focus: Islam |publisher=] |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-7496-4796-4}} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Trimingham |first=John Spencer |title=The Sufi Orders in Islam |publisher=] |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-512058-5}} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Turner |first=Colin |title=Islam: the Basics |publisher=] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-415-34106-6 |location=London}} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Turner |first=Bryan S. |title=Weber and Islam |publisher=] |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-415-17458-9 |location=London}} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Waines |first=David |title=An Introduction to Islam |publisher=] |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-521-53906-7}} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Watt |first=W. Montgomery |title=The Formative Period of Islamic Thought |publisher=University Press Edinburgh |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-85224-245-2 |author-link=William Montgomery Watt}} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Watt |first=W. Montgomery |url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadprophets00watt |title=Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman |publisher=] |year=1974 |isbn=978-0-19-881078-0 |edition=New |author-mask=1}} | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Weiss |first=Bernard G. |title=Studies in Islamic Legal Theory |publisher=] |year=2002 |isbn=978-90-04-12066-2 |location=Boston |author-link=Bernard G. Weiss}} | |||
{{Refend}} | |||
=== Encyclopedias and dictionaries === | |||
] | |||
{{Refbegin|30em}} | |||
] | |||
* {{harvc |last1=Gardet|first1=L.|last2=Jomier|first2=J.|year=2012|c=Islām |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)}} {{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0387}} | |||
] | |||
* {{Cite encyclopedia |title=Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=]}} | |||
] | |||
* {{Cite encyclopedia |ref={{harvid|Fahlbusch et al|2001}} |editor-last=Fahlbusch |editor-first=Erwin |display-editors=etal |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=yaecVMhMWaEC}} |title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity |publisher=] |year=2001 |isbn=978-90-04-11695-5 |volume=2}} | |||
] | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia |year=1913–1936 |title=] |editor1-last=Houtsma |editor1-first=M.T. |editor1-link=Martijn Theodoor Houtsma |editor2-first=T.W. |editor2-last=Arnold |editor2-link=Thomas Walker Arnold |editor3-first=R. |editor3-last=Basset |editor4-first=R. |editor4-last=Hartmann |edition=1st |place=Leiden |publisher=] |isbn=978-90-04-08265-6 |ref={{harvid|Encyclopaedia of Islam (1st ed.)|1913–1936}}}} | |||
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* {{cite encyclopedia |year=2012 |title=] |editor-last=Bearman |editor-first=P.J. |issn=1573-3912 |editor1-link=Peri Bearman |editor2-first=Th. |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor3-first=C.E. |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor3-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |editor4-first=E. |editor4-last=van Donzel |editor5-first=W.P. |editor5-last=Heinrichs |editor5-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs |edition=2nd |place=Leiden |publisher=] |isbn=978-90-04-16121-4 |ref={{harvid|Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)|2012}}}} | |||
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* {{Cite encyclopedia |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online |publisher=] |editor-last=Bearman |editor-first=P.J. |issn=1573-3912 |editor1-link=Peri Bearman |editor2-first=Th. |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor3-first=C.E. |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor3-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |editor4-first=E. |editor4-last=van Donzel |editor5-first=W.P. |editor5-last=Heinrichs |editor5-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs |ref={{harvid|Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|n.d.}} |year=n.d. |url=https://brill.com/view/package/eio?language=en |url-access=subscription}} | |||
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* {{cite encyclopedia |title=] |volume=3 |editor-first=Jane Dammen |editor-last=McAuliffe |publisher=] |year=2003}} | |||
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* {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2003 |title=The New Encyclopedia of Islam |publisher=] |url=https://archive.org/details/newencyclopediao0000glas |editor-last=Glassé |editor-first=Cyril |series=Revised Edition of the Concise Encyclopedia of Islam |isbn=978-0-7591-0190-6 |url-access=registration}} | |||
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* {{Cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=John |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam |publisher=] |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-19-512558-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary00bada |url-access=registration}} {{doi|10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001}} – via Oxford Reference. | |||
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* {{Cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=John |year=2004 |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam |place=Oxford |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-19-975726-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E324pQEEQQcC}} | |||
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* {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2006 |title=The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia |publisher=] |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=isDgI0-0Ip4C|page=}} |editor-last=Leaman |editor-first=Oliver |isbn=978-0-415-32639-1}} | |||
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{{Refend}} | |||
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== Further reading == | |||
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{{Sister project links |wikt=Islam |commons=Category:Islam |b=Subject:Islam |n=Category:Islam |q=Islam |s=Portal:Islam |v=Islam |voy=Islam |species=no |d=Q432 |m=no|mw=no}} | |||
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{{Refbegin}} | |||
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* by Arabic Virtual Translation Center (New York 2019, ] {{ISBN|978-0-359-67265-3}}). The foundation of Islam: from revelation to tawhid. | |||
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* Abdul-Haqq, Abdiyah Akbar (1980). ''Sharing Your Faith with a Muslim''. Minneapolis: ]. ''N.B''. Presents the genuine doctrines and concepts of Islam and of the Holy Qur'an, and this religion's affinities with Christianity and its Sacred Scriptures, in order to "dialogue" on the basis of what both faiths really teach. {{ISBN|0-87123-553-6}} | |||
] | |||
* {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2008 |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism |publisher=]; ] |location=Thousand Oaks, CA |last=Ahmad |first=Imad-ad-Dean |title=Islam |author-link=Imad-ad-Dean Ahmad |editor-last=Hamowy |editor-first=Ronald |editor-link=Ronald Hamowy |pages=256–258 |doi=10.4135/9781412965811.n155 |isbn=978-1-4129-6580-4 |lccn=2008009151 |oclc=750831024 |url={{Google books|yxNgXs3TkJYC|plainurl=yes}} }} | |||
] | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Akyol |first=Mustafa |url=https://archive.org/details/islamwithoutextr0000akyo |title=Islam Without Extremes |publisher=] |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-393-07086-6 |edition=1st |author-link=Mustafa Akyol }} | |||
] | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Arberry |first=A.J. |url=https://archive.org/details/koraninterpreted00ajar |title=The Koran Interpreted: A Translation |publisher=Touchstone |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-684-82507-6 |edition=1st |author-link=A. J. Arberry }} | |||
] | |||
* Cragg, Kenneth (1975). ''The House of Islam'', in ''The Religious Life of Man Series''. Second ed. Belmont, CA: ] 1975. xiii, 145 p. {{ISBN|0-8221-0139-4}}. | |||
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* Hourani, Albert (1991). ''Islam in European Thought''. First pbk. ed. Cambridge, Eng.: ], 1992, cop. 1991. xi, 199 p. {{ISBN|0-521-42120-9}}; alternative ISBN on back cover, 0-521-42120-0. | |||
] | |||
* {{Cite book |last1=Khan |first1=Muhammad Muhsin |title=Noble Quran |last2=Al-Hilali Khan |last3=Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din |publisher=] |year=1999 |isbn=978-9960-740-79-9 |edition=1st |author-link=Muhammad Muhsin Khan}} | |||
] | |||
* Khanbaghi, A, (2006). ''The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early Modern Iran''. ]. | |||
] | |||
* Khavari, Farid A. (1990). ''Oil and Islam: the Ticking Bomb''. First ed. Malibu, Calif.: Roundtable Publications. viii, 277 p., ill. with maps and charts. {{ISBN|0-915677-55-5}}. | |||
] | |||
* {{Cite book |title=The Jewish Discovery of Islam: Studies in Honor of Bernard Lewis |publisher=] |year=1999 |isbn=978-965-224-040-8 |editor-last=Kramer |editor-first=Martin |editor-link=Martin Kramer}} | |||
] | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Kuban |first=Dogan |title=Muslim Religious Architecture |publisher=] |year=1974 |isbn=978-90-04-03813-4}} | |||
] | |||
* {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |url=https://archive.org/details/islamwest00lewi_0 |title=Islam and the West |publisher=] |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-19-509061-1 }} | |||
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* {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |url=https://archive.org/details/culturesinconfli0000lewi |title=Cultures in Conflict: Christians, Muslims, and Jews in the Age of Discovery |publisher=] |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-19-510283-3 |url-access=registration }} | |||
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* {{Cite book |last=Mubarkpuri |first=Saifur-Rahman |title=The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Prophet |publisher=] |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-59144-071-0}} | |||
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* {{Cite book |last=Najeebabadi |first=Akbar Shah |title=History of Islam |publisher=] |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-59144-034-5}} | |||
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* {{Cite book |last=Rahman |first=Fazlur |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226702810 |title=Islam |publisher=] |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-226-70281-0 |edition=2nd |author-link=Fazlur Rahman Malik }} | |||
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* {{Cite book |last=Schimmel |first=Annemarie |url=https://www.giffordlectures.org/books/deciphering-signs-god-phenomenological-approach-islam |title=Deciphering the Signs of God: A Phenomenological Approach to Islam |publisher=] |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-7914-1982-3 |author-link=Annemarie Schimmel |access-date=31 January 2019 |archive-date=22 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190422154518/https://www.giffordlectures.org/books/deciphering-signs-god-phenomenological-approach-islam |url-status=dead }} | |||
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* {{Cite book |last=Schuon |first=Frithjof |title=Understanding Islam |publisher=] |year=1963 |isbn=978-0941532242 |edition=3rd |author-link=Frithjof Schuon}} | |||
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* {{Cite book |last=Tausch |first=Arno |title=What 1.3 Billion Muslims Really Think: An Answer to a Recent Gallup Study, Based on the "World Values Survey". Foreword Mansoor Moaddel, Eastern Michigan University |publisher=], New York |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-60692-731-1 |edition=1st }} | |||
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* {{Cite book |last1=Tausch |first1=Arno |title=The political algebra of global value change. General models and implications for the Muslim world |first2=Almas |last2=Heshmati |first3=Hichem |last3=Karoui |publisher=] |place=New York |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-62948-899-8 |edition=1st }} Prepublication text available at: {{cite web |last1=Tausch |first1=Arno |last2=Heshmati |first2=Almas |last3=Karoui |first3=Hichem |date=January 2014 |title=The political algebra of global value change. General models and implications for the Muslim world |website=ResearchGate |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/290349218 }} | |||
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* {{Cite book |last1=Tausch |first1=Arno |title=Political Islam and Religiously Motivated Political Extremism |series=SpringerBriefs in Political Science |publisher=] |place=Cham |year=2023 |doi=10.1007/978-3-031-24854-2 |isbn=978-3-031-24853-5 |s2cid=256852082 |edition=1st |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-031-24854-2 }} | |||
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* {{Cite book |last=Walker |first=Benjamin |title=Foundations of Islam: The Making of a World Faith |publisher=] |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7206-1038-3 |author-link=Benjamin Walker (author)}} | |||
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Revision as of 16:57, 22 December 2024
Abrahamic monotheistic religion This article is about the religion. For other uses, see Islam (disambiguation).
Islam | |
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ٱلْإِسْلَام al-Islām | |
The Kaaba at Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, the holiest Islamic site | |
Classification | Abrahamic |
Scripture | Quran |
Theology | Monotheistic |
Region | Middle East, North Africa, West Africa, East Africa, Central Asia, Northern Caucasus, South Asia, Southeast Asia, Southeastern Europe |
Language | Quranic Arabic |
Territory | Muslim world |
Founder | Muhammad |
Origin | 610 CE Jabal al-Nour, Mecca, Hejaz, Arabian Peninsula |
Separated from | Arabian polytheism |
Separations | Bábism Baháʼí Faith Druze Faith |
Number of followers | c. 1.9 billion (individually referred to as Muslims, collectively referred to as the Ummah) |
Part of a series on |
Islam |
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Beliefs |
Practices |
History |
Culture and society |
Related topics |
Part of a series on |
Islam and Iman |
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Islam Iman Ihsan |
Individuals |
Groups |
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Terms |
|
Islam is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion centered on the Quran and the teachings of Muhammad, the religion's founder. Adherents of Islam are called Muslims, who are estimated to number approximately 1.9 billion worldwide and are the world's second-largest religious population after Christians.
Muslims believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a primordial faith that was revealed many times through earlier prophets and messengers, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus. Muslims consider the Quran to be the verbatim word of God and the unaltered, final revelation. Alongside the Quran, Muslims also believe in previous revelations, such as the Tawrat (the Torah), the Zabur (Psalms), and the Injil (Gospel). They believe that Muhammad is the main and final Islamic prophet, through whom the religion was completed. The teachings and normative examples of Muhammad, called the Sunnah, documented in accounts called the hadith, provide a constitutional model for Muslims. Islam is based on the belief in oneness and uniqueness of the God (tawhid), and belief in an afterlife (akhirah) with the Last Judgment—wherein the righteous will be rewarded in paradise (jannah) and the unrighteous will be punished in hell (jahannam). The Five Pillars—considered obligatory acts of worship—are the Islamic oath and creed (shahada), daily prayers (salah), almsgiving (zakat), fasting (sawm) in the month of Ramadan, and a pilgrimage (hajj) to Mecca. Islamic law, sharia, touches on virtually every aspect of life, from banking and finance and welfare to men's and women's roles and the environment. The two main religious festivals are Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha. The three holiest sites in Islam are Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, Prophet's Mosque in Medina, and al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.
The religion of Islam originated in Mecca in 610 CE. Muslims believe this is when Muhammad received his first revelation. By the time of his death, most of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam. Muslim rule expanded outside Arabia under the Rashidun Caliphate and the subsequent Umayyad Caliphate ruled from the Iberian Peninsula to the Indus Valley. In the Islamic Golden Age, specifically during the reign of the Abbasid Caliphate, most of the Muslim world experienced a scientific, economic and cultural flourishing. The expansion of the Muslim world involved various states and caliphates as well as extensive trade and religious conversion as a result of Islamic missionary activities (dawah), as well as through conquests, imperialism, and colonialism.
The two main Islamic branches are Sunni Islam (85–90%) and Shia Islam (10–15%). While the Shia–Sunni divide initially arose from disagreements over the succession to Muhammad, they grew to cover a broader dimension, both theologically and juridically. The Sunni canonical hadith collection consists of six books, while the Shia canonical hadith collection consists of four books. Muslims make up a majority of the population in 49 countries. Approximately 12% of the world's Muslims live in Indonesia, the most populous Muslim-majority country; 31% live in South Asia; 20% live in the Middle East–North Africa; and 15% live in sub-Saharan Africa. Muslim communities are also present in the Americas, China, and Europe. Muslims are the world's fastest-growing major religious group, according to Pew Research Center. This is due primarily to a higher fertility rate and younger age structure compared to other major religions.
Etymology
See also: Muslims § EtymologyIn Arabic, Islam (Arabic: إسلام, lit. 'submission ') is the verbal noun of Form IV originating from the verb سلم (salama), from the triliteral root س-ل-م (S-L-M), which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of submission, safeness, and peace. In a religious context, it refers to the total surrender to the will of God. A Muslim (مُسْلِم), the word for a follower of Islam, is the active participle of the same verb form, and means "submitter (to God)" or "one who surrenders (to God)". In the Hadith of Gabriel, Islam is presented as one part of a triad that also includes imān (faith), and ihsān (excellence).
Islam itself was historically called Mohammedanism in the English-speaking world. This term has fallen out of use and is sometimes said to be offensive, as it suggests that a human being, rather than God, is central to Muslims' religion.
Articles of faith
Main articles: Aqidah and ImanThe Islamic creed (aqidah) requires belief in six articles: God, angels, revelation, prophets, the Day of Resurrection, and the divine predestination.
God
Main article: God in IslamThe central concept of Islam is tawḥīd (Arabic: توحيد), the oneness of God. It is usually thought of as a precise monotheism, but is also panentheistic in Islamic mystical teachings. God is seen as incomparable and without multiplicity of persons such as in the Christian Trinity, and associating multiplicity to God or attributing God's attributes to others is seen as idolatory, called shirk. God is described as Al Ghayb so is beyond comprehension. Thus, Muslims are not iconodules and do not attribute forms to God. God is instead described and referred to by several names or attributes, the most common being Ar-Rahmān (الرحمان) meaning "The Entirely Merciful", and Ar-Rahīm (الرحيم) meaning "The Especially Merciful" which are invoked at the beginning of most chapters of the Quran.
Islam teaches that the creation of everything in the universe was brought into being by God's command as expressed by the wording, "Be, and it is," and that the purpose of existence is to worship God. He is viewed as a personal god and there are no intermediaries, such as clergy, to contact God. Consciousness and awareness of God is referred to as Taqwa. Allāh is a term with no plural or gender being ascribed to it and is also used by Muslims and Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews in reference to God, whereas ʾilāh (إله) is a term used for a deity or a god in general.
Angels
Main article: Angels in IslamAngels (Arabic: ملك, malak) are beings described in the Quran and hadith. They are described as created to worship God and also to serve in other specific duties such as communicating revelations from God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's soul at the time of death. They are described as being created variously from 'light' (nūr) or 'fire' (nār). Islamic angels are often represented in anthropomorphic forms combined with supernatural images, such as wings, being of great size or wearing heavenly articles. Common characteristics for angels include a lack of bodily needs and desires, such as eating and drinking. Some of them, such as Gabriel (Jibrīl) and Michael (Mika'il), are mentioned by name in the Quran. Angels play a significant role in literature about the Mi'raj, where Muhammad encounters several angels during his journey through the heavens. Further angels have often been featured in Islamic eschatology, theology and philosophy.
Scriptures
Main articles: Islamic holy books, Quran, and Wahy See also: History of the QuranThe pre-eminent holy text of Islam is the Quran. Muslims believe that the verses of the Quran were revealed to Muhammad by God, through the archangel Gabriel, on multiple occasions between 610 CE and 632, the year Muhammad died. While Muhammad was alive, these revelations were written down by his companions, although the primary method of transmission was orally through memorization. The Quran is divided into 114 chapters (sūrah) which contain a combined 6,236 verses (āyāt). The chronologically earlier chapters, revealed at Mecca, are concerned primarily with spiritual topics, while the later Medinan chapters discuss more social and legal issues relevant to the Muslim community. Muslim jurists consult the hadith ('accounts'), or the written record of Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Quran and assist with its interpretation. The science of Quranic commentary and exegesis is known as tafsir. In addition to its religious significance, the Quran is widely regarded as the finest work in Arabic literature, and has influenced art and the Arabic language.
Islam also holds that God has sent revelations, called wahy, to different prophets numerous times throughout history. However, Islam teaches that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, such as the Tawrat (Torah) and the Injil (Gospel), have become distorted—either in interpretation, in text, or both, while the Quran (lit. 'Recitation') is viewed as the final, verbatim and unaltered word of God.
Prophets
Main articles: Prophets and messengers in Islam, Sunnah, and HadithProphets (Arabic: أنبياء, anbiyāʾ) are believed to have been chosen by God to preach a divine message. Some of these prophets additionally deliver a new book and are called "messengers" (رسول, rasūl). Muslims believe prophets are human and not divine. All of the prophets are said to have preached the same basic message of Islam – submission to the will of God – to various nations in the past, and this is said to account for many similarities among religions. The Quran recounts the names of numerous figures considered prophets in Islam, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus, among others. The stories associated with the prophets beyond the Quranic accounts are collected and explored in the Qisas al-Anbiya (Stories of the Prophets).
Muslims believe that God sent Muhammad as the final prophet ("Seal of the prophets") to convey the completed message of Islam. In Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the sunnah (literally "trodden path"). Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's moral behaviors in their daily lives, and the sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Quran. This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith, which are accounts of his words, actions, and personal characteristics. Hadith Qudsi is a sub-category of hadith, regarded as God's verbatim words quoted by Muhammad that are not part of the Quran. A hadith involves two elements: a chain of narrators, called sanad, and the actual wording, called matn. There are various methodologies to classify the authenticity of hadiths, with the commonly used grading grading scale being "authentic" or "correct" (صحيح, ṣaḥīḥ); "good" (حسن, ḥasan); or "weak" (ضعيف, ḍaʻīf), among others. The Kutub al-Sittah are a collection of six books, regarded as the most authentic reports in Sunni Islam. Among them is Sahih al-Bukhari, often considered by Sunnis to be one of the most authentic sources after the Quran. Another well-known source of hadiths is known as The Four Books, which Shias consider as the most authentic hadith reference.
Resurrection and judgment
Main article: Islamic eschatologyBelief in the "Day of Resurrection" or Yawm al-Qiyāmah (Arabic: يوم القيامة) is also crucial for Muslims. It is believed that the time of Qiyāmah is preordained by God, but unknown to man. The Quran and the hadith, as well as the commentaries of scholars, describe the trials and tribulations preceding and during the Qiyāmah. The Quran emphasizes bodily resurrection, a break from the pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death.
On Yawm al-Qiyāmah, Muslims believe all humankind will be judged by their good and bad deeds and consigned to Jannah (paradise) or Jahannam (hell). The Quran in Surat al-Zalzalah describes this as: "So whoever does an atom's weight of good will see it. And whoever does an atom's weight of evil will see it." The Quran lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell. However, the Quran makes it clear that God will forgive the sins of those who repent if he wishes. Good deeds, like charity, prayer, and compassion towards animals will be rewarded with entry to heaven. Muslims view heaven as a place of joy and blessings, with Quranic references describing its features. Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God. Yawm al-Qiyāmah is also identified in the Quran as Yawm ad-Dīn (يوم الدين "Day of Religion"); as-Sāʿah (الساعة "the Last Hour"); and al-Qāriʿah (القارعة "The Clatterer").
Divine predestination
Main article: Predestination in IslamThe concept of divine predestination in Islam (Arabic: القضاء والقدر, al-qadāʾ wa l-qadar) means that every matter, good or bad, is believed to have been decreed by God. Al-qadar, meaning "power", derives from a root that means "to measure" or "calculating". Muslims often express this belief in divine destiny with the phrase "In-sha-Allah" (Arabic: إن شاء الله) meaning "if God wills" when speaking on future events.
Acts of worship
Main articles: Five Pillars of Islam and IbadahThere are five acts of worship that are considered duties–the Shahada (declaration of faith), the five daily prayers, Zakat (almsgiving), fasting during Ramadan, and the Hajj pilgrimage–collectively known as "The Pillars of Islam" (Arkān al-Islām). In addition, Muslims also perform other optional supererogatory acts that are encouraged but not considered to be duties.
Declaration of faith
Main article: ShahadaThe shahadah is an oath declaring belief in Islam. The expanded statement is "ʾašhadu ʾal-lā ʾilāha ʾillā-llāhu wa ʾašhadu ʾanna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh" (أشهد أن لا إله إلا الله وأشهد أن محمداً رسول الله), or, "I testify that there is no deity except God and I testify that Muhammad is the messenger of God." Islam is sometimes argued to have a very simple creed with the shahada being the premise for the rest of the religion. Non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the shahada in front of witnesses.
Prayer
Main article: Salah See also: Mosque and Jumu'ahPrayer in Islam, called as-salah or aṣ-ṣalāt (Arabic: الصلاة), is seen as a personal communication with God and consists of repeating units called rakat that include bowing and prostrating to God. There are five timed prayers each day that are considered duties. The prayers are recited in the Arabic language and performed in the direction of the Kaaba. The act also requires a state of ritual purity achieved by means of either a routine wudu ritual wash or, in certain circumstances, a ghusl full body ritual wash.
A mosque is a place of worship for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name masjid. Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also an important social center for the Muslim community. For example, the Masjid an-Nabawi ("Prophetic Mosque") in Medina, Saudi Arabia, used to also serve as a shelter for the poor. Minarets are towers used to call the adhan, a vocal call to signal the prayer time.
Almsgiving
Main article: Zakat See also: SadaqahZakat (Arabic: زكاة, zakāh), also spelled Zakāt or Zakah, is a type of almsgiving characterized by the giving of a fixed portion (2.5% annually) of accumulated wealth by those who can afford it to help the poor or needy, such as for freeing captives, those in debt, or for (stranded) travellers, and for those employed to collect zakat. It acts as a form of welfare in Muslim societies. It is considered a religious obligation that the well-off owe the needy because their wealth is seen as a trust from God's bounty, and is seen as a purification of one's excess wealth. The total annual value contributed due to zakat is 15 times greater than global humanitarian aid donations, using conservative estimates. Sadaqah, as opposed to Zakat, is a much-encouraged optional charity. A waqf is a perpetual charitable trust, which finances hospitals and schools in Muslim societies.
Fasting
Main article: Fasting in Islam See also: Fasting during RamadanIn Islam, fasting (Arabic: صوم, ṣawm) precludes food and drink, as well as other forms of consumption, such as smoking, and is performed from dawn to sunset. During the month of Ramadan, it is considered a duty for Muslims to fast. The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God by restraining oneself for God's sake from what is otherwise permissible and to think of the needy. In addition, there are other days, such as the Day of Arafah, when fasting is optional.
Pilgrimage
Main articles: Hajj and Umrah See also: Holiest sites in IslamThe Islamic pilgrimage, called the ḥajj (Arabic: حج), is to be done at least once a lifetime by every Muslim with the means to do so during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah. Rituals of the Hajj mostly imitate the story of the family of Abraham. In Mecca, pilgrims walk seven times around the Kaaba, which Muslims believe Abraham built as a place of worship, and they walk seven times between Mount Safa and Marwa, recounting the steps of Abraham's wife, Hagar, who was looking for water for her baby Ishmael in the desert before Mecca developed into a settlement. The pilgrimage also involves spending a day praying and worshipping in the plain of Mount Arafat as well as symbolically stoning the Devil. All Muslim men wear only two simple white unstitched pieces of cloth called ihram, intended to bring continuity through generations and uniformity among pilgrims despite class or origin. Another form of pilgrimage, Umrah, is optional and can be undertaken at any time of the year. Other sites of Islamic pilgrimage are Medina, where Muhammad died, as well as Jerusalem, a city of many Islamic prophets and the site of Al-Aqsa, which was the direction of prayer before Mecca.
Other acts of worship
See also: Quran § Recitation, Dua, and DhikrMuslims recite and memorize the whole or parts of the Quran as acts of virtue. Tajwid refers to the set of rules for the proper elocution of the Quran. Many Muslims recite the whole Quran during the month of Ramadan. One who has memorized the whole Quran is called a hafiz ("memorizer"), and hadiths mention that these individuals will be able to intercede for others on Judgment Day.
Supplication to God, called in Arabic duʿāʾ (Arabic: دعاء IPA: [dʊˈʕæːʔ]) has its own etiquette such as raising hands as if begging.
Al-Ikhlas Sincerity is the Quran's 112 chapter as recited by Imam Mishary Rashid AlafasyProblems playing this file? See media help.
Remembrance of God (ذكر, Dhikr') refers to phrases repeated referencing God. Commonly, this includes Tahmid, declaring praise be due to God (الحمد لله, al-Ḥamdu lillāh) during prayer or when feeling thankful, Tasbih, declaring glory to God during prayer or when in awe of something and saying 'in the name of God' (بسملة, basmalah) before starting an act such as eating.
History
Main article: History of Islam For a chronological guide, see Timeline of the history of Islam. See also: List of Muslim empires and dynasties A panoramic view of Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) in Medina, Hejaz region, today's Saudi Arabia, the second most sacred mosque in IslamMuhammad and the beginning of Islam (570–632)
Main articles: Muhammad and Muhammad in Islam See also: Early social changes under IslamAccording to Islamic tradition, Muhammad was born in Mecca in 570 CE and was orphaned early in life. Growing up as a trader, he became known as the "trusted one" (Arabic: الامين) and was sought after as an impartial arbitrator. He later married his employer, the businesswoman Khadija. In the year 610 CE, troubled by the moral decline and idolatry prevalent in Mecca and seeking seclusion and spiritual contemplation, Muhammad retreated to the Cave of Hira in the mountain Jabal al-Nour, near Mecca. It was during his time in the cave that he is said to have received the first revelation of the Quran from the angel Gabriel. The event of Muhammad's retreat to the cave and subsequent revelation is known as the "Night of Power" (Laylat al-Qadr) and is considered a significant event in Islamic history. During the next 22 years of his life, from age 40 onwards, Muhammad continued to receive revelations from God, becoming the last or seal of the prophets sent to mankind.
During this time, while in Mecca, Muhammad preached first in secret and then in public, imploring his listeners to abandon polytheism and worship one God. Many early converts to Islam were women, the poor, foreigners, and slaves like the first muezzin Bilal ibn Rabah al-Habashi. The Meccan elite felt Muhammad was destabilizing their social order by preaching about one God and giving questionable ideas to the poor and slaves because they profited from the pilgrimages to the idols of the Kaaba.
After 12 years of the persecution of Muslims by the Meccans, Muhammad and his companions performed the Hijra ("emigration") in 622 to the city of Yathrib (current-day Medina). There, with the Medinan converts (the Ansar) and the Meccan migrants (the Muhajirun), Muhammad in Medina established his political and religious authority. The Constitution of Medina was signed by all the tribes of Medina. This established religious freedoms and freedom to use their own laws among the Muslim and non-Muslim communities as well as an agreement to defend Medina from external threats. Meccan forces and their allies lost against the Muslims at the Battle of Badr in 624 and then fought an inconclusive battle in the Battle of Uhud before unsuccessfully besieging Medina in the Battle of the Trench (March–April 627). In 628, the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah was signed between Mecca and the Muslims, but it was broken by Mecca two years later. As more tribes converted to Islam, Meccan trade routes were cut off by the Muslims. By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless conquest of Mecca, and by the time of his death in 632 (at age 62) he had united the tribes of Arabia into a single religious polity.
Early Islamic period (632–750)
Further information: Succession to Muhammad and Early Muslim conquests See also: Event of Ghadir Khumm and SaqifaMuhammad died in 632 and the first successors, called Caliphs – Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman ibn al-Affan, Ali ibn Abi Talib and sometimes Hasan ibn Ali – are known in Sunni Islam as al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn ("Rightly Guided Caliphs"). Some tribes left Islam and rebelled under leaders who declared themselves new prophets but were crushed by Abu Bakr in the Ridda wars. Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and heretics and taxed heavily, often helped Muslims take over their lands, resulting in rapid expansion of the caliphate into the Persian and Byzantine empires. Uthman was elected in 644 and his assassination by rebels led to Ali being elected the next Caliph. In the First Civil War, Muhammad's widow, Aisha, raised an army against Ali, attempting to avenge the death of Uthman, but was defeated at the Battle of the Camel. Ali attempted to remove the governor of Syria, Mu'awiya, who was seen as corrupt. Mu'awiya then declared war on Ali and was defeated in the Battle of Siffin. Ali's decision to arbitrate angered the Kharijites, an extremist sect, who felt that by not fighting a sinner, Ali became a sinner as well. The Kharijites rebelled and were defeated in the Battle of Nahrawan but a Kharijite assassin later killed Ali. Ali's son, Hasan ibn Ali, was elected Caliph and signed a peace treaty to avoid further fighting, abdicating to Mu'awiya in return for Mu'awiya not appointing a successor. Mu'awiya began the Umayyad dynasty with the appointment of his son Yazid I as successor, sparking the Second Civil War. During the Battle of Karbala, Husayn ibn Ali was killed by Yazid's forces; the event has been annually commemorated by Shias ever since. Sunnis, led by Ibn al-Zubayr and opposed to a dynastic caliphate, were defeated in the siege of Mecca. These disputes over leadership would give rise to the Sunni-Shia schism, with the Shia believing leadership belongs to Muhammad's family through Ali, called the ahl al-bayt. Abu Bakr's leadership oversaw the beginning of the compilation of the Quran. The Caliph Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz set up the committee, The Seven Fuqaha of Medina, and Malik ibn Anas wrote one of the earliest books on Islamic jurisprudence, the Muwatta, as a consensus of the opinion of those jurists. The Kharijites believed there was no compromised middle ground between good and evil, and any Muslim who committed a grave sin would become an unbeliever. The term "kharijites" would also be used to refer to later groups such as ISIS. The Murji'ah taught that people's righteousness could be judged by God alone. Therefore, wrongdoers might be considered misguided, but not denounced as unbelievers. This attitude came to prevail into mainstream Islamic beliefs.
The Umayyad dynasty conquered the Maghreb, the Iberian Peninsula, Narbonnese Gaul and Sindh. The Umayyads struggled with a lack of legitimacy and relied on a heavily patronized military. Since the jizya tax was a tax paid by non-Muslims which exempted them from military service, the Umayyads denied recognizing the conversion of non-Arabs, as it reduced revenue. While the Rashidun Caliphate emphasized austerity, with Umar even requiring an inventory of each official's possessions, Umayyad luxury bred dissatisfaction among the pious. The Kharijites led the Berber Revolt, leading to the first Muslim states independent of the Caliphate. In the Abbasid Revolution, non-Arab converts (mawali), Arab clans pushed aside by the Umayyad clan, and some Shi'a rallied and overthrew the Umayyads, inaugurating the more cosmopolitan Abbasid dynasty in 750.
Classical era (750–1258)
Further information: Hadith studies and Islamic philosophy See also: Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe and Turco-Persian traditionAl-Shafi'i codified a method to determine the reliability of hadith. During the early Abbasid era, scholars such as Muhammad al-Bukhari and Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj compiled the major Sunni hadith collections while scholars like Al-Kulayni and Ibn Babawayh compiled major Shia hadith collections. The four Sunni Madh'habs, the Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki, and Shafi'i, were established around the teachings of Abū Ḥanīfa, Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Malik ibn Anas and al-Shafi'i. In contrast, the teachings of Ja'far al-Sadiq formed the Ja'fari jurisprudence. In the 9th century, Al-Tabari completed the first commentary of the Quran, the Tafsir al-Tabari, which became one of the most cited commentaries in Sunni Islam. Some Muslims began questioning the piety of indulgence in worldly life and emphasized poverty, humility, and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Ascetics such as Hasan al-Basri inspired a movement that would evolve into tasawwuf or Sufism.
At this time, theological problems, notably on free will, were prominently tackled, with Hasan al Basri holding that although God knows people's actions, good and evil come from abuse of free will and the devil. Greek rationalist philosophy influenced a speculative school of thought known as Muʿtazila, who famously advocated the notion of free-will originated by Wasil ibn Ata. Caliph Mamun al Rashid made it an official creed and unsuccessfully attempted to force this position on the majority. Caliph Al-Mu'tasim carried out inquisitions, with the traditionalist Ahmad ibn Hanbal notably refusing to conform to the Muʿtazila idea that the Quran was created rather than being eternal, which resulted in him being tortured and kept in an unlit prison cell for nearly thirty months. However, other schools of speculative theology – Māturīdism founded by Abu Mansur al-Maturidi and Ash'ari founded by Al-Ash'ari – were more successful in being widely adopted. Philosophers such as Al-Farabi, Avicenna and Averroes sought to harmonize Aristotle's ideas with the teachings of Islam, similar to later scholasticism within Christianity in Europe and Maimonides' work within Judaism, while others like Al-Ghazali argued against such syncretism and ultimately prevailed.
This era is sometimes called the "Islamic Golden Age". Islamic scientific achievements spanned a wide range of subject areas including medicine, mathematics, astronomy, and agriculture as well as physics, economics, engineering and optics. Avicenna was a pioneer in experimental medicine, and his The Canon of Medicine was used as a standard medicinal text in the Islamic world and Europe for centuries. Rhazes was the first to identify the diseases smallpox and measles. Public hospitals of the time issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors. Ibn al-Haytham is regarded as the father of the modern scientific method and often referred to as the "world's first true scientist", in particular regarding his work in optics. In engineering, the Banū Mūsā brothers' automatic flute player is considered to have been the first programmable machine. In mathematics, the concept of the algorithm is named after Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, who is considered a founder of algebra, which is named after his book al-jabr, while others developed the concept of a function. The government paid scientists the equivalent salary of professional athletes today. Guinness World Records recognizes the University of Al Karaouine, founded in 859, as the world's oldest degree-granting university. Many non-Muslims, such as Christians, Jews and Sabians, contributed to the Islamic civilization in various fields, and the institution known as the House of Wisdom employed Christian and Persian scholars to both translate works into Arabic and to develop new knowledge.
Soldiers broke away from the Abbasid empire and established their own dynasties, such as the Tulunids in 868 in Egypt and the Ghaznavid dynasty in 977 in Central Asia. In this fragmentation came the Shi'a Century, roughly between 945 and 1055, which saw the rise of the millennialist Isma'ili Shi'a missionary movement. One Isma'ili group, the Fatimid dynasty, took control of North Africa in the 10th century and another Isma'ili group, the Qarmatians, sacked Mecca and stole the Black Stone, a rock placed within the Kaaba, in their unsuccessful rebellion. Yet another Isma'ili group, the Buyid dynasty, conquered Baghdad and turned the Abbasids into a figurehead monarchy. The Sunni Seljuk dynasty campaigned to reassert Sunni Islam by promulgating the scholarly opinions of the time, notably with the construction of educational institutions known as Nezamiyeh, which are associated with Al-Ghazali and Saadi Shirazi.
The expansion of the Muslim world continued with religious missions converting Volga Bulgaria to Islam. The Delhi Sultanate reached deep into the Indian Subcontinent and many converted to Islam, in particular low-caste Hindus whose descendants make up the vast majority of Indian Muslims. Trade brought many Muslims to China, where they virtually dominated the import and export industry of the Song dynasty. Muslims were recruited as a governing minority class in the Yuan dynasty.
Pre-modern era (1258 – 18th century)
Further information: Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia IslamThrough Muslim trade networks and the activity of Sufi orders, Islam spread into new areas and Muslims assimilated into new cultures.
Under the Ottoman Empire, Islam spread to Southeast Europe. Conversion to Islam often involved a degree of syncretism, as illustrated by Muhammad's appearance in Hindu folklore. Muslim Turks incorporated elements of Turkish Shamanism beliefs to Islam. Muslims in Ming Dynasty China who were descended from earlier immigrants were assimilated, sometimes through laws mandating assimilation, by adopting Chinese names and culture while Nanjing became an important center of Islamic study.
Cultural shifts were evident with the decrease in Arab influence after the Mongol destruction of the Abbasid Caliphate. The Muslim Mongol Khanates in Iran and Central Asia benefited from increased cross-cultural access to East Asia under Mongol rule and thus flourished and developed more distinctively from Arab influence, such as the Timurid Renaissance under the Timurid dynasty. Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201–1274) proposed the mathematical model that was later argued to be adopted by Copernicus unrevised in his heliocentric model, and Jamshīd al-Kāshī's estimate of pi would not be surpassed for 180 years.
After the introduction of gunpowder weapons, large and centralized Muslim states consolidated around gunpowder empires, these had been previously splintered amongst various territories. The caliphate was claimed by the Ottoman dynasty of the Ottoman Empire and its claims were strengthened in 1517 as Selim I became the ruler of Mecca and Medina. The Shia Safavid dynasty rose to power in 1501 and later conquered all of Iran. In South Asia, Babur founded the Mughal Empire.
The religion of the centralized states of the gunpowder empires influenced the religious practice of their constituent populations. A symbiosis between Ottoman rulers and Sufism strongly influenced Islamic reign by the Ottomans from the beginning. The Mevlevi Order and Bektashi Order had a close relation to the sultans, as Sufi-mystical as well as heterodox and syncretic approaches to Islam flourished. The often forceful Safavid conversion of Iran to the Twelver Shia Islam of the Safavid Empire ensured the final dominance of the Twelver sect within Shia Islam. Persian migrants to South Asia, as influential bureaucrats and landholders, helped spread Shia Islam, forming some of the largest Shia populations outside Iran. Nader Shah, who overthrew the Safavids, attempted to improve relations with Sunnis by propagating the integration of Twelverism into Sunni Islam as a fifth madhhab, called Ja'farism, which failed to gain recognition from the Ottomans.
Modern era (18th–20th centuries)
Earlier in the 14th century, Ibn Taymiyya promoted a puritanical form of Islam, rejecting philosophical approaches in favor of simpler theology, and called to open the gates of itjihad rather than blind imitation of scholars. He called for a jihad against those he deemed heretics, but his writings only played a marginal role during his lifetime. During the 18th century in Arabia, Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, influenced by the works of Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn al-Qayyim, founded a movement called Wahhabi to return to what he saw as unadultered Islam. He condemned many local Islamic customs, such as visiting the grave of Muhammad or saints, as later innovations and sinful and destroyed sacred rocks and trees, Sufi shrines, the tombs of Muhammad and his companions and the tomb of Husayn at Karbala, a major Shia pilgrimage site. He formed an alliance with the Saud family, which, by the 1920s, completed their conquest of the area that would become Saudi Arabia. Ma Wanfu and Ma Debao promoted salafist movements in the 19th century such as Sailaifengye in China after returning from Mecca but were eventually persecuted and forced into hiding by Sufi groups. Other groups sought to reform Sufism rather than reject it, with the Senusiyya and Muhammad Ahmad both waging war and establishing states in Libya and Sudan respectively. In India, Shah Waliullah Dehlawi attempted a more conciliatory style against Sufism and influenced the Deobandi movement. In response to the Deobandi movement, the Barelwi movement was founded as a mass movement, defending popular Sufism and reforming its practices.
The Muslim world was generally in political decline starting the 1800s, especially compared to non-Muslim European powers. Earlier, in the 15th century, the Reconquista succeeded in ending the Muslim presence in Iberia. By the 19th century, the British East India Company had formally annexed the Mughal dynasty in India. As a response to Western Imperialism, many intellectuals sought to reform Islam. Islamic modernism, initially labelled by Western scholars as Salafiyya, embraced modern values and institutions such as democracy while being scripture oriented. Notable forerunners in the movement include Muhammad 'Abduh and Jamal al-Din al-Afghani. Abul A'la Maududi helped influence modern political Islam. Similar to contemporary codification, sharia was for the first time partially codified into law in 1869 in the Ottoman Empire's Mecelle code.
The Ottoman Empire dissolved after World War I, the Ottoman Caliphate was abolished in 1924 and the subsequent Sharifian Caliphate fell quickly, thus leaving Islam without a Caliph. Pan-Islamists attempted to unify Muslims and competed with growing nationalist forces, such as pan-Arabism. The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), consisting of Muslim-majority countries, was established in 1969 after the burning of the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.
Contact with industrialized nations brought Muslim populations to new areas through economic migration. Many Muslims migrated as indentured servants (mostly from India and Indonesia) to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas. Migration from Syria and Lebanon contributed to the Muslim population in Latin America. The resulting urbanization and increase in trade in sub-Saharan Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith, likely doubling its Muslim population between 1869 and 1914.
Contemporary era (20th century–present)
Forerunners of Islamic modernism influenced Islamist political movements such as the Muslim Brotherhood and related parties in the Arab world, which performed well in elections following the Arab Spring, Jamaat-e-Islami in South Asia and the AK Party, which has democratically been in power in Turkey for decades. In Iran, revolution replaced a secular monarchy with an Islamic state. Others such as Sayyid Rashid Rida broke away from Islamic modernists and pushed against embracing what he saw as Western influence. The group Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant would even attempt to recreate the modern gold dinar as their monetary system. While some of those who broke away were quietist, others believed in violence against those opposing them, even against other Muslims.
In opposition to Islamic political movements, in 20th century Turkey, the military carried out coups to oust Islamist governments, and headscarves were legally restricted, as also happened in Tunisia. In other places, religious authority was co-opted and is now often seen as puppets of the state. For example, in Saudi Arabia, the state monopolized religious scholarship and, in Egypt, the state nationalized Al-Azhar University, previously an independent voice checking state power. Salafism was funded in the Middle East for its quietism. Saudi Arabia campaigned against revolutionary Islamist movements in the Middle East, in opposition to Iran.
Muslim minorities of various ethnicities have been persecuted as a religious group. This has been undertaken by communist forces like the Khmer Rouge, who viewed them as their primary enemy to be exterminated since their religious practice made them stand out from the rest of the population, the Chinese Communist Party in Xinjiang and by nationalist forces such as during the Bosnian genocide. Myanmar military's Tatmadaw targeting of Rohingya Muslims has been labeled as a crime against humanity by the UN and Amnesty International, while the OHCHR Fact-Finding Mission identified genocide, ethnic cleansing, and other crimes against humanity.
The advancement of global communication has facilitated the widespread dissemination of religious knowledge. The adoption of the hijab has grown more common and some Muslim intellectuals are increasingly striving to separate scriptural Islamic beliefs from cultural traditions. Among other groups, this access to information has led to the rise of popular "televangelist" preachers, such as Amr Khaled, who compete with the traditional ulema in their reach and have decentralized religious authority. More "individualized" interpretations of Islam notably involve Liberal Muslims who attempt to align religious traditions with contemporary secular governance, an approach that has been criticized by some regarding its compatibility. Moreover, secularism is perceived as a foreign ideology imposed by invaders and perpetuated by post-colonial ruling elites, and is frequently understood to be equivalent to anti-religion.
Demographics
Main articles: Muslim world and Ummah See also: Islam by country and Muslim population growthAs of 2020, about 24% of the global population, or about 1.9 billion people, are Muslims. In 1900, this estimate was 12.3%, in 1990 it was 19.9% and projections suggest the proportion will be 29.7% by 2050. The Pew Research Center estimates that 87–90% of Muslims are Sunni and 10–13% are Shia. Approximately 49 countries are Muslim-majority, with 62% of the world's Muslims living in Asia, and 683 million adherents in Indonesia, Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh alone. Arab Muslims form the largest ethnic group among Muslims in the world, followed by Bengalis and Punjabis. Most estimates indicate China has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the population). Islam in Europe is the second-largest religion after Christianity in many countries, with growth rates due primarily to immigration and higher birth rates of Muslims in 2005, accounting for 4.9% of all of Europe's population in 2016.
Religious conversion has no net impact on the Muslim population growth as "the number of people who become Muslims through conversion seems to be roughly equal to the number of Muslims who leave the faith." Although, Islam is expected to experience a modest gain of 3 million through religious conversion between 2010 and 2050, mostly from Sub Saharan Africa (2.9 million).
According to a report by CNN, "Islam has drawn converts from all walks of life, most notably African-Americans". In Britain, around 6,000 people convert to Islam per year and, according to an article in the British Muslims Monthly Survey, the majority of new Muslim converts in Britain were women. According to The Huffington Post, "observers estimate that as many as 20,000 Americans convert to Islam annually", most of them being women and African-Americans.
By both percentage and total numbers, Islam is the world's fastest growing major religious group, and is projected to be the world's largest by the end of the 21st century, surpassing that of Christianity. It is estimated that, by 2050, the number of Muslims will nearly equal the number of Christians around the world, "due to the young age and high fertility rate of Muslims relative to other religious groups."
Main branches or denominations
Main article: Islamic schools and branches § Main branches or denominationsSee also: Shia–Sunni relationsSunni
Main article: Sunni IslamSunni Islam, or Sunnism, is the name for the largest denomination in Islam. The term is a contraction of the phrase "ahl as-sunna wa'l-jamaat", which means "people of the sunna (the traditions of Muhammad) and the community". Sunni Islam is sometimes referred to as "orthodox Islam", though some scholars view this as inappropriate, and many non-Sunnis may find this offensive. Sunnis, or sometimes Sunnites, believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad and primarily reference six major hadith works for legal matters, while following one of the four traditional schools of jurisprudence: Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki or Shafi'i.
Traditionalist theology is a Sunni school of thought, prominently advocated by Ahmad ibn Hanbal (780–855 CE), that is characterized by its adherence to a textualist understanding of the Quran and the sunnah, the belief that the Quran is uncreated and eternal, and opposition to speculative theology, called kalam, in religious and ethical matters. Mu'tazilism is a Sunni school of thought inspired by Ancient Greek Philosophy. Maturidism, founded by Abu Mansur al-Maturidi (853–944 CE), asserts that scripture is not needed for basic ethics and that good and evil can be understood by reason alone, but people rely on revelation, for matters beyond human's comprehension. Ash'arism, founded by Al-Ashʿarī (c. 874–936), holds that ethics can derive just from divine revelation but accepts reason regarding exegetical matters and combines Muʿtazila approaches with traditionalist ideas.
Salafism is a revival movement advocating the return to the practices of the earliest generations of Muslims. In the 18th century, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab led a Salafi movement, referred by outsiders as Wahhabism, in modern-day Saudi Arabia. A similar movement called Ahl al-Hadith also de-emphasized the centuries' old Sunni legal tradition, preferring to directly follow the Quran and Hadith. The Nurcu Sunni movement was by Said Nursi (1877–1960); it incorporates elements of Sufism and science.
Shia
Main article: Shia IslamShia Islam, or Shi'ism, is the second-largest Muslim denomination. Shias, or Shiites, maintain that Muhammad's successor as leader, must be from certain descendants of Muhammad's family known as the Ahl al-Bayt and those leaders, referred to as Imams, have additional spiritual authority. Shias are guided by the Ja'fari school of jurisprudence.
According to both Sunni and Shia Muslims, a significant event took place at Ghadir Khumm during Muhammad's return from his final pilgrimage to Mecca, where he stopped thousands of Muslims in the midday heat. Muhammad appointed his cousin Ali as the executor of his last will and testament, as well as his Wali (authority). Shias recognize that Muhammad designated Ali as his successor (khalīfa) and Imam (spiritual and political leader) after him, but was prevented from succeeding Muhammad as the leader of the Muslims because of some other companions who selected Abū Bakr as caliph. Sunnis, instead believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor before his death and consider Abū Bakr to be the first rightful caliph after Muhammad. Shias state the community deliberately ignored Ali's nomination, citing Umar's appointment by Abu Bakr, other historical evidence, and the Qur'an's stance that majority does not imply legitimacy.
Some of the first Shia Imams are revered by all Shia and Sunnis Muslims, such as Ali and Husayn. Twelvers, the largest Shia branch and most influential, believe in Twelve Imams, the last of whom went into occultation to return one day. They recognize that the prophecy of the Twelve Imams has been foretold in the Hadith of the Twelve Successors which is recorded by both Sunni and Shia sources. Zaidism rejects special powers of Imams and are sometimes considered a 'fifth school' of Sunni Islam rather than a Shia denomination. They differed with other Shias over the status of the fifth imam and are sometimes known as "Fivers". The Isma'ilis split with the Twelvers over who was the seventh Imam and have further fragmented into more groups over the status of successive Imams, with the largest group being the Nizaris.
For Shias, the Imam Ali Shrine in Najaf, the Imam Husayn Shrine in Karbala, and the Fatima Masumeh Shrine in Qom are also among the Islamic Holy sites.
Imam Ali Shrine in Najaf, the third holiest place for Shia Muslims after Mecca and Medina.Imam Hussein Shrine in Karbala, a holy site for Shia Muslims.Imam Reza shrine, the world's largest mosque, in Mashhad, Iran. 25 million Shias visiting the shrine each year.Muhakkima
Main articles: Muhakkima, Ibadi Islam, and KharijitesIbadi Islam or Ibadism is practised by 1.45 million Muslims around the world (~0.08% of all Muslims), most of them in Oman. Ibadism is often associated with and viewed as a moderate variation of the kharijites, though Ibadis themselves object to this classification. The kharijites were groups that rebelled against Caliph Ali for his acceptance of arbitration with someone they viewed as a sinner. Unlike most kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers. Ibadi hadiths, such as the Jami Sahih collection, use chains of narrators from early Islamic history they consider trustworthy, but most Ibadi hadiths are also found in standard Sunni collections and contemporary Ibadis often approve of the standard Sunni collections.
Other denominations
- The Ahmadiyya Movement was founded in British India in 1889 by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadian, who claimed to be the promised Messiah ("Second Coming of Christ"), the Mahdi awaited by the Muslims as well as a "subordinate" prophet to the Islamic prophet Muhammad. There are a wide variety of distinct beliefs and teachings of Ahmadis compared to those of most other Muslims, which include the interpretation of the Quranic title Khatam an-Nabiyyin and interpretation of the Messiah's Second Coming. These perceived deviations from normative Islamic thought have resulted in rejection by most Muslims as heretics and persecution of Ahmadis in various countries, particularly Pakistan, where they have been officially declared as non-Muslims by the Government of Pakistan. The followers of the Ahmadiyya Movement in Islam are divided into two groups: the first being the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, currently the dominant group, and the Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement for the Propagation of Islam.
- Alevism is a syncretic and heterodox local Islamic tradition, whose adherents follow the mystical (bāṭenī) teachings of Ali and Haji Bektash Veli. Alevism is a blend of traditional 14th century Turkish beliefs, with possible syncretist origins in Shamanism and Animism, alongside Shia and Sufi beliefs. It has been estimated that there are 10 million to over 20 million (~0.5–1% of all Muslims) Alevis worldwide.
- Quranism is a religious movement of Islam based on the belief that Islamic law and guidance should only be based on the Quran and not the sunnah or Hadith, with Quranists notably differing in their approach to the five pillars of Islam. The movement developed from the 19th century onwards, with thinkers like Syed Ahmad Khan, Abdullah Chakralawi and Ghulam Ahmed Perwez in India questioning the hadith tradition. In Egypt, Muhammad Tawfiq Sidqi penned the article Islam is the Quran alone in the magazine Al-Manār, arguing for the sole authority of the Quran. A prominent late 20th century Quranist was Rashad Khalifa, an Egyptian-American biochemist who claimed to have discovered a numerological code in the Quran, and founded the Quranist organization United Submitters International.
Non-denominational Muslims
Main article: Non-denominational MuslimNon-denominational Muslims is an umbrella term that has been used for and by Muslims who do not belong to or do not self-identify with a specific Islamic denomination. Recent surveys report that large proportions of Muslims in some parts of the world self-identify as "just Muslim", although there is little published analysis available regarding the motivations underlying this response. The Pew Research Center reports that respondents self-identifying as "just Muslim" make up a majority of Muslims in seven countries (and a plurality in three others), with the highest proportion in Kazakhstan at 74%. At least one in five Muslims in at least 22 countries self-identifies in this way.
Mysticism
Main article: Sufism See also: Sufi–Salafi relationsSufism (Arabic: تصوف, tasawwuf), is a mystical-ascetic approach to Islam that seeks to find a direct personal experience of God. Classical Sufi scholars defined tasawwuf as "a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God", through "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use. Ahmad ibn Ajiba defined tasawwuf as "a return to the tradition, and its beginning is knowledge, its middle is action , and its end is a gift ." It is not a sect of Islam, and its adherents belong to the various Muslim denominations. Isma'ilism, whose teachings are rooted in Gnosticism and Neoplatonism as well as by the Illuminationist and Isfahan schools of Islamic philosophy, has developed mystical interpretations of Islam. Hasan al-Basri, the early Sufi ascetic often portrayed as one of the earliest Sufis, emphasized fear of failing God's expectations of obedience. In contrast, later prominent Sufis, such as Mansur Al-Hallaj and Jalaluddin Rumi, emphasized religiosity based on love towards God. Such devotion would also have an impact on the arts, with Rumi still one of the bestselling poets in America.
Sufis see tasawwuf as an inseparable part of Islam. Traditional Sufis, such as Bayazid Bastami, Jalaluddin Rumi, Haji Bektash Veli, Junaid Baghdadi, and Al-Ghazali, argued for Sufism as being based upon the tenets of Islam and the teachings of the prophet. Historian Nile Green argued that Islam in the Medieval period was more or less Sufism. Followers of the Sunni revivalist movement known as Salafism have viewed popular devotional practices, such as the veneration of Sufi saints, as innovations from the original religion. Salafists have sometimes physically attacked Sufis, leading to a deterioration in Sufi–Salafi relations.
Sufi congregations form orders (tariqa) centered around a teacher (wali) who traces a spiritual chain back to Muhammad. Sufis played an important role in the formation of Muslim societies through their missionary and educational activities. The Sufism-influenced Ahle Sunnat movement or Barelvi movement claims over 200 million followers in South Asia. Sufism is prominent in Central Asia, as well as in African countries like Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Senegal, Chad and Niger.
Law and jurisprudence
Main articles: Sharia and Fiqh See also: Logic in Islamic philosophy § Islamic law and theologyShariah is the body of Islamic religious law. The desire to delineate and discover laws in a comprehensive and consistent method led to the development of the theory of law, called fiqh. Conversely, bid'ah is used to refer to unlawful innovations in matters of religion. Differing methodologies, called principles of fiqh or Usul al-fiqh, have developed and a school of jurisprudence arising around a methodology is known as a madhhab (Arabic: مذهب). The conformity in following of decisions by a religious expert or school is called taqlid. The term ghair muqallid refers to those who do not use taqlid and, by extension, do not have a madhab. The practice of an individual interpreting law with independent reasoning is called ijtihad. Those who interpret shariah are known as muftis and their legal opinions are called fatwas.
The primary sources of Shariah are the Quran and Sunnah. A common third source is qiyas (analogical reasoning) which is used for legal questions not dealt with literally in the Qur’ān or Sunnah. Parallels would be searched for to find the ‘’illah’’, or effective cause, which is the reason behind the existing ruling. For example, from the specific prohibition of wine is deduced a broad prohibition on alcohol as they share the operative cause identified as the mind-altering nature of all alcoholic drinks. The Zahiri school adheres to strict literalism and thus rejects qiyas. Consensus of opinion is ijma, while ikhtilaf refers to scholarly disagreement. Rulings assign actions to one of five categories called ahkam: mandatory (fard), recommended (mustahabb), permitted (mubah), abhorred (makruh), and prohibited (haram).
In the modern era, sharia-based criminal laws were widely replaced by statutes inspired by European models. The Ottoman Empire's 19th century Tanzimat reforms led to the Mecelle civil code and represented the first attempt to codify sharia. While the constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references to sharia, its classical rules were largely retained only in personal status (family) laws. Legislative bodies which codified these laws sought to modernize them without abandoning their foundations in traditional jurisprudence. The Islamic revival of the late 20th century brought along calls by Islamist movements for complete implementation of sharia. The role of sharia has become a contested topic around the world. There are ongoing debates as to whether sharia is compatible with secular forms of government, human rights, freedom of thought, and women's rights.
Society
Religious personages
Main article: UlamaIslam has no clergy in the sacerdotal sense, such as priests who mediate between God and people. Imam (إمام) is the religious title used to refer to an Islamic leadership position, often in the context of conducting an Islamic worship service. Religious interpretation is presided over by the 'ulama (Arabic: علماء), a term used describe the body of Muslim scholars who have received training in Islamic studies. A scholar of the hadith is called a muhaddith, a scholar of jurisprudence is called a faqih (فقيه), a jurist who is qualified to issue legal opinions or fatwas is called a mufti, and a qadi is an Islamic judge. Honorific titles given to scholars include sheikh, mullah and mawlawi. Some Muslims also venerate saints associated with miracles (كرامات, karāmāt).
Governance
See also: Political aspects of Islam, Islamic economics, Islamic military jurisprudence, tasamuh, and JihadIn Islamic economic jurisprudence, hoarding of wealth is reviled and thus monopolistic behavior is frowned upon. Attempts to comply with sharia has led to the development of Islamic banking. Islam prohibits riba, usually translated as usury, which refers to any unfair gain in trade and is most commonly used to mean interest. Instead, Islamic banks go into partnership with the borrower, and both share from the profits and any losses from the venture. Another feature is the avoidance of uncertainty, which is seen as gambling and Islamic banks traditionally avoid derivative instruments such as futures or options which has historically protected them from market downturns. The Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphate used to be involved in distribution of charity from the treasury, known as Bayt al-mal, before it became a largely individual pursuit around the year 720. The first Caliph, Abu Bakr, distributed zakat as one of the first examples of a guaranteed minimum income, with each citizen getting 10 to 20 dirhams annually. During the reign of the second Caliph Umar, child support was introduced and the old and disabled were entitled to stipends, while the Umayyad Caliph Umar II assigned a servant for each blind person and for every two chronically ill persons.
Jihad means "to strive or struggle " and, in its broadest sense, is "exerting one's utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of disapprobation". Shias in particular emphasize the "greater jihad" of striving to attain spiritual self-perfection while the "lesser jihad" is defined as warfare. When used without a qualifier, jihad is often understood in its military form. Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against illegal works, terrorists, criminal groups, rebels, apostates, and leaders or states who oppress Muslims. Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare. Jihad only becomes an individual duty for those vested with authority. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a general mobilization. For most Twelver Shias, offensive jihad can only be declared by a divinely appointed leader of the Muslim community, and as such, is suspended since Muhammad al-Mahdi's occultation in 868 CE.
Daily and family life
See also: Adab (Islam), Islamic dietary laws, Islam and children, Marriage in Islam, Women in Islam, and Polygyny in IslamMany daily practices fall in the category of adab, or etiquette. Specific prohibited foods include pork products, blood and carrion. Health is viewed as a trust from God and intoxicants, such as alcoholic drinks, are prohibited. All meat must come from a herbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, except for game that one has hunted or fished for oneself. Beards are often encouraged among men as something natural and body modifications, such as permanent tattoos, are usually forbidden as violating the creation. Silk and gold are prohibited for men in Islam to maintain a state of sobriety. Haya, often translated as "shame" or "modesty", is sometimes described as the innate character of Islam and informs much of Muslim daily life. For example, clothing in Islam emphasizes a standard of modesty, which has included the hijab for women. Similarly, personal hygiene is encouraged with certain requirements.
In Islamic marriage, the groom is required to pay a bridal gift (mahr). Most families in the Islamic world are monogamous. Muslim men are allowed to practice polygyny and can have up to four wives simultaneously. Islamic teachings strongly advise that if a man cannot ensure equal financial and emotional support for each of his wives, it is recommended that he marry just one woman. One reason cited for polygyny is that it allows a man to give financial protection to multiple women, who might otherwise not have any support (e.g. widows). However, the first wife can set a condition in the marriage contract that the husband cannot marry another woman during their marriage. There are also cultural variations in weddings. Polyandry, a practice wherein a woman takes on two or more husbands, is prohibited in Islam.
After the birth of a child, the adhan is pronounced in the right ear. On the seventh day, the aqiqah ceremony is performed, in which an animal is sacrificed and its meat is distributed among the poor. The child's head is shaved, and an amount of money equaling the weight of its hair is donated to the poor. Male circumcision, called khitan, is often practised in the Muslim world. Respecting and obeying one's parents, and taking care of them especially in their old age is a religious obligation.
A dying Muslim is encouraged to pronounce the Shahada as their last words. Paying respects to the dead and attending funerals in the community are considered among the virtuous acts. In Islamic burial rituals, burial is encouraged as soon as possible, usually within 24 hours. The body is washed, except for martyrs, by members of the same gender and enshrouded in a garment that must not be elaborate called kafan. A "funeral prayer" called Salat al-Janazah is performed. Wailing, or loud, mournful outcrying, is discouraged. Coffins are often not preferred and graves are often unmarked, even for kings.
Arts and culture
Main article: Islamic culture See also: Islamic art, Islamic architecture, Islamic literature, Islam in association football, and Cultural MuslimsThe term "Islamic culture" can be used to mean aspects of culture that pertain to the religion, such as festivals and dress code. It is also controversially used to denote the cultural aspects of traditionally Muslim people. Finally, "Islamic civilization" may also refer to the aspects of the synthesized culture of the early Caliphates, including that of non-Muslims, sometimes referred to as "Islamicate".
Islamic art encompasses the visual arts including fields as varied as architecture, calligraphy, painting, and ceramics, among others. While the making of images of animate beings has often been frowned upon in connection with laws against idolatry, this rule has been interpreted in different ways by different scholars and in different historical periods. This stricture has been used to explain the prevalence of calligraphy, tessellation, and pattern as key aspects of Islamic artistic culture. Additionally, the depiction of Muhammad is a contentious issue among Muslims. In Islamic architecture, varying cultures show influence such as North African and Spanish Islamic architecture such as the Great Mosque of Kairouan containing marble and porphyry columns from Roman and Byzantine buildings, while mosques in Indonesia often have multi-tiered roofs from local Javanese styles.
The Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar that begins with the Hijra of 622 CE, a date that was reportedly chosen by Caliph Umar as it was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes. Islamic holy days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, meaning they occur in different seasons in different years in the Gregorian calendar. The most important Islamic festivals are Eid al-Fitr (Arabic: عيد الفطر) on the 1st of Shawwal, marking the end of the fasting month Ramadan, and Eid al-Adha (عيد الأضحى) on the 10th of Dhu al-Hijjah, coinciding with the end of the Hajj (pilgrimage).
Cultural Muslims are religiously non-practicing individuals who still identify with Islam due to family backgrounds, personal experiences, or the social and cultural environment in which they grew up.
- 14th century Sixty Dome Mosque, in Khalifatabad, Bangladesh
- Great Mosque of Djenné, in the west African country of Mali
- Dome in Po-i-Kalyan, Bukhara, Uzbekistan
- 14th century Great Mosque of Xi'an in China
- 16th century Menara Kudus Mosque in Indonesia showing Indian influence
- The phrase Bismillah in an 18th-century Islamic calligraphy from the Ottoman region
- Geometric arabesque tiling on the underside of the dome of Hafiz Shirazi's tomb in Shiraz, Iran
Influences on other religions
See also: Islam and DruzeSome movements, such as the Druze, Berghouata and Ha-Mim, either emerged from Islam or came to share certain beliefs with Islam, and whether each is a separate religion or a sect of Islam is sometimes controversial. The Druze faith further split from Isma'ilism as it developed its own unique doctrines, and finally separated from both Ismāʿīlīsm and Islam altogether; these include the belief that the Imam Al-Ḥākim bi-Amr Allāh was God incarnate. Yazdânism is seen as a blend of local Kurdish beliefs and Islamic Sufi doctrine introduced to Kurdistan by Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir in the 12th century. Bábism stems from Twelver Shia passed through Siyyid 'Ali Muhammad i-Shirazi al-Bab while one of his followers Mirza Husayn 'Ali Nuri Baha'u'llah founded the Baháʼí Faith. Sikhism, founded by Guru Nanak in late 15th century Punjab, primarily incorporates aspects of Hinduism, with some Islamic influences.
Criticism
Main article: Criticism of Islam See also: Criticism of Muhammad and Criticism of the QuranCriticism of Islam has existed since its formative stages. Early criticism came from Jewish authors, such as Ibn Kammuna, and Christian authors, many of whom viewed Islam as a Christian heresy or a form of idolatry, often explaining it in apocalyptic terms.
Christian writers criticized Islam's sensual descriptions of paradise. Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari defended the Quranic description of paradise by asserting that the Bible also implies such ideas, such as drinking wine in the Gospel of Matthew. Catholic theologian Augustine of Hippo's doctrines led to the broad repudiation of bodily pleasure in both life and the afterlife.
Defamatory images of Muhammad, derived from early 7th-century depictions of the Byzantine Church, appear in the 14th-century epic poem Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri. Here, Muhammad is depicted in the eighth circle of hell, along with Ali. Dante does not blame Islam as a whole but accuses Muhammad of schism, by establishing another religion after Christianity.
Other criticisms center on the treatment of individuals within modern Muslim-majority countries, including issues related to human rights, particularly in relation to the application of Islamic law. Furthermore, in the wake of the recent multiculturalism trend, Islam's influence on the ability of Muslim immigrants in the West to assimilate has been criticized.
See also
- Glossary of Islam
- Index of Islam-related articles
- List of scientists in medieval Islamic world
- Islamic mythology
- Islamic studies
- Major religious groups
- Outline of Islam
References
Footnotes
- /ˈɪzlɑːm, ˈɪzlæm/ IZ-la(h)m; Arabic: ٱلْإِسْلَام, romanized: al-Islām, IPA: [alʔɪsˈlaːm], lit. 'submission '
- "Hasan al Basri is often considered one of the first who rejected an angelic origin for the devil, arguing that his fall was the result of his own free-will, not God's determination. Hasan al Basri also argued that angels are incapable of sin or errors and nobler than humans and even prophets. Both early Shias and Sunnis opposed his view.
- "In recent years, the idea of syncretism has been challenged. Given the lack of authority to define or enforce an Orthodox doctrine about Islam, some scholars argue there had no prescribed beliefs, only prescribed practise, in Islam before the 16th century.
- Some Muslims in dynastic era China resisted footbinding of girls for the same reason.
Quran and hadith
Citations
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For Shiʿi Muslims, Muhammad not only designated Ali as his friend, but appointed him as his successor—as the "lord" or "master" of the new Muslim community. Ali and his descendants would become known as the Imams, divinely guided leaders of the Shiʿi communities, sinless, and granted special insight into the Qurʾanic text. The theology of the Imams that developed over the next several centuries made little distinction between the authority of the Imams to politically lead the Muslim community and their spiritual prowess; quite to the contrary, their right to political leadership was grounded in their special spiritual insight. While in theory, the only just ruler of the Muslim community was the Imam, the Imams were politically marginal after the first generation. In practice, Shiʿi Muslims negotiated varied approaches to both interpretative authority over Islamic texts and governance of the community, both during the lifetimes of the Imams themselves and even more so following the disappearance of the twelfth and final Imam in the ninth century.
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For Shiʿi Muslims, Muhammad not only designated Ali as his friend, but appointed him as his successor—as the "lord" or "master" of the new Muslim community. Ali and his descendants would become known as the Imams, divinely guided leaders of the Shiʿi communities, sinless, and granted special insight into the Qurʾanic text. The theology of the Imams that developed over the next several centuries made little distinction between the authority of the Imams to politically lead the Muslim community and their spiritual prowess; quite to the contrary, their right to political leadership was grounded in their special spiritual insight. While in theory, the only just ruler of the Muslim community was the Imam, the Imams were politically marginal after the first generation. In practice, Shiʿi Muslims negotiated varied approaches to both interpretative authority over Islamic texts and governance of the community, both during the lifetimes of the Imams themselves and even more so following the disappearance of the twelfth and final Imam in the ninth century.
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our sixth imam, Imam Sadeg, says that we have five definitive holy places... first is Mecca... second is Medina... third belongs to our first imam of Shia, Ali, which is in Najaf. The fourth belongs to our third imam, Hussein, in Kerbala. The last one belongs to the daughter of our seventh imam and sister of our eighth imam, who is called Fatemah, and will be buried in Qom.
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Druze – An offshoot of Shi'ism; its members are not considered Muslims by orthodox Muslims.
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{{cite encyclopedia}}
: CS1 maint: year (link) - Martin, Richard C., ed. (2004). Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. Macmillan Reference Books. Thomson-Gale. ISBN 978-0-02-865603-8.
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{{cite encyclopedia}}
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Further reading
- Encyclopedia of Sahih Al-Bukhari by Arabic Virtual Translation Center (New York 2019, Barnes & Noble ISBN 978-0-359-67265-3). The foundation of Islam: from revelation to tawhid.
- Abdul-Haqq, Abdiyah Akbar (1980). Sharing Your Faith with a Muslim. Minneapolis: Bethany House Publishers. N.B. Presents the genuine doctrines and concepts of Islam and of the Holy Qur'an, and this religion's affinities with Christianity and its Sacred Scriptures, in order to "dialogue" on the basis of what both faiths really teach. ISBN 0-87123-553-6
- Ahmad, Imad-ad-Dean (2008). "Islam". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; Cato Institute. pp. 256–258. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n155. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024.
- Akyol, Mustafa (2011). Islam Without Extremes (1st ed.). W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-07086-6.
- Arberry, A.J. (1996). The Koran Interpreted: A Translation (1st ed.). Touchstone. ISBN 978-0-684-82507-6.
- Cragg, Kenneth (1975). The House of Islam, in The Religious Life of Man Series. Second ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company 1975. xiii, 145 p. ISBN 0-8221-0139-4.
- Hourani, Albert (1991). Islam in European Thought. First pbk. ed. Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1992, cop. 1991. xi, 199 p. ISBN 0-521-42120-9; alternative ISBN on back cover, 0-521-42120-0.
- Khan, Muhammad Muhsin; Al-Hilali Khan; Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din (1999). Noble Quran (1st ed.). Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-9960-740-79-9.
- Khanbaghi, A, (2006). The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early Modern Iran. I. B. Tauris.
- Khavari, Farid A. (1990). Oil and Islam: the Ticking Bomb. First ed. Malibu, Calif.: Roundtable Publications. viii, 277 p., ill. with maps and charts. ISBN 0-915677-55-5.
- Kramer, Martin, ed. (1999). The Jewish Discovery of Islam: Studies in Honor of Bernard Lewis. Syracuse University Press. ISBN 978-965-224-040-8.
- Kuban, Dogan (1974). Muslim Religious Architecture. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-03813-4.
- Lewis, Bernard (1994). Islam and the West. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509061-1.
- Lewis, Bernard (1996). Cultures in Conflict: Christians, Muslims, and Jews in the Age of Discovery. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-510283-3.
- Mubarkpuri, Saifur-Rahman (2002). The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Prophet. Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-1-59144-071-0.
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- Tausch, Arno; Heshmati, Almas; Karoui, Hichem (2015). The political algebra of global value change. General models and implications for the Muslim world (1st ed.). New York: Nova Science Publishers. ISBN 978-1-62948-899-8. Prepublication text available at: Tausch, Arno; Heshmati, Almas; Karoui, Hichem (January 2014). "The political algebra of global value change. General models and implications for the Muslim world". ResearchGate.
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