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{{Short description|Abrahamic monotheistic religion}}
{{other uses}}
{{About|the religion||Islam (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-semi|small=yes}}
{{pp-move-indef}} {{good article}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{Islam|expanded=all}}
{{pp-move}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2022}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=May 2022}}
{{Infobox religion
| native_name = {{lang|ar|{{Script|Arab|ٱلْإِسْلَام}}}}<br/>{{transliteration|ar|al-Islām}}
| image = The Kaaba during Hajj.jpg
| imagewidth = 275px
| caption = The ] at ] in ], Saudi Arabia, the ]
| type =
| main_classification = ]
| scripture = ]
| theology = ]
| area = ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Center |first=Pew Research |date=2013-04-30 |title=The World's Muslims: Religion, Politics and Society |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2013/04/30/the-worlds-muslims-religion-politics-society-overview/ |access-date=2024-03-20 |website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project |language=en-US |archive-date=25 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231025124036/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2013/04/30/the-worlds-muslims-religion-politics-society-overview/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://spice.fsi.stanford.edu/docs/the_spread_of_islam_in_west_africa_containment_mixing_and_reform_from_the_eighth_to_the_twentieth_century#:~:text=While%20the%20motivations%20of%20early,intensified%20the%20Trans%2DSaharan%20trade | title=The Spread of Islam in West Africa: Containment, Mixing, and Reform from }}</ref>
| language = ]
| territory = ]
| separated_from = ]
| founder = ]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Welch |first1=Alford T. |last2=Moussalli |first2=Ahmad S. |last3=Newby |first3=Gordon D. |date=2009 |title=Muḥammad |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World |editor=John L. Esposito |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0550 |quote= |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211050118/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0550 |archive-date=11 February 2017 }}</ref>
| founded_date = 610 CE
| founded_place = ]<!-- Beginnings are understood to be where Muhammad is said to have received his first ever revelation, which was inside a cave in this mountain -->, ], ], ]
| number_of_followers = {{circa}} ]<ref name="pewresearch.orgReligion">{{Cite web |title=Religious Composition by Country, 2010-2050 |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/interactives/religious-composition-by-country-2010-2050/ |access-date=2024-03-09 |website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project |date=21 December 2022 |language=en-US |archive-date=28 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230128120036/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/interactives/religious-composition-by-country-2010-2050/ |url-status=live }}</ref> {{increase}} (individually referred to as ], collectively referred to as the {{transliteration|ar|]}})
| separations = ]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islam |year=1999 |article=Bāb |publisher=Koninklijke Brill NV |location=Leiden, The Netherlands |first=A. |last=Bausani}}</ref><br />]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Van der Vyer |first=J.D. |year=1996 |title=Religious human rights in global perspective: religious perspectives |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers |isbn=90-411-0176-4 |page=449|url=https://archive.org/details/religioushumanri0000unse |url-access=registration}}</ref><br />]<ref>{{cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of American Islam| first=Yvonne |last=Yazbeck Haddad|year=2014| isbn=9780199862634|page = 142|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>
}}
{{Islam|expanded=}}{{Islam and iman}}
'''Islam'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɪ|z|l|ɑː|m|,_|ˈ|ɪ|z|l|æ|m}} {{respell|IZ|la(h)m}};<ref>{{cite web |title=English pronunciation of Islam |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/pronunciation/english/islam |website=Cambridge Dictionary |access-date=19 Dec 2023 |archive-date=22 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122222922/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/pronunciation/english/islam |url-status=live }}</ref> {{langx|ar|{{Script|Arab|ٱلْإِسْلَام|al-Islām}}}}, {{small|romanized:}} ''al-Islām'', {{IPA|ar|alʔɪsˈlaːm|IPA}}, {{lit|submission ]]}}}} is an ] ] centered on the ] and the teachings of ],<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-04-10 |title=Muhammad: Biography, Prophet, Founder of Islam |url=https://www.biography.com/religious-figures/muhammad |access-date=2024-11-29 |website=Biography |language=en-US}}</ref> the religion's founder. Adherents of Islam are called ], who are estimated to number approximately ] and are the world's ] after ].<ref name="www.pewresearch.org-2022">{{Cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/topic/religion/religious-demographics/pew-templeton-global-religious-futures-project/|title=Pew-Templeton Global Religious Futures Project - Research and data from Pew Research Center|date=21 December 2022 |access-date=27 November 2023|archive-date=5 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205195540/https://www.pewresearch.org/topic/religion/religious-demographics/pew-templeton-global-religious-futures-project/|url-status=live}}</ref>


Muslims believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a ] that was revealed many times through earlier ], including ], ], ], ], and ]. Muslims consider the Quran to be the verbatim word of ] and the unaltered, final revelation. Alongside the Quran, Muslims also believe in previous ]s, such as the ] (the ]), the ] (]), and the ] (]). They believe that ] is the main and ], through whom the religion was completed. The teachings and normative examples of Muhammad, called the ], documented in accounts called the ], provide a constitutional model for Muslims. Islam is based on the belief in oneness and uniqueness of the God ('']''), and belief in an afterlife ('']'') with the ]—wherein the righteous will be rewarded in paradise ({{Transliteration|ar|]}}) and the unrighteous will be punished in hell ({{Transliteration|ar|]}}). The ]—considered ] acts of worship—are the Islamic oath and creed ({{Transliteration|ar|]}}), daily prayers ({{Transliteration|ar|]}}), almsgiving ({{Transliteration|ar|]}}), fasting ({{Transliteration|ar|]}}) in the month of ], and a pilgrimage ({{Transliteration|ar|]}}) to ]. Islamic law, '']'', touches on virtually every aspect of life, from ] and ] to ] and ] and the ]. The two main ] are ] and ]. The three ] are ] in Mecca, ] in ], and ] in ].
], in ], ] region, today's ], is the ]. ]s from all over the world gather there to ] in unity.]]
'''Islam''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɪ|s|l|ɑː|m}};<ref group=note>There are ten pronunciations of ''Islam'' in English, differing in whether the first or second syllable has the stress, whether the ''s'' is {{IPAslink|z}} or {{IPAslink|s}}, and whether the ''a'' is pronounced {{IPAslink|ɑː}}, {{IPAslink|æ}} or (when the stress is on the first syllable) {{IPAslink|ə}} (Merriam Webster). The most common are {{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɪ|z|l|əm|,|_|ˈ|ɪ|s|l|əm|,|_|ɪ|z|ˈ|l|ɑː|m|,|_|ɪ|s|ˈ|l|ɑː|m}} (Oxford English Dictionary, Random House) and {{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɪ|z|l|ɑː|m|,|_|ˈ|ɪ|s|l|ɑː|m}} (American Heritage Dictionary).</ref> {{lang-ar|الإسلام}}, ''{{transl|ar|ALA|al-ʾIslām}}'' {{IPA-ar|alʔisˈlaːm|IPA|ar-al_islam.ogg}}<ref group=note>{{IPA|/ʔiˈslaːm/}}: Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first ] ranges from {{IPAblink|i}}~{{IPAblink|ɪ}}~{{IPAblink|e}}. The second vowel ranges from {{IPAblink|æ}}~{{IPAblink|a}}~{{IPAblink|ɑ}}~{{IPAblink|ɛ}}. In Northwestern Africa, they do not have ] or lengthened vowels.</ref>) is a ] and ] articulated by the ], a ] considered by its adherents to be the ] word of ] (''{{transl|ar|ALA|Allāh}}''), and, for the vast majority of adherents, by the teachings and normative example (called the '']'', composed of accounts called '']'') of ] (] 570–8 June 632 CE), considered by most of them to be the ] ]. An adherent of Islam is called a ] (sometimes spelled "Moslem").<ref>thefreedictionary.com: ""</ref>


The religion of Islam originated in Mecca in 610 ]. Muslims believe this is when ]. By the time of his death, most of the ] had ]. Muslim rule expanded outside Arabia under the ] and the subsequent ] ruled from the ] to the ]. In the ], specifically during the reign of the ], most of the Muslim world experienced a ], ] and ]. The ] involved ] as well as extensive trade and religious conversion as a result of ] ('']''), as well as through ], ], and ].
Muslims believe that God is ]<ref>'''quran.com''': ''''</ref> and that the ] is to worship God.<ref>
* {{Cite quran|51|56|style=ref}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/faithgod.html |title=God |work=] |quote=''For Muslims, God is unique and without equal.'' |publisher=]|accessdate=2010-12-18}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.patheos.com/Library/Islam/Beliefs/Human-Nature-and-the-Purpose-of-Existence.html |title=Human Nature and the Purpose of Existence |publisher=Patheos.com |accessdate=2011-01-29}}</ref> Muslims also believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a ] that was revealed many times before through prophets including ], ], ], ], and ].<ref name="People-of-the-Book">{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/faithpeople.html |title=People of the Book |work=] |publisher=]|accessdate=2010-12-18}}</ref> Muslims maintain that the previous messages and revelations have been partially ] over time,<ref name="Distorted">
* Accad (2003): According to Ibn Taymiya, although only some Muslims accept the textual veracity of the entire Bible, most Muslims will grant the veracity of most of it.
* {{Harvtxt|Esposito|1998|pp=6,12}}
* {{Harvtxt|Esposito|2002|pp=4–5}}
* {{Harvtxt|Peters|2003|p=9}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Muhammad | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online |last1=Buhl |first1=F|last2=Welch |first2=A.T| ref=harv }}* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Tahrif | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=Hava Lazarus-Yafeh | ref=harv }}
</ref> they are nevertheless all obliged, according to the Qur'an, to treat the older scriptures with the utmost respect.<ref>Cf. Qur'an, III. 3; V. 4; V. 43 etc.</ref> As for the Qur'an, Muslims consider it to be both the unaltered and the final revelation of God.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Bennett |2010|p=101}}</ref> Religious concepts and practices include the ], which are obligatory acts of worship, and following ], which touches on virtually every aspect of life and society, from topics ranging from ] and ], to ] and the ].<ref>{{Harvtxt|Esposito|2002b|p=17}}</ref><ref>
* {{Harvtxt|Esposito|2002b| pp=111,112,118}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Shari'ah | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online | ref=harv }}
</ref>


The two main ] are ] (85–90%) and ] (10–15%). While the ] initially arose from disagreements over the ], they grew to cover a broader dimension, both ] and ]. The Sunni canonical hadith collection consists of ], while the Shia canonical hadith collection consists of ]. Muslims make up a majority of the population in 49 countries. Approximately 12% of the world's Muslims live ], the most populous Muslim-majority country; {{#expr: 100 * 480/1570 round 0}}% live ]; 20% live ]; and 15% live ]. Muslim communities are also present ], ], and ]. Muslims are the ] major religious group, according to ]. This is due primarily to a higher ] and younger age structure compared to other major religions.<!--Do NOT add citations to the lead, except for material likely to be challenged, per ] (]. Move unneeded citations to the body.-->
The ] of the ] involved various ]s and ], traders and ] by ].<ref>The preaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the Muslim faith By Sir Thomas Walker Arnold, pg.125-258</ref> Most Muslims are of two ]:<ref name="NYT-20160103">{{cite news |last=Harney |first=John |title=How Do Sunni and Shia Islam Differ? |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/04/world/middleeast/q-and-a-how-do-sunni-and-shia-islam-differ.html |date=January 3, 2016 |work=] |accessdate=January 4, 2016 }}</ref> ] (75–90%)<ref name="Sunni-eb" /> or ] (10–20%).<ref name=Shia/> About 13% of Muslims live in ],<ref name="Miller 2009, pp.8,17">{{Harvtxt|Miller|2009|pp=8,17}}</ref> the largest Muslim-majority country, 25% in ],<ref name="Miller 2009, pp.8,17"/> 20% in the ],<ref>
* {{Harvtxt|Esposito|2002b|p=21}}
* {{Harvtxt|Esposito|2004|pp=2,43}}
* {{Harvtxt|Miller|2009|pp=9,19}}
</ref> and 15% in ].<ref name="mgmpPRC"/> Sizable Muslim communities are also found in ], ], ], and the ]. Converts and immigrant communities are found in almost every part of the world. With about 1.6 billion followers or 23% of the global population,<ref name="pewmuslim4">{{cite web |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population |title=Executive Summary |work=The Future of the Global Muslim Population |publisher=Pew Research Center |accessdate=22 December 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://features.pewforum.org/muslim-population/?sort=Pop2030 |title=Table: Muslim Population by Country &#124; Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project |publisher=Features.pewforum.org |date=2011-01-27 |accessdate=2014-07-23}}</ref> Islam is the ] by number of adherents and, according to many sources, the ].<ref>.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usnews.com/news/religion/articles/2008/04/07/no-god-but-god |title=No God But God |author=Lippman, Thomas W.|authorlink=Thomas Lippman|publisher=]|date=2008-04-07|accessdate=2013-09-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Burke|first1=Daniel|title=The world's fastest-growing religion is ...|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2015/04/02/living/pew-study-religion/|accessdate=18 April 2015|agency=CNN|date=April 4, 2015}}</ref>


== Etymology{{anchor|Etymology}}<!-- Linked from many articles. If changing the section title, please let this anchor remain unchanged --> ==
==Etymology and meaning<!--linked from 'Muslim'-->==
{{See also|Muslims#Etymology}}
] in ], ], topped by the ]]]
Islam is a verbal noun originating from the ] ] which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, submission, safeness and peace.<ref> derived from ''Lane's Arabic-English Lexicon'' via www.studyquran.co.uk</ref> In a religious context it means "voluntary submission to God".<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IVyMAvW9slYC&pg=PA8&dq=surrender+to+will+of+God+islam |author=Lewis, Barnard; Churchill, Buntzie Ellis|title=Islam: The Religion and The People|publisher=Wharton School Publishing|page=8 |isbn=9780132230858|year=2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.qaem.org/wp/what-does-islam-mean/|title=What does Islam mean?|work=The Friday Journal|date=2011-02-06|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110314072458/http://www.qaem.org/wp/what-does-islam-mean/|archivedate=2011-03-13}}</ref> '']'' is the verbal noun of ] of the root, and means "submission" or "surrender". '']'', the word for an adherent of Islam, is the ] of the same verb form, and means "one who submits" or "one who surrenders". Believers demonstrate submission to God by serving ], following his commands, and rejecting ]. The word sometimes has distinct connotations in its various occurrences in the ]. In some verses, there is stress on the quality of Islam as an internal conviction: "Whomsoever God desires to guide, He opens his heart to Islam."<ref name="MULTIPLE-REFERENCES"> In Arabic, ''Islam'' ({{langx|ar|إسلام|lit=submission }})<ref name="Schimmel" /><ref>{{cite web |title=Definition of Islam {{!}} Dictionary.com |url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/islam |access-date=2022-05-09 |website=www.dictionary.com |language=en |archive-date=9 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220509110220/https://www.dictionary.com/browse/islam |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Haywood |first=John |title=Historical Atlas of the Medieval World (AD 600 - 1492) |publisher=Barnes & Noble, Inc. |year=2002 |isbn=0-7607-1975-6 |edition=1st |location=Spain |pages=3.13 |language=en}}</ref> is the verbal noun of ] originating from the verb {{lang|ar|سلم}} ({{transliteration|ar|salama}}), from the ] {{lang|ar|س-ل-م}} ({{transliteration|ar|]}}), which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of submission, safeness, and peace.<ref>" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110907230044/http://www.studyquran.co.uk/20_SIIN.htm |date=7 September 2011 }}." ''Lane's Lexicon'' 4. – via '']''.</ref> In a religious context, it refers to the total surrender to the will of ].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=Barnard |last2=Churchill |first2=Buntzie Ellis |url=https://archive.org/details/islamreligionpeo00lewi |title=Islam: The Religion and The People |publisher=Wharton School Publishing |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-13-223085-8 |page=}}</ref> A '']'' ({{lang|ar|مُسْلِم}}), the word for a follower of Islam,<ref>"." '']''. UK: ]. 2020.</ref> is the ] of the same verb form, and means "submitter (to God)" or "one who surrenders (to God)". In the ], ''Islam'' is presented as one part of a triad that also includes {{transliteration|ar|]}} (faith), and {{transliteration|ar|]}} (excellence).{{sfnp|Esposito|2000|pp=}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mahmutćehajić |first=Rusmir |url=https://archive.org/details/mosqueheartsubmi00mahm |title=The mosque: the heart of submission |publisher=] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8232-2584-2 |page= |url-access=registration}}</ref>
* {{Cite quran|6|125|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|61|7|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|39|22|style=ref}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online |last1=Gardet|first1=L. |last2=Jomier |first2=J. | ref=harv }}
</ref> Islam, by its own inner logic, embraces every possible facet of existence, for God has
named Himself al-Muḥīṭ, the All-Embracing.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Nasr|first1=Seyyed Hossein|title=Islamic spirituality : foundations|date=2008|publisher=Routledge|location=London|p=658|ISBN=978-0-415-44262-6}}</ref>


Islam itself was historically called ] in the ]. This term has fallen out of use and is sometimes said to be ], as it suggests that a human being, rather than God, is central to Muslims' religion.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = Oxford University Press| last = Gibb| first = Sir Hamilton| title = Mohammedanism: an historical survey|isbn=9780195002454| year = 1969| page=1 | quote=Modern Muslims dislike the terms Mohammedan and Mohammedanism, which seem to them to carry the implication of worship of Mohammed, as Christian and Christianity imply the worship of Christ.}}</ref>
Other verses connect ''Islām'' and '']'' (usually translated as "religion"): "Today, I have perfected your religion (''dīn'') for you; I have completed My blessing upon you; I have approved Islam for your religion."<ref>{{cite quran|5|3|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|3|19|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|3|83|style=ref}}</ref> Still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith.<ref>
* {{Cite quran|9|74|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|49|14|style=ref}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | last1=Gardet|first1=L. |last2=Jomier |first2=J. | ref=harv }}
</ref> In the ], ''islām'' is presented as one part of a triad that includes '']'' (faith), and '']'' (excellence), where ''islām'' is defined theologically as ], historically by asserting that Muhammad is messenger of God, and doctrinally by mandating ] of practice.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = Oxford University Press| isbn = 9780195107999| last = Esposito| first = John L.| title = The Oxford History of Islam| date = 2000-04-06|pages=76–77}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The mosque: the heart of submission|first=Rusmir|last=Mahmutćehajić|year=2006|publisher=Fordham University Press|isbn=978-0-8232-2584-2|page=84}}</ref>


==Articles of faith== == Articles of faith ==
{{Main|Aqidah|Iman (concept)|l2=Iman}} {{Main|Aqidah|Iman (Islam)|l2 = Iman}}
The Islamic ] ('']'') requires belief in ]: God, ], revelation, prophets, the ], and the divine predestination.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Sourcebook of the World's Religions: An Interfaith Guide to Religion and Spirituality|publisher=New World Library|pages=68–9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dbSPOoQfu0IC&pg=PA68|editor-first=Joel|editor-last=Beversluis|year=2011|isbn=9781577313328|access-date=15 January 2023|archive-date=28 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228022948/https://books.google.com/books?id=dbSPOoQfu0IC&pg=PA68#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>

===God===
]" (]) in ], ], ].]]
{{Main|God in Islam|Allah}}

Islam's most fundamental concept is a rigorous monotheism, called ] ({{lang-ar|توحيد}}). God is described in chapter 112 of the Qur'an as:<ref>
* {{Cite quran|112|1|end=4|style=ref}}
* {{Harvtxt|Esposito|2002b|pp=74–76}}
* {{Harvtxt|Esposito|2004|p=22}}
* {{Harvtxt|Griffith|2006|p=248}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Allah, Tawhid | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online | author=D. Gimaret | ref=harv }}
</ref> "Say: He is God, the One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him."({{cite quran|112|1-4|style=nosup|expand=no}}) Muslims and ] repudiate the Christian doctrine of the ] and divinity of ], comparing it to ]. In Islam, God is beyond all comprehension and Muslims are not expected to visualize God.<ref>God Created the Universe with the Purpose to Serve Humankind: God Created ...
By Fateh Ullah Khan Page 298 </ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_ujcpilaYssC&pg=PA37&dq=allah+is+beyond+comprehension&hl=en&sa=X&ei=SLMGUbiYJOm90QWxroHICg&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=allah%20is%20beyond%20comprehension&f=false|title=Islamic Unity and Happiness|author=Turfe, Tallal Alie|page=37|publisher=TTQ, Inc.|year=1985|isbn=9780940368477}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qr53qwS5cmcC&pg=PA37&dq=allah+is+beyond+comprehension&hl=en&sa=X&ei=SLMGUbiYJOm90QWxroHICg&ved=0CEEQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=allah%20is%20beyond%20comprehension&f=false|title=What is Islam? By Jamaal Zarabozo Page 37|publisher=|accessdate=7 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vC0r6JVvDIoC&pg=PA357&dq=allah+is+beyond+comprehension&hl=en&sa=X&ei=SLMGUbiYJOm90QWxroHICg&ved=0CEwQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=allah%20is%20beyond%20comprehension&f=false|author=Agwan, A.R.; Khan, N.K.|title=A - E.|page=357|publisher=Global Vision Publishing|ISBN=9788187746003}}</ref> God is described and referred to by certain names or attributes, the most common being ''Al-Rahmān'', meaning "The Compassionate" and ''Al-Rahīm'', meaning "The Merciful" (See ]).<ref name="Ben">{{Cite book|last=Bentley |first=David |title=The 99 Beautiful Names for God for All the People of the Book |publisher=William Carey Library |date=September 1999 |isbn=0-87808-299-9 }}</ref>

Muslims believe that the creation of everything in the universe was brought into being by God's sheer command, "'Be' and so it is,"<ref>
* {{Cite quran|2|117|style=ref}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/295507/Islam |title=Islām |encyclopedia=] |accessdate=2010-08-25}}
</ref> and that the ] is to worship God.<ref>
* {{cite web|url=http://www.patheos.com/Library/Islam/Beliefs/Human-Nature-and-the-Purpose-of-Existence.html |title=Human Nature and the Purpose of Existence |publisher=Patheos.com |accessdate=2011-01-29}}
* {{Cite quran|51|56|style=ref}}
</ref> He is viewed as a personal god who responds whenever a person in need or distress calls him.<ref>
* {{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/295507/Islam |title=Islām |encyclopedia=] |accessdate=2010-08-25}}
* {{Cite quran|2|186|style=ref}}
</ref> There are no intermediaries, such as ], to contact God who states, "I am nearer to him than (his) ]."<ref>{{Cite quran|50|16|style=ref}}</ref>

'']'' is the term with no ] or ] used by Muslims and Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews to reference God, while ''{{transl|ar|ISO|]}}'' ({{lang-ar|إله}}) is the term used for a deity or a god in general.<ref>
* {{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/faithgod.html |title=God |work=Islam: Empire of Faith |publisher=PBS|accessdate=2010-12-18}}
* "Islam and Christianity", ''Encyclopedia of Christianity'' (2001): Arabic-speaking ]s and ]s also refer to God as ''Allāh''.
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Allah | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | ref=harv }}
</ref> Other non-Arab Muslims might use different names as much as Allah, for instance "Tanrı" in ], "Khodā" in ] or ''{{transl|Urdu|ALA-LC|Ḵẖudā}}'' in ].

===Angels===
{{Main|Islamic view of angels}}
{| class="toccolours" style="float:right; clear:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
|-
| style="background:#30644d; text-align:center;" |
<strong class="center" style="color:white;">Angels</strong>
|-
|
<gallery>
File:An angel presenting Mohammed with a town.jpg|An ] presenting ] and his companions with a miniature city. In the ], ].
File:Israfil1.png|] of the Archangel ] (reflects upon how ]s are most commonly represented in Islam).
File:Persian angel 1555.jpg|An angel, as depicted in a Persian miniature.
</gallery>
|-
|
|}


=== God ===
Belief in ]s is fundamental to the faith of Islam. The Arabic word for angel ({{lang-ar|ملك}} ''{{transl|ar|ALA|malak}}'') means "]", like its counterparts in ] (''malʾákh'') and ] (''angelos''). According to the ], ] do not possess ], and therefore worship and obey ] in total obedience. Angels' duties include communicating ]s from God, glorifying God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's ] at the time of death. Muslims believe that angels are made of light. They are described as "messengers with wings—two, or three, or four (pairs): He adds to Creation as He pleases..."<ref>
] in Arabic in ], ], ]]]
* {{Cite quran|35|1|style=ref}}
{{Main|God in Islam}}
* {{Harvtxt|Esposito|2002b|pp=26–28}}
The central concept of Islam is '']'' ({{langx|ar|توحيد|link=no}}), the oneness of God. It is usually thought of as a ''precise ]'', but is also ] in Islamic mystical teachings.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/tawhid |title=Tawhid |encyclopedia=] |access-date=17 September 2021 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=7 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211107041300/https://www.britannica.com/topic/tawhid |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{harvc |last=Gimaret|first=D.|year=2012|c=Tawḥīd |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)}} {{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_7454}}</ref> God is seen as incomparable and without multiplicity of persons such as in the ], and associating multiplicity to God or attributing God's attributes to others is seen as ], called ]. God is described as ] so is beyond comprehension. {{under discussion inline|Al-Ghayb}} Thus, Muslims are not ]s and do not attribute forms to God. God is instead described and referred to by several ], the most common being ''Ar-Rahmān'' ({{lang|ar|الرحمان}}) meaning "The Entirely Merciful", and ''Ar-Rahīm'' ({{lang|ar|الرحيم}}) meaning "The Especially Merciful" which are invoked at the beginning of most chapters of the Quran.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ali |first1=Kecia |title=Islam : the key concepts |date=2008 |publisher=] |last2=Leaman |first2=Oliver |isbn=978-0-415-39638-7 |location=London |oclc=123136939}}</ref>{{sfnp|Campo|2009|p=34|loc="Allah"}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Malā'ika | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=W. Madelung | ref=harv }}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Angel | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | author=Gisela Webb | ref=harv }}
</ref>


Islam teaches that the creation of everything in the ] was brought into being by God's command as expressed by the wording, "],"<ref group="lower-roman">{{qref|2|117|b=yl}}</ref><ref name="Schimmel">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Schimmel |first=Annemarie |author-link=Annemarie Schimmel |title=Islam |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islam |encyclopedia=] |access-date=17 September 2021 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=4 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150504201633/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/295507/Islam |url-status=live }}</ref> and that the ] is to worship God.<ref>Leeming, David. 2005. ''The Oxford Companion to World Mythology''. Oxford: ]. {{ISBN|978-0-195-15669-0}}. p. 209.</ref> He is viewed as a personal god<ref name="Schimmel" /> and there are no intermediaries, such as ], to contact God. Consciousness and awareness of God is referred to as ]. '']'' is a term with no ] or ] being ascribed to it and is also used by Muslims and Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews in reference to God, whereas ''{{transliteration|ar|ISO|]}}'' ({{lang|ar|إله}}) is a term used for a deity or a god in general.<ref>{{cite web |title=God |url=https://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/faithgod.html |access-date=18 December 2010 |website=Islam: Empire of Faith |publisher=] |archive-date=27 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140327034958/http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/faithgod.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
The astrophysicist ] in his book "Islam's Quantum Question" has pointed to modern Islamic scholars, like ] and ] who have emphasized a metaphorical reinterpretation of the concept of angels.<ref>{{cite book|ref=harv|author=Nidhal Guessoum|title=Islam's Quantum Question: Reconciling Muslim Tradition and Modern Science|url=https://books.google.ca/books?id=zaL3AgAAQBAJ&pg=PT165&dq=angels+islam+metaphor+science&hl=en&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=snippet&q=angels&f=false|date=30 October 2010|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-0-85773-075-6}}</ref> For example, Asad highlighted the following words in the Quran as evidence that the aid provided by angels in the ] was not literal: "and God ordained this only as a glad tiding."


=== Angels ===
Pictorial depictions of angels are generally avoided in Islamic Art, as the idea of giving form to anything immaterial is not accepted.<ref name="Baksh2007">{{cite book|author=Kaiyume Baksh|title=Islam and Other Major World Religions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CFKYFcosJUsC&pg=PA163|year=2007|publisher=Trafford Publishing|isbn=978-1-4251-1303-2|pages=163–}}</ref> Muslims believe that angels can not be seen with the naked eye, and prophets such as ] received revelation from them only in a spiritual sense. Since Muslims do not believe in image-representations of celestial beings, they therefore do not share the perceptions of angelic pictorial depictions, such as those found in Western Art.
] by ], 1307.]]
{{Main|Angels in Islam}}
Angels ({{langx|ar|ملك|link=no}}, ''{{transliteration|ar|ALA|malak}}'') are beings described in the Quran{{sfnp|Burge|2015|p=23}} and hadith.{{sfnp|Burge|2015|p=79}} They are described as created to worship God and also to serve in other specific duties such as communicating ]s from God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's ] at the time of death. They are described as being created variously from 'light' (])<ref>" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220423085030/https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/nur |date=23 April 2022 }}." '']''. – via '']''.</ref><ref>{{harvc|last1=Hartner, W.|last2=Tj Boer |year=2012 |c=Nūr |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)}} {{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0874}}</ref><ref>{{harvc |last=Elias |first=Jamal J. |year=2003|c=Light |in=McAuliffe}} {{doi|10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00261}}</ref> or 'fire' (''nār'').<ref>{{harvc |last=Campo |first=Juan E. |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/nar |c=Nar |in=Martin |year=2004}}. – via ].</ref><ref>{{harvc|last=Fahd, T. |year=2012 |c=Nār |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)}} {{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0846}}</ref><ref>{{harvc |last=Toelle |first=Heidi |year=2002 |c=Fire |in=McAuliffe}} {{doi|10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00156}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|McAuliffe|2003|p=45}}</ref> Islamic angels are often represented in ] combined with ] images, such as wings, being of great size or wearing heavenly articles.{{sfnp|Burge|2015|pp=97–99}}<ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2002b|pp=26–28}}</ref><ref>{{harvc |last=Webb |first=Gisela |c=Angel |year=n.d. |in=McAuliffe}}</ref><ref>{{harvc|last1=MacDonald, D. B.|last2=Madelung, W. |year=2012 |c=Malāʾika |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)}}{{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0642}}</ref> Common characteristics for angels include a lack of bodily needs and desires, such as eating and drinking.{{sfnp|Çakmak|2017|p=140}} Some of them, such as ] (''Jibrīl'') and ] (''Mika'il''), are mentioned by name in the Quran. Angels play a significant role in literature about the ], where Muhammad encounters several angels during his journey through the heavens.{{sfnp|Burge|2015|p=79}} Further angels have often been featured in ], ] and ].{{sfnp|Burge|2015|p=22}}


===Revelations=== === Scriptures ===
] ] manuscript resting on a ], a book rest for the holy text]]
{{Main|Islamic holy books|Quran|Wahy}} {{Main|Islamic holy books|Quran|Wahy}}
{{See also|History of the Quran}} {{See also|History of the Quran}}
The pre-eminent holy text of Islam is the ]. Muslims believe that the verses of the Quran were revealed to Muhammad by God, through the ] Gabriel, on multiple occasions between 610&nbsp;CE<ref name="610CE">{{harvc|c=Muhammad|in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|year=n.d.|last2=Welch|first2=A.T.|last1=Buhl|first1=F.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Watt |first=William Montgomery |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AQUZ6BGyohQC&pg=PA5 |title=Islam and the Integration of Society |date=2003 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-415-17587-6 |pages=5 |access-date=15 June 2021 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228022949/https://books.google.com/books?id=AQUZ6BGyohQC&pg=PA5#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> and 632, the year Muhammad died.{{sfnp|Esposito|2004|pp=17–18, 21}} While Muhammad was alive, these revelations were written down by ], although the primary method of transmission was orally through ].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Al Faruqi |first1=Lois Ibsen |author-link=Lois Lamya al-Faruqi |year=1987 |title=The Cantillation of the Qur'an |journal=] |issue=Autumn – Winter 1987 |pages=3–4}}</ref> The Quran is divided into 114 chapters ('']'') which contain a combined 6,236 verses ('']''). The chronologically earlier chapters, revealed at ], are concerned primarily with spiritual topics, while the later ]n chapters discuss more social and legal issues relevant to the Muslim community.<ref name="Schimmel" /><ref name="Ringgren">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Ringgren |first=Helmer |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Quran |title=Qurʾān |encyclopedia=] |access-date=17 September 2021 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=5 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150505001543/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/487666/Quran |url-status=live }} "The word ''Quran'' was invented and first used in the Quran itself. There are ] about this term and its formation."</ref> Muslim jurists consult the ''hadith'' ('accounts'), or the written record of Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Quran and assist with its interpretation. The science of Quranic commentary and exegesis is known as '']''.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=] |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/tafsir |title=Tafsīr |access-date=17 September 2021 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=19 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019035210/https://www.britannica.com/topic/tafsir |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfnp|Esposito|2004|pp=79–81}} In addition to its religious significance, the Quran is widely regarded as the finest work in ],<ref>{{cite book|first=Alan|last=Jones|location=London|publisher=]|year=1994|page=1|title=The Koran|quote="Its outstanding literary merit should also be noted: it is by far, the finest work of Arabic prose in existence."|isbn=1842126091}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Arthur|last=Arberry|title=The Koran Interpreted|location=London|publisher=]|year=1956|quote="It may be affirmed that within the literature of the Arabs, wide and fecund as it is both in poetry and in elevated prose, there is nothing to compare with it."|page=191|isbn=0684825074}}</ref> and has influenced art and the Arabic language.<ref>Kadi, Wadad, and Mustansir Mir. "Literature and the Quran." In '']'' 3. pp. 213, 216.</ref>


The Islamic holy books are the records which most Muslims believe were dictated by ] to various prophets. ]s believe that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, the '']'' (]) and the '']'' (]), had become ]—either in interpretation, in text, or both.<ref name="Distorted" /> The Qur'an (literally, "Reading" or "Recitation") is viewed by Muslims as the final revelation and literal word of God and is widely regarded as the finest ] work in the ].<ref>Chejne, A. (1969) The Arabic Language: Its Role in History, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.</ref><ref>Speicher, K. (1997) in: Edzard, L., and Szyska, C. (eds.) Encounters of Words and Texts: Intercultural Studies in Honor of Stefan Wild. Georg Olms, Hildesheim, pp. 43–66.</ref> Islam also holds that God has sent revelations, called '']'', to different prophets numerous times throughout history. However, Islam teaches that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, such as the '']'' (]) and the '']'' (]), have become ]—either in interpretation, in text, or both,<ref name="harvp|Esposito|2002b|pp=4–5">{{harvp|Esposito|2002b|pp=4–5}}</ref><ref name="harvp|Peters|2003|p=9">{{harvp|Peters|2003|p=9}}</ref><ref>{{harvc|c=Muhammad |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|year=n.d. |last2=Welch |first2=A.T. |last1=Buhl |first1=F.}}</ref><ref>{{harvc|c=Tahrif |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|year=n.d. |author=]}}</ref> while the Quran (lit. 'Recitation') is viewed as the final, verbatim and unaltered word of God.<ref name="Ringgren" /><ref>{{harvp|Teece|2003|pp=12–13}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Turner|2006|p=42}}</ref>{{sfnp|Bennett|2010|p=101}}


=== Prophets ===
Muslims believe that the verses of the Qur'an were revealed to ] by God through the ] (''Jibrīl'') on many occasions between 610 CE until his death on June 8, 632.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Esposito|2004|pp=17,18,21}}</ref> While Muhammad was alive, all of these revelations were written down by his companions ('']''), although the prime method of transmission was orally through ].<ref name="al faruqi">{{cite journal|last=Al Faruqi|author2=Lois Ibsen|title=The Cantillation of the Qur'an|journal=Asian Music|year=1987|issue=Autumn – Winter 1987|pages=3–4}}</ref>
{{Main|Prophets and messengers in Islam|Sunnah|Hadith}}
] |access-date=7 September 2023 |archive-date=9 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230909130407/https://gallica.bnf.fr/view3if/ga/ark:/12148/btv1b8427195m/f16 |url-status=live }}</ref> ] depicting ] leading ], ], ] and other prophets in prayer]]
Prophets (Arabic: {{langx|ar|أنبياء|label=none|translit=anbiyāʾ}}) are believed to have been chosen by God to preach a divine message. Some of these prophets additionally deliver a new book and are called "messengers" ({{langx|ar| رسول&lrm;|label=none|translit=rasūl}}).<ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2003|p=225}}</ref> Muslims believe prophets are human and not divine. All of the prophets are said to have preached the same basic message of Islam – submission to the will of God – to various nations in the past, and this is said to account for many similarities among religions. The Quran recounts the names of numerous figures considered ], including ], ], ], ] and ], among others.<ref name="Schimmel" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Reeves |first=J. C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WNId86Eu4TEC |title=Bible and Qurʼān: Essays in scriptural intertextuality |publisher=] |year=2004 |isbn=90-04-12726-7 |location=] |page=177 |access-date=21 August 2019 |archive-date=19 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230419164019/https://books.google.com/books?id=WNId86Eu4TEC |url-status=live }}</ref> The stories associated with the prophets beyond the Quranic accounts are collected and explored in the '']'' (Stories of the Prophets).


Muslims believe that God sent Muhammad as the final prophet ("]") to convey the completed message of Islam.<ref>Esposito, John L. 2009. "Islam." In ''{{Doi-inline|10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001|''The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World''}}'', edited by J. L. Esposito. Oxford: ]. {{ISBN|978-0-19-530513-5}}. (See also: {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110124812/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100012298 |date=10 January 2021 }}.) "Profession of Faith...affirms Islam's absolute monotheism and acceptance of Muḥammad as the messenger of Allah, the last and final prophet."</ref><ref>Peters, F. E. 2009. "Allāh." In {{Doi-inline|10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001|''The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World''}}, edited by J. L. Esposito. Oxford: ]. {{ISBN|978-0-19-530513-5}}. (See also: {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200926053837/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095403960 |date=26 September 2020 }}.) "he Muslims' understanding of Allāh is based...on the Qurʿān's public witness. Allāh is Unique, the Creator, Sovereign, and Judge of mankind. It is Allāh who directs the universe through his direct action on nature and who has guided human history through his prophets, Abraham, with whom he made his covenant, Moses/Moosa, Jesus/Eesa, and Muḥammad, through all of whom he founded his chosen communities, the 'Peoples of the Book.{{'"}}</ref> In Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the '']'' (literally "trodden path"). Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's moral behaviors in their daily lives, and the sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Quran.<ref>{{harvp|Martin|2004|p=666}}</ref><ref>{{harvc|c=Hadith|in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|year=n.d.|author=J. Robson}}</ref><ref>{{harvc|c=Sunna|in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|year=n.d.|author=D.W. Brown}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Goldman |first=Elizabeth |title=Believers: Spiritual Leaders of the World |date=1995 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-19-508240-1 |location=Oxford |page=63}}</ref> This example is preserved in traditions known as ], which are accounts of his words, actions, and personal characteristics. ] is a sub-category of hadith, regarded as God's verbatim words quoted by Muhammad that are not part of the Quran. A hadith involves two elements: a chain of narrators, called ], and the actual wording, called '']''. There are various methodologies to classify the authenticity of hadiths, with the commonly used grading grading scale being "authentic" or "correct" ({{langx|ar|صحيح|links=no|translit=]|label=none}}); "good" ({{langx|ar|حسن|links=no|label=none|translit=]}}); or "weak" ({{langx|ar|ضعيف|label=none|translit=]}}), among others. The '']'' are a collection of six books, regarded as the most authentic reports in ]. Among them is '']'', often considered by Sunnis to be one of the most ] sources after the Quran.<ref>], ed. 1990. '']''. Cairo: Dar al-Ma'arif, 1990. pp. 160–69</ref> Another well-known source of hadiths is known as '']'', which Shias consider as the most authentic hadith reference.<ref>Awliya'i, Mustafa. " {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170912144702/https://www.al-islam.org/al-tawhid/vol1-n12-3/outlines-development-science-hadith-dr-mustafa-awliyai/part-1#four-books |date=12 September 2017 }}." In ''Outlines of the Development of the Science of Hadith'' 1, translated by A. Q. Qara'i. – via ]. Retrieved 24 May 2020.</ref><ref>]. " {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170912191319/https://www.al-islam.org/quran-and-hadith-allamah-sayyid-saeed-akhtar-rizvi/chapter-4-hadith#four-books-al-kutubul-arbah |date=12 September 2017 }}." Ch 4 in ''The Qur'an and Hadith''. Tanzania: ]. – via ]. Retrieved 24 May 2020.</ref>
The Qur'an is divided into 114 ]s, or chapters, which combined, contain 6,236 '']'', or verses. The chronologically earlier suras, revealed at ], are primarily concerned with ethical and spiritual topics. The later ]n suras mostly discuss social and moral issues relevant to the Muslim community.<ref>
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online | ref=harv }}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Qur'an | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online | ref=harv }}
</ref>


=== Resurrection and judgment ===
The Qur'an is more concerned with moral guidance than legal instruction, and is considered the "sourcebook of Islamic principles and values".<ref>{{Harvtxt|Esposito|2004|p=79}}</ref> Muslim jurists consult the ''hadith'' ("reports"), or the written record of Prophet Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Qur'an and assist with its interpretation. The science of Qur'anic commentary and exegesis is known as '']''.<ref>
] in ], where according to Islamic tradition ] (Jesus, seen as an Islamic prophet) will appear close to the ]]]
* {{Harvtxt|Esposito|2004|pp=79–81}}
{{Main|Islamic eschatology}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Tafsir | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online | ref=harv }}
Belief in the "Day of Resurrection" or '']'' ({{langx|ar|يوم القيامة|link=no}}) is also crucial for Muslims. It is believed that the time of ''Qiyāmah'' is preordained by God, but unknown to man. The Quran and the hadith, as well as the commentaries of ], describe the trials and ] preceding and during the ''Qiyāmah''. The Quran emphasizes ], a break from the ]n understanding of death.<ref>{{harvp|Glassé|2003|loc="Resurrection"|pp=382–383}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)|2012|loc="Avicenna"}}. {{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_DUM_0467}}: "Ibn Sīnā, Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAbd Allāh b. Sīnā is known in the West as 'Avicenna'."</ref><ref>{{harvc|c=Qiyama |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|year=n.d. |author=Gardet, L.}}</ref>
</ref> The set of rules governing proper pronunciation is called '']''.


On Yawm al-Qiyāmah, Muslims believe all humankind will be judged by their good and bad deeds and consigned to '']'' (paradise) or '']'' (hell).<ref>{{cite web |editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=John L. |editor-link=John Esposito |title=Eschatology |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e588 |url-access=subscription |work=] |via=Oxford Islamic Studies Online |access-date=18 April 2017 |archive-date=13 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100913062714/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e588 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Quran in ] describes this as: "So whoever does an atom's weight of good will see it. And whoever does an atom's weight of evil will see it." The Quran ] that can condemn a person to ]. However, the Quran makes it clear that God will forgive the sins of those who repent if he wishes. Good deeds, like charity, prayer, and compassion towards animals{{sfnp|Esposito|2011|p=130}} will be rewarded with entry to heaven. Muslims view heaven as a place of joy and blessings, with Quranic references describing its features. Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.<ref>{{harvp|Smith|2006|p=89}}; ''Encyclopedia of Islam and Muslim World'', p. 565</ref><ref>{{harvc |c=Garden |first=Asma |last=Afsaruddin |year=n.d. |in=McAuliffe}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Paradise|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online}}</ref> ''Yawm al-Qiyāmah'' is also identified in the Quran as ''Yawm ad-Dīn'' ({{lang|ar|يوم الدين}} "Day of Religion");<ref group="lower-roman">{{qref|1|4|b=y}};</ref> ''as-Sāʿah'' ({{lang|ar|الساعة}} "the Last Hour");<ref group="lower-roman">{{qref|6|31|b=y}};</ref> and '']'' ({{lang|ar|القارعة}} "The Clatterer").<ref group="lower-roman">{{qref|101|1|b=y}}</ref>
Muslims usually view "the Qur'an" as the original scripture as revealed in Arabic and that any translations are necessarily deficient, which are regarded only as commentaries on the Qur'an.<ref>
* {{Harvtxt|Teece|2003|pp=12,13}}
* {{Harvtxt|Turner|2006|p=42}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Qur'an | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | ref=harv }}: The word ''Qurʼan'' was invented and first used in the Qurʼan itself. There are ] about this term and its formation.
</ref>


===Prophets=== === Divine predestination ===
{{Main|Predestination in Islam}}
] are considered prophets of the past in Islam.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.google.com.pk/webhp?sourceid=chrome-instant&ion=1&espv=2&ie=UTF-8#q=prophets+in+islam&spell=1%7ctitle=Google%7cwork=google.com.pk%7ctitle=Google%7cwork=google.com.pk|title=Google|work=google.com.pk|accessdate=17 December 2015}}</ref>]]
The concept of divine predestination in Islam ({{langx|ar|القضاء والقدر}}, ''{{transliteration|ar|DIN|al-qadāʾ wa l-qadar}}'') means that every matter, good or bad, is believed to have been decreed by God. ''Al-qadar'', meaning "power", derives from a root that means "to measure" or "calculating".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.freeweb.hu/etymological/AEDweb.htm |date=2002 |title=Andras Rajki's A. E. D. (Arabic Etymological Dictionary) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111208204654/http://www.freeweb.hu/etymological/AEDweb.htm |archive-date=8 December 2011 |access-date=13 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Cohen-Mor|2001|p=4}}: "The idea of predestination is reinforced by the frequent mention of events 'being written' or 'being in a book' before they happen": Say: "Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us..."</ref><ref>{{harvc |last=Karamustafa |first=Ahmet T. |c=Fate |year=n.d. |in=McAuliffe}}: The verb ''qadara'' literally means "to measure, to determine". Here it is used to mean that "God measures and orders his creation".</ref><ref>{{harvc |last=Gardet|first=L.|year=2012|c=al-Ḳaḍāʾ Wa 'l-Ḳadar |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)}} {{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0407}}</ref> Muslims often express this belief in divine destiny with the phrase ] ({{langx|ar|إن شاء الله}}) meaning "if God wills" when speaking on future events.<ref>{{cite web |title=Muslim beliefs – Al-Qadr |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z43pfcw/revision/4 |access-date=13 November 2020 |publisher=BBC |work=Bitesize – GCSE – Edexcel |archive-date=15 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115112558/https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z43pfcw/revision/4 |url-status=live }}</ref>
{{Main|Prophets in Islam|Sunnah|Hadith}}


== Acts of worship ==
Muslims identify the prophets of Islam ({{lang-ar|أنۢبياء}} ''{{transl|ar|ALA|anbiyāʾ}}'' ) as those humans chosen by God to be his messengers. According to the Qurʼan, the prophets were instructed by God to bring the "will of God" to the peoples of the nations. Muslims believe that prophets are human and not divine, though some are able to perform miracles to prove their claim. ] says that all of God's messengers preached the message of Islam—submission to the will of God. The Qurʼan mentions the names of numerous figures considered ], including ], ], ], ] and ], among others.<ref>
{{Main|Five Pillars of Islam|Ibadah}}
* {{Harvtxt|Momem|1987|p=176}}
There are five acts of worship that are considered ]–the ] (declaration of faith), the five daily prayers, ] (almsgiving), ], and the ] pilgrimage–collectively known as "The Pillars of Islam" (''Arkān al-Islām'').<ref name="www.britannica.com-2023">{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pillars-of-Islam|title=Pillars of Islam &#124; Islamic Beliefs & Practices &#124; Britannica|website=www.britannica.com|date=3 May 2023|access-date=16 December 2021|archive-date=5 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905102524/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pillars-of-Islam|url-status=live}}</ref> In addition, Muslims also perform other optional ] acts that are encouraged but not considered to be duties.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=ZAROUG|first=ABDULLAHI HASSAN|date=1985|title=THE CONCEPT OF PERMISSION, SUPEREROGATORY ACTS AND ASETICISM &#91;sic&#93; IN ISLAMIC JURISPRUDENCE|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20847307|journal=Islamic Studies|volume=24|issue=2|pages=167–180|jstor=20847307|issn=0578-8072|access-date=7 January 2023|archive-date=7 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207140013/https://www.jstor.org/stable/20847307|url-status=live}}</ref>
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online | ref=harv }}
</ref>


=== Declaration of faith ===
Muslims believe that God finally sent Muhammad as the last law bearing prophet ('']'') to convey the divine message to the whole world (to sum up and to finalize the word of God). In Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the ] (literally "trodden path"). Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's actions in their daily lives and the Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Qur'an.<ref>* ''Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World'' (2003), p.666* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Hadith | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=J. Robson | ref=harv}}* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Sunna | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=D. W. Brown | ref=harv}}</ref> This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith, which recount his words, his actions, and his personal characteristics. Hadith Qudsi is a sub-category of hadith, regarded as verbatim words of God quoted by Muhammad but is not part of the Quran.
] ], c. 16th century, inscribed with the ''Shahadah'']]
{{Main|Shahada}}
The ]h{{sfnp|Nasr|2003|pp=3, 39, 85, 270–272}} is an ] declaring belief in Islam. The expanded statement is "{{transliteration|ar|DIN|ʾašhadu ʾal-lā ʾilāha ʾillā-llāhu wa ʾašhadu ʾanna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh}}" ({{langx|ar|أشهد أن لا إله إلا الله وأشهد أن محمداً رسول الله|label=none}}), or, "I testify that there is no ] except ] and I testify that Muhammad is the messenger of God."<ref>Mohammad, N. 1985. "The doctrine of jihad: An introduction." '']'' 3(2):381–97.</ref> Islam is sometimes argued to have a very simple creed with the shahada being the premise for the rest of the religion. Non-Muslims wishing to ] are required to recite the shahada in front of witnesses.<ref>{{harvc |last=Kasim |first=Husain |year=2004 |c=Islam |pp=195–197 |in=Salamone}}</ref><ref>Galonnier, Juliette. "Moving In or Moving Toward? Reconceptualizing Conversion to Islam as a Liminal Process1". Moving In and Out of Islam, edited by Karin van Nieuwkerk, New York, US: University of Texas Press, 2021, pp. 44-66. https://doi.org/10.7560/317471-003 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023001/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.7560/317471-003/html |date=28 December 2023 }}</ref>


=== Prayer ===
A hadith involves two elements- a chain of narrators, called ], and the actual wording, called ]. Hadiths can be classified, by studying the narration, as "authentic" or "correct", called '']'' ({{lang-ar|صَحِيْح}}), "good", called '']'' ({{lang-ar|حَسَن}}) or "weak", called '']'' ({{lang-ar|ضَعِيْف}}) among others. ]<ref name="sahih-bukhari.com">. Sahih Bukhari. Retrieved on 2013-07-28.</ref> collected over 300,000 hadith, but only included 2,602 distinct hadith that passed the tests that codified them as authentic into his book ],<ref name="sahih-bukhari.com"/> which is considered by many to be the most ] source after the Quran.<ref> by Jonathan Brown, ], 2007</ref><ref name="Muqaddimah">''Muqaddimah Ibn al-Salah'', pg. 160-9 Dar al-Ma'aarif edition</ref>
{{Main|Salah}}
{{See also|Mosque|Jumu'ah}}
] in prayer, at the ], ]]]
Prayer in Islam, called ] or aṣ-ṣalāt ({{langx|ar|الصلاة|link=no}}), is seen as a personal communication with God and consists of repeating units called ] that include ] and ] to God. There are five timed prayers each day that are considered duties. The prayers are recited in the Arabic language and performed in ] of the ]. The act also requires a state of ritual purity achieved by means of either a routine '']'' ritual wash or, in certain circumstances, a '']'' full body ritual wash.<ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2002b|pp=18, 19}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Hedayetullah|2006|pp=53–55}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Kobeisy|2004|pp=22–34}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Momen|1987|p=178}}</ref>


A ] is a ] for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name ''masjid''. Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also an important social center for the ]. For example, the ] ("Prophetic Mosque") in Medina, ], used to also serve as a shelter for the poor.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Mattson |first=Ingrid |year=2006 |title=Women, Islam, and Mosques |pages=615–629 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Women and Religion in North America |series=Volume 2, Part VII. Islam |editor1=R. S. Keller |name-list-style=and |editor2=R. R. Ruether |place=Bloomington and Indianapolis |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-253-34687-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WPILfbtT5tQC&pg=PA615 |access-date=2 October 2021 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023019/https://books.google.com/books?id=WPILfbtT5tQC&pg=PA615#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> ]s are towers used to call the ], a vocal call to signal the prayer time.<ref>Pedersen, J., R. Hillenbrand, ], et al. 2010. "{{Doi-inline|10.1163/9789004206106_eifo_COM_0694|Masd̲j̲id}}." ''Encyclopedia of Islam''. Leiden: ]. Retrieved 25 May 2020.</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/mosque |title=Mosque |encyclopedia=] |access-date=17 September 2021 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=28 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928065350/https://www.britannica.com/topic/mosque |url-status=live }}</ref>
===Resurrection and judgment===
{{Main|Qiyama}}


=== Almsgiving ===
Belief in the "Day of Resurrection", '']'' ({{lang-ar|يوم القيامة}}) is also crucial for Muslims. They believe the time of ''Qiyāmah'' is preordained by God but unknown to man. The trials and ]s preceding and during the ''Qiyāmah'' are described in the Qur'an and the hadith, and also in the commentaries of ]. The Qur'an emphasizes ], a break from the ]n understanding of death.<ref>
{{Main|Zakat}}
* "Resurrection", ''The New Encyclopedia of Islam'' (2003)
{{See also|Sadaqah}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Avicenna | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | ref=harv }}: Ibn Sīnā, Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAbd Allāh b. Sīnā is known in the West as "Avicenna".
] in ]]]
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Qiyama | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | ref=harv }}
] (]: {{langx|ar|زكاة|translit=zakāh|label=none}}), also spelled ''Zakāt'' or ''Zakah'', is a type of ] characterized by the giving of a fixed portion (2.5% annually)<ref>Ahmed, Medani, and Sebastian Gianci. "Zakat." p. 479 in ''Encyclopedia of Taxation and Tax Policy''.</ref> of ] by those who can afford it to help the poor or needy, such as for freeing captives, those in ], or for (stranded) travellers, and for those employed to collect zakat. It acts as a form of ] in Muslim societies.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ariff |first=Mohamed |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NP4ZL0TJ9s4C&pg=PA55 |title=The Islamic Voluntary Sector in Southeast Asia: Islam and the Economic Development of Southeast Asia |publisher=] |year=1991 |isbn=978-981-3016-07-1 |pages=55– |access-date=7 October 2017 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023007/https://books.google.com/books?id=NP4ZL0TJ9s4C&&pg=PA55 |url-status=live }}</ref> It is considered a religious obligation that the well-off owe the needy because their wealth is seen as a trust from God's bounty,<ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2010|p=109-110}}: This is not regarded as charity because it is not really voluntary but instead is owed, by those who have received their wealth as a trust from God's bounty, to the poor.</ref> and is seen as a purification of one's excess wealth.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = RoutledgeCurzon| isbn = 9780415297967| title =Major World Religions: From Their Origins to the Present.| location = United Kingdom| year = 2003| last=Ridgeon| first=Lloyd| url = | page = 258|quote=Aside from its function of purifying believers' wealth, the payment of zakat may have contributed in no small way to the economic welfare of the Muslim community in Mecca.}}</ref> The total annual value contributed due to zakat is 15 times greater than global humanitarian aid donations, using conservative estimates.<ref>{{Cite news |date=1 June 2012 |title=A faith-based aid revolution in the Muslim world |work=] |url=https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/report/95564/analysis-faith-based-aid-revolution-muslim-world |access-date=27 August 2023 |archive-date=14 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210114014900/https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/report/95564/analysis-faith-based-aid-revolution-muslim-world |url-status=live }}</ref> ], as opposed to Zakat, is a much-encouraged optional charity.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Said |first=Abdul Aziz |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4bs7g0O4eLYC&pg=PA145 |title=Contemporary Islam: Dynamic, Not Static |publisher=] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-415-77011-8 |page=145 |display-authors=etal |access-date=7 October 2017 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023121/https://books.google.com/books?id=4bs7g0O4eLYC&pg=PA145 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfnp|Stefon|2010|p=}} A ] is a perpetual ], which finances hospitals and schools in Muslim societies.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hudson |first=A. |title=Equity and Trusts |year=2003 |edition=3rd |page=32 |location=London |publisher=Cavendish Publishing |isbn=1-85941-729-9}}</ref>
</ref>


=== Fasting ===
On Yawm al-Qiyāmah, Muslims believe all mankind will be judged on their good and bad deeds and consigned to '']'' (paradise) or '']'' (hell). The Qurʼan in Surat al-Zalzalah describes this as, "So whoever does an atom's weight of good will see it (99:7) and whoever does an atom's weight of evil will see it (99:8)." The Qurʼan ] that can condemn a person to ], such as ] in God ({{lang-ar|كفر}} ''{{transl|ar|ALA|kufr}}''), and dishonesty; however, the Qurʼan makes it clear God will forgive the ] of those who repent if he so wills. Good deeds, such as charity, prayer and compassion towards animals,<ref>Animals in Islam By Basheer Ahmad Masri Page 27</ref><ref>What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam:Second Edition: Second Edition By John L. Esposito Page 130</ref> will be rewarded with entry to heaven. Muslims view ] as a place of joy and bliss, with Qurʼanic references describing its features and the physical pleasures to come. Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.<ref>
]'', is served traditionally with ].]]
* {{Harvtxt|Smith|2006|p=89}}; ''Encyclopedia of Islam and Muslim World'', p.565
{{Main|Fasting in Islam}}
* "Heaven", ''The Columbia Encyclopedia'' (2000)
{{See also|Fasting during Ramadan}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Garden | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | author=Asma Afsaruddin | ref=harv }}
In Islam, fasting (]: {{langx|ar|صوم|translit=ṣawm|label=none}}) precludes food and drink, as well as other forms of consumption, such as ], and is performed from dawn to sunset. During the month of ], it is considered a duty for Muslims to fast.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ramadan |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ramadan |access-date=2023-08-16 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en |archive-date=9 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231009215438/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ramadan |url-status=live }}</ref> The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God by restraining oneself for God's sake from what is otherwise permissible and to think of the needy. In addition, there are other days, such as the ], when fasting is optional.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher =Tughra Books | isbn = 9781597846110| title = Fasting In Islam And The Month Of Ramadan| location = United States| year =2006 | last=Ramadanali| url = |page=51
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Paradise | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online | ref=harv }}
</ref> | quote = }}</ref>


=== Pilgrimage ===
''Yawm al-Qiyāmah'' is also identified in the Qur'an as ''Yawm ad-Dīn'' ({{lang-ar|يوم الدين}}), "Day of Religion";<ref>{{cite quran|1|4|style=ref}}</ref> ''as-sāʿah'' ({{lang-ar|الساعة}}), "the Last Hour";<ref>{{cite quran|6|31|style=ref}}</ref> and ''al-Qāriʿah'' ({{lang-ar|القارعة}}), "The Clatterer".<ref>{{cite quran|101|1|style=ref}}</ref>
{{Main|Hajj|Umrah}}
{{See also|Holiest sites in Islam}}
] during the ] season]]


The Islamic ], called the {{transliteration|ar|ALA|ḥajj}} ({{langx|ar|حج|link=no}}), is to be done at least once a lifetime by every Muslim with the means to do so during the ] of ]. Rituals of the Hajj mostly imitate the story of the family of ]. In ], pilgrims walk seven times around the ], which Muslims believe Abraham built as a place of worship, and they walk seven times between Mount ], recounting the steps of Abraham's wife, ], who was looking for water for her baby ] in the desert before Mecca developed into a settlement.<ref>{{harvp|Goldschmidt|Davidson|2005|p=48}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Farah|1994|pp=145–147}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Hajj |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online}}</ref> The pilgrimage also involves spending a day praying and worshipping in the plain of ] as well as symbolically ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Peters |first=F.E. |title=Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians |date=2009 |isbn=978-1-4008-2548-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HYJ2c9E9IM8C&pg=PA19 |page=20 |publisher=Princeton University Press |access-date=7 October 2014 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023112/https://books.google.com/books?id=HYJ2c9E9IM8C&pg=PA19#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> All Muslim men wear only two simple white unstitched pieces of cloth called ], intended to bring continuity through generations and uniformity among pilgrims despite class or origin.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cornell |first=Vincent J. |title=Voices of Islam: Voices of tradition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g5LNUS0ciAAC&pg=PA29 |access-date=26 August 2012 |year=2007 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-275-98733-6 |page=29}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Glassé|2003|p=}}</ref> Another form of pilgrimage, ], is optional and can be undertaken at any time of the year. Other sites of Islamic pilgrimage are ], where Muhammad died, as well as ], a city of many Islamic prophets and the site of ], which was the direction of prayer before Mecca.<ref>{{cite book|author=Michigan Consortium for Medieval and Early Modern Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p44kAQAAMAAJ|title=The Meeting of Two Worlds: Cultural Exchange Between East and West During the Period of the Crusades|publisher=Medieval Institute Publications, Western Michigan University|year=1986|isbn=0918720583|editor1=Goss, V. P.|volume=21|page=208|editor2=Bornstein, C. V.|access-date=15 January 2023|archive-date=28 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023032/https://books.google.com/books?id=p44kAQAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>]. 2008. ''The Siege of Mecca: The 1979 Uprising at Islam's Holiest Shrine''. ]. New York. {{ISBN|978-0-307-47290-8}}. p. 79.</ref>
===Divine will===
{{Main|Qadar}}
The concept of divine will is referred to as ''al-qadā wa'l-qadar'' ({{lang-ar|قدر}}), which literally derives from a root that means to ''to measure''. Everything, good and bad, is believed to have been decreed.<ref>*{{Harvtxt|Cohen-Mor|2001|p=4}}: "The idea of predestination is reinforced by the frequent mention of events 'being written' or 'being in a book' before they happen: 'Say: "Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us..."&nbsp;'&nbsp;"* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Fate | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | author=Ahmet T. Karamustafa | ref=harv }}: The verb ''qadara'' literally means "to measure, to determine". Here it is used to mean that "God measures and orders his creation".</ref>


=== Other acts of worship ===
==Five pillars==
]
{{Main|Five Pillars of Islam}}
{{Seealso|Quran#Recitation|Dua|Dhikr}}
Muslims recite and memorize the whole or parts of the Quran as acts of virtue. ] refers to the set of rules for the proper ] of the Quran.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = | isbn = | title = Foundation of Tajweed| location = | year = 2013|edition=2| last=Aboo Yahyaa| url = | page = 1
| quote = }}</ref> Many Muslims recite the whole Quran during the month of Ramadan.{{sfnp|Stefon|2010|p=}} One who has memorized the whole Quran is called a hafiz ("memorizer"), and hadiths mention that these individuals will be able to intercede for others on Judgment Day.{{sfnp|Nigosian|2004|p=}}


Supplication to God, called in Arabic {{transl|ar|DIN|duʿāʾ}} ({{langx|ar|دعاء}}&nbsp;{{IPA|ar|dʊˈʕæːʔ|IPA}}) has its own etiquette such as ] as if begging.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = Brill| isbn = 9789004335523| title = The Quṣṣāṣ of Early Islam| location = Netherlands| year = 2016| last=Armstrong| first=Lyall| url = | page = 184| quote = }}</ref>
The Pillars of Islam (''arkan al-Islam''; also ''arkan ad-din'', "pillars of religion") are five basic acts in Islam, considered obligatory for all believers. The Quran presents them as a framework for worship and a sign of commitment to the faith. They are (1) the creed (]), (2) daily prayers (]), (3) almsgiving (]), (4) fasting during ] and (5) the pilgrimage to Mecca (]) at least once in a lifetime. if you are financially and physically able to<ref>{{Cite web|title = Hajj - ReligionFacts|url = http://www.religionfacts.com/hajj|website = www.religionfacts.com|accessdate = 2015-11-21}}</ref> Both ] and ] sects agree on the essential details for the performance of these acts.<ref>, Oxford Islamic Studies Online</ref>


{{Listen
===Testimony===
|filename=112.AlIkhlas-MisharyRashedAlafasy.ogg
] ] with inscriptions of the Islamic declaration of faith]]
|title=''Al-Ikhlas''
{{main|Shahadah}}
|pos=right
|description= '']'' is the Quran's ] ] as recited by ] ]
|format=]
}}


Remembrance of God ({{langx|ar|ذكر|translit=Dhikr'|label=none}}) refers to phrases repeated referencing God. Commonly, this includes Tahmid, declaring ] ({{langx|ar|الحمد لله|translit=al-Ḥamdu lillāh|label=none}}) during prayer or when feeling thankful, ], declaring glory to God during prayer or when in awe of something and saying ']' ({{lang|ar|بسملة}}, {{transliteration|ar|ALA-LC|basmalah}}) before starting an act such as eating.<ref>{{Cite web|title=alhamdulillah |url=https://www.lexico.com/definition/alhamdulillah|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227042540/https://www.lexico.com/definition/alhamdulillah|url-status=dead|archive-date=February 27, 2020|access-date=2021-10-16|website=Lexico}}</ref>
The ],<ref>] The Heart of Islam, Enduring Values for Humanity (April., 2003), pp 3, 39, 85, 27–272
</ref> which is the basic ] of Islam that must be recited under ] with the specific statement: "''{{transl|ar|ISO|'ašhadu 'al-lā ilāha illā-llāhu wa 'ašhadu 'anna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh}}''", or "I testify that there is no god but ], Muhammad is the messenger of God."<ref>N Mohammad (1985), The doctrine of jihad: An introduction, Journal of Law and Religion, 3(2): 381-397</ref> This testament is a foundation for all other beliefs and practices in Islam. Muslims must repeat the ''shahadah'' in prayer, and non-Muslims wishing to ] are required to recite the creed.<ref>
* Farah (1994), p.135
* Momen (1987), p.178
* "Islam", ''Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals'' (2004)
</ref>


===Prayer=== == History ==
{{Main|History of Islam}}
{{main|Salat}}
{{For timeline|Timeline of the history of Islam}}
{{See also|Mosque|Jumu'ah}}
{{See also|List of Muslim empires and dynasties}}
<gallery>
{{wide image|Madina Haram at evening.jpg|1000px|align-cap=center|A panoramic view of ] (the Mosque of the Prophet) in ], ] region, today's ], the second most sacred mosque in Islam}}
File:Fatih Mosque-Prishtinë.jpg|The weekly ] prayer, being held in ], ].
File:Mosque.jpg|Muslim men ] during prayer in the ], ].
</gallery>


=== Muhammad and the beginning of Islam (570–632) ===
Ritual prayers, called Ṣalāh or Ṣalāt (]: ]), must be performed five times a ]. Salat is intended to focus the mind on ], and is seen as a personal communication with him that expresses gratitude and ]. Salat is compulsory but flexibility in the specifics is allowed depending on circumstances. The prayers are recited in the ], and consist of verses from the Qur'an.<ref>
{{Main|Muhammad|Muhammad in Islam}}
* {{Harvtxt|Esposito|2002b|pp=18,19}}
{{See also|Early social changes under Islam}}
* {{Harvtxt|Hedáyetullah|2006|pp=53–55}}
]]]
* {{Harvtxt|Kobeisy|2004|pp=22–34}}
According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad was born in ] in ] ] and was orphaned early in life. Growing up as a trader, he became known as the "]" ({{langx|ar|الامين}}) and was sought after as an impartial arbitrator. He later married his employer, the businesswoman ].{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=6}} In the year 610 CE, troubled by the moral decline and idolatry prevalent in Mecca and seeking seclusion and spiritual contemplation, Muhammad retreated to the ] in the mountain ], near Mecca. It was during his time in the cave that he is said to have ] of the ] from the angel ].<ref>{{harvc |c=Muhammad |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online |year=n.d. |last2=Welch |first2=A.T. |last1=Buhl |first1=F.}}</ref> The event of Muhammad's retreat to the cave and subsequent revelation is known as the "]" (''Laylat al-Qadr'') and is considered a significant event in Islamic history. During the next 22 years of his life, from age 40 onwards, Muhammad continued to receive revelations from God, becoming the last or ] sent to mankind.<ref name="harvp|Esposito|2002b|pp=4–5"/><ref name="harvp|Peters|2003|p=9"/><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Muhammad |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online}}</ref>
* {{Harvtxt|Momen|1987|p=178}}
]''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ottomans : religious painting |url=http://www.ee.bilkent.edu.tr/~history/ottoman33.html |access-date=1 May 2016}}</ref> Muhammad is shown with veiled face, {{Circa|1595}}.]]
</ref> The prayers are done with the chest in direction of the ] though in the early days of Islam, they were done in direction of ].
During this time, ] preached first in secret and then in public, imploring his listeners to abandon ] and worship one God. Many early converts to Islam were women, the poor, foreigners, and slaves like the first ] ].<ref>Rabah, Bilal B. ''].''</ref> The Meccan elite felt Muhammad was destabilizing their social order by preaching about one God and giving questionable ideas to the poor and slaves because they profited from the pilgrimages to the idols of the Kaaba.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ünal |first=Ali |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DyuqdDIjaswC&pg=PA1323 |title=The Qurʼan with Annotated Interpretation in Modern English |publisher=Tughra Books |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-59784-000-2 |pages=1323– |access-date=7 October 2017 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024048/https://books.google.com/books?id=DyuqdDIjaswC&pg=PA1323#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Holt|Lambton|Lewis|1977|p=36}}</ref>


After 12 years of the ], Muhammad and his ] performed the '']'' ("emigration") in 622 to the city of Yathrib (current-day Medina). There, with the Medinan converts (the '']'') and the Meccan migrants (the '']''), ] established his ]. The ] was signed by all the tribes of Medina. This established religious freedoms and freedom to use their own laws among the Muslim and non-Muslim communities as well as an agreement to defend Medina from external threats.{{sfnp|Serjeant|1978|p=4}} Meccan forces and their allies lost against the Muslims at the ] in 624 and then fought an inconclusive battle in the ]<ref>{{Citation |last=Peter Crawford |title=The War of the Three Gods: Romans, Persians and the Rise of Islam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d-oHBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA83 |page=83 |publisher=Pen & Sword Books Limited |isbn=9781473828650 |date=2013-07-16 |access-date=5 August 2022 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023957/https://books.google.com/books?id=d-oHBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA83 |url-status=live }}.</ref> before unsuccessfully besieging Medina in the ] (March–April&nbsp;627). In 628, the ] was signed between Mecca and the Muslims, but it was broken by Mecca two years later. As more tribes converted to Islam, Meccan trade routes were cut off by the Muslims.<ref>{{harvp|Peters|2003|pp=78–79, 194}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Lapidus|2002|pp=23–28}}</ref> By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless ], and by the time of his death in 632 (at age 62) he had united the ] into a single religious ].<ref>{{harvc|c=Muhammad |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online |year=n.d. |last2=Welch |first2=A.T. |last1=Buhl |first1=F.}}</ref><ref name="610CE" />
A mosque is a ] for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name, ''masjid''. The word ''mosque'' in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated to Islamic worship, although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller, privately owned mosque and the larger, "collective" mosque (''masjid jāmi''').<ref>{{Cite book|title=Budge's Egypt: A Classic 19th century Travel Guide |last=Budge |first=E.A. Wallis |publisher=Courier Dover Publications |date=June 13, 2001 |pages=123–128 |isbn=0-486-41721-2}}</ref> Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also important to the ] as a place to meet and study. ] the Prophets Mosque in Madina was also a place of refuge for the poor.<ref>Encyclopedia of Women and Religion in North America: edited by Rosemary Skinner Keller, Rosemary Radford Ruether, Marie Cantlon Page 615 </ref> Modern mosques have evolved greatly from the early designs of the 7th century, and contain a variety of architectural elements such as ]s.<ref>
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Masdjid | encyclopedia=] |last1=Pedersen|first1=J. |last2=Hillenbrand |first2=R.|last3=Burton-Page|first3=J.|authorlink3=J. Burton-Page| ref=harv }}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Mosque | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online | ref=harv }}
</ref>


=== Early Islamic period (632–750) ===
===Alms-giving===
{{Further|Succession to Muhammad|Early Muslim conquests}}
{{main|Zakat|Sadaqah}}
{{See also|Event of Ghadir Khumm|Saqifa}}
]]]
] in ] built by caliph ]; completed at the end of the ]]]
Muhammad died in 632 and the first successors, called ]s – ], ], ], ] and sometimes ]<ref>{{Cite book| last1 = Melchert| first1 = Christopher| date = 2020| contribution = The Rightly Guided Caliphs: The Range of Views Preserved in Ḥadīth| editor1-last = al-Sarhan| editor1-first = Saud| title = Political Quietism in Islam: Sunni and Shi'i Practice and Thought| location = London and New York| publisher = ]| isbn = 978-1-83860-765-4| pages = 70–71| contribution-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=96TDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA63| access-date = 17 February 2022| archive-date = 28 December 2023| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023957/https://books.google.com/books?id=96TDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA63#v=onepage&q&f=false| url-status = live}}</ref> – are known in Sunni Islam as ''al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn'' ("]").{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=40}} Some tribes left Islam and rebelled under leaders who declared themselves new prophets but were crushed by Abu Bakr in the ].<ref>{{harvp|Holt|Lewis|1977|p=57}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Hourani|2002|p=22}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Lapidus|2002|p=32}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Madelung|1996|p=43}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Ṭabāṭabāʼī|1979|pp=30–50}}</ref> Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and heretics and taxed heavily, often helped Muslims take over their lands,{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=38}} resulting in rapid expansion of the caliphate into the ] and ] empires.<ref>{{harvp|Holt|Lewis|1977|p=74}}</ref><ref name="harvp|Gardet|Jomier|2012">{{harvp|Gardet|Jomier|2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=J. Kuiper |first=Matthew |title=Da'wa: A Global History of Islamic Missionary Thought and Practice |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2021 |isbn=9781351510721 |page=85}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Lapidus |first=Ira M. |title=A History of Islamic Societies |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-521-51430-9 |pages=60–61 |author-link=Ira M. Lapidus}}</ref> Uthman ] and his assassination by rebels led to Ali being elected the next Caliph. In the ], Muhammad's widow, ], raised an army against Ali, attempting to avenge the death of Uthman, but was defeated at the ]. Ali attempted to remove the governor of Syria, ], who was seen as corrupt. Mu'awiya then declared war on Ali and was defeated in the ]. Ali's decision to arbitrate angered the ], an extremist sect, who felt that by not fighting a sinner, Ali became a sinner as well. The Kharijites rebelled and were defeated in the ] but a Kharijite assassin later killed Ali. Ali's son, Hasan ibn Ali, was elected Caliph and signed a ] to avoid further fighting, abdicating to Mu'awiya in return for Mu'awiya not appointing a successor.{{sfnp|Holt|Lewis|1977|pp=67–72}} Mu'awiya began the ] with the appointment of his son ] as successor, sparking the ]. During the ], ] was killed by Yazid's forces; the event has been ] by Shias ever since. Sunnis, led by ] and opposed to a dynastic caliphate, were defeated in the ]. These disputes over leadership would give rise to the ]-] schism,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Harney |first=John |date=3 January 2016 |title=How Do Sunni and Shia Islam Differ? |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/04/world/middleeast/q-and-a-how-do-sunni-and-shia-islam-differ.html |access-date=4 January 2016 |archive-date=11 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200511081444/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/04/world/middleeast/q-and-a-how-do-sunni-and-shia-islam-differ.html |url-status=live }}</ref> with the Shia believing leadership belongs to Muhammad's family through Ali, called the ].{{sfnp|Waines|2003|p=46}}
Abu Bakr's leadership oversaw the beginning of the compilation of the Quran. The Caliph ] set up the committee, ],{{sfnp|Ismāʻīl ibn ʻUmar Ibn Kathīr|2012|p=505}}<ref>''Umar Ibn Abdul Aziz'' By Imam Abu Muhammad Abdullah ibn Abdul Hakam died 214 AH 829 C.E. Publisher Zam Zam Publishers Karachi, pp. 54–59</ref> and ] wrote one of the earliest books on Islamic jurisprudence, the '']'', as a consensus of the opinion of those jurists.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Noel James Coulson |title=History of Islamic Law |year=1964 |isbn=978-0-7486-0514-9 |page=103 |publisher=King Abdulaziz Public Library |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d5Ks31qHlSYC |access-date=7 October 2014 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023959/https://books.google.com/books?id=d5Ks31qHlSYC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |editor-last1=Houtsma |editor-first1=M.T. |editor-last2=Wensinck |editor-first2=A.J. |editor-last3=Lévi-Provençal |editor-first3=E. |editor-last4=Gibb |editor-first4=H.A.R. |editor-last5=Heffening |editor-first5=W. |series=Volume V: L—Moriscos |title=E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936 |publisher=] |year=1993 |edition=reprint |isbn=978-90-04-09791-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Va6oSxzojzoC |pages=207– |access-date=19 September 2021 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024105/https://books.google.com/books?id=Va6oSxzojzoC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor=] |title=Studies in Islamic History and Civilization: In Honour of Professor David Ayalon |year=1986 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789652640147 |page=264 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0_wUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA264 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024050/https://books.google.com/books?id=0_wUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA264#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> The ] believed there was no compromised middle ground between good and evil, and any Muslim who committed a grave sin would become an unbeliever. The term "kharijites" would also be used to refer to later groups such as ].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Mamouri|first=Ali|date=8 January 2015|title=Who are the Kharijites and what do they have to do with IS?|work=Al-monitor|url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2015/01/islamic-state-kjarijites-continuation.html|access-date=6 March 2022|archive-date=6 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220306213145/https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2015/01/islamic-state-kjarijites-continuation.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The ] taught that people's righteousness could be judged by God alone. Therefore, wrongdoers might be considered misguided, but not denounced as unbelievers.{{sfnp|Blankinship|2008|p=43}} This attitude came to prevail into mainstream Islamic beliefs.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=87}}


The Umayyad dynasty conquered the ], the ], ] and ].<ref>{{cite book |first=Donald |last=Puchala |title=Theory and History in International Relations |page=137 |publisher=Routledge |year=2003}}</ref> The Umayyads struggled with a lack of legitimacy and relied on a heavily patronized military.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=45}} Since the ] tax was a tax paid by non-Muslims which exempted them from military service, the Umayyads denied recognizing the conversion of non-Arabs, as it reduced revenue.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=87}} While the Rashidun Caliphate emphasized austerity, with Umar even requiring an inventory of each official's possessions,<ref>{{cite book |first1=Ahmad Ibn Jabir|last1=Al-Biladhuri |first2=Philip|last2=Hitti|title=Kitab Futuhu'l-Buldan|page=219 |publisher=AMS Press |year=1969}}</ref> Umayyad luxury bred dissatisfaction among the pious.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=87}} The Kharijites led the ], leading to the first Muslim states independent of the Caliphate. In the ], non-Arab converts ('']''), Arab clans pushed aside by the Umayyad clan, and some Shi'a rallied and overthrew the Umayyads, inaugurating the more cosmopolitan Abbasid dynasty in 750.{{sfnp|Lapidus|2002|p=56}}{{sfnp|Lewis|1993|pp=71–83}}
"Zakāt" ({{lang-ar|زكاة}} ''{{transl|ar|ALA|zakāh}}'' "]") is giving a fixed portion of accumulated wealth by those who can afford it to help the poor or needy and for those employed to collect Zakat; also, for bringing hearts together, freeing captives, for those in debt (or ]) and for the (stranded) traveller.<ref>Qurʼan, Surat al-Tawbah 9:60 "Zakat expenditures are only for the poor and for the needy and for those employed to collect (Zakat) and for bringing hearts together and for freeing captives and for those in debt (or ]) and for the cause of Allah and for the (stranded) traveller - an obligation (imposed) by Allah . And Allah is Knowing and Wise."</ref><ref>The Islamic Voluntary Sector in Southeast Asia edited by K. A. Mohamed Ariff </ref> It is considered a religious obligation (as opposed to voluntary charity) that the well-off owe to the needy because their wealth is seen as a "trust from God's bounty". Conservative estimates of annual zakat is estimated to be 15 times global humanitarian aid contributions.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report/95564/analysis-a-faith-based-aid-revolution-in-the-muslim-world|title=Analysis: A faith-based aid revolution in the Muslim world?|agency=]|accessdate=2013-09-24|date=2012-06-01}}</ref> The amount of zakat to be paid on ] (e.g. money) is 2.5% (1/40) per year,<ref name="AhmedGianci">Medani Ahmed and Sebastian Gianci, ''Zakat'', Encyclopedia of Taxation and Tax Policy, p. 479</ref> for people who are not poor. The Qur'an and the hadith also urge a Muslim to give even more as an act of voluntary alms-giving called '']''.<ref>
* {{Cite quran|2|177|style=ref}}
* {{Harvtxt|Esposito|2004|p=90}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Zakat | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online | ref=harv }}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Zakat | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | ref=harv }}
</ref>


=== Classical era (750–1258) ===
===Fasting===
{{Further|Hadith studies|Islamic philosophy}}
{{main|Sawm}}
{{See also|Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe|Turco-Persian tradition}}
{{Further|Sawm of Ramadan}}


Al-Shafi'i codified a method to determine the reliability of hadith.{{sfnp|Lapidus|2002|p=86}} During the early Abbasid era, scholars such as ] and ] compiled the major ] while scholars like ] and ] compiled major Shia hadith collections. The four Sunni ]s, the Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki, and Shafi'i, were established around the teachings of ], ], Malik ibn Anas and ]. In contrast, the teachings of ] formed the ]. In the 9th century, ] completed the first commentary of the Quran, the '']'', which became one of the most cited commentaries in Sunni Islam. Some Muslims began questioning the piety of indulgence in worldly life and emphasized poverty, humility, and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Ascetics such as ] inspired a movement that would evolve into ''tasawwuf'' or ].<ref name=EB-Sufism />{{sfnp|Lapidus|2002|pp=90, 91}}
Fasting, ({{lang-ar|صوم}} ''{{transl|ar|ALA|ṣawm}}''), from food and drink (among other things) must be performed from dawn to dusk during the month of ]. The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God, and during it Muslims should express their gratitude for and dependence on him, atone for their past sins, and think of the needy. ''Sawm'' is not obligatory for several groups for whom it would constitute an undue burden. For others, flexibility is allowed depending on circumstances, but missed fasts usually must be made up quickly.<ref>
* {{Cite quran|2|184|style=ref}}
* {{Harvtxt|Esposito|2004|pp=90,91}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online | ref=harv }}
</ref>


At this time, theological problems, notably on free will, were prominently tackled, with Hasan al Basri holding that although God knows people's actions, good and evil come from abuse of free will and the ].{{sfnp|Blankinship|2008|pp=38-39}}{{efn|"Hasan al Basri is often considered one of the first who rejected an angelic origin for the devil, arguing that his fall was the result of his own free-will, not God's determination. Hasan al Basri also argued that angels are incapable of sin or errors and nobler than humans and even prophets. Both early Shias and Sunnis opposed his view.<ref>Omar Hamdan ''Studien zur Kanonisierung des Korantextes: al-Ḥasan al-Baṣrīs Beiträge zur Geschichte des Korans'' Otto Harrassowitz Verlag 2006 {{ISBN|978-3447053495}} pp. 291–292 (German)</ref>}} Greek rationalist philosophy influenced a speculative school of thought known as ], who famously advocated the notion of free-will originated by ].{{sfnp|Blankinship|2008|p=50}} Caliph ] made it an official creed and unsuccessfully attempted to force this position on the majority.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=88}} Caliph ] carried out ]s, with the traditionalist ] notably refusing to conform to the Muʿtazila idea that the Quran was ], which resulted in him being tortured and kept in an unlit prison cell for nearly thirty months.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Doi |first=Abdur Rahman |title=Shariah: The Islamic Law |location=London |publisher=Ta-Ha Publishers |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-907461-38-8 |page=110}}</ref> However, other ] of ] – ] founded by ] and ] founded by ] – were more successful in being widely adopted. Philosophers such as ], ] and ] sought to harmonize Aristotle's ideas with the teachings of Islam, similar to later ] within ] and ]' work within Judaism, while others like ] argued against such ] and ultimately prevailed.<ref>{{harvp|Lapidus|2002|p=160}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Waines|2003|pp=126–127}}</ref>
===Pilgrimage===
] on '']'']] ] from a manuscript dated c. 1200]]
This era is sometimes called the "]".<ref>{{harvp|Holt|Lewis|1977|pp=80, 92, 105}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Holt|Lambton|Lewis|1977|pp=661–663}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Lapidus|2002|p=56}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Lewis|1993|p=84}}</ref><ref name="harvp|Gardet|Jomier|2012"/> Islamic scientific achievements spanned a wide range of subject areas including ], ], ], and ] as well as ], ], ] and ].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=King |first=David A. |year=1983 |title=The Astronomy of the Mamluks |journal=] |volume=74 |issue=4 |pages=531–55 |doi=10.1086/353360 |s2cid=144315162 | issn=0021-1753}}</ref><ref>Hassan, Ahmad Y. 1996. "." Pp. 351–99 in ''Islam and the Challenge of Modernity'', edited by S. S. Al-Attas. Kuala Lumpur: ]. Archived from the on 2 April 2015.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ854295.pdf|title=Contributions of Islamic scholars to the scientific enterprise|access-date=13 December 2022|archive-date=23 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230523192533/https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ854295.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=The greatest scientific advances from the Muslim world|website=]|date=February 2010|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2010/feb/01/islamic-science|access-date=13 December 2022|archive-date=13 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221213154451/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2010/feb/01/islamic-science|url-status=live}}</ref> ] was a pioneer in ],<ref>Jacquart, Danielle (2008). "Islamic Pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Theories and Substances". European Review (Cambridge University Press) 16: 219–227.</ref><ref>David W. Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (August 2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine", Heart Views 4 (2).</ref> and his '']'' was used as a standard medicinal text in the Islamic world and ] for centuries. ] was the first to identify the diseases ] and ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/broughttolife/people/alrazi.aspx|title=Abu Bakr Mohammad Ibn Zakariya al-Razi (Rhazes) (c. 865-925)|publisher=sciencemuseum.org.uk|access-date=31 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150506072259/http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/broughttolife/people/alrazi.aspx|archive-date=6 May 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> ]s of the time issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Alatas |first=Syed Farid |year=2006 |title=From Jami'ah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian–Muslim Dialogue |url=https://zenodo.org/record/29439 |journal=] |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=112–132 |doi=10.1177/0011392106058837 |s2cid=144509355 |access-date=12 September 2019 |archive-date=23 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170923024727/https://zenodo.org/record/29439/files/6.1From_Jamiah_to_University.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Imamuddin |first=S.M. |title=Muslim Spain 711–1492 AD |publisher=] |year=1981 |isbn=978-90-04-06131-6 |page=169}}</ref> ] is regarded as the father of the modern ] and often referred to as the "world's first true scientist", in particular regarding his work in ].<ref>{{cite journal |author-link=Gerald J. Toomer|first=G. J. |last=Toomer |jstor=228328 |title=Review Work: Matthias Schramm (1963) ''Ibn Al-Haythams Weg zur Physik'' |journal=Isis |volume=55 |issue=4 |date=Dec 1964 |page=464 |quote=Schramm sums up achievement in the development of scientific method.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Al-Khalili |first=Jim |date=4 January 2009 |title=The 'first true scientist' |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7810846.stm |access-date=24 September 2013 |archive-date=26 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150426041228/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7810846.stm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gorini |first=Rosanna |date=October 2003 |title=Al-Haytham the man of experience. First steps in the science of vision |journal=Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=53–55 |url=http://www.ishim.net/ishimj/4/10.pdf |access-date=25 September 2008 |archive-date=17 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190717022851/http://www.ishim.net/ishimj/4/10.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In engineering, the ] brothers' ] ] player is considered to have been the first ].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Koetsier |first1=Teun |title=On the prehistory of programmable machines: musical automata, looms, calculators |journal=Mechanism and Machine Theory |date=May 2001 |volume=36 |issue=5 |pages=589–603 |doi=10.1016/S0094-114X(01)00005-2 }}</ref> In ], the concept of the ] is named after ], who is considered a founder of ], which is named after his book ], while others developed the concept of a ].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Katz |first1=Victor J. |last2=Barton |first2=Bill |title=Stages in the History of Algebra with Implications for Teaching |journal=Educational Studies in Mathematics |date=18 September 2007 |volume=66 |issue=2 |pages=185–201 |doi=10.1007/s10649-006-9023-7 |s2cid=120363574 }}</ref> The government paid scientists the equivalent salary of professional athletes today.<ref>{{harvp|Ahmed|2006|pp=23, 42, 84}}</ref> ] recognizes the ], founded in 859, as the world's oldest degree-granting university.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Young |first=Mark |url=https://archive.org/details/guinnessbookofwo1998newy |title=The Guinness Book of Records |year=1998 |page= |publisher=Bantam |isbn=978-0-553-57895-9}}</ref> Many non-Muslims, such as ], ] and ],<ref name="Brague 2009"/> ] in various fields,<ref>Hill, Donald. ''Islamic Science and Engineering''. 1993. Edinburgh Univ. Press. {{ISBN|0-7486-0455-3}}, p.4</ref><ref>Rémi Brague, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927015958/http://www.christiansofiraq.com/assyriancontributionstotheislamiccivilization.htm |date=2013-09-27 }}</ref> and the institution known as the ] employed ] and ] to both translate works into Arabic and to develop new knowledge.<ref>Meri, Josef W. and Jere L. Bacharach. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024001/https://books.google.com/books?id=MypbfKdMePIC&pg=PA304#v=onepage&q&f=false |date=28 December 2023 }}. 2006, p. 304.</ref><ref name="Brague 2009">{{cite book|title=The Legend of the Middle Ages: Philosophical Explorations of Medieval Christianity, Judaism, and Islam|first=Rémi |last=Brague|year= 2009| isbn=9780226070803| page =164|publisher=University of Chicago Press|quote=Neither were there any Muslims among the Ninth-Century translators. Amost all of them were Christians of various Eastern denominations: Jacobites, Melchites, and, above all, Nestorians... A few others were Sabians.}}</ref><ref>]. 1994. ''A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam''. New York: ]. {{ISBN|0-8147-8023-7}}. pp. 245, 250, 256–57.</ref>
{{main|Hajj}}


Soldiers broke away from the Abbasid empire and established their own dynasties, such as the ]s in 868 in Egypt<ref>{{cite book|last=Holt|first=Peter Malcolm|author-link=Peter Holt (historian)|title=The Crusader States and Their Neighbours, 1098–1291|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A0qLHVGgH7AC&pg=PA8|year=2004|publisher=Pearson Longman|isbn=978-0-582-36931-3|page=6|access-date=2 February 2023|archive-date=28 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024001/https://books.google.com/books?id=A0qLHVGgH7AC&pg=PA8|url-status=live}}</ref> and the ] in 977 in Central Asia.<ref>{{cite book |title=Islamic Central Asia: an anthology of historical sources |editor-first1=Scott Cameron |editor-last1=Levi |editor-first2=Ron |editor-last2=Sela |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=2010 |page=83}}</ref> In this fragmentation came the ], roughly between 945 and 1055, which saw the rise of the ] ] Shi'a missionary movement. One Isma'ili group, the ], took control of North Africa in the 10th century<ref>Neue Fischer Weltgeschichte "Islamisierung in Zentralasien bis zur Mongolenzeit" Band 10: Zentralasien, 2012, p. 191 (German)</ref> and another Isma'ili group, the ], sacked Mecca and stole the ], a rock placed within the Kaaba, in their unsuccessful rebellion.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Glubb |first=John Bagot |title=Mecca (Saudi Arabia) |encyclopedia=] |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Mecca#ref887188 |access-date=18 September 2021 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=6 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200506004706/https://www.britannica.com/place/Mecca#ref887188 |url-status=live }}</ref> Yet another Isma'ili group, the ], conquered Baghdad and turned the Abbasids into a figurehead monarchy. The Sunni Seljuk dynasty campaigned to ] by promulgating the scholarly opinions of the time, notably with the construction of educational institutions known as ], which are associated with Al-Ghazali and ].<ref>Andreas Graeser ''Zenon von Kition: Positionen u. Probleme'' ] 1975 {{ISBN|978-3-11-004673-1}} p. 260</ref>
The ], called the ''{{transl|ar|ALA|ḥajj}}'' ({{lang-ar|حج}}), has to be done during the ] of '']'' in the city of Mecca. Every ] Muslim who can afford it must make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his or her lifetime. Rituals of the Hajj include: spending a day and a night in the tents in the desert plain of Mina, then a day in the desert plain of Arafat praying and worshiping God, following the foot steps of Abraham. Then spending a night out in the open, sleeping on the desert sand in the desert plain of Muzdalifah, then moving to Jamarat, symbolically ] recounting Abraham's actions.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4xIijTTxX9UC&pg=PA279&dq=steps+of+hajj&hl=en&sa=X&ei=yPeQUryEH4Gjhge03oDgCg&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=steps%20of%20hajj&f=false|title=Getting the Best Out of Hajj By Abu Muneer Ismail Davids|publisher=|accessdate=7 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HYJ2c9E9IM8C&pg=PA19&dq=hajj+follows+the+foot+steps+of+abraham&hl=en&sa=X&ei=6LkkUdCJH4aG0AWqn4CYDw&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=hajj%20follows%20the%20foot%20steps%20of%20abraham&f=false|title=Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians By F. E. Peters Page 20|publisher=|accessdate=7 October 2014}}</ref><ref>Islam and the Glorious Ka'abah: None By Sayed M Alhuseini, Farouq M. Alhuseini Page 61 </ref> Then going to Mecca and walking seven times around the ] which Muslims believe was built as a place of worship by Abraham. Then walking seven times between ] and ] recounting the steps of Abraham's wife, while she was looking for water for her son Ismael in the desert before Mecca developed into a settlement.<ref>
* {{Harvtxt|Farah|1994|pp=145–147}}
* {{Harvtxt|Goldschmidt|2005|p=48}}{{citation not found}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Hajj | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online | ref=harv }}
</ref>


The expansion of the Muslim world continued with religious missions converting ] to Islam. The ] reached deep into the ] and many converted to Islam,{{sfnp|Arnold|1896|pp=227–228}} in particular ]s whose descendants make up the vast majority of Indian Muslims.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-36220329|title=Why are many Indian Muslims seen as untouchable?|publisher=BBCnews|date=10 May 2016|access-date=6 October 2022|archive-date=7 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221007024220/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-36220329|url-status=live}}</ref> Trade brought many ], where they virtually dominated the import and export industry of the ].<ref>{{cite web |title=Islam in China |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/china_1.shtml |access-date=10 August 2011 |publisher=BBC |archive-date=22 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181122142756/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/china_1.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> Muslims were recruited as a ] in the ].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lipman|first=Jonathan Newman|title=Familiar Strangers, a history of Muslims in Northwest China|location=Seattle, WA|publisher=University of Washington Press|year=1997|isbn=978-0-295-97644-0|page=33}}</ref>
==Law and jurisprudence==
{{Main|Sharia|Fiqh|Early scholars of Islam}}
{{Fiqh |width=19.0em}}


=== Pre-modern era (1258 – 18th century) ===
The ''Shariʻah'' (literally "the path leading to the watering place") is Islamic law and constitutes a system of duties that are incumbent upon a Muslim by virtue of his or her religious belief.<ref name="BritannicaShariah">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Shari'ah | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online | ref=harv }}</ref> The study of Islamic law is called '']'', or "Islamic jurisprudence". The methods of jurisprudence used are known as '']'' ("legal theory", or "principles of jurisprudence"). Much of it has evolved with the objective to prevent innovation or alteration in the original religion, known as ]. Four fundamental evidence, codified by ], used are, in order of precedence: the Qur'an, the Hadith (the practice of Muhammad), the consensus of the Muslim jurists ('']''), and analogical reasoning ('']''). Rulings over actions can be categorized as those that are obligatory ('']'') recommendanded ('']''), permissible ('']''), frowned on ('']'') and prohibited ('']'').
{{Further|Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam}}
], 7{{sup|th}} ] ruler of the ], converts to Islam. 14th-century depiction]]
Through Muslim trade networks and the activity of Sufi orders,{{sfnp|Arnold|1896|pp=125–258}} Islam spread into new areas<ref>{{cite web |title=The Spread of Islam |url=http://www.yale.edu/yup/pdf/cim6.pdf |access-date=2 November 2013 |archive-date=3 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103220022/http://www.yale.edu/yup/pdf/cim6.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> and Muslims assimilated into new cultures.


Under the ], Islam spread to ].<ref>{{cite web |date=6 May 2008 |title=Ottoman Empire |publisher=Oxford Islamic Studies Online |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1801?_hi=41&_pos=3 |access-date=26 August 2010 |archive-date=10 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220610093907/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1801?_hi=41 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Conversion to Islam often involved a degree of ],<ref>{{Cite book |title=Islamic and European Expansion |publisher=] |year=1993 |editor-last=Adas |editor-first=Michael |location=Philadelphia |page=25}}</ref> as illustrated by Muhammad's appearance in ] folklore.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Metcalf |first=Barbara |title=Islam in South Asia in Practice |publisher=] |year=2009 |page=104}}</ref> Muslim Turks incorporated elements of ] to Islam.{{efn|"In recent years, the idea of syncretism has been challenged. Given the lack of authority to define or enforce an Orthodox doctrine about Islam, some scholars argue there had no prescribed beliefs, only prescribed practise, in Islam before the 16th century.{{sfnp|Peacock|2019|p=20–22}}}}{{sfnp|Çakmak|2017|pp=1425–1429}} ] who were descended from earlier immigrants were assimilated, sometimes through laws mandating assimilation,<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Farmer|editor1-first=Edward L.|title=Zhu Yuanzhang and Early Ming Legislation: The Reordering of Chinese Society Following the Era of Mongol Rule|date=1995|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9004103910|page=82|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TCIjZ7l6TX8C&pg=PA82|access-date=19 February 2023|archive-date=28 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024330/https://books.google.com/books?id=TCIjZ7l6TX8C&pg=PA82#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> by adopting Chinese names and ] while ] became an important center of Islamic study.<ref>Israeli, Raphael (2002). ''Islam in China''. p. 292. ]. {{ISBN|0-7391-0375-X}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dillon |first=Michael |year=1999 |title=China's Muslim Hui Community |publisher=Curzon |url=https://archive.org/details/chinasmuslimhuic00dill |isbn=978-0-7007-1026-3 |page= |url-access=registration}}</ref>
The Quran set the rights, the responsibilities and the rules for people and for societies to adhere to. Muhammad provided an example, which is recorded in the hadith books, showing how he practically implemented those rules in a society.


Cultural shifts were evident with the decrease in Arab influence after the ] of the Abbasid Caliphate.<ref>{{harvp|Bulliet|2005|p=497}}</ref> The Muslim Mongol Khanates in ] and ] benefited from increased cross-cultural access to East Asia under ] and thus flourished and developed more distinctively from Arab influence, such as the ] under the ].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Subtelny |first=Maria Eva |date=November 1988 |title=Socioeconomic Bases of Cultural Patronage under the Later Timurids |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-middle-east-studies/article/socioeconomic-bases-of-cultural-patronage-under-the-later-timurids/2A0F3018EE155F23FC4A7F5F25D7DE6D |journal=] |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=479–505 |doi=10.1017/S0020743800053861 |s2cid=162411014 |access-date=7 November 2016 |archive-date=13 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200813204329/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-middle-east-studies/article/socioeconomic-bases-of-cultural-patronage-under-the-later-timurids/2A0F3018EE155F23FC4A7F5F25D7DE6D |url-status=live }}</ref> ] (1201–1274) proposed the ] that was later argued to be adopted by ] unrevised in his ] model,<ref>{{cite web|date=1999|title=Nasir al-Din al-Tusi|publisher=University of St Andrews|url=https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Al-Tusi_Nasir/|access-date=27 August 2023|archive-date=6 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181006055638/http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Al-Tusi_Nasir.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and ]'s estimate of ] would not be surpassed for 180 years.<ref>{{cite web |date=1999 |title=Ghiyath al-Din Jamshid Mas'ud al-Kashi |publisher=University of St Andrews |url=https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Al-Kashi/ |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=4 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220104103227/https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Al-Kashi/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
Many of the Sharia laws that differ are devised through ] where there is no such ruling in the Quran or the Hadiths of ] Muhammad regarding a similar case.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gMxjJqurmiAC&pg=PA30&dq=development+of+schools+of+thought+hanifa&hl=en&sa=X&ei=vvMMUe7WLs62hAevmIBw&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=development%20of%20schools%20of%20thought%20hanifa&f=false|title=Islam Vs. West: Fact Or Fiction? By Abubakr Asadulla - Page 30|publisher=|accessdate=7 October 2014}}</ref><ref>Islamic State Practices, International Law And The Threat From Terrorism By Javaid Rehman Page 20 </ref> As Muhammad's companions went to new areas,<ref>Muwatta Imam Malik, translated by professor Mohammad Rabimuddin. ISBN 81-7151-097-3 published by Nusrat Ali Nasri for Kitab Bhavan in New Delhi-110002 India, Page iv</ref> they were pragmatic and in some cases continued to use the same ruling as was given in that area during pre-Islamic times. If the population felt comfortable with it, it was just and they used Ijtihad to deduce that it did not conflict with the Quran or the Hadith. This made it easier for the different communities to integrate into the Islamic State and that assisted in the quick expansion of the Islamic State. Since the ] was drafted by the ] ] the Jews and the Christians continued to use their own laws in the Islamic State and had their own judges.<ref name="B. Serjeant 1978">R. B. Serjeant, "Sunnah Jami'ah, pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrim of Yathrib: analysis and translation of the documents comprised in the so-called 'Constitution of Medina'", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies (1978), 41: 1-42, Cambridge University Press.</ref><ref name="Watt 1964 p.4">Watt. Muhammad at Medina and R. B. Serjeant "The Constitution of Medina." Islamic Quarterly 8 (1964) p.4.</ref><ref name="Constitution of Medina">{{cite web|url=http://www.scribd.com/doc/15118390/Madinah-Peace-Treaty|title=Constitution of Medina|publisher=|accessdate=7 October 2014}}</ref>


After the introduction of gunpowder weapons, large and centralized Muslim states consolidated around ], these had been previously splintered amongst various territories. The ] was claimed by the ] of the Ottoman Empire and its claims were strengthened in 1517 as ] became the ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Drews |first=Robert |url=https://my.vanderbilt.edu/robertdrews/publications/ |title=Coursebook: Judaism, Christianity and Islam, to the Beginnings of Modern Civilization |date=August 2011 |publisher=] |chapter=Chapter Thirty – "The Ottoman Empire, Judaism, and Eastern Europe to 1648" |chapter-url=https://my.vanderbilt.edu/robertdrews/files/2014/01/Chapter-Thirty.-The-Ottoman-Empire-Judaism-and-Eastern-Europe-to-1648.pdf |access-date=21 April 2020 |archive-date=26 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221226173808/https://my.vanderbilt.edu/robertdrews/publications/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The Shia ] rose to power in 1501 and later conquered all of Iran.<ref>Peter B. Golden: An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples; In: Osman Karatay, Ankara 2002, p. 321</ref> In South Asia, ] founded the ].<ref>{{citation|last=Gilbert|first=Marc Jason|title=South Asia in World History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1dhKDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA75|year=2017|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-066137-3|pages=75|access-date=15 January 2023|archive-date=22 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922031915/https://books.google.com/books?id=1dhKDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA75|url-status=live}}</ref>
Much of the knowledge we have about Muhammad is narrated through ], the wife of Muhammad. Aisha raised and taught her nephew ] the grandson of ] and the grandfather of ]. Aisha also taught her nephew ]. He then taught his son ], who was the main teacher of ].


The religion of the centralized states of the gunpowder empires influenced the religious practice of their constituent populations. A ] between ] and Sufism strongly influenced Islamic reign by the Ottomans from the beginning. The ] and ] had a close relation to the sultans,<ref>Ga ́bor A ́goston, Bruce Alan Masters ''Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire'' ] 2010 {{ISBN|978-1-4381-1025-7}} p. 540</ref> as Sufi-mystical as well as ] and ] approaches to Islam flourished.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Algar |first=Ayla Esen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fc69BhBDjhwC&q=ottomans+sufism |title=The Dervish Lodge: Architecture, Art, and Sufism in Ottoman Turkey |page=15 |date=1 January 1992 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-520-07060-8 |access-date=29 April 2020 |via=Google Books |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024414/https://books.google.com/books?id=fc69BhBDjhwC&q=ottomans+sufism#v=snippet&q=ottomans%20sufism&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> The often forceful ] to the Twelver Shia Islam of the Safavid Empire ensured the final dominance of the ] within Shia Islam. Persian migrants to South Asia, as influential bureaucrats and landholders, helped spread Shia Islam, forming some of the largest Shia populations outside Iran.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/conversion-iii|title=CONVERSION To Imami Shiʿism in India|publisher=Iranica Online|language=English|access-date=6 October 2022|archive-date=7 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221007024220/https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/conversion-iii|url-status=live}}</ref> ], who overthrew the Safavids, attempted to improve relations with Sunnis by propagating the integration of Twelverism into Sunni Islam as a fifth ''madhhab'', called Ja'farism,<ref>{{cite journal |title=Nadir Shah and the Ja 'fari Madhhab Reconsidered |first=Ernest |last=Tucker |journal=Iranian Studies |volume=27 |issue=1–4 |date=1994 |pages=163–179 |doi=10.1080/00210869408701825 |jstor=4310891}}</ref> which failed to gain recognition from the Ottomans.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Nāder Shāh |encyclopedia=] |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/nader-shah |date=29 March 2006 |first=Ernest |last=Tucker |access-date=9 March 2021 |archive-date=25 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225103212/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/nader-shah%20 |url-status=live }}</ref>
When Umar bin Abdul Azeez became a Caliph in 717<ref>The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wan-Nihayah by Ibn Katheer, Ismail Ibn Omar 775 ISBN 978-603-500-080-2 Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad Page 505</ref><ref>Umar Ibn Adbul Aziz By Imam Abu Muhammad Adbullah ibn Abdul Hakam died 214 AH 829 C.E. Publisher Zam Zam Publishers Karachi Page 54-59</ref> he appointed a committee of jurists in Madina headed by ] and it included ] to advise on legal matters<ref>The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wan-Nihayah by Ibn Katheer, Ismail Ibn Omar 775 ISBN 978-603-500-080-2 Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad Page 522</ref> The work of ] and successive jurists is based on the work of this early committee in Madina. ]<ref name="bewley.virtualave.net">{{cite web|url=http://bewley.virtualave.net/muwcont.html|title=Al-Muwatta'|publisher=|accessdate=7 October 2014}}</ref> by ] was written as a consensus of the opinion of these scholars.<ref name="Coulson">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d5Ks31qHlSYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=coulson+history+islamic+law&source=bl&ots=QVA59sVI8G&sig=stT7OrQHTIkIJ6mgK5-kQzT0gAg&hl=en&ei=durLTOa5KI_QjAe06rnYBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=History of Islamic Law by N. J. Coulson page 103|publisher=|accessdate=7 October 2014}}</ref><ref>E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913-1936, Volume 5 By Martijn Theodoor Houtsma page 207 </ref><ref>Studies in Islamic History and Civilization: In Honour of Professor David Ayalon By Moshe Sharon Page 264 </ref> The ]<ref name="bewley.virtualave.net"/> by ] also quotes 13 hadith narrated through Imam ].<ref name="Muwatta">''Al-Muwatta'' of Imam Malik Ibn Anas, translated by Aisha Bewley (Book #5, Hadith #5.9.23)(Book #16, Hadith #16.1.1)(Book #17, Hadith #17.24.43)(Book #20, Hadith #20.10.40)(Book #20, Hadith #20.11.44)(Book #20, Hadith #20.32.108)(Book #20, Hadith #20.39.127)(Book #20, Hadith #20.40.132)(Book #20, Hadith #20.49.167) (Book #20, Hadith #20.57.190)(Book #26, Hadith #26.1.2)(Book #29, Hadith #29.5.17)(Book #36, Hadith #36.4.5) </ref>


=== Modern era (18th–20th centuries) ===
The ] including, imam ], imam ] and imam ] worked together in ] in Medina along with over 70 other leading jurists and scholars. They did not distinguish between each other or classify them selves as Sunni or Shiʻah. They felt that they were following the religion of Abraham.<ref>"Say: Allah speaks the truth; so follow the religion of Abraham, the upright one. And he was not one of the polytheists" (Qur'an 3:95)</ref> In the books actually written by these original jurists and scholars, there are very few theological and judicial differences between them.
] was the last Caliph of Islam from the ].]]


Earlier in the 14th century, ] promoted a ]ical form of Islam,<ref name="ReferenceA">Mary Hawkesworth, Maurice Kogan ''Encyclopedia of Government and Politics: 2-volume set'' ] 2013 {{ISBN|978-1-136-91332-7}} pp. 270–271</ref> rejecting philosophical approaches in favor of simpler theology,<ref name="ReferenceA" /> and called to open the gates of ] rather than blind imitation of scholars.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=150}} He called for a jihad against those he deemed heretics,<ref>Richard Gauvain ''Salafi Ritual Purity: In the Presence of God'' ] 2013 {{ISBN|978-0-7103-1356-0}} p. 6</ref> but his writings only played a marginal role during his lifetime.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Spevack |first=Aaron |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=htx8BAAAQBAJ |title=The Archetypal Sunni Scholar: Law, Theology, and Mysticism in the Synthesis of al-Bajuri |date=2014 |publisher=] |isbn=978-1-4384-5371-2 |pages=129–130 |access-date=10 December 2018 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024415/https://books.google.com/books?id=htx8BAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> During the 18th century in Arabia, ], influenced by the works of Ibn Taymiyya and ], founded a movement called ] to return to what he saw as unadultered Islam.<ref>Donald Quataert ''The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922'' ] 2005 {{ISBN|978-0-521-83910-5}} p. 50</ref><ref name="ReferenceE">Ga ́bor A ́goston, Bruce Alan Masters ''Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire'' ] 2010 {{ISBN|978-1-4381-1025-7}} p. 260</ref> He condemned many local Islamic customs, such as visiting the grave of Muhammad or saints, as later ] and sinful<ref name="ReferenceE" /><ref name="Musa-2022">{{Cite thesis |title=The Emergence of a Scholar from a Garrison Society: A contextual analysis of Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhāb's doctrine in the light of the Qur'ān and Hadīth |url=https://repository.uwtsd.ac.uk/id/eprint/2096/ |publisher=University of Wales Trinity Saint David |date=2022-08-23 |degree=masters |language=en |first=Shahajada Md |last=Musa |access-date=19 December 2023 |archive-date=2 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230502100026/https://repository.uwtsd.ac.uk/id/eprint/2096/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and destroyed sacred rocks and trees, Sufi shrines, the ] and the tomb of Husayn at Karbala, a major Shia pilgrimage site.<ref name="Musa-2022" /><ref>{{Cite news |date=4 September 2013 |title=Graves desecrated in Mizdah |work=] |url=http://www.libyaherald.com/2013/09/04/graves-desecrated-in-mizdah/#axzz2jWG0vDDO |access-date=2 November 2013 |archive-date=3 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103172759/http://www.libyaherald.com/2013/09/04/graves-desecrated-in-mizdah/#axzz2jWG0vDDO |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=146}} He formed an alliance with the ], which, by the 1920s, completed their conquest of the area that would become ].<ref name="Musa-2022" /><ref>Nicolas Laos ''The Metaphysics of World Order: A Synthesis of Philosophy, Theology, and Politics'' ] Publishers 2015 {{ISBN|978-1-4982-0102-5}} p. 177</ref> ] and Ma Debao promoted salafist movements in the 19th century such as ] in China after returning from Mecca but were eventually persecuted and forced into hiding by Sufi groups.<ref>{{cite book|first=Barry M.|last=Rubin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wEih57-GWQQC&pg=PA79|page=79|title=Guide to Islamist Movements|year=2000|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|isbn=0-7656-1747-1|access-date=28 June 2010|archive-date=28 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024259/https://books.google.com/books?id=wEih57-GWQQC&pg=PA79#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> Other groups sought to reform Sufism rather than reject it, with the ] and ] both waging war and establishing states in Libya and Sudan respectively.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=147}} In India, ] attempted a more conciliatory style against Sufism and influenced the ] movement.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=149}} In response to the Deobandi movement, the ] movement was founded as a mass movement, defending popular ] and reforming its practices.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Robert L. Canfield |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g3JhKNSk8tQC&pg=PAPA131 |title=Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective |date=2002 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-521-52291-5 |pages=131– |access-date=1 December 2018 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024259/https://books.google.com/books?id=g3JhKNSk8tQC&pg=PAPA131#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sanyal |first=Usha |date=23 July 1998 |title=Generational Changes in the Leadership of the Ahl-e Sunnat Movement in North India during the twentieth Century |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/generational-changes-in-the-leadership-of-the-ahle-sunnat-movement-in-north-india-during-the-twentieth-century/8AAAC4CFEFC4F4084731C3964A5CAE84 |journal=] |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=635–656 |doi=10.1017/S0026749X98003059 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |via=Cambridge Core |access-date=23 February 2020 |archive-date=17 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200317013822/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/generational-changes-in-the-leadership-of-the-ahle-sunnat-movement-in-north-india-during-the-twentieth-century/8AAAC4CFEFC4F4084731C3964A5CAE84 |url-status=live }}</ref>
]
They all gave priority to the Qur'an and the Hadith and felt that Islam was completed during the time of Muhammad and they wanted people to refer to the Quran.<ref>"This day I have perfected for you your religion and completed My favor upon you and have approved for you Islam as religion" Quran 5:5 </ref> ] rejected the writing down and codifying of the religious rulings he gave. They knew that they might have fallen into error in some of their judgements and stated this clearly. They never introduced their rulings by saying, "This is the judgement of God and His prophet."<ref name="books.google.co.uk-ck">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W4OKaz5dzdYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Modernist+Islam,+1840-1940:+A+Sourcebook+By+Charles+Kurzman&hl=en&sa=X&ei=rYP-UKSOC4m70QXR54HYDA&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAA|title=Modernist Islam, 1840-1940: A Sourcebook By Charles Kurzman - Page 236|publisher=|accessdate=7 October 2014}}</ref> There is also very little text actually written down by ] himself. Since ] (702-765) did not write any books, the books followed by the Twelver Shi'a were written by ] (864- 941), ] (923-991), and ] (1201-1274).<ref>Connections: The Quarterly Journal - Volume 5 - Page 64 An important Shia manual is Al-kafifi 'ilm al-din by Muhammad ibn-Ta'qub al-Kulayni. Other important manuals were written by ibn-Babawayh (Man la-yahdurhu al-faqih) and al-Tusi (Tahdhib al-ahkam)</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OZbyz_Hr-eIC&pg=PA654&dq=shai+books+written+by+Tusi&hl=en&sa=X&ei=1rCvUcTyCcr-PIrIgMgF&ved=0CGUQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=shai%20books%20written%20by%20Tusi&f=false|title=Encyclopedia of Islam By Juan Eduardo Campo Page 654|publisher=|accessdate=7 October 2014}}</ref> Since ] and ] did not them selves write any books. But they worked closely with imam ] and imam ] and the views of imam ] and imam ] are in the early Hadith books written by imam Abu Hanifa and imam ],<ref name="Muwatta" /> the oldest branch of the Shia, the ] to this day and originally the Fatamids, use the Hanafi jurisprudence, as do most Sunnis.<ref name="books.google.co.uk-mae">Islamic Finance: Law, Economics, and Practice By Mahmoud A. El-Gamal Page 122 </ref><ref name="Arab-Israeli Conflict Page 917">The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social and Military History edited by Spencer C. Tucker, Priscilla Mary Roberts Page 917 </ref><ref name="The Iraq Effect Page 91">The Iraq Effect: The Middle East After the Iraq War By Frederic M. Wehrey Page 91 </ref>


The ] was generally in political decline starting the 1800s, especially compared to non-Muslim European powers. Earlier, in the 15th century, the ] succeeded in ending the ]. By the 19th century, the British ] had formally annexed the ] in India.{{sfnp|Lapidus|2002|pp=358, 378–380, 624}} As a response to ], many intellectuals sought to ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Buzpinar |first=Ş. Tufan |date=March 2007 |title=Celal Nuri's Concepts of Westernization and Religion |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=247–258 |doi=10.1080/00263200601114091 |jstor=4284539|s2cid=144461915 }}</ref> ], initially labelled by Western scholars as ], embraced modern values and institutions such as democracy while being scripture oriented. Notable forerunners in the movement include ] and ].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lauziere|first=Henri|title=The Making of Salafism: Islamic Reform in the Twentieth Century|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2016|isbn=978-0-231-17550-0|location=New York, Chichester, West Sussex|pages=231–232|quote="Beginning with Louis Massignon in 1919, it is true that Westerners played a leading role in labeling Islamic modernists as Salafis, even though the term was a misnomer. At the time, European and American scholars felt the need for a useful conceptual box to place Muslim figures such as Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, Muhammad Abduh, and their epigones, all of whom seemed inclined toward a scripturalist understanding of Islam but proved open to rationalism and Western modernity. They chose to adopt salafiyya—a technical term of theology, which they mistook for a reformist slogan and wrongly associated with all kinds of modernist Muslim intellectuals."}}</ref> ] helped influence modern ].<ref>{{Cite news |date=3 January 2014 |title=Political Islam: A movement in motion |work=] |url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/erasmus/2014/01/political-islam |access-date=1 January 2014 |archive-date=4 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140104032602/http://www.economist.com/blogs/erasmus/2014/01/political-islam |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Wilfred Cantwell |title=Islam in Modern History |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1957 |isbn=0-691-03030-8 |page=233 |author-link=Wilfred Cantwell Smith}}</ref> Similar to contemporary ], sharia was for the first time partially codified into law in 1869 in the Ottoman Empire's ] code.<ref name=Oxfordref>{{cite web |editor-link=John Esposito |editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=John L. |title=Mecelle |work=] |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100146176 |url-access=subscription |via=Oxford Islamic Studies Online |access-date=17 August 2023 |archive-date=17 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230817003534/https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100146176 |url-status=live }}</ref>
Islamic law covers all aspects of life, from matters of state, like governance and ], to issues of daily living. The Qur'an defines '']'' as the punishments for five specific crimes: unlawful intercourse, false accusation of unlawful intercourse, consumption of alcohol, theft, and highway robbery. The Qur'an and Sunnah also contain laws of ], ], and restitution for injuries and murder, as well as rules for ], ], and prayer.


The ] after ], the ] ]<ref>{{Cite news |date=29 June – 5 July 2000 |title=New Turkey |work=] |issue=488 |url=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2000/488/chrncls.htm |url-status=dead |access-date=16 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101004145229/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2000/488/chrncls.htm |archive-date=4 October 2010}}</ref> and the subsequent ] fell quickly,<ref>{{Cite web |last1=الوطن |first1=جريدة |last2=webmaster |date=2020-05-05 |title=«مملكة الحجاز».. وقــصـــة الـغــزو المـســلّـــح |url=https://www.al-watan.com/article/230610/NEWS/%C2%AB%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B2%C2%BB-%D9%88%D9%82%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B5%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%80%D8%BA%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B2%D9%88-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%80%D8%B3%D9%80%D9%80%D9%84%D9%91%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%AD |access-date=2023-12-19 |website=جريدة الوطن |language=ar |archive-date=16 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230516230552/https://www.al-watan.com/article/230610/NEWS/%C2%AB%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B2%C2%BB-%D9%88%D9%82%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B5%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%80%D8%BA%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B2%D9%88-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%80%D8%B3%D9%80%D9%80%D9%84%D9%91%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%AD |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bani Issa |first=Mohammad Saleh |date=2023-11-01 |title=Factors of stability and sustainable development in Jordan in its first centenary 1921–2021 (an analytical descriptive study) |journal=Heliyon |volume=9 |issue=11 |pages=e20993 |doi=10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e20993 |issn=2405-8440 |doi-access=free|pmid=37928029 |pmc=10623165 |bibcode=2023Heliy...920993B }}</ref><ref name="والخلفاء-2023">{{Cite book |last=والخلفاء |first=قصص الخلافة الإسلامية |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r-5EAAAQBAJ |title=قصص الخلافة الإسلامية والخلفاء |date=2023-03-31 |publisher=Austin Macauley Publishers |isbn=978-1-3984-9251-6 |language=en |access-date=26 December 2023 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024259/https://books.google.com/books?id=_r-5EAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> thus leaving Islam without a ].<ref name="والخلفاء-2023" /> ]ists attempted to unify Muslims and competed with growing nationalist forces, such as ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Doran |first=Michael |title=Pan-Arabism before Nasser: Egyptian power politics and the Palestine question |date=1999 |publisher=Oxford university press |isbn=978-0-19-512361-6 |series=Studies in Middle Eastern history |location=New York Oxford}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Landau |first=Yaʿaqov M. |title=The politics of Pan-Islam: ideology and organization |date=1994 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-827709-5 |edition= paperback (with additions and corr.) |location=Oxford}}</ref> The ] (OIC), consisting of ], was established in 1969 after the burning of the ] in ].<ref>{{Cite news |date=26 December 2010 |title=Organization of the Islamic Conference |work=] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/country_profiles/1555062.stm |access-date=24 September 2013 |archive-date=28 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180628190335/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/country_profiles/1555062.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>
The differences between the denominations in Islam are primarily political and amplified after the Safavid invasion of Persia in the 1500s and the subsequent ] due to the politics between the ] and the ].<ref>The Heirs Of The Prophet Muhammad: And The Roots Of The Sunni-Shia Schism By Barnaby Rogerson </ref>
After the demise of the ], the new ruler of Persia, ] (1698 to 1747), himself a Sunni, attempted to improve relations with Sunni nations by propagating the integration of Shiism by calling it Jaafari Madh'hab.<ref>Nadir Shah and the Ja 'fari Madhhab Reconsidered, Ernest Tucker, Iranian Studies, Vol. 27, No. 1/4, Religion and Society in Islamic Iran during the Pre-Modern Era (1994), pp. 163-179, Published by: International Society for Iranian Studies </ref> Since ] himself disapproved of people who disapproved of his great grand father ] the first caliph.


Contact with industrialized nations brought Muslim populations to new areas through economic migration. Many Muslims migrated as indentured servants (mostly from India and Indonesia) to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas.{{sfnp|Haddad|Smith|2002|p=271}} Migration from Syria and Lebanon contributed to the ].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Zabel|first=Darcy|title=Arabs in the Americas: Interdisciplinary Essays on the Arab Diaspora|publisher=Peter Lang|year=2006|isbn=9780820481111|location=Austria|page=5}}</ref> The resulting urbanization and increase in trade in sub-Saharan Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith,<ref name="Pew Research Center-2011">{{Cite report |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/ |title=The Future of the Global Muslim Population |date=27 January 2011 |publisher=] |access-date=27 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110209094904/http://www.pewforum.org/The-Future-of-the-Global-Muslim-Population.aspx |archive-date=9 February 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> likely doubling its Muslim population between 1869 and 1914.<ref>{{harvp|Bulliet|2005|p=722}}</ref>
===Scholars===
{{See also|Ulama|Mufti|Faqih|Imam|Qadi}}
{{Usul al-fiqh}}
] teaches the ] in ], (1850s, lithograph by ])]]


=== Contemporary era (20th century–present) ===
Islam, like Judaism, has no ] in the ] sense, such as priests who mediate between God and people. However, there are many terms in Islam to refer to religiously sanctioned positions of Islam. In the broadest sense, the term ''ulema'' ({{lang-ar| علماء}}) is used to describe the body of Muslim scholars who have completed several years of training and study of ]. A jurist who interprets Islamic law is called a ] ({{lang-ar|مفتي}}) and often issues judicial opinions, called ]s. A scholar of jurisprudence is called a ] ({{lang-ar|فقيه}}). Someone who studies the science of hadith is called a ]. A ] is a judge in an Islamic court. ] titles given to scholars include ], ] and ]. ] ({{lang-ar|إمام}}) is a leadership position, often used in the context of conducting Islamic worship services. Some Muslims practise ] whereby they do not accept the authority of clergy.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Weiss|2002|pp=3,161}}</ref> Education is considered very important to Muslims, so that they could distinguish between right and wrong, but when it comes to entry into heaven, the most noble in the sight of God are the most righteous and they may be honest, compassionate and helpful to others but not necessarily very educated.<ref name="Surat Al-Hujurat 49:13">{{cite web|url=http://quran.com/49|title=Surat Al-Hujurat 49:13|publisher=|accessdate=7 October 2014}}</ref>
] in Istanbul, Turkey|upright=1.35]]
Forerunners of Islamic modernism influenced Islamist political movements such as the ] and related parties in the Arab world,<ref>{{Cite news |date=9 August 2011 |title=Are secular forces being squeezed out of Arab Spring? |work=] |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14447820 |access-date=10 August 2011 |archive-date=4 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104171024/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14447820 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Slackman |first=Michael |date=23 December 2008 |title=Jordanian students rebel, embracing conservative Islam |work=] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/24/world/middleeast/24jordan.html |access-date=15 August 2011 |archive-date=4 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104153440/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/24/world/middleeast/24jordan.html |url-status=live }}</ref> which performed well in elections following the ],<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kirkpatrick |first=David D. |date=3 December 2011 |title=Egypt's vote puts emphasis on split over religious rule |work=] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/04/world/middleeast/egypts-vote-propels-islamic-law-into-spotlight.html |access-date=8 December 2011 |archive-date=4 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104153442/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/04/world/middleeast/egypts-vote-propels-islamic-law-into-spotlight.html |url-status=live }}</ref> ] in South Asia and the ], which has democratically been in power in Turkey for decades. In ], ] replaced a ] monarchy with an ]. Others such as ] broke away from Islamic modernists<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lauziere|first=Henri|title=The Making of Salafism: Islamic Reform in the Twentieth Century|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2016|isbn=978-0-231-17550-0|location=New York, Chichester, West Sussex|page=237|quote="Prior to the fall of the Ottoman Empire, leading reformers who happened to be Salafi in creed were surprisingly open-minded: although they adhered to neo-Hanbali theology. However, the aftermath of the First World War and the expansion of European colonialism paved the way for a series of shifts in thought and attitude. The experiences of Rida offer many examples... he turned against the Shi'is who dared, with reason, to express doubts about the Saudi-Wahhabi project... . Shi'is were not the only victims: Rida and his associates showed their readiness to turn against fellow Salafis who questioned some of the Wahhabis' religious interpretations."}}</ref> and pushed against embracing what he saw as Western influence.<ref>{{Cite book|last=G. Rabil|first=Robert|title=Salafism in Lebanon: From Apoliticism to Transnational Jihadism|publisher=Georgetown University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-1-62616-116-0|location=Washington DC, US|pages=32–33|quote="Western colonialists established in these countries political orders... that, even though not professing enmity to Islam and its institutions, left no role for Islam in society. This caused a crisis among Muslim reformists, who felt betrayed not only by the West but also by those nationalists, many of whom were brought to power by the West... Nothing reflects this crisis more than the ideological transformation of Rashid Rida (1865–1935)... He also revived the works of Ibn Taymiyah by publishing his writings and promoting his ideas. Subsequently, taking note of the cataclysmic events brought about by Western policies in the Muslim world and shocked by the abolition of the caliphate, he transformed into a Muslim intellectual mostly concerned about protecting Muslim culture, identity, and politics from Western influence. He supported a theory that essentially emphasized the necessity of an Islamic state in which the scholars of Islam would have a leading role... Rida was a forerunner of Islamist thought. He apparently intended to provide a theoretical platform for a modern Islamic state. His ideas were later incorporated into the works of Islamic scholars. Significantly, his ideas influenced none other than Hassan al-Bannah, founder of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt... The Muslim Brethren have taken up Rida's Islamic fundamentalism, a right-wing radical movement founded in 1928,.."}}</ref> The group ] would even attempt to recreate the modern gold dinar as their monetary system. While some of those who broke away were ], others believed in violence against those opposing them, even against other Muslims.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/nov/14/isis-gold-silver-copper-islamic-dinar-coins |title=Isis to mint own Islamic dinar coins in gold, silver and copper |work=The Guardian |date=21 November 2014 |access-date=31 July 2022 |archive-date=4 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104153442/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/nov/14/isis-gold-silver-copper-islamic-dinar-coins |url-status=live }}</ref>


In opposition to Islamic political movements, in 20th century Turkey, the military carried out ] to oust Islamist governments, and headscarves were legally restricted, as also happened in Tunisia.<ref>{{Cite news |date=29 April 2011 |title=Huge rally for Turkish secularism |work=] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6604643.stm |access-date=6 December 2011 |archive-date=29 May 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120529003102/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6604643.stm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Saleh |first=Heba |date=15 October 2011 |title=Tunisia moves against headscarves |work=] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6053380.stm |access-date=6 December 2011 |archive-date=29 May 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120529003101/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6053380.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> In other places, religious authority was co-opted and is now often seen as puppets of the state. For example, in Saudi Arabia, the state monopolized religious scholarship<ref>{{Cite news |date=28 June 2007 |title=Laying down the law: Islam's authority deficit |newspaper=] |url=http://www.economist.com/node/9409354?story_id=9409354 |access-date=15 August 2011 |archive-date=6 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306094736/http://www.economist.com/node/9409354?story_id=9409354 |url-status=live }}</ref> and, in Egypt, the state nationalized ], previously an independent voice checking state power.<ref>{{cite book| title = The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought| last1 = Bowering | first1 = Gerhard | last2=Mirza |first2=Mahan |last3=Crone |first3=Patricia| year = 2013 | publisher = Princeton University Press | page=59| isbn = 9780691134840
===Schools of jurisprudence===
}}</ref> Salafism was funded in the Middle East for its quietism.<ref>{{cite web |date=18 October 2008 |title=Ultraconservative Islam on rise in Mideast |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna27256187 |access-date=24 September 2013 |publisher=] |archive-date=4 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104032423/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/27256187/page/2/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Saudi Arabia campaigned against revolutionary Islamist movements in the Middle East, in opposition to Iran.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Almukhtar |first1=Sarah |last2=Peçanha |first2=Sergio |last3=Wallace |first3=Tim |date=5 January 2016 |title=Behind Stark Political Divisions, a More Complex Map of Sunnis and Shiites |work=] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/01/04/world/middleeast/sunni-shiite-map-middle-east-iran-saudi-arabia.html |access-date=6 January 2016 |archive-date=4 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104153442/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/01/04/world/middleeast/sunni-shiite-map-middle-east-iran-saudi-arabia.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
{{Main|Madhab}}
A school of jurisprudence is referred to as a ''madhab''({{lang-ar|مذهب}}). The four major Sunni schools are the ], ], ] and ] while the two major Shia schools are ] and ]. Each differ in their methodology, called ]. The term ''ghair muqallid'' literally refers to those who do not use ], the following of decisions by a religious expert without necessarily examining the decision's reasoning, and by extension do not have a ].<ref>Encyclopedeia of Eminent Thinkers - Page 38, K. S. Bharathi - 1998</ref>


Muslim minorities of various ethnicities have been persecuted as a religious group.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Thames |first1=Knox |title=Why the Persecution of Muslims Should Be on Biden's Agenda |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/01/06/muslims-islam-china-india-myanmar-persecution-repression-biden-human-rights/ |work=] |date=6 January 2021 |language=English |access-date=5 February 2022 |archive-date=11 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220211114303/https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/01/06/muslims-islam-china-india-myanmar-persecution-repression-biden-human-rights/ |url-status=live }}</ref> This has been undertaken by communist forces like the ], who viewed them as their primary enemy to be exterminated since their religious practice made them stand out from the rest of the population,<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Perrin |first=Andrew |date=10 October 2003 |title=Weakness in numbers |magazine=] |url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,428133,00.html |access-date=24 September 2013 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=24 September 2013 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130924035829/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,428133,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> the ] in ]<ref>{{cite web |last1=Beydoun |first1=Khaled A. |title=For China, Islam is a 'mental illness' that needs to be 'cured' |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/china-islam-mental-illness-cured-181127135358356.html |publisher=] |language=English |access-date=5 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181210012542/https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/china-islam-mental-illness-cured-181127135358356.html |archive-date=10 December 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> and by nationalist forces such as during the ].<ref>{{cite book |last=Mojzes |first=Paul |title=Balkan Genocides: Holocaust and Ethnic Cleansing in the Twentieth Century |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-4422-0663-2|page=178}}</ref> Myanmar military's ] targeting of ] has been labeled as a crime against humanity by the UN and Amnesty International,<ref>{{cite news |author=Oliver Holmes |date=19 December 2016 |title=Myanmar's Rohingya campaign 'may be crime against humanity' |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/dec/19/myanmars-rohingya-campaign-may-be-against-humanity |url-status=live |access-date=5 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106013700/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/dec/19/myanmars-rohingya-campaign-may-be-against-humanity |archive-date=6 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=19 December 2016|title=Rohingya abuse may be crimes against humanity: Amnesty|website=Al Jazeera|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/12/19/rohingya-abuse-may-be-crimes-against-humanity-amnesty/|access-date=2023-02-21|archive-date=22 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922232529/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/12/19/rohingya-abuse-may-be-crimes-against-humanity-amnesty/|url-status=live}}</ref> while the ] Fact-Finding Mission identified ], ethnic cleansing, and other crimes against humanity.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/MyanmarFFM/Pages/ReportoftheMyanmarFFM.aspx|title=Report of Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Myanmar |date=27 August 2018|website=ohchr.org|access-date=14 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181019232309/https://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/MyanmarFFM/Pages/ReportoftheMyanmarFFM.aspx|archive-date=19 October 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
===Etiquette and diet===
{{Main|Adab (behavior)|Islamic dietary laws}}


The advancement of global communication has facilitated the widespread dissemination of religious knowledge. The adoption of the ] has grown more common<ref>{{Cite news |last=Slackman |first=Michael |date=28 January 2007 |title=In Egypt, a new battle begins over the veil |work=] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/28/weekinreview/28slackman.html |access-date=15 August 2011 |archive-date=3 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190503150409/https://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/28/weekinreview/28slackman.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and some Muslim intellectuals are increasingly striving to separate scriptural Islamic beliefs from cultural traditions.{{sfnp|Nigosian|2004|p=41}} Among other groups, this access to information has led to the rise of popular "]" preachers, such as ], who compete with the traditional ] in their reach and have decentralized religious authority.<ref>{{Cite news|last=|first=|title=Islamic televangelist; holy smoke|agency=]|url=http://www.economist.com/node/21534763|access-date=5 February 2022|archive-date=4 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130904164441/http://www.economist.com/node/21534763|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=263}} More "individualized" interpretations of Islam<ref>V. Šisler: ''The Internet and the Construction of Islamic Knowledge in Europe'' p. 212</ref> notably involve ] who attempt to align religious traditions with contemporary secular governance,{{sfnp|Esposito|2004|pp=118–119, 179}}{{sfnp|Rippin|2001|p=288}} an approach that has been criticized by some regarding its compatibility.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Adams, Charles J.|editor1-last=Esposito|editor1-first=John L.|title=Voices of Resurgent Islam|url=https://archive.org/details/voicesofresurgen00hcen|url-access=registration|date=1983|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages= |chapter=Maududi and the Islamic State|quote= when religion is relegated to the personal realm, men inevitably give way to their bestial impulses and perpetrate evil upon one another. In fact it is precisely because they wish to escape the restraints of morality and the divine guidance that men espouse secularism.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Meisami|first=Sayeh|date=2013|title='Abdolkarim Soroush |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195390155/obo-9780195390155-0034.xml|url-status=live|access-date=2021-10-12 |website=Oxford Bibliographies|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105164410/http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195390155/obo-9780195390155-0034.xml |archive-date=2013-11-05 }}</ref> Moreover, secularism is perceived as a foreign ideology imposed by invaders and perpetuated by post-colonial ],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Secularism, State Neutrality, and Islam|author=Abdullah Saeed|encyclopedia=The Oxford Handbook of Secularism|editor1=Phil Zuckerman|editor2=John R. Shook |url=http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/abstract/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199988457.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199988457-e-12|year=2017|page=188 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199988457.013.12|isbn=978-0-19-998845-7|access-date=7 August 2023|archive-date=3 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210903020955/https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/abstract/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199988457.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199988457-e-12|url-status=live}}{{subscription required}}</ref> and is frequently understood to be equivalent to ].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|author=Nader Hashemi|title=Secularism|encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World|editor=John L. Esposito|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2009|isbn=978-0-19-530513-5 |url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001/acref-9780195305135-e-0714|access-date=7 August 2023|archive-date=6 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221206153300/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001/acref-9780195305135-e-0714|url-status=live}}{{subscription required}}</ref>
Many practices fall in the category of ''adab'', or Islamic etiquette. This includes greeting others with "'']''" ("peace be unto you"), saying '']'' ("in ]") before meals, and using only the right hand for eating and drinking. ] practices mainly fall into the category of personal cleanliness and health. ] is also practiced in Islam. ] include saying the '']'' ("funeral prayer") over the bathed and enshrouded dead body, and burying it in a ]. Muslims are restricted in their diet. Prohibited foods include pork products, blood, ], and ]. All meat must come from a ] animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, with the exception of game that one has hunted or fished for oneself. Food permissible for Muslims is known as ] food.<ref>
* {{Cite quran|5|5|style=ref}}
* {{Harvtxt|Curtis|2005|p=164}}
* {{Harvtxt|Esposito|2002b|p=111}}
* Ghamidi (2001):
* Ghamidi (2001):
* Ghamidi (2001):
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Slaughter | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | author=Ersilia Francesca | ref=harv }}
</ref>


== Demographics ==
===Family life===
{{See also|Women in Islam|Islamic marital practices|Islamic sexual jurisprudence}}


{{Main|Muslim world|Ummah}}
The basic unit of Islamic society is the ], and Islam defines the obligations and legal rights of family members. The father is seen as financially responsible for his family, and is obliged to cater for their well-being. The division of ] is specified in the Qur'an, which states that most of it is to pass to the immediate family, while a portion is set aside for the payment of debts and the making of bequests. The woman's share of inheritance is generally half of that of a man with the same rights of succession.<ref>"al-Mar'a". ''Encyclopaedia of Islam''</ref> ] is a civil ] which consists of an offer and acceptance between two qualified parties in the presence of two witnesses. The groom is required to pay a bridal gift ('']'') to the bride, as stipulated in the contract.<ref>
{{See also|Islam by country|Muslim population growth}}
* {{Harvtxt|Waines|2003|pp=93–96}}
]
* The Oxford Dictionary of Islam (2003), p.339
As of 2020, about 24% of the global population, or about 1.9&nbsp;billion people, are Muslims.<ref name="pewresearch.orgReligion"/><ref name="www.pewresearch.org-2022"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/muslim-population-by-country|title=Muslim Population by Country 2023|website=worldpopulationreview.com|access-date=14 August 2021|archive-date=31 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221031214555/https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/muslim-population-by-country|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/|title=The Future of the Global Muslim Population|date=27 January 2011|access-date=26 October 2022|archive-date=30 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230930233955/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/08/09/muslims-and-islam-key-findings-in-the-u-s-and-around-the-world/ | title=Muslims and Islam: Key findings in the U.S. and around the world | date=9 August 2017 | access-date=19 December 2022 | archive-date=8 November 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221108121140/https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/08/09/muslims-and-islam-key-findings-in-the-u-s-and-around-the-world/ | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Lipka, Michael, and Conrad Hackett. 6 April 2017. " {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190514123559/https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/04/06/why-muslims-are-the-worlds-fastest-growing-religious-group/ |date=14 May 2019 }}" (data analysis). ''Fact Tank''. ].</ref> In 1900, this estimate was 12.3%,<ref>David B. Barrett, George T. Kurian, and Todd M. Johnson, World Christian Encyclopedia: A comparative survey of churches and religions in the modern world, Vol. 1: The world by countries: religionists, churches, ministries 2d ed. (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2001), 4.</ref> in 1990 it was 19.9%<ref name="Pew Research Center-2011" /> and projections suggest the proportion will be 29.7% by 2050.<ref name=pew2015 /> The ] estimates that 87–90% of Muslims are Sunni and 10–13% are Shia.{{sfnp|Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life|2009|p=1|ps=. "Of the total Muslim population, 10–13% are Shia Muslims and 87–90% are Sunni Muslims."}} Approximately 49 countries are ],{{sfnp|Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life|2009|p=11}}<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ba-Yunus |first1=Ilyas |title=Muslims in the United States |last2=Kone, Kassim |publisher=] Group |year=2006 |page= |url=https://archive.org/details/muslimsunitedsta00bayu |url-access=registration |isbn=978-0-313-32825-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Muslim Majority Countries 2021 |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/muslim-majority-countries |access-date=25 July 2021 |website=worldpopulationreview.com |archive-date=1 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220101055328/https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/muslim-majority-countries |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>]. December 2012. " {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180323215026/http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2014/01/global-religion-full.pdf |date=23 March 2018 }}." DC: Pew Research Center. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180926222120/http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-exec/ |date=26 September 2018 }}.</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=7 March 2018 |title=Islam in Russia |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/amp/features/2018/03/07/islam-in-russia/ |access-date=15 June 2021 |website=] |publisher=] |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024349/https://www.aljazeera.com/amp/features/2018/3/7/islam-in-russia |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Book review: Russia's Muslim Heartlands reveals diverse population |date=21 April 2018 |url=https://www.thenational.ae/arts-culture/book-review-russia-s-muslim-heartlands-reveals-diverse-population-1.723230 |work=] |access-date=13 January 2019 |archive-date=14 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190114210257/https://www.thenational.ae/arts-culture/book-review-russia-s-muslim-heartlands-reveals-diverse-population-1.723230 |url-status=live }}</ref> with 62% of the world's Muslims living in Asia, and 683 million adherents in ],<ref>Pew Forum for Religion and Public Life. April 2015. " {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170207115222/http://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/muslims/pf_15-04-02_projectionstables74/ |date=7 February 2017 }}" (projections table). ].</ref> ], ], and ] alone.<ref>{{cite web |title=Secrets of Islam |url=https://www.usnews.com/usnews/graphics/religion/islams_global_reach.htm |access-date=24 September 2013 |website=] |archive-date=22 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110122200555/http://www.usnews.com/usnews/graphics/religion/islams_global_reach.htm |url-status=live }} Information provided by the International Population Center, Department of Geography, ] (2005).</ref>{{sfnp|Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life|2009|pp=15, 17}}<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Pechilis |first1=Karen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kaubzRxh-U0C |title=South Asian Religions: Tradition and Today |last2=Raj |first2=Selva J. |date=2013 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-415-44851-2 |page= |access-date=3 May 2019 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024331/https://books.google.com/books?id=kaubzRxh-U0C |url-status=live }}</ref> ] form the ] in the world,<ref>Margaret Kleffner Nydell {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024737/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZNoiieefqAcC |date=28 December 2023 }}, Intercultural Press, 2005, {{ISBN|1931930252}}, page xxiii, 14</ref> followed by ]<ref>{{cite book|author=Richard Eaton|editor=Barbara D. Metcalf|title=Islam in South Asia in Practice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pR0LzVCpfw8C|date=8 September 2009|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-3138-8|page=275|chapter=Forest Clearing and the Growth of Islam in Bengal}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=haGORCJRlOUC&pg=PA50 |title=The Bangladesh Reader: History, Culture, Politics |author1=Meghna Guhathakurta |author2=Willem van Schendel |page=50 |date=30 April 2013 |publisher=Duke University Press |access-date=7 November 2016 |isbn=978-0822353188 |archive-date=7 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230707092408/https://books.google.com/books?id=haGORCJRlOUC&pg=PA50 |url-status=live }}</ref> and ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Gandhi|first=Rajmohan|title=Punjab: A History from Aurangzeb to Mountbatten|year=2013|page=1|publisher=Aleph Book Company|location=New Delhi, India, Urbana, ]|isbn=978-93-83064-41-0}}.</ref> Most estimates indicate ] has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the population).<ref>{{cite web |work=] |title=Explore All Countries – China |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/china/ |access-date=15 September 2009 |publisher=] |archive-date=13 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213122152/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/china/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=China (includes Hong Kong, Macau, and Tibet) |website=Archived Content |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2006/71338.htm |access-date=24 September 2013 |publisher=U.S. Department of State |archive-date=10 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190710075050/https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2006/71338.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> ] is the second-largest religion after ] in many countries, with growth rates due primarily to immigration and higher birth rates of Muslims in 2005,<ref>{{Cite news |date=23 December 2005 |title=Muslims in Europe: Country guide |work=] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4385768.stm |access-date=1 April 2010 |archive-date=29 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090929213440/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4385768.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> accounting for 4.9% of all of Europe's population in 2016.<ref>{{citation|url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/11/29/5-facts-about-the-muslim-population-in-europe/|title=5 facts about the Muslim population in Europe|date=November 29, 2017|work=]|first=Conrad|last=Hackett|access-date=17 January 2023|archive-date=5 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190105202657/http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/11/29/5-facts-about-the-muslim-population-in-europe/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* {{Harvtxt|Esposito|1998|p=79}}</ref> The Quran (verse 4:3){{quran-usc|4|3}} limits the number of wives to four and only if a man could treat them with fairness and equity. Most families in the Islamic world are monogamous as the rule is a conditional permission not a recommendation.<ref>{{cite book|last=Newby|first=Gordon D.|title=A concise encyclopedia of Islam|year=2002|publisher=Oneworld|location=Oxford|isbn=1851682953|page=141|edition=Repr.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Nasr|first=Seyyed Hossein|title=Islam : religion, history, and civilization|year=2001|publisher=HarperOne|location=New York|isbn=0060507144|page=68}}</ref> ], a form of ], where a woman takes on two or more husbands is prohibited in Islam.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.14publications.com/question-and-answer/why-cant-a-woman-have-2-husbands/|title=Why Can’t a Woman have 2 Husbands?|work=14 Publications|accessdate=27 December 2015}}</ref> With Muslims coming from diverse backgrounds including 49 Muslim-majority countries, plus a strong presence as large minorities throughout the world there are many variations on Muslim Weddings.<ref>]-Muslim-Majority Countries-</ref>


] has no net impact on the Muslim population growth as "the number of people who ] seems to be roughly equal to the number of Muslims who leave the faith."<ref>{{Cite report |title=The Future of the Global Muslim Population |section=Conversion |date=27 January 2011 |publisher=Pew Research Center |section-url=https://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-related-factors/#conversion |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/ |quote=there is no substantial net gain or loss in the number of Muslims through conversion globally; the number of people who become Muslims through conversion seems to be roughly equal to the number of Muslims who leave the faith |access-date=12 May 2020 |archive-date=24 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224211126/http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Although, Islam is expected to experience a modest gain of 3 million through religious conversion between 2010 and 2050, mostly from ] (2.9 million).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/files/2015/03/PF_15.04.02_ProjectionsFullReport.pdf|title=Cumulative Change Due to Religious Switching, 2010–2050, p.43|access-date=4 May 2016|archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20150429153811/http://www.pewforum.org/files/2015/03/PF_15.04.02_ProjectionsFullReport.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pewforum.org/2017/04/05/the-changing-global-religious-landscape/|title=The Changing Global Religious Landscape|work=Pew Research Center|date=5 April 2017|access-date=17 December 2022|archive-date=18 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220218030628/https://www.pewforum.org/2017/04/05/the-changing-global-religious-landscape/|url-status=live}}</ref>
There is a sectarian divide among Muslims on temporary marriage. The ] is practised by Shia Muslims while Sunni Muslims consider it ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-22354201|title=I do... for now. UK Muslims revive temporary marriages|work=BBC News|accessdate=27 December 2015}}</ref>


According to a report by ], "Islam has drawn converts from all walks of life, most notably African-Americans".<ref>{{cite news|title=Fast-growing Islam winning converts in Western world|publisher=]|url=http://edition.cnn.com/WORLD/9704/14/egypt.islam/|access-date=6 May 2016|archive-date=15 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181015114027/http://edition.cnn.com/WORLD/9704/14/egypt.islam/|url-status=live}}</ref> ], around 6,000 people convert to Islam per year and, according to an article in the British Muslims Monthly Survey, the majority of new Muslim converts in Britain were women.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://artsweb.bham.ac.uk/bmms/2000/06June00.asp#Women%20convert |title=British Muslims Monthly Survey for June 2000, Vol. VIII, No. 6 |at=Women convert |access-date=2020-09-28 |archive-date=2008-02-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080214160750/http://artsweb.bham.ac.uk/bmms/2000/06June00.asp#Women%20convert |url-status=live }}</ref> According to ''The Huffington Post'', "observers estimate that as many as 20,000 Americans convert to Islam annually", most of them being ] and ].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2011-08-24|title=Conversion To Islam One Result Of Post-9/11 Curiosity|url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/post-911-islam-converts_n_935572|access-date=2020-11-26|website=HuffPost|language=en|archive-date=2021-01-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210111201117/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/post-911-islam-converts_n_935572|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author-first=Julie|author-last=Bindel|author-link=Julie Bindel|title=Why do Western Women Convert?|url=http://standpointmag.co.uk/features-may-10-why-do-western-women-convert-julie-bindel-islam-female-conversion|access-date=8 May 2016|work=]|date=26 April 2010|archive-date=6 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006102003/http://standpointmag.co.uk/features-may-10-why-do-western-women-convert-julie-bindel-islam-female-conversion|url-status=live}}</ref>
Even after marriage, there are limitations regarding sex. Islam prohibits a man to have ] with his wife while she is ] and during ]. It is considered a great sin for a man to have ] with his wife.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.questionsonislam.com/question/can-husband-make-use-every-part-his-wife-during-sexual-intercourse|title=Can a husband make use of every part of his wife during sexual intercourse? - Questions on Islam|work=questionsonislam.com|accessdate=27 December 2015}}</ref> Islam recommends to have a covering over the bodies during the sexual intercourse, limit talking during the sexual intercourse, and not to look at each other’s private parts.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.questionsonislam.com/question/can-husband-make-use-every-part-his-wife-during-sexual-intercourse|title=Can a husband make use of every part of his wife during sexual intercourse? - Questions on Islam|work=questionsonislam.com|accessdate=27 December 2015}}</ref>


By both percentage and total numbers, Islam is the world's fastest growing major religious group, and is projected to be the world's largest by the end of the 21st century, surpassing that of ].<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lipka |first1=Michael |last2=Hackett |first2=Conrad |date=April 6, 2017 |title=Why Muslims are the world's fastest-growing religious group |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/04/06/why-muslims-are-the-worlds-fastest-growing-religious-group/ |access-date=2022-11-21 |website=Pew Research Center |language=en-US |archive-date=14 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190514123559/https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/04/06/why-muslims-are-the-worlds-fastest-growing-religious-group/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="pew2015" /> It is estimated that, by 2050, the number of Muslims will nearly equal the number of Christians around the world, "due to the young age and high ] of Muslims relative to other religious groups."<ref name="pew2015">Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life. April 2015. " {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201211090450/http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2015/03/PF_15.04.02_ProjectionsFullReport.pdf |date=11 December 2020 }}." ]. p. 70 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201207093700/https://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projections-2010-2050/ |date=7 December 2020 }}.</ref>
===Economy===
{{Main|Islamic economic jurisprudence}}


==Main branches or denominations==
To reduce the gap between the rich and the poor, ] encourages trade,<ref>
{{Main|Islamic schools and branches#Main branches or denominations}}{{See also|Shia–Sunni relations}}
* International Business Success in a Strange Cultural Environment By Mamarinta P. Mababaya Page 203
* {{Cite quran|4|29|style=ref}}
</ref> discourages the hoarding of wealth and outlaws interest-bearing loans (]; the term is '']'' in ]).<ref>{{cite book | title=The Islamic Moral Economy: A Study of Islamic Money and Financial Instruments | author=Karim, Shafiel A. | year=2010 | publisher=Brown Walker Press | location=Boca Raton, FL | isbn=978-1-59942-539-9}}</ref><ref>Financial Regulation in Crisis?: The Role of Law and the Failure of Northern Rock By Joanna Gray, Orkun Akseli Page 97</ref> Therefore, wealth is taxed through ], but trade is not taxed. ], which allows the rich to get richer without sharing in the risk, is forbidden in Islam. Profit sharing and venture capital where the lender is also exposed to risk is acceptable.<ref>
* Ibn Majah Vol 3 Hadith 2289
* International Business Success in a Strange Cultural Environment By Mamarinta P. Mababaya Page 202
* Islamic Capital Markets: Theory and Practice By Noureddine Krichene Page 119
</ref> Hoarding of food for speculation is also discouraged.<ref>
* Abu Daud Hadith 2015
* Ibn Majah Vold 3 Hadith 2154
* The Stability of Islamic Finance: Creating a Resilient Financial Environment By Zamir Iqbal, Abbas Mirakhor, Noureddine Krichenne, Hossein Askari Page 75
</ref>


=== Sunni ===
Grabbing other people's land is also prohibited. The prohibition of ] has resulted in the development of ]. During the time of Muhammad, any money that went to the state, was immediately used to help the poor. Then in 634, ] formally established the welfare state ]. The ] or the welfare state was for the Muslim and Non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. The ] ran for hundreds of years under the ] in the 7th century and continued through the ] period and well into the ] era. Umar also introduced Child Benefit and Pensions for the children and the elderly.<ref>Administrative Development: An Islamic Perspective By Muhammad Al-Buraey Page 254 </ref><ref>The challenge of Islamic renaissance By Syed Abdul Quddus</ref><ref>Administrative Development: An Islamic Perspective By Muhammad Al-Buraey Page 252 </ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EnT_zhqEe5cC&pg=PA539&dq=umar+Bayt+al-mal&hl=en&sa=X&ei=HrEkUYfnOYSk0AWlqYCYDw&ved=0CEAQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=umar%20Bayt%20al-mal&f=false|title=Ottoman History: Misperceptions and Truths By Said Öztürk Page 539|publisher=|accessdate=7 October 2014}}</ref>
{{Main|Sunni Islam}}
], one of the ]]]
Sunni Islam, or Sunnism, is the name for the largest denomination in Islam.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sunni |title=Sunni |encyclopedia=] |access-date=17 September 2021 |archive-date=30 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150430101807/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/574006/Sunnite |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Sunni Islam |editor-first=John L. |editor-last=Esposito |encyclopedia=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=2014 |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e2280 |access-date=10 January 2010 |archive-date=5 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181005013247/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e2280 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>Denny, Frederick. 2010. . Oxford: ]. p. 3. "Sunni Islam is the dominant division of the global Muslim community, and throughout history it has made up a substantial majority (85 to 90%) of that community."</ref> The term is a contraction of the phrase "ahl as-sunna wa'l-jamaat", which means "people of the ] (the traditions of Muhammad) and the community".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Ahl as-Sunnah |encyclopedia=] |publisher=Turkish Diyanet Foundation |location=Istanbul |url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ehl-i-sunnet |last=Yavuz |first=Yusuf Şevki |date=1994 |volume=10 |pages=525–530 |lang=tr |access-date=28 December 2021 |archive-date=28 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211228114411/https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ehl-i-sunnet |url-status=live }}</ref> Sunni Islam is sometimes referred to as "orthodox Islam",<ref>{{cite book |author1=John Richard Thackrah |title=Dictionary of Terrorism |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1135165956 |edition=2, revised |page=252}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Status of Women Under Islamic Law and Modern Islamic Legislation |date=2009 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-9004172739 |editor1-last=Nasir |editor1-first=Jamal J. |edition=revised |page=11}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=George W. Braswell |title=What You Need to Know about Islam & Muslims |date=2000 |publisher=B&H Publishing Group |isbn=978-0805418293 |edition=illustrated |page=62}}</ref> though some scholars view this as inappropriate, and many non-Sunnis may find this offensive.<ref>An Introduction to the Hadith. John Burton. Published by Edinburgh University Press. 1996. p. 201. Cite: "Sunni: Of or pertaining ''sunna'', especially the ''Sunna'' of the Prophet. Used in conscious opposition to Shi'a, Shi'í. There being no ecclesia or centralized magisterium, the translation 'orthodox' is inappropriate. To the Muslim 'unorthodox' implies heretical, ''mubtadi'', from ''bid'a'', the contrary of ''sunna'' and so 'innovation'."</ref> Sunnis, or sometimes Sunnites, believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad and primarily reference ] for legal matters, while following one of the four traditional schools of jurisprudence: ], ], ] or ].<ref name="Lexico">{{cite web |title=sharia |url=https://www.lexico.com/definition/sharia |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200122164555/https://www.lexico.com/definition/sharia |archive-date=22 January 2020 |website=Lexico |publisher=] |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2003|pp=275, 306}}</ref>


] is a Sunni school of thought, prominently advocated by ] (780–855 CE), that is characterized by its adherence to a ] understanding of the Quran and the sunnah, the belief that the Quran is uncreated and eternal, and opposition to speculative theology, called ], in religious and ethical matters.<ref>Hadi Enayat ''Islam and Secularism in Post-Colonial Thought: A Cartography of Asadian Genealogies'' ], 30 June 2017 {{ISBN|978-3-319-52611-9}} p.48</ref> ] is a Sunni school of thought inspired by Ancient Greek Philosophy. ], founded by ] (853–944 CE), asserts that scripture is not needed for basic ethics and that ''good'' and ''evil'' can be understood by reason alone,<ref>Rico Isaacs, Alessandro Frigerio ''Theorizing Central Asian Politics: The State, Ideology and Power'' ] 2018 {{ISBN|978-3-319-97355-5}} p. 108</ref> but people rely on revelation, for matters beyond human's comprehension. ], founded by ] (c. 874–936), holds that ethics can derive just from divine revelation but accepts reason regarding exegetical matters and combines Muʿtazila approaches with traditionalist ideas.{{sfnp|Esposito|1999|p=280}}
===Government===


] is a revival movement advocating the return to the practices of the earliest generations of Muslims. In the 18th century, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab led a ], referred by outsiders as Wahhabism, in modern-day Saudi Arabia.<ref>Richard Gauvain ''Salafi Ritual Purity: In the Presence of God'' ] 2013 {{ISBN|978-0-7103-1356-0}} page 8</ref> A similar movement called ] also de-emphasized the centuries' old Sunni legal tradition, preferring to directly follow the Quran and Hadith. The '']'' Sunni movement was by ] (1877–1960);<ref name="Svante E. Cornell p. 283">Svante E. Cornell ''Azerbaijan Since Independence'' ] {{ISBN| 9780765630049}} p. 283</ref> it incorporates elements of Sufism and science.<ref name="Svante E. Cornell p. 283" /><ref>Robert W. Hefner ''Shariʻa Politics: Islamic Law and Society in the Modern World'' ] 2011 {{ISBN|978-0-253-22310-4}} p. 170</ref>
{{Main|Political aspects of Islam|Islamic state|Islam and secularism|Islamic democracy|Sultanate|Khanate|Imamate|Emirate|Mansa (title)|Caliphate}}


=== Shia ===
Mainstream Islamic law does not distinguish between "matters of church" and "matters of state"; the ] function as both jurists and theologians. Currently no government conforms to ], but steps have been taken to implement some of its tenets.<ref>Islamic Identity and the Struggle for Justice edited by Nimat Hafez Barazangi, M. Raquibuz Zaman, Omar Afzal Page 5 </ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sNvX7bg1Hq8C&pg=PA121&dq=government+bonds+in+iran&hl=en&sa=X&ei=fqUaUeWlD-mn0AX64YHwDg&sqi=2&ved=0CD8Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=government%20bonds%20in%20iran&f=false|title=Iran's Economy Under the Islamic Republic By Jahangir Amuzegar|publisher=|accessdate=7 October 2014}}</ref><ref>Iran: A Country Study: A Country Study edited by Glenn E. Curtis, Eric Hooglund Page 196 </ref>
{{Main|Shia Islam}}
], collection of sermons, letters, and sayings attributed to ].]]
Shia Islam, or Shi'ism, is the second-largest Muslim denomination.<ref>{{cite web |title=Field Listing :: Religions |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100706231326/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html |archive-date=6 July 2010 |access-date=25 October 2010 |website=] |publisher=] |quote=Sunni Islam accounts for over 75% of the world's Muslim population." ... "Shia Islam represents 10–15% of Muslims worldwide.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Sunni |url=https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/sunni |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200614103622/https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/sunni |archive-date=14 June 2020 |access-date=24 May 2020 |publisher=] |quote=Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam, comprising about 85% of the world's over 1.5 billion Muslims.}}</ref>{{sfnp|Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life|2009|p=1|ps=. "Of the total Muslim population, 10–13% are Shia Muslims and 87–90% are Sunni Muslims."}} Shias, or Shiites, maintain that Muhammad's ] as leader, must be from certain descendants of Muhammad's family known as the ] and those leaders, referred to as ]s, have additional spiritual authority.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shii|title=Shiʿi|last=Newman|first=Andrew J.|publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=28 December 2021|archive-date=20 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190720054917/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shii|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2004 |title=Sunni Islam |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and North Africa |publisher=] Reference |editor-last=Philip Mattar |edition=2nd |author=Tayeb El-Hibri, Maysam J. al Faruqi}}</ref> Shias are guided by the ].<ref>{{Cite book |author=John Corrigan, Frederick Denny, Martin S Jaffee, Carlos Eire |year=2011 |title=Jews, Christians, Muslims: A Comparative Introduction to Monotheistic Religions |publisher= Cambridge University Press |id=978-0205026340 }}</ref>


According to both Sunni and Shia Muslims, a significant event took place at ] during Muhammad's return from his final pilgrimage to Mecca, where he stopped thousands of Muslims in the midday heat.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Charismatic Community: Shi'ite Identity in Early Islam |author-first=Maria Massi |author-last=Dakake |year=2007 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=9780791470336 |author-link=Maria Massi Dakake}}</ref> Muhammad appointed his cousin ] as the executor of his last will and testament, as well as his ] (authority).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Veccia Vaglieri|first=L.|date=2012|title=Encyclopaedia of Islam |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/*-SIM_2439|section=G̲h̲adīr K̲h̲umm|publisher=Brill|access-date=July 14, 2023|isbn=9789004161214|archive-date=14 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230714174420/https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/*-SIM_2439|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfnp|Campo|2009|pp=257–258}} Shias recognize that Muhammad designated Ali as his successor (khalīfa) and ] (spiritual and political leader) after him, but was prevented from succeeding Muhammad as the leader of the ] because of some ] who selected ] as ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Foody |first=Kathleen |date=September 2015 |title=Interiorizing Islam: Religious Experience and State Oversight in the Islamic Republic of Iran |editor-last=Jain |editor-first=Andrea R. |journal=] |volume=83 |issue=3 |pages=599–623 |doi=10.1093/jaarel/lfv029 |doi-access=free |location=Oxford |publisher=] on behalf of the ] |eissn=1477-4585 |issn=0002-7189 |jstor=24488178 |lccn=sc76000837 |oclc=1479270 |quote=For Shiʿi Muslims, Muhammad not only designated Ali as his friend, but appointed him as his successor—as the "lord" or "master" of the new Muslim community. Ali and his descendants would become known as the Imams, divinely guided leaders of the Shiʿi communities, sinless, and granted special insight into the Qurʾanic text. The theology of the Imams that developed over the next several centuries made little distinction between the authority of the Imams to politically lead the Muslim community and their spiritual prowess; quite to the contrary, their right to political leadership was grounded in their special spiritual insight. While in theory, the only just ruler of the Muslim community was the Imam, the Imams were politically marginal after the first generation. In practice, Shiʿi Muslims negotiated varied approaches to both interpretative authority over Islamic texts and governance of the community, both during the lifetimes of the Imams themselves and even more so following the disappearance of the twelfth and final Imam in the ninth century.}}</ref> Sunnis, instead believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor before ] and consider Abū Bakr to be the first ] caliph after Muhammad.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Foody |first=Kathleen |date=September 2015 |editor-last=Jain |editor-first=Andrea R. |title=Interiorizing Islam: Religious Experience and State Oversight in the Islamic Republic of Iran |journal=] |location=Oxford |publisher=] on behalf of the ] |volume=83 |issue=3 |pages=599–623 |doi=10.1093/jaarel/lfv029 |issn=0002-7189 |eissn=1477-4585 |jstor=24488178 |lccn=sc76000837 |oclc=1479270 |quote=For Shiʿi Muslims, Muhammad not only designated Ali as his friend, but appointed him as his successor—as the "lord" or "master" of the new Muslim community. Ali and his descendants would become known as the Imams, divinely guided leaders of the Shiʿi communities, sinless, and granted special insight into the Qurʾanic text. The theology of the Imams that developed over the next several centuries made little distinction between the authority of the Imams to politically lead the Muslim community and their spiritual prowess; quite to the contrary, their right to political leadership was grounded in their special spiritual insight. While in theory, the only just ruler of the Muslim community was the Imam, the Imams were politically marginal after the first generation. In practice, Shiʿi Muslims negotiated varied approaches to both interpretative authority over Islamic texts and governance of the community, both during the lifetimes of the Imams themselves and even more so following the disappearance of the twelfth and final Imam in the ninth century. |doi-access=free}}</ref> Shias state the community deliberately ignored Ali's nomination,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Daftary |first1=Farhad |title=A History Of Shi'i Islam |url=https://archive.org/details/shii-heritage-series-farhad-daftary-a-history-of-shii-islam-i.-b.-tauris-2013_202104/mode/2up |website=Internet Archive |access-date=July 22, 2024 |date=2013}}</ref> citing ]'s appointment by Abu Bakr,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lalani |first1=Arzina R. |title=Early Shi'i Thought: The Teachings of Imam Muhammad al-Baqir |date=2000 |publisher=I.B. Tauris |isbn=1850435928}}</ref> other historical evidence,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |author-last=Amir-Moezzi |author-first=Mohammad Ali |title=Ghadīr Khumm |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam |edition=Third |editor1-first=Kate |editor1-last=Fleet |editor2-first=Gudrun |editor2-last=Krämer |editor3-first=Denis |editor3-last=Matringe |editor4-first=John |editor4-last=Nawas |editor5-first=Devin J. |editor5-last=Stewart |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_27419 |year=2014 |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_27419 |isbn=9789004269613 |author-link=Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi |url-access=subscription}}</ref> and the ] stance that majority does not imply legitimacy.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Mavani|first=Hamid|url=https://archive.org/details/religiousauthori0000mava/mode/|title=Religious Authority and Political Thought in Twelver Shi'ism: From Ali to Post-Khomeini|publisher=Routledge|year=2013|isbn=9780415624404|url-access=registration}}</ref>
===Jihad===
{{Main|Jihad|Islamic military jurisprudence|List of expeditions of Muhammad}}


Some of the first Shia Imams are revered by all Shia and Sunnis Muslims, such as Ali and ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Armajani |first=Jon |title=Shia Islam and Politics: Iran, Iraq, and Lebanon |date=2020 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-1-7936-2136-8 |location=Lanham (Md.) |pages=11}}</ref> ], the largest Shia branch and most influential, believe in ], the last of whom went into ] to return one day. They recognize that the prophecy of the Twelve Imams has been foretold in the ] which is recorded by both Sunni and Shia sources.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kohlberg|first=Etan|title=From Imāmiyya to Ithnā-'ashariyya|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bulletin-of-the-school-of-oriental-and-african-studies/article/abs/from-imamiyya-to-ithnaashariyya/32F60507F79BEE8C3732011F4D092CAF|journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies|year=1976|volume=39|issue=3|pages=521–534|doi=10.1017/S0041977X00050989|s2cid=155070530|access-date=July 14, 2023|archive-date=14 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230714174420/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bulletin-of-the-school-of-oriental-and-african-studies/article/abs/from-imamiyya-to-ithnaashariyya/32F60507F79BEE8C3732011F4D092CAF|url-status=live}}</ref> ] rejects special powers of Imams and are sometimes considered a 'fifth school' of Sunni Islam rather than a Shia denomination.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social and Military History |editor-first1=Spencer C. |editor-last1=Tucker |editor2=Priscilla Mary Roberts |year=2008 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-842-2 |page=917 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YAd8efHdVzIC&pg=PA917 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024726/https://books.google.com/books?id=YAd8efHdVzIC&pg=PA917 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Iraq Effect: The Middle East After the Iraq War |first=Frederic M. |last=Wehrey |year=2010 |publisher=Rand Corporation |isbn=978-0-8330-4788-5 |page=91 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i-3LAlfW7DIC&pg=PA91 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024742/https://books.google.com/books?id=i-3LAlfW7DIC&pg=PA91#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> They differed with other Shias over the status of the fifth imam and are sometimes known as "Fivers".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Peterson |first=Daniel |title=Zaydiyya |url=|journal=Islamic Studies |year=2011 |language=en |volume= |issue= |pages= |doi=10.1093/obo/9780195390155-0153 |issn=}}</ref> The ] split with the Twelvers over who was the seventh Imam and have further fragmented into more groups over the status of successive Imams, with the largest group being the ]s.<ref>{{cite book|last=Newman|first=Andrew J.|author-link=Andrew J. Newman|title=Twelver Shiism: Unity and Diversity in the Life of Islam, 632 to 1722|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-_M8BQAAQBAJ|year=2013|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=978-0-7486-7833-4|chapter=Introduction|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-_M8BQAAQBAJ&pg=PP18|page=2|access-date=13 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160501201413/https://books.google.com/books?id=-_M8BQAAQBAJ|archive-date=1 May 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>
Jihad means "to strive or struggle" (in the way of God). Jihad, in its broadest sense, is "exerting one's utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of ]". Depending on the object being a visible enemy, the ], and aspects of one's own self (such as sinful desires), different categories of jihad are defined.<ref>Firestone (1999) pp. 17–18</ref> Jihad, when used without any qualifier, is understood in its military aspect.<ref>Reuven Firestone (1999), The Meaning of Jihād, p. 17–18</ref><ref>Britannica Encyclopedia, Jihad</ref> Jihad also refers to one's striving to attain religious and moral perfection.<ref>
* {{Harvtxt|Brockopp|2003|pp=99–100}}
* {{Harvtxt|Esposito|2003|p=93}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=jihad | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online | ref=harv }}
</ref> Some Muslim authorities, especially among the Shi'a and ], distinguish between the "greater jihad", which pertains to spiritual ], and the "lesser jihad", defined as warfare.<ref>
* {{Harvtxt|Firestone|1999|p=17}}
* "Djihad", ''Encyclopedia of Islam Online''.
</ref>


For Shias, the ] in Najaf, the ] in Karbala, and the ] in ] are also among the ].<ref name="Sardeg2">{{cite web |last=Escobar |first=Pepe |date=May 24, 2002 |title=Knocking on heaven's door |url=http://www.atimes.com/c-asia/DE24Ag04.html |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020603155002/http://atimes.com/c-asia/DE24Ag04.html |archive-date=June 3, 2002 |access-date=2006-11-12 |work=] |quote=our sixth imam, Imam Sadeg, says that we have five definitive holy places... first is Mecca... second is Medina... third belongs to our first imam of Shia, Ali, which is in Najaf. The fourth belongs to our third imam, Hussein, in Kerbala. The last one belongs to the daughter of our seventh imam and sister of our eighth imam, who is called Fatemah, and will be buried in Qom. |department=Central Asia/Russia}}</ref>
Within ], jihad is usually taken to mean military exertion against non-believer/non-Muslim/Muslim combatants who insulted Islam. The ultimate purpose of military jihad is debated, both within the Islamic community and without. Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against illegal works, terrorists, criminal groups, rebels, ], and leaders or states who oppress Muslims.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Firestone|1999|p=17}}</ref><ref name="jihad">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Djihād |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online |ref=harv}}</ref> Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare.<ref>Knowing the Enemy: Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror, Mary R. Habeck, Yale University Press, p.108–109, 118</ref> Jihad only becomes an individual duty for those vested with authority. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a ].<ref name="jihad" /> For most ], ] can only be declared by a ] of the Muslim community, and as such is suspended since ]'s<ref name="Islam 2003 pp 72">Seyyed Hossein Nasr The Heart of Islam, Enduring Values for Humanity (April., 2003), pp 72</ref> occultation in 868 AD.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Sachedina|1998|pp=105,106}}</ref>


{{multiple image
==History==
| align = center
{{wide image|Madina_Haram_at_evening.jpg|1000px|align-cap=center|A panoramic view of ] (the Mosque of the Prophet) in ], ] region, today's Saudi Arabia, the second most sacred Mosque in Islam}}
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{{Main|History of Islam|Spread of Islam}}
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| alt1 =
===Muhammad (610–632)===
| caption1 = ] in ], the third holiest place for Shia Muslims after Mecca and Medina.
{{Main|Muhammad|Muhammad in Islam}}
| image2 = حرم الامام الحسين.jpg
] in Islam.]]
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{{See also|Early social changes under Islam}}
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| caption2 = ] in ], a holy site for Shia Muslims.
Muslim tradition views Muhammad (c. 570 – June 8, 632) as the ].<ref>
| width3 = 289
* {{Harvtxt|Esposito|1998|p=12}}
| alt3 =
* {{Harvtxt|Esposito|2002b|pp=4–5}}
| footer =
* F. E. Peters (2003), p.9
| image3 = ImamReza(A).jpg
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Muhammad | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online | ref=harv }}
| caption3 = ], the world's largest mosque, in ], ]. 25 million Shias visiting the shrine each year.
</ref> During the last 22 years of his life, beginning at age 40 in 610 ], according to the earliest surviving biographies, Muhammad reported revelations that he believed to be from God, conveyed to him through the ] (''Jibril''). Muhammad's ] memorized and recorded the content of these revelations, known as the Qur'an.<ref>
* {{Cite quran|18|110|style=ref}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Muhammad | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | last1=Buhl |first1=F|last2=Welch |first2=A.T| ref=harv }}
</ref>

During this time, ] preached to the people, imploring them to abandon polytheism and to worship one God. Although some converted to Islam, the leading Meccan authorities persecuted Muhammad and his followers. This resulted in the ] of some Muslims (to the ]). Many early converts to Islam were the poor and former slaves like ]. The Meccan élite felt that Muhammad was destabilising their social order by preaching about one God and about racial equality, and that in the process he gave ideas to the poor and to their slaves.<ref>The Qur'an with Annotated Interpretation in Modern English
By Ali Ünal Page 1323 </ref><ref>], Slaves and Slavery</ref><ref>Bilal b. Rabah, ]</ref><ref>The Cambridge History of Islam (1977), p.36</ref>

After 12 years of the ] and the ], Muhammad's relatives, Muhammad and the Muslims performed the '']'' ("emigration") to the city of ] (formerly known as ''Yathrib'') in 622. There, with the Medinan converts ('']'') and the Meccan migrants ('']''), ] established his political and ]. A state was established{{by whom|date=July 2015}} in accordance with ]. The ] was formulated, instituting a number of rights and responsibilities for the Muslim, Jewish, Christian and pagan communities of Medina, bringing them within the fold of one community — the ].<ref>Serjeant (1978), p. 4.</ref><ref>Watt. ''Muhammad at Medina''. pp. 227-228 Watt argues that the initial agreement came about shortly after the hijra and that the document was amended at a later date - specifically after the battle of Badr (AH 2, = AD 624). Serjeant argues that the constitution is in fact 8 different treaties which can be dated according to events as they transpired in Medina, with the first treaty written shortly after Muhammad's arrival. R. B. Serjeant. "The Sunnah Jâmi'ah, Pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrîm of Yathrib: Analysis and Translation of the Documents Comprised in the so-called 'Constitution of Medina'." in ''The Life of Muhammad: The Formation of the Classical Islamic World'': Volume iv. Ed. Uri Rubin. Brookfield: Ashgate, 1998, p. 151 and see same article in BSOAS 41 (1978): 18 ff. See also Caetani. ''Annali dell'Islam, Volume I''. Milano: Hoepli, 1905, p. 393. Julius Wellhausen. ''Skizzen und Vorabeiten'', IV, Berlin: Reimer, 1889, p 82f who argue that the document is a single treaty agreed upon shortly after the hijra. Wellhausen argues that it belongs to the first year of Muhammad's residence in Medina, before the battle of Badr in 2/624. Even Moshe Gil a skeptic of Islamic history argues that it was written within five months of Muhammad's arrival in Medina. Moshe Gil. "The Constitution of Medina: A Reconsideration." ''Israel Oriental Studies'' 4 (1974): p. 45.</ref>

The Constitution established:

* the security of the community
* religious freedoms
* the role of Medina as a sacred place (barring all violence and weapons)
* the security of women
* stable tribal relations within Medina
* a tax system for supporting the community in time of conflict
* parameters for exogenous political alliances
* a system for granting protection of individuals
* a judicial system for resolving disputes where non-Muslims could also use their own laws

All the tribes signed the agreement to defend Medina from all external threats and to live in harmony amongst themselves. Within a few years, two battles took place against the Meccan forces: first, the ] in 624 - a Muslim victory, and then a year later, when the Meccans returned to Medina, the ], which ended inconclusively.

The Arab tribes in the rest of Arabia then formed a confederation and during the ] (March–April 627) besieged Medina, intent on finishing off Islam. In 628, the ] was signed between Mecca and the Muslims and was broken by Mecca two years later. After the signing of the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah many more people converted to Islam. At the same time, Meccan trade routes were cut off as Muhammad brought surrounding desert tribes under his control.<ref>
* {{Harvtxt|Peters|2003|pp=78,79,194}}
* {{Harvtxt|Lapidus|2002|pp=23–28}}
</ref> By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless ], and by the time of his death in 632 (at the age of 62) he had united the ] into a single religious ].<ref name="EoI-Muhammad">
{{cite encyclopedia
| title=Muhammad
| encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online
|last1=Buhl
|first1=F
|last2=Welch
|first2=A.T
| ref=harv
}} }}
</ref>


=== Muhakkima ===
===Caliphate and civil strife (632–750)===
{{Main|Muhakkima|Ibadi Islam|Kharijites}}
] built by ]; completed at the end of the ].]]
{{Further|Muslim conquests|First Fitna|Second Fitna}}


] or ] is practised by 1.45&nbsp;million Muslims around the world (~0.08% of all Muslims), most of them in ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Robert Brenton Betts |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vFq_KUqqWJMC&pg=PA15 |title=The Sunni-Shi'a Divide: Islam's Internal Divisions and Their Global Consequences |date=31 July 2013 |isbn=978-1-61234-522-2 |pages=14–15 |publisher=Potomac Books |access-date=7 January 2015 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024743/https://books.google.com/books?id=vFq_KUqqWJMC&pg=PA15#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> Ibadism is often associated with and viewed as a moderate variation of the ], though Ibadis themselves object to this classification. The kharijites were groups that rebelled against Caliph Ali for his acceptance of arbitration with someone they viewed as a sinner. Unlike most kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers. Ibadi hadiths, such as the ] collection, use chains of narrators from early Islamic history they consider trustworthy, but most Ibadi hadiths are also found in standard Sunni collections and contemporary Ibadis often approve of the standard Sunni collections.<ref>{{Cite book|first= Valerie Jon|last= Hoffman|title= The Essentials of Ibadi Islam|location= ]|pages=3–4|publisher= ]|year= 2012|isbn= 9780815650843|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=JNxvMRJM3EAC}}</ref>
With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. ], a companion and close friend of Muhammad, was made the first ]. Under ] the Muslims expanded into ] after putting down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the ], or "Wars of Apostasy".<ref>
]
* {{Harvtxt|Holt|1977a)|p=57}}
* {{Harvtxt|Hourani|2003)|p=22}}
* {{Harvtxt|Lapidus|2002)|p=32}}
* {{Harvtxt|Madelung|1996|p=43}}
* {{Harvtxt|Tabatabaei|1979|pp=30–50}}
</ref> The Quran was compiled into a single volume at this time.


=== Other denominations ===
His death in 634 resulted in the succession of ] as the caliph, followed by ], ] and ]. The first caliphs are known as ''al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn'' ("]"). Under them, the territory under Muslim rule expanded deeply into the parts of the ] and ] territories.<ref>See
* {{Harvtxt|Holt|1977a|p=74}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | last1=Gardet|first1=L. |last2=Jomier |first2=J.| ref=harv }}</ref>


* The ] was founded in British India in 1889 by ] of ], who claimed to be the promised ] ("] of ]"), the ] awaited by the Muslims as well as a ] to the Islamic prophet Muhammad.<ref name="Upal 2021">{{cite book |author-last=Upal |author-first=M. Afzal |author-link=Afzal Upal |title=Handbook of Islamic Sects and Movements |publisher=] |year=2021 |isbn=978-90-04-43554-4 |editor1-last=Cusack |editor1-first=Carole M. |editor1-link=Carole M. Cusack |series=Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion |volume=21 |location=] and ] |pages=637–657 |chapter=The Cultural Genetics of the Aḥmadiyya Muslim Jamāʿat |doi=10.1163/9789004435544_034 |issn=1874-6691 |editor2-last=Upal |editor2-first=M. Afzal |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Turner 2003">{{cite book |last=Turner |first=Richard Brent |title=Islam in the African-American Experience |publisher=] |year=2003 |isbn=9780253216304 |edition=2nd |location=] and ] |pages=109–146 |chapter=The Ahmadiyya Mission to America: A Multi-Racial Model for American Islam |lccn=2003009791 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4XMuLWlTgjMC&pg=PA109 }}</ref> There are a wide variety of distinct beliefs and teachings of Ahmadis compared to those of ''most other'' Muslims,<ref name="Upal 2021" /><ref name="Drover 2020">{{cite book |author-last=Drover |author-first=Lauren |title=New Religious Movements in Modern Asian History: Socio-Cultural Alternatives |publisher=] |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-7936-3403-0 |editor-last=Kim |editor-first=David W. |series=Ethnographies of Religion |location=] |pages=21–36 |chapter=The Ahmadiyya Muslim Jamaat: A New Religious Movement Derived from Islam? |oclc=1220880253 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9WQGEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA21}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Korbel |first1=Jonathan |title=Religious Dynamics under the Impact of Imperialism and Colonialism |last2=Preckel |first2=Claudia |publisher=] |year=2016 |isbn=978-90-04-32511-1 |editor1-last=Bentlage |editor1-first=Björn |series=Numen Book Series |volume=154 |location=] |pages=426–442 |chapter=Ghulām Aḥmad al-Qādiyānī: The Messiah of the Christians—Peace upon Him—in India (India, 1908) |doi=10.1163/9789004329003_034 |editor2-last=Eggert |editor2-first=Marion |editor3-last=Krämer |editor3-first=Hans-Martin |editor4-last=Reichmuth |editor4-first=Stefan |editor4-link=Stefan Reichmuth (academic) |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZtY6DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA426}}</ref><ref name="Turner 2003" /> which include the interpretation of the Quranic title '']''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Balzani |first=Marzia |title=Ahmadiyya Islam and the Muslim Diaspora: Living at the End of Days |isbn=978-1-315-19728-9 |location=Abingdon, Oxon |pages=6–8 |oclc=1137739779}}</ref> and interpretation of the ].<ref name="Drover 2020" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-03-23 |title=What are the Signs of the Second Coming of the Messiah? |url=https://www.reviewofreligions.org/12457/what-are-the-signs-of-the-second-coming-of-the-messiah/ |access-date=2020-06-23 |website=Review of Religions |language=en-GB}}</ref> These perceived deviations from normative Islamic thought have resulted in rejection by most Muslims as heretics<ref>{{Cite web |last=Paracha |first=Nadeem F. |date=2013-11-21 |title=The 1974 ouster of the 'heretics': What really happened? |url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1057427 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150613025520/http://www.dawn.com/news/1057427 |archive-date=13 June 2015 |access-date=2024-03-19 |website=DAWN.COM |language=en}}</ref> and ] in various countries,<ref name="Drover 2020" /> particularly ],<ref name="Drover 2020" /><ref>{{cite book |last=Uddin |first=Asma T. |title=State Responses to Minority Religions |publisher=]/] |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-4724-1647-6 |editor-last=Kirkham |editor-first=David M. |series=Ashgate Inform Series on Minority Religions and Spiritual Movements |location=] and ] |pages=81–98 |chapter=A Legal Analysis of Ahmadi Persecution in Pakistan |lccn=2013019344 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k9TVCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA81 |via=]}}</ref> where they have been officially declared as non-Muslims by the ].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution (Second Amendment) Act, 1974 |url=https://pakistani.org/pakistan/constitution/amendments/2amendment.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170717144752/http://www.pakistani.org/pakistan/constitution/amendments/2amendment.html |archive-date=17 July 2017 |access-date=2024-03-19 |website=pakistani.org}}</ref> The followers of the Ahmadiyya Movement in Islam are divided into two groups: the first being the ], currently the dominant group, and the ].<ref name="Drover 2020" />
When Umar was ] in 644, ] as successor was met with increasing opposition. The standard copies of the Quran were also distributed throughout the Islamic State. In 656, Uthman was also killed, and Ali assumed the position of caliph. After the ] (the "First Fitna"), Ali was assassinated by ] in 661. Following a peace treaty, ] came to power and began the ].<ref>Holt (1977a), pp.67–72</ref>


* ] is a ] and ] local Islamic tradition, whose adherents follow the mystical (]) teachings of Ali and ].<ref>{{cite web |title=Bektāšīya |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bektasiya |website=Encyclopaedia Iranica |first1=Hamid |last1=Algar |date=December 15, 1989 |access-date=13 February 2019 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910201955/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bektasiya |url-status=live }}</ref> Alevism is a blend of traditional 14th century Turkish beliefs,<ref>Jorgen S Nielsen Muslim ''Political Participation in Europe'' ] 2013 {{ISBN|978-0-748-67753-5}} page 255</ref> with possible syncretist origins in ] and ], alongside Shia and Sufi beliefs. It has been estimated that there are 10 million to over 20 million (~0.5–1% of all Muslims) Alevis worldwide.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161130111738/http://www.alevi.dk/ENGELSK/Turkish_Alevis_Today.pdf |date=30 November 2016 }}, PDF-Datei, See also {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613045624/https://i-cias.com/e.o/alevi.htm |date=13 June 2021 }}, consulted on 30 May 2017.</ref>
These disputes over religious and political leadership would give rise to schism in the Muslim community. The majority accepted the legitimacy of the three rulers prior to Ali, and became known as Sunnis. A minority disagreed, and believed that only Ali and some of his descendants should rule; they became known as the Shia.<ref>Waines (2003) p.46</ref> After ]'s death in 680, conflict over succession broke out again in a civil war known as the "]".
*] is a religious movement of Islam based on the belief that Islamic law and guidance should only be based on the ] and not the ] or ],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Musa |first=Aisha Y. |date=2010 |title=The Qur'anists |journal=Religion Compass |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=12–21 |doi=10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00189.x}}</ref> with Quranists notably differing in their approach to the ].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Musa |first=Aisha Y. |title=The Qur'anists |url=https://www.academia.edu/1035742 |journal=Religion Compass |year=2010 |language=en |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=12–21 |doi=10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00189.x |issn=1749-8171 |access-date=8 June 2021 |archive-date=28 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220128062123/https://www.academia.edu/1035742 |url-status=live }}</ref> The movement developed from the 19th century onwards, with thinkers like ], Abdullah Chakralawi and ] in India questioning the hadith tradition.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brown |first=Daniel W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6RPcYgx5u_MC |title=Rethinking Tradition in Modern Islamic Thought |date=1999-03-04 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-65394-7 |pages=7–45, 68 |language=en}}</ref> In Egypt, ] penned the article ''Islam is the Quran alone'' in the magazine '']'', arguing for the sole authority of the Quran.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Juynboll |first=G. H. A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xAUVAAAAIAAJ |title=The Authenticity of the Tradition Literature: Discussions in Modern Egypt,... G.H.A. Juynboll,... |date=1969 |publisher=Brill Archive |pages=23–25 |language=en}}</ref> A prominent late 20th century Quranist was ], an Egyptian-American biochemist who claimed to have discovered a ] ], and founded the Quranist organization ].<ref>{{Cite journal |date=September 1989 |title=Why the name change? |url=http://www.quranalone.com/SP/57_1989_09.pdf |journal=Submission Perspective |volume=57 |page=1 |access-date=29 August 2022 |archive-date=31 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210731115713/https://www.quranalone.com/SP/57_1989_09.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>


=== Non-denominational Muslims ===
The Umayyad dynasty conquered the ], the ], ] and ].<ref>Donald Puchala, ''Theory and History in International Relations,'' page 137. Routledge, 2003.</ref> Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and taxed heavily to finance the ], often aided Muslims to take over their lands from the Byzantines and Persians, resulting in exceptionally speedy conquests.<ref>Esposito (2010), p.38</ref><ref>Hofmann (2007), p.86</ref> Since the ], Jews and Christians continued to use their own laws in the Islamic State and had their own judges.<ref name="B. Serjeant 1978"/><ref name="Watt 1964 p.4"/><ref name="Constitution of Medina"/>
{{Main|Non-denominational Muslim}}
Non-denominational Muslims is an ] that has been used for and by Muslims who do not belong to or do not self-identify with a specific ].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Benakis |first=Theodoros |date=13 January 2014 |title=Islamophoobia in Europe! |work=New Europe |location=Brussels |url=http://neurope.eu/article/islamophobia-europe/ |url-status=dead |access-date=20 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160131145036/http://neurope.eu/article/islamophobia-europe/ |archive-date=31 January 2016 |quote=Anyone who has travelled to Central Asia knows of the non-denominational Muslims—those who are neither Shiites nor Sounites, but who accept Islam as a religion generally.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Pollack |first=Kenneth |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=jQGZBAAAQBAJ|page=29}} |title=Unthinkable: Iran, the Bomb, and American Strategy |date=2014 |isbn=978-1-4767-3393-7 |page=29 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |quote=Although many Iranian hardliners are Shi'a chauvinists, Khomeini's ideology saw the revolution as pan-Islamist, and therefore embracing Sunni, Shi'a, Sufi, and other, more nondenominational Muslims}}</ref> Recent surveys report that large proportions of Muslims in some parts of the world self-identify as "just Muslim", although there is little published analysis available regarding the motivations underlying this response.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Burns |first=Robert |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=akWUGyN7fwEC|page=55}} |title=Christianity, Islam, and the West |date=2011 |isbn=978-0-7618-5560-6 |page=55 |publisher=University Press of America |quote=40 per cent called themselves "just a Muslim" according to the Council of American-Islamic relations}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Tatari |first=Eren |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=x_4QBQAAQBAJ|page=111}} |title=Muslims in British Local Government: Representing Minority Interests in Hackney, Newham and Tower Hamlets |date=2014 |isbn=978-90-04-27226-2 |page=111 |publisher=BRILL |quote=Nineteen said that they are Sunni Muslims, six said they are just Muslim without specifying a sect, two said they are Ahmadi, and two said their families are Alevi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Lopez |first=Ralph |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=vuNfXxnYWPIC|page=65}} |title=Truth in the Age of Bushism |date=2008 |isbn=978-1-4348-9615-5 |page=65 |publisher=Lulu.com |quote=Many Iraqis take offense at reporters' efforts to identify them as Sunni or Shiite. A 2004 Iraq Centre for Research and Strategic Studies poll found the largest category of Iraqis classified themselves as "just Muslim."}}</ref> The ] reports that respondents self-identifying as "just Muslim" make up a majority of Muslims in seven countries (and a plurality in three others), with the highest proportion in ] at 74%. At least one in five Muslims in at least 22 countries self-identifies in this way.<ref name="Pew" />


== Mysticism ==
The descendants of Muhammad's uncle ] rallied discontented non-Arab converts ('']''), poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them, inaugurating the ] in 750.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Lapidus|2002|p=56}}; {{Harvtxt|Lewis|1993|pp=71–83}}</ref>
{{Main|Sufism}}
{{See also|Sufi–Salafi relations}}
] by the tomb of Sufi-mystic ]]]
] in ], ]]]
Sufism (Arabic: {{langx|ar|تصوف|translit=tasawwuf|label=none}}), is a ]-] approach to Islam that seeks to find a direct ]. Classical Sufi scholars defined ''tasawwuf'' as "a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God", through "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use.<ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2003|p=302}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Malik|Hinnells|2006|p=3}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Turner|1998|p=145}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Trimingham|1998|p=1}}</ref> ] defined tasawwuf as "a return to the tradition, and its beginning is knowledge, its middle is action , and its end is a gift ."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ibn-ʿAǧība |first1=Aḥmad Ibn-Muḥammad |last2=Aresmouk |first2=Mohamed Fouad |last3=Fitzgerald |first3=Michael Abdurrahman |last4=Ibn-ʿAǧība |first4=Aḥmad Ibn-Muḥammad |title=The Book of ascension to the essential truths of Sufism: a lexicon of Sufic terminology = Miʿrāj al-tashawwuf ilā ḥaqāʾiq al-taṣawwuf |date=2011 |publisher=Fons Vitae |location=Louisville, KY |isbn=978-1891785849}}</ref> It is not a sect of Islam, and its adherents belong to the various Muslim denominations. ], whose teachings are rooted in ] and ]<ref>Andani, Khalil. "A Survey of Ismaili Studies Part 1: Early Ismailism and Fatimid Ismailism." Religion Compass 10.8 (2016): 191–206.</ref> as well as by the ] and ] schools of Islamic philosophy, has developed mystical interpretations of Islam.<ref>]. 2016. "." '']'', edited by ]. Retrieved 25 May 2020.</ref> ], the early Sufi ascetic often portrayed as one of the earliest Sufis,<ref>Knysh, Alexander. 2015. ''Islam in Historical Perspective''. Routledge. {{ISBN|978-1-317-34712-5}}. p. 214.</ref> emphasized fear of failing God's expectations of obedience. In contrast, later prominent Sufis, such as ] and ], emphasized religiosity based on love towards God. Such devotion would also have an impact on the arts, with Rumi still one of the bestselling poets in America.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Haviland |first=Charles |date=30 September 2007 |title=The roar of Rumi – 800 years on |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7016090.stm |access-date=10 August 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=1 September 2009 |title=Islam: Jalaluddin Rumi |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/art/rumi_1.shtml |access-date=10 August 2011 |publisher=BBC}}</ref>


Sufis see ''tasawwuf'' as an inseparable part of Islam.{{sfnp|Chittick|2008|pp=3–4, 11}} Traditional Sufis, such as ], Jalaluddin Rumi, ], ], and Al-Ghazali, argued for Sufism as being based upon the tenets of Islam and the teachings of the prophet.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nasr |first=Seyyed Hossein |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontois00nasr |access-date=17 January 2015 |title=An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines |date=1993 |isbn=978-0-7914-1515-3 |page=|publisher=SUNY Press }}</ref>{{sfnp|Chittick|2008|pp=3–4, 11}} Historian ] argued that Islam in the Medieval period was more or less Sufism.{{sfnp|Peacock|2019|p=24,77}} Followers of the Sunni ] movement known as ] have viewed popular devotional practices, such as the veneration of Sufi saints, as innovations from the original religion. Salafists have sometimes physically attacked Sufis, leading to a deterioration in ].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |author-last=Cook |author-first=David |author-link=David Cook (historian) |date=May 2015 |title=Mysticism in Sufi Islam |url=https://oxfordre.com/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-51 |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion |location=] |publisher=] |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.51 |isbn=9780199340378 |doi-access=free |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181128012740/http://oxfordre.com/religion/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-51 |archive-date=28 November 2018 |url-status=live |access-date=15 January 2023}}</ref>
===Classical era (750–1258)===
During this time, the ] took over northern parts of Indian subcontinent. Religious missions converted ] to Islam. Many Muslims also went to ] to trade, virtually dominating the import and export industry of the ].<ref name=china>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/china_1.shtml|title=Islam in China|publisher=BBC|accessdate=2011-08-10}}</ref>


Sufi congregations form orders ('']'') centered around a teacher ('']'') who traces a spiritual chain back to Muhammad.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url= https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/583591/tariqa |title= tariqa &#124; Islam |encyclopedia= Britannica.com |date= 4 February 2014 |access-date= 29 May 2015}}</ref> Sufis played an important role in the formation of Muslim societies through their missionary and educational activities.<ref name=EB-Sufism>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Schimmel |first=Annemarie |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sufism |title=Sufism |encyclopedia=] |access-date=17 September 2021 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> The Sufism-influenced Ahle Sunnat movement or ] movement claims over 200 million followers in South Asia.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bowker |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780192800947 |title=The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-19-280094-7 |doi=10.1093/acref/9780192800947.001.0001}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sanyal |first=Usha |date=1998 |url=http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayFulltext?type=1&fid=69415&jid=ASS&volumeId=32&issueId=03&aid=69414 |title=Generational Changes in the Leadership of the Ahl-e Sunnat Movement in North India during the Twentieth Century |journal=] |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=635–656 |doi=10.1017/S0026749X98003059|doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2003|loc=}} – via Oxford Reference.</ref> Sufism is prominent in Central Asia,<ref>{{cite web |last=Alvi |first=Farhat |title=The Significant Role of Sufism in Central Asia |url=http://pu.edu.pk/images/journal/uoc/PDF-FILES/(2)%20The%20Significant%20Role%20of%20Sufism%20in%20Central%20Asia%20(Dr.%20Farh.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Johns |first=Anthony H |year=1995 |title=Sufism in Southeast Asia: Reflections and Reconsiderations |journal=] |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=169–183 |doi=10.1017/S0022463400010560 |jstor=20071709|s2cid=154870820 }}</ref> as well as in African countries like ], ], ], ], ] and ].<ref name="Pew">{{cite web|date=9 August 2012|title=Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-1-religious-affiliation/#identity|access-date=4 September 2013|website=The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity|publisher=]'s Religion & Public Life Project}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Babou |first=Cheikh Anta |date=2007 |title=Sufism and Religious Brotherhoods in Senegal |journal=] |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=184–186}}</ref>
] from a manuscript dated circa 1200.]]
The ] were compiled during the early Abbasid era. Al-Shafi'i also codified a method to establish the reliability of hadith.<ref>Lapidus (2002), p.86</ref> The ] was formed from the teachings of ] while the four Sunni ]s, the ], ], ] and ], were established around the teachings of ], ], ] and ] respectively. In the 9th century, ash-Shafi'i provided a theoretical basis for Islamic law by codifying the principles of jurisprudence in his book ''ar-Risālah''.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Weiss|2002|pp=xvii,162}}</ref> ] and ] completed the most commonly cited commentaries on the Quran, the ] in the 9th century and the ] in the 14th century, respectively. Philosophers ] and ] sought to incorporate Greek principles into Islamic theology, while others like ] argued against them and ultimately prevailed.<ref>
* Lapidus (2002), p.160
* Waines (2003) p.126,127
</ref>


== Law and jurisprudence ==
Caliphs such as ] and ] made the ] philosophy an official creed and imposed it upon Muslims to follow. Mu'tazila was a Greek influenced school of speculative theology called ], which refers to ].<ref>{{Harvtxt|Esposito|2010|p=88}}</ref> Many orthodox Muslims rejected ] doctrines and condemned their idea of the creation of the Quran. In inquisitions, Imam Hanbal refused to conform and was tortured and sent to an unlit ] prison cell for nearly thirty months.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Doi |first1= Abdur Rahman |title= Shariah: The Islamic Law |edition= |page=110|year=1984|publisher=Ta-Ha Publishers |location=London|isbn= 0-907461-38-7|ref=}}</ref> The other branch of kalam was the ] school founded by ].
{{Main|Sharia|Fiqh}}
{{See also|Logic in Islamic philosophy#Islamic law and theology}}
] in the ]|upright=1.35]]
] is the body of Islamic ].<ref name="Lexico" />{{sfnp|Esposito|2002b|pp=17, 111–112, 118}} The desire to delineate and discover laws in a comprehensive and consistent method led to the development of the ], called ].<ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2010|p=96}}</ref><ref name="vikor">Vikør, Knut S. 2014. "." In ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics'', edited by ]. Oxford: ]. Archived from the on 4 June 2014. Retrieved 25 May 2020.</ref> Conversely, ] is used to refer to unlawful innovations in matters of religion.<ref>{{cite book|last1 = A.C. Brown|first1 = Jonathan|author-link=Jonathan A.C. Brown|title = Hadith: Muhammad's Legacy in the Medieval and Modern World ''(Foundations of Islam)''|date = 2009|publisher = ]|isbn = 978-1851686636|page = 277}}</ref> Differing methodologies, called principles of fiqh or '']'', have developed and a school of jurisprudence arising around a methodology is known as a ''madhhab'' ({{langx|ar|مذهب}}). The conformity in following of decisions by a religious expert or school is called '']''. The term '']'' refers to those who do not use taqlid and, by extension, do not have a madhab.<ref>Bharathi, K. S. 1998. ''Encyclopedia of Eminent Thinkers''. p. 38.</ref> The practice of an individual interpreting law with independent reasoning is called '']''.{{sfnp|Weiss|2002|pp=3, 161}}<ref name="ODI">{{cite web |editor-link=John Esposito|editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=John L. |title=Islamic Law |work=] |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t125/e1107 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170203033813/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t125/e1107 |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 February 2017 |via=Oxford Islamic Studies Online}}</ref> Those who interpret shariah are known as ]s and their legal opinions are called ]s.<ref name="ODI" /><ref name="vikor" />


The primary sources of Shariah are the Quran and Sunnah.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Esposito |first1=John L. |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=MOmaDq8HKCgC|page=2}} |title=Women in Muslim Family Law |last2=DeLong-Bas |first2=Natana J. |publisher=] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-8156-2908-5 |pages=2– |author-link=John Esposito |author-link2=Natana J. DeLong-Bas}} Quote: ", by the ninth century, the classical theory of law fixed the sources of Islamic law at four: the ''Quran'', the ''Sunnah'' of the Prophet, ''qiyas'' (analogical reasoning), and ''ijma'' (consensus)."</ref> A common third source is ] (analogical reasoning) which is used for legal questions not dealt with literally in the Qur’ān or Sunnah. Parallels would be searched for to find the ‘’illah’’, or effective cause, which is the reason behind the existing ruling.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095957640|publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=1 October 2024 |location=Oxford |title=illah}}</ref> For example, from the specific prohibition of wine is deduced a broad prohibition on alcohol as they share the operative cause identified as the mind-altering nature of all alcoholic drinks.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Fairak |first1= A. |title= Analogy (Islamic)|edition=2014|page=56|year=2014|publisher=Springer |location=Boston|isbn= 978-1-4614-6085-5|language=English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last= Fairak |first= A. |year=2014 |title= Analogy (Islamic)|journal= Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion|volume=74 |issue=4 |pages=531–55 |doi=10.1086/353360 |s2cid=144315162 | issn=0021-1753}}</ref> The ] adheres to strict literalism and thus rejects qiyas. Consensus of opinion is ], while ] refers to scholarly disagreement. Rulings assign actions to one of five categories called ]: mandatory ('']''), recommended ('']''), permitted ('']''), abhorred ('']''), and prohibited ('']'').<ref name="ODI" /><ref name="vikor" />
Some Muslims began to question the piety of indulgence in a worldly life and emphasized poverty, humility and avoidance of ] based on renunciation of bodily desires. Ascetics such as ] would inspire a movement that would evolve into Tasawwuf (Sufism).<ref>
* {{Harvtxt|Lapidus|2002|pp=90,91}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Sufism | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online | ref=harv }}
</ref> Beginning in the 13th century, Sufism underwent a transformation, largely because of efforts to legitimize and reorganize the movement by ], who developed the model of the ]—a community of spiritual teachers and students.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Esposito|2004|pp=104,105}}</ref>


In the modern era, sharia-based criminal laws were widely replaced by statutes inspired by European models.<ref name="vikor" /> The ]'s 19th century ] reforms led to the ] civil code and represented the first attempt to ] sharia.<ref name=Oxfordref/> While the constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references to sharia, its classical rules were largely retained only in ] (family) laws.<ref name="vikor" /> Legislative bodies which codified these laws sought to modernize them without abandoning their foundations in traditional jurisprudence.<ref name="vikor" /><ref name="mayer">Mayer, Ann Elizabeth. 2009. "." In ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World'', edited by J. L. Esposito. Oxford: ].</ref> The ] of the late 20th century brought along calls by ] movements for complete implementation of sharia.<ref name="vikor" /><ref name="mayer" /> The role of sharia has become a contested topic around the world. There are ongoing debates as to whether sharia is compatible with secular forms of government, human rights, ], and ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=An-Na'im |first=Abdullahi A. |title=Religious Human Rights in Global Perspective: Religious Perspectives |year=1996 |isbn=978-90-411-0179-2 |editor-last=Witte |editor-first=John |pages=337–359 |chapter=Islamic Foundations of Religious Human Rights |publisher=BRILL |editor-last2=van der Vyver |editor-first2=Johan D. |chapter-url={{Google books|aqyWwF5YA1gC|page=337|plainurl=yes}}}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hajjar |first=Lisa |year=2004 |title=Religion, State Power, and Domestic Violence in Muslim Societies: A Framework for Comparative Analysis |journal=] |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=1–38 |doi=10.1111/j.1747-4469.2004.tb00329.x |jstor=4092696 |s2cid=145681085}}</ref>
This era is sometimes called the "]".<ref>
* {{Harvtxt|Holt|1977a|pp=80,92,105}}
* {{Harvtxt|Holt|1977b|pp=661–663}}
* {{Harvtxt|Lapidus|2002|p=56}}
* {{Harvtxt|Lewis|1993|p=84}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online |last1=Gardet|first1=L. |last2=Jomier |first2=J. | ref=harv }}
</ref> ]s established during this time (called ] hospitals), are considered "the first hospitals" in the modern sense of the word,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Encyclopedia of the History of Islamic Science: Technology, alchemy and life|last=Micheau|first=Françoise|contribution=The Scientific Institutions in the Medieval Near East|pages=991–2|ref=harv}}, in {{Harv|Morelon|Rashed|1996|pp=985–1007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.planetseed.com/node/17129 |title=The beginnings of modern medicine: the Caliphate |publisher=Planetseed.com |accessdate=2011-01-29}}</ref> and issued the first medical diplomas to license ].<ref name=Alatas>{{Cite journal|title=From Jami'ah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian–Muslim Dialogue|first=Syed Farid|last=Alatas|journal=Current Sociology|volume=54|issue=1|pages=112–32|doi=10.1177/0011392106058837|year=2006|ref=harv}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Muslim Spain 711–1492 AD.|first=S. M.|last=Imamuddin|publisher=]|year=1981|isbn=90-04-06131-2|page=169|ref=harv}}</ref> The ] recognizes the ], founded in 859, as the world's oldest degree-granting university.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Guinness Book Of Records|year=1998|isbn=0-553-57895-2|page=242}}</ref> The ] is argued to date back to the ] in Muslim ]s.<ref name=Makdisi>{{Cite journal|last=Makdisi|first=George|title=Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|volume=109|issue=2|date=April–June 1989|pages=175–182 |doi=10.2307/604423|publisher=American Oriental Society|ref=harv|jstor=604423}}</ref> Standards of ]al and ] techniques, as well as the tradition of citation,<ref name=Ahmed>Ahmed, Imad-ad-Dean. Signs in the heavens. 2. Amana Publications, 2006. Print. ISBN 1-59008-040-8 page 23, 42, 84. {{quote|"Despite the fact that they did not have a quantified theory of error they were well aware that an increased number of observations qualitatively reduces the uncertainty."}}</ref> were introduced. An important pioneer in this, ] is regarded as the father of the modern ] and often referred to as the "world's first true scientist".<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7810846.stm|work=BBC News|title=The 'first true scientist'|author=Al-Khalili, Jim|date=4 January 2009|accessdate=24 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal
|last=Gorini
|first=Rosanna
|title=Al-Haytham the man of experience. First steps in the science of vision
|journal=Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine
|volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=53–55 |date=October 2003
|url=http://www.ishim.net/ishimj/4/10.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2008-09-25
|ref=harv }}</ref> The government paid scientists the equivalent salary of professional athletes today.<ref name=Ahmed/> It is argued that the data used by ] for his ] conclusions was gathered and that ] proposed a theory of ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2008/jan/30/religion.world|title=It's time to herald the Arabic science that prefigure Darwin and Newton|work=The Guardian|accessdate=2013-09-24|location=London|first=Jim|last=Al-Khalili|date=2008-01-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/3323462/Science-Islams-forgotten-geniuses.html|title=Science: Islam's forgotten geniuses|publisher=The Telegraph|accessdate=2011-12-13|location=London|first=Jim|last=Al-Khalili|date=2008-01-29}}</ref> ] wrote some of the finest Persian ] and is still one of the best selling poets in America.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7016090.stm|title=The roar of Rumi - 800 years on|work=BBC News|accessdate=2011-08-10|first=Charles|last=Haviland|date=2007-09-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/art/rumi_1.shtml|title=Islam: Jalaluddin Rumi|publisher=BBC|date=2009-09-01|accessdate=2011-08-10}}</ref> Legal institutions introduced include the ] and ] (]).<ref>{{Harv|Gaudiosi|1988}} {{citation not found}}</ref><ref>{{Harv|Hudson|2003|p=32}} {{citation not found}}</ref>


== Society ==
The first Muslims states independent of a unified Muslim state emerged from the Berber Revolt (739/740-743). In 930, the Ismaili group known as the ] unsuccessfully rebelled against the Abbassids, sacked Mecca and stole the Black Stone, which was eventually retrieved.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/371782/Mecca/37835/History#ref887188|title=Mecca (Saudi Arabia)|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate=2011-11-12}}</ref> The ] put an end to the Abbassid dynasty in 1258.<ref>
=== Religious personages ===
* {{Harvtxt|Lapidus|2002|pp=103–143}}
{{Main|Ulama}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Abbasid Dynasty | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online | ref=harv }}
] Muslim students (1856)]]
</ref>
Islam has no clergy in the ] sense, such as priests who mediate between God and people. '']'' ({{langx|ar|إمام|label=none}}) is the religious title used to refer to an Islamic leadership position, often in the context of conducting an Islamic worship service.<ref>{{cite web |title=Imam|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/imam|access-date=15 January 2023|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> Religious interpretation is presided over by the '''ulama'' (Arabic: علماء), a term used describe the body of Muslim scholars who have received training in ]. A scholar of the hadith is called a '']'', a scholar of jurisprudence is called a '']'' ({{langx|ar|فقيه|label=none}}), a jurist who is qualified to issue legal opinions or '']'' is called a ], and a '']'' is an Islamic judge. ] titles given to scholars include ], ] and '']''. Some Muslims also venerate ] associated with ] ({{langx|ar|كرامات|translit=karāmāt|label=none}}).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Radtke |first1=B. |last2=Lory |first2=P. |last3=Zarcone |first3=Th. |last4=DeWeese |first4=D. |last5=Gaborieau |first5=M. |last6=Denny |first6=F. M. |last7=Aubin |first7=F. |last8=Hunwick |first8=J. O. |last9=Mchugh |first9=N. |title=Walī |orig-year=1993 |year=2012 |editor1-last=Bearman |editor1-first=P. J. |editor1-link=Peri Bearman |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor2-first=Th. |editor2-link=Thierry Bianquis |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor3-first=C. E. |editor3-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |editor4-last=van Donzel |editor4-first=E. J. |editor4-link=Emeri Johannes van Donzel |editor5-last=Heinrichs |editor5-first=W. P. |editor5-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs |encyclopedia=] |edition=2nd |location=] |publisher=] |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_1335 |isbn=978-90-04-16121-4}}</ref>


=== Governance ===
===Pre-Modern era (1258–20th century)===
] was the last Caliph of Islam from the ].]]


{{See also|Political aspects of Islam|Islamic economics|Islamic military jurisprudence|tasamuh|Jihad}}
Islam spread with Muslim trade networks and Sufi orders activity that extended into ], ] and the ].<ref name="EoI-Islam">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online |last1=Gardet|first1=L. |last2=Jomier |first2=J. | ref=harv }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Spread of Islam|url=http://www.yale.edu/yup/pdf/cim6.pdf|accessdate=2 November 2013}}</ref> The ] on land and sea, and reached deep into ] at the ] (1529). Under the ], Islam spread to ], ], and the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1801?_hi=41&_pos=3 |title=Ottoman Empire |publisher=Oxford Islamic Studies Online |date=6 May 2008 |accessdate=26 August 2010}}</ref> The Muslims in China who were descended from earlier ] began to assimilate by adopting Chinese names and ] while ] became an important center of Islamic study.<ref>Israeli, Raphael (2002). ''Islam in China''. pg 292. United States of America: Lexington Books. ISBN 0-7391-0375-X.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Dillon|first1=Michael|title=China's Muslim Hui Community|edition=|page=37|year=1999|publisher=Curzon|location=|isbn=0-7007-1026-4|ref=}}</ref>
In ], hoarding of wealth is reviled and thus ] behavior is frowned upon.<ref>Iqbal, Zamir, Abbas Mirakhor, Noureddine Krichenne, and Hossein Askari. ''The Stability of Islamic Finance: Creating a Resilient Financial Environment''. p. 75.</ref> Attempts to comply with sharia has led to the development of ]. Islam prohibits '']'', usually translated as ], which refers to any unfair gain in trade and is most commonly used to mean ].<ref>{{harvc |c=Riba |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online |year=n.d. |last1= Schacht|first1=Joseph}}</ref> Instead, Islamic banks go into partnership with the borrower, and both share from the profits and any losses from the venture. Another feature is the avoidance of uncertainty, which is seen as gambling<ref>{{Cite news |last=Foster|first=John |date=1 December 2009|title=How Islamic finance missed heavenly chance|work=BBC |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/8388644.stm|access-date=13 February 2022}}</ref> and Islamic banks traditionally avoid derivative instruments such as futures or options which has historically protected them from market downturns.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Domat|first=Chloe|date=20 October 2020|title=What Is Islamic Finance And How Does It Work?|work=Global Finance magazine|url=https://www.gfmag.com/topics/blogs/islamic-finance-faq-what-islamic-finance-and-how-does-it-work|access-date=13 February 2022}}</ref> The Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphate used to be involved in distribution of charity from the treasury, known as ], before it became a largely individual pursuit around the year 720. The first ], ], distributed zakat as one of the first examples of a ], with each citizen getting 10 to 20 ] annually.<ref>{{cite web |last=Merchant, Brian |date=14 November 2013 |title=Guaranteeing a Minimum Income Has Been a Utopian Dream for Centuries |url=https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/z4mbg3/guaranteeing-a-minimum-income-has-been-a-utopian-dream-for-centuries |access-date=3 June 2019 |website=]}}</ref> During the reign of the second Caliph Umar, ] was introduced and the old and disabled were entitled to stipends,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Al-Buraey |first=Muhammad |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=lT8OAAAAQAAJ|page=}} |title=Administrative Development: An Islamic Perspective |publisher=KPI |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-7103-0059-1 |pages=252–}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Akgündüz |first1=Ahmed |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=EnT_zhqEe5cC|page=539}} |title=Ottoman History: Misperceptions and Truths |last2=Öztürk |first2=Said |publisher=IUR Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-90-90-26108-9 |pages=539– |access-date=7 October 2014}}</ref> while the Umayyad Caliph ] assigned a servant for each blind person and for every two chronically ill persons.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Al-Jawzi|first1=Ibn |url=|title=The Biography and Virtues of Omar Bin Abd al-Aziz – The Ascetic Caliph |publisher=IUR Press |year=2001 |isbn= |page=130 }}</ref>


] means "to strive or struggle " and, in its broadest sense, is "exerting one's utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of ]".{{sfnp|Firestone|1999|pp=17–18}} Shias in particular emphasize the "greater jihad" of striving to attain spiritual ]<ref name="Afsaruddin">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Afsaruddin |first=Asma |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/jihad |title=Jihad |encyclopedia=] |access-date=17 September 2021 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Brockopp|2003|pp=99–100}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2003|p=93}}</ref> while the "lesser jihad" is defined as warfare.{{sfnp|Firestone|1999|p=17}}<ref name="EI2">{{harvc|last=Tyan, E. |year=2012 |c=D̲j̲ihād |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)}}. {{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0189}}</ref> When used without a qualifier, jihad is often understood in its military form.{{sfnp|Firestone|1999|pp=17–18}}<ref name="Afsaruddin" /> Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against illegal works, terrorists, criminal groups, rebels, ], and leaders or states who oppress Muslims.{{sfnp|Firestone|1999|p=17}}<ref name="EI2" /> Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare.<ref>Habeck, Mary R. ''Knowing the Enemy: Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror''. ]. pp. 108–109, 118.</ref> Jihad only becomes an individual duty for those vested with authority. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a ].<ref name="EI2" /> For most ], ] can only be declared by a ] of the Muslim community, and as such, is suspended since ]'s ] in 868&nbsp;CE.{{sfnp|Sachedina|1998|pp=105–106}}{{sfnp|Nasr|2003|p=72}}
The Muslim world was generally in serious political decline starting the 1800s, especially relative to the non-Muslim European powers. This decline was evident culturally; while ] founded an observatory in ] and the Jai Singh Observatory was built in the 18th century, there was not a single Muslim country with a major observatory by the twentieth century.<ref>Ahmed, Imad-ad-Dean. Signs in the heavens. 2. Amana Publications, 2006. pg170. Print. ISBN 1-59008-040-8</ref> The ], launched against Muslim ] in ], succeeded in 1492. By the 19th century the ] had formally ended the Mughal dynasty in India.<ref>Lapidus (2002), pp.358,378–380,624</ref> The ] after ] and the ] was abolished in 1924.<ref>Lapidus (2002), pp.380,489–493</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2000/488/chrncls.htm |title=New Turkey |newspaper=Al-Ahram Weekly |date=29 June – 5 July 2000 |issue=488|accessdate=2010-05-16}}</ref>


=== Daily and family life ===
The majority Shia group at that time, the ], used the Hanafi jurisprudence, as did most Sunnis.<ref name="books.google.co.uk-mae"/><ref name="Arab-Israeli Conflict Page 917"/><ref name="The Iraq Effect Page 91"/> The Shia ] rose to power in 1501 and later conquered all of Iran.<ref>Peter B. Golden: An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples; In: Osman Karatay, Ankara 2002, p.321</ref> The ensuing mandatory ] for the largely Sunni population also ensured the final dominance of the Twelver sect within Shiism over the ] sect, the largest group amongst the Shia before the ], and the ] sect.<ref>"Ismail Safavi" Encyclopædia Iranica</ref>
{{See also|Adab (Islam)|Islamic dietary laws|Islam and children|Marriage in Islam|Women in Islam|Polygyny in Islam}}
] represent ]]]
Many daily practices fall in the category of ''adab'', or etiquette. Specific prohibited foods include pork products, blood and ]. Health is viewed as a trust from God and ], such as ]s, are prohibited.<ref>{{cite book|author=Fahd Salem Bahammam|title=Food and Dress in Islam: An explanation of matters relating to food and drink and dress in Islam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CRojJ7lnb18C&pg=PP1|publisher=Modern Guide|isbn=978-1-909322-99-8|page=1}}</ref> All meat must come from a ] animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, except for game that one has hunted or fished for oneself.<ref>{{harvp|Curtis|2005|p=164}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2002b|p=111}}</ref><ref>{{harvc |c=Slaughter |first=Ersilia |last=Francesca |year=n.d. |in=McAuliffe}}</ref> Beards are often encouraged among men as something natural<ref>{{Cite news |last=De Sondy |first=Amanullah |date=28 January 2016|title=The relationship between Muslim men and their beards is a tangled one|work=] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/jan/28/muslim-men-beards-facial-hair-islam |access-date=7 March 2022}}</ref> and body modifications, such as ], are usually forbidden as violating the creation.{{efn|Some Muslims in dynastic era China resisted ] of girls for the same reason.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/religionsofchina00legg|quote=mohammedan.|title=The religions of China: Confucianism and Tâoism described and compared with Christianity|first=James|last=Legge|year=1880|publisher=Hodder and Stoughton|location=London|page=|access-date=28 June 2010}}(Original from Harvard University)</ref> }}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.learnreligions.com/tattoos-in-islam-2004393|title=Are Muslims Allowed to Get Tattoos? |website=|access-date=7 March 2022 }}</ref> Silk and gold are prohibited for men in Islam to maintain a state of sobriety.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Glassé |first1=Cyril |title=The New Encyclopedia of Islam |publisher=AltaMira Press |page=158 |language=en|year=2001}}</ref> '']'', often translated as "shame" or "modesty", is sometimes described as the innate character of Islam<ref>{{cite book |last1=Zine |first1=Jasmin |last2=Babana-Hampton |first2=Safoi |last3=Mazid |first3=Nergis |last4=Bullock |first4=Katherine |last5=Chishti |first5=Maliha |title=American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 19:4 |publisher=International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT) |page=59 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0JM4DwAAQBAJ&q=haya+islam&pg=PA59 |access-date=4 June 2020 |language=en}}</ref> and informs much of Muslim daily life. For example, ] emphasizes a standard of modesty, which has included the '']'' for women. Similarly, ] is encouraged with certain requirements.<ref>{{cite web |last=Esposito |first=John |title=Oxford Islamic Studies Online |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t243/e4 |access-date=3 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161114153249/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t243/e4 |archive-date=14 November 2016}}</ref>


]
A revival movement during this period was an 18th-century ] movement led by ] in today's Saudi Arabia. Referred to as ], their self designation is Muwahiddun (unitarians). Building upon earlier efforts such as those by ] and ], the movement allegedly seeks to uphold monotheism and purify Islam of what they see as later ]. Their zeal against ] shrines led to the desecration of shrines around the world, including that of ].<ref>{{Harvtxt|Esposito|2010|p=146}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Graves desecrated in Mizdah|url=http://www.libyaherald.com/2013/09/04/graves-desecrated-in-mizdah/#axzz2jWG0vDDO|newspaper=Libyan Herald|date=4 September 2013|accessdate=2 November 2013}}</ref> In the 19th century, the ] and ] movements were initiated.
In ], the groom is required to pay a bridal gift ('']'').<ref>{{harvp|Waines|2003|pp=93–96}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2003|p=339}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Esposito|1998|p=79}}</ref>
Most families in the Islamic world are monogamous.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Newby |first=Gordon D. |url=https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope00newb |title=A concise encyclopedia of Islam |publisher=] |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-85168-295-9 |location=Oxford |page=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Nasr |first=Seyyed Hossein |url=https://archive.org/details/islamreligionhis00nasr_0/page/68 |title=Islam : religion, history, and civilization |publisher=] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-06-050714-5 |location=New York |page=}}</ref> Muslim men are allowed to practice ] and can have up to four wives simultaneously. Islamic teachings strongly advise that if a man cannot ensure equal financial and emotional support for each of his wives, it is recommended that he marry just one woman. One reason cited for polygyny is that it allows a man to give financial protection to multiple women, who might otherwise not have any support (e.g. widows). However, the first wife can set a condition in the ] that the husband cannot marry another woman during their marriage.<ref>{{cite book|author=Ratno Lukito|title=Legal Pluralism in Indonesia: Bridging the Unbridgeable|page=81|publisher=]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.islamweb.net/ver2/fatwa/ShowFatwa.php?lang=A&Id=18444&Option=FatwaId |title=IslamWeb |publisher=IslamWeb |date=7 February 2002 |access-date=13 September 2011}}</ref> There are also cultural variations in weddings.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eaton |first=Gai |url=https://archive.org/details/rememberinggodre0000eato |title=Remembering God: Reflections on Islam |publisher=The ] |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-946621-84-2 |location=Cambridge |pages=}}</ref> ], a practice wherein a woman takes on two or more husbands, is prohibited in Islam.<ref>{{cite web |title=Why Can't a Woman have 2 Husbands? |url=http://www.14publications.com/question-and-answer/why-cant-a-woman-have-2-husbands/ |access-date=27 December 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223012707/http://www.14publications.com/question-and-answer/why-cant-a-woman-have-2-husbands/ |archive-date=23 December 2015 |website=14 Publications}}</ref>


] girls studying the ] placed atop folding ]s (]) during ] in ], ]]]
===Modern times (20th century–present)===
After the birth of a child, the '']'' is pronounced in the right ear.{{sfnp|Campo|2009|p=106}} On the seventh day, the '']'' ceremony is performed, in which an animal is sacrificed and its meat is distributed among the poor.{{sfnp|Nigosian|2004|p=}} The child's head is shaved, and an amount of money equaling the weight of its hair is donated to the poor.{{sfnp|Nigosian|2004|p=}} Male ], called '']'',<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2014 |title=Khitān |encyclopedia=] |publisher=] |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/khitan-Islam |access-date=27 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200127165754/https://www.britannica.com/topic/khitan-Islam |archive-date=27 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> is often practised in the Muslim world.<ref>{{cite journal |date=January 2017 |title=Reported Male Circumcision Practices in a Muslim-Majority Setting |journal=] |publisher=] |volume=2017 |pages=1–8 |doi=10.1155/2017/4957348 |pmc=5282422 |pmid=28194416 |doi-access=free |author1-last=Anwer |author1-first=Abdul Wahid |author2-last=Samad |author2-first=Lubna |author3-last=Baig-Ansari |author3-first=Naila |author4-last=Iftikhar |author4-first=Sundus}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=13 August 2009 |title=Islam: Circumcision of boys |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/islamethics/malecircumcision.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121112170938/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/islamethics/malecircumcision.shtml |archive-date=12 November 2012 |access-date=27 May 2020 |work=Religion & ethics—Islam |publisher=]}}</ref> Respecting and obeying one's parents, and taking care of them especially in their old age is a religious obligation.{{sfnp|Campo|2009|p=136}}
{{Further|Islamic revival}}
].]]
Contact with industrialized nations brought Muslim populations to new areas through economic migration. Many Muslims migrated as indentured servants, from mostly India and ], to the ], forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the ].<ref>Muslim Minorities in the West: Visible and Invisible By Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, Jane I. Smith, pg 271</ref> The resulting urbanization and increase in trade in ] brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith, likely doubling its Muslim population between 1869 and 1914.<ref>Bulliet, Richard, Pamela Crossley, Daniel Headrick, Steven Hirsch, Lyman Johnson, and David Northrup. The Earth and Its Peoples. 3. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005. ISBN 0-618-42770-8</ref> Muslim immigrants began arriving, many as ] and largely from former colonies, in several Western European nations since the 1960s.


A ] is encouraged to pronounce the ''Shahada'' as their last words.<ref>{{Cite book| isbn = 9783643900678| title =Changing European Death Ways| location = Austria| year = 2013| last1=Mathijssen| first1=Brenda|last2=Venhorst|first2=Claudia|last3=Venbrux|first3=Eric|last4=Quartier|first4=Thomas| url =| page = 265 |publisher=Lit }}</ref> Paying respects to the dead and attending funerals in the community are considered among the virtuous acts. In ], burial is encouraged as soon as possible, usually within 24 hours. The body is washed, except for martyrs, by members of the same gender and enshrouded in a garment that must not be elaborate called ''kafan''.{{sfnp|Stefon|2010|p=}} A "funeral prayer" called '']'' is performed. Wailing, or loud, mournful outcrying, is discouraged. Coffins are often not preferred and graves are often unmarked, even for kings.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rahman|first=Rema |date=25 October 2011|title=Who, What, Why: What are the burial customs in Islam?|work=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-15444275|access-date=28 January 2022}}</ref>
There are more and more new Muslim intellectuals who increasingly separate perennial Islamic beliefs from archaic cultural traditions.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Nigosian|2004|pp=41}}</ref> ] is a movement that attempts to reconcile religious tradition with modern norms of secular governance and ]. Its supporters say that there are multiple ways to read Islam's sacred texts, and they stress the need to leave room for "independent thought on religious matters".<ref>
* {{Harvtxt|Esposito|2004|pp=118,119,179}}
* {{Harvtxt|Lapidus|2002|pp=823–830}}
</ref>
Women's issues receive significant weight in the modern discourse on Islam.<ref name="Rippin 2001, p.288">{{Harvtxt|Rippin|2001|p=288}}</ref>


=== Arts and culture ===
Secular powers such as the Chinese ] closed many mosques and destroyed Qurans, and ] became the first country to ban the practice of every religion.<ref>Page18*{{Wikicite |ref="Elsie2000" |reference=Elsie, Robert. 2000. ''''. C. Hurst & Co. ISBN 978-1-85065-570-1.}}</ref><ref>*{{Cite journal|last=Goldman|first=Merle|title=Religion in Post-Mao China|journal=Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science|volume=483|pages=146–156|year=1986|doi=10.1177/0002716286483001013|issue=1|ref=harv}}</ref> About half a million Muslims were killed in ] by communists who, it is argued, viewed them as their primary enemy and wished to exterminate them since they stood out and worshipped their own god.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,428133,00.html|title=Weakness in numbers|work=TIME|date=October 10, 2003|accessdate=2013-09-24|first=Andrew|last=Perrin}} {{Subscription needed}}</ref> In ], the military carried out coups to oust Islamist governments, and headscarves were banned in official buildings, as also happened in ].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6604643.stm|title=Huge rally for Turkish secularsim|work=BBC News|accessdate=2011-12-06|date=2011-04-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6053380.stm|title=Tunisia moves against headscarves|work=BBC News|accessdate=2011-12-06|date=2011-10-15|first=Heba|last=Saleh}}</ref>
{{Main|Islamic culture}}
{{See also|Islamic art|Islamic architecture|Islamic literature|Islam in association football|Cultural Muslims}}
The term "]" can be used to mean aspects of culture that pertain to the religion, such as ] and ]. It is also controversially used to denote the cultural aspects of traditionally Muslim people.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Melikian |first=Souren |author-link=Souren Melikian |date=4 November 2011 |title='Islamic' Culture: A Groundless Myth |work=] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/05/arts/05iht-rartmelikian05.html |url-access=subscription |access-date=25 November 2013}}</ref> Finally, "Islamic civilization" may also refer to the aspects of the synthesized culture of the early Caliphates, including that of non-Muslims,{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=56}} sometimes referred to as "]".<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = Wiley| isbn = 9781405155144| title =Islamicate Cosmopolitan Spirit | location = United Kingdom| year = 2021| last=Lawrence| first=Bruce| url =| page = xii| quote = }}</ref>


] encompasses the ] including fields as varied as architecture, ], painting, and ], among others.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ettinghausen |first1=Richard |first2=Oleg |last2=Grabar |first3=Marilyn |last3=Jenkins-Madina |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780300088670/page/3 |title=Islamic Art and Architecture 650-1250 |publisher=] |year=2003 |isbn=0-300-08869-8 |edition=2nd |page=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Suarez|first=Michael F.|title=The Oxford companion to the book|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2010|isbn=9780198606536|location=Oxford and New York|pages=331ff|chapter=38 The History of the Book in the Muslim World|oclc=50238944}}</ref> While the making of images of animate beings has often been frowned upon in connection with ], this rule has been interpreted in different ways by different scholars and in different historical periods. This stricture has been used to explain the prevalence of ], ], and pattern as key aspects of Islamic artistic culture.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Salim Ayduz |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=or-6BwAAQBAJ&q=islamic+art+idolatry+geometry&pg=PA263 |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam |last2=Ibrahim Kalin |last3=Caner Dagli |date=2014 |page=263|publisher=] |isbn=978-0-19-981257-8 |quote=Figural representation is virtually unused in Islamic art because of Islam's strong antagonism of idolatry. It was important for Muslim scholars and artists to find a style of art that represented the Islamic ideals of unity (''tawhid'') and order without figural representation. Geometric patterns perfectly suited this goal.}}</ref> Additionally, the ] is a contentious issue among Muslims.<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=860736| title = An Indian Picture of Muhammad and His Companions
], along with his acolyte ], have been credited as forerunners of the ].<ref>''Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World'', Thomson Gale, 2004</ref> ] helped influence modern ].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/blogs/erasmus/2014/01/political-islam|title=Political Islam: A movement in motion|work=Economist Magazine|accessdate=1 January 2014|date=3 January 2014}}</ref> ] groups such as the ] advocate Islam as a comprehensive political solution, often in spite of being banned.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14447820|title=Are secular forces being squeezed out of Arab Spring?|work=BBC News|accessdate=2011-08-10|date=2011-08-09}}</ref> In ], ] replaced a ] regime with an ]. In ], the Islamist ] has democratically been in power for about a decade, while Islamist parties did well in elections following the ].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/04/world/middleeast/egypts-vote-propels-islamic-law-into-spotlight.html?_r=2&hpw|title=Egypt's vote puts emphasis on split over religious rule|newspaper=New York Times|accessdate=2011-12-08|date=2011-12-03|first=David D.|last=Kirkpatrick}}</ref> The ] (OIC), consisting of ], was established in 1969 after the burning of the ] in ].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/country_profiles/1555062.stm |title=Organization of the Islamic Conference |work=BBC News |date=2010-12-26 |accessdate=2013-09-24}}</ref>
| author = T. W. Arnold| journal = The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs
| author-link = T. W. Arnold| date = June 1919| volume = 34| issue = 195
| publisher = The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs, Vol. 34, No. 195.
| pages = 249–252}}</ref> In ], varying cultures show influence such as North African and Spanish Islamic architecture such as the ] containing ] and ] columns from Roman and Byzantine buildings,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Isichei |first=Elizabeth Allo |url={{Google books|LgnhYDozENgC|page=PA175|keywords=mosque%20kairouan%20roman columns|text=mosque+kairouan+roman+columns|plainurl=yes}} |title=A history of African societies to 1870 |publisher=] |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-521-45599-2 |location=Cambridge |pages=175 |access-date=6 August 2010}}</ref> while ] often have multi-tiered roofs from local ]nese styles.<ref>{{cite book |first=Gunawan |last=Tjahjono |title=Indonesian Heritage-Architecture |url=https://archive.org/details/architecture00indo/page/88 |year=1998 |publisher=Archipelago Press |location=Singapore |isbn=981-3018-30-5 |pages= }}</ref>


The ] is a ] that begins with the ] of 622&nbsp;CE, a date that was reportedly chosen by Caliph Umar as it was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Muslim-calendar|title=Islamic calendar|website=www.britannica.com|date=|access-date=8 August 2022}}</ref> Islamic ] fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, meaning they occur in ] in different years in the ]. The most important Islamic festivals are '']'' ({{langx|ar|عيد الفطر}}) on the 1st of '']'', marking the end of the fasting month ''Ramadan'', and '']'' ({{lang|ar|عيد الأضحى}}) on the 10th of ''Dhu al-Hijjah'', coinciding with the end of the ] (pilgrimage).<ref>{{Cite book| publisher =Oxford University Press| isbn =9780195165203| title =The Islamic World: Past and Present| year = 2004| last=Esposito| first=John| pages = 75–76 |ref=none}}</ref><ref name="www.britannica.com-2023" />
Piety appears to be deepening worldwide.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/27256187/page/2/#.UkEq_SyHuLf|title=Ultraconservative Islam on rise in Mideast|publisher=]|date=2008-10-18|accessdate=2013-09-24}}</ref><ref name=economist/><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/24/world/middleeast/24jordan.html|title=Jordanian students rebel, embracing conservative Islam|newspaper=New York Times|accessdate=2011-08-15|first=Michael|last=Slackman|date=2008-12-23}}</ref> In many places, the prevalence of the ] is growing increasingly common<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/28/weekinreview/28slackman.html|title=In Egypt, a new battle begins over the veil|newspaper=New York Times|accessdate=2011-08-15|first=Michael|last=Slackman|date=2007-01-28}}</ref> and the percentage of Muslims favoring Sharia laws has increased.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1592576-2,00.html|title=Why Indonesia matters|work=TIME|accessdate=2013-09-24|first=Hannah|last=Beech|date=2007-02-22}} {{Subscription needed}}</ref> With religious guidance increasingly available electronically, Muslims are able to access views that are strict enough for them rather than rely on state clerics who are often seen as stooges.<ref name=economist>{{cite work|url=http://www.economist.com/node/9409354?story_id=9409354|title=Laying down the law: Islam's authority deficit|work=]|accessdate=2011-08-15|date=2007-06-28}}</ref> Some organizations began using the media to promote Islam such as the 24-hour TV channel, ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.peacetv.tv/ |title=24-hours Islamic International TV channel|publisher=]|accessdate=2010-11-22}}</ref> Perhaps as a result of these efforts, most experts agree that Islam is growing faster than any other faith in ] and ].<ref>{{cite news|last=Onishi|first=Norimitsu|title=Rising Muslim power causes unrest in Nigeria and elsewhere|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2001/11/01/world/rising-muslim-power-in-africa-causes-unrest-in-nigeria-and-elsewhere.html|accessdate=2011-11-17|newspaper=New York Times|date=2001-11-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://wwrn.org/articles/14286/?&place=eastern-africa|title=Muslims say their faith growing fast in Africa|publisher=wwrn.org|accessdate=2011-11-17}}</ref>


] are religiously non-practicing individuals who still identify with Islam due to family backgrounds, personal experiences, or the social and cultural environment in which they grew up.<ref>{{cite book|first1= Cara|last1= Aitchison|author1-link= Cara Aitchison|first2= Peter E.|last2= Hopkins|author3-link= Mei-Po Kwan|author3= Mei-Po Kwan|title= Geographies of Muslim Identities: Diaspora, Gender and Belonging|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=DRnthQxB8lYC&pg=PA147|access-date= 30 June 2013|year= 2007|publisher= Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn= 978-1-4094-8747-0|pages=147}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Islamic Counselling: An Introduction to theory and practice|first=G. Hussein|last= Rassool|year= 2015| isbn=9781317441250| page =10|publisher=Routledge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o_QsCgAAQBAJ&dq=Muslims+who+are+religiously+unobservant,+secular+or+irreligious+individuals+who+still+identify+with+the+Muslim&pg=PA10|quote=The label 'Cultural Muslim' is used in the literature to describe those Muslims who are religiously unobservant, secular or irreligious individuals who still identify with the Muslim culture due to family background, personal experiences, or the social and cultural environment in which they grew up... For Cultural Muslim the declaration of faith is superficial and has no effect of their religious practices.}}</ref>
==Denominations==
{{Main|Islamic schools and branches}}
{{See also|Shia–Sunni relations}}
]s (schools of law) of Muslim countries or distributions|750px]]
]


<gallery class="left">
===Sunni===
File:Sixty Dome Mosque,Bagerhat.jpg|14th century ], in ], ]
{{Main|Sunni Islam}}
File:Djenne great mud mosque.jpg|], in the ]n country of ]
], ]]]
File:Closeup of Mir-i-Arab Madrasa.jpg|Dome in ], ], ]
] in a ] procession in capital ], 2013.]]
File:1 great mosque xian 2011.JPG|14th century ] in China
The largest denomination in Islam is Sunni Islam, which makes up 75%–90% of all Muslims.<ref name="Sunni-eb">
File:Masjid Menara Kudus.jpg|16th century ] in Indonesia showing Indian influence
* {{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/574006/Sunnite |title=Sunnite |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |quote=They numbered about 900 million in the late 20th century and constituted nine-tenths of all the adherents of Islām.|accessdate=2010-08-26}}
File:Basmalah-1wm.svg|The phrase '']'' in an 18th-century Islamic calligraphy from the ] region
* {{Cite book|title=Islamic Beliefs, Practices, and Cultures|last1=|first1=|quote=A common compromise figure ranks Sunnis at 90 percent.|authorlink=|volume=|year=2010|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|location=|isbn=0-7614-7926-0|page=352|url=https://books.google.com/?id=H_m14NlQQMYC&pg=PA130&dq=Sunnis+are+90%25#v=onepage&q=Sunnis%20are%2090%25&f=false|accessdate=December 19, 2011}}
File:Roof hafez tomb.jpg|Geometric arabesque tiling on the underside of the dome of Hafiz Shirazi's tomb in ], ]
* {{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2009/10/07/mapping-the-global-muslim-population/ |title=Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population |accessdate= 2013-09-24 |work=] |quote=Of the total Muslim population, 10-13% are Shia Muslims and 87-90% are Sunni Muslims.|date=October 7, 2009}}
</gallery>
* {{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-16047709 |title=Quick guide: Sunnis and Shias |publisher=BBC News |quote=The great majority of Muslims are Sunnis - estimates suggest the figure is somewhere between 85% and 90%.|accessdate=December 18, 2011 |date=2011-12-06}}
* "Sunni Islam is the dominant division of the global Muslim community, and throughout history it has made up a substantial majority (85 to 90 percent) of that community."
* {{cite web|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+af0060) |title=Sunni and Shia Islam |publisher=] |quote=Sunni constitute 85 percent of the world's Muslims.|accessdate=December 17, 2011}}
* {{cite web |url=http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/sunni |title=Sunni |publisher=] |quote=Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam, comprising about 85% of the world's over 1.5 billion Muslims.|accessdate=December 20, 2012}}
* {{cite news|url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/religion/2007-09-24-muslim-tension_N.htm |title=Tension between Sunnis, Shiites emerging in USA |publisher=]|quote=Among the world's estimated 1.4 billion Muslims, about 85% are Sunni and about 15% are Shiite.|accessdate=2013-09-24 |date=2007-09-24}}
* "around 80% are Sunni"
* "The Sunnis (approximately 80%)"
* N. Ross Reat "80% being the Sunni"
* "The Sunni segment, accounting for at least 80% of the worlds Muslim population"
* "some 80% of the worlds Muslims are Sunni"
* "probably 80% of the worlds Muslims are Sunni"
* {{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html |title=Religions |accessdate=2010-08-25 |work=]|publisher=]|quote=Sunni Islam accounts for over 75% of the world's Muslim population...}}</ref> Sunni Muslims also go by the name ''Ahl as-Sunnah'' which means "people of the tradition ".<ref name="Britannica"/><ref name="Islam-Today">
* {{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/faithtoday.html |title=Islam Today |work=] (2000)|quote=''Islam, followed by more than a billion people today, is the world's third fastest growing religion. |publisher=]|accessdate=2010-08-25}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.usnews.com/news/religion/articles/2008/04/07/no-god-but-god |title=No God But God |author=Lippman, Thomas W. |quote=''Islam is the youngest, the fastest growing, and in many ways the least complicated of the world's great monotheistic faiths. It is a unique religion based on its own holy book, but it is also a direct descendant of Judaism and Christianity, incorporating some of the teachings of those religions—modifying some and rejecting others.'' |publisher=]|date=2008-04-07|accessdate=2013-09-24}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.usnews.com/news/religion/articles/2008/04/07/understanding-islam |title=Understanding Islam |work=Susan Headden |publisher=U.S. News & World Report |date=April 7, 2008 |accessdate=2010-08-25}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html |title=Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents |work= |publisher=] |accessdate=2007-07-03}}
</ref> These hadiths, recounting Muhammad's words, actions, and personal characteristics, are preserved in traditions known as ] (six major books).


== Influences on other religions ==
Sunnis believe that the first four ]s were the rightful successors to Muhammad; since God did not specify any particular leaders to succeed him and those leaders were elected. Sunnis believe that anyone who is righteous and just could be a caliph but they have to act according to the Qur'an and the Hadith, the example of Muhammad and give the people their rights.
{{See also|Islam and Druze}}
Some movements, such as the ],<ref>{{Cite book |last=De McLaurin |first=Ronald |url=https://archive.org/details/politicalroleofm0000unse |title=The Political Role of Minority Groups in the Middle East |publisher=Michigan University Press |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-03-052596-4 |page= |quote=Theologically, one would have to conclude that the Druze are not Muslims. They do not accept the five pillars of Islam. In place of these principles, the Druze have instituted the seven precepts noted above...}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hunter |first=Shireen |url=https://archive.org/details/politicsofislami0000unse |title=The Politics of Islamic Revivalism: Diversity and Unity: Center for Strategic and International Studies (Washington, D.C.), Georgetown University. Center for Strategic and International Studies |publisher=] |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-253-34549-3 |page= |quote=Druze – An offshoot of Shi'ism; its members are not considered Muslims by orthodox Muslims.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=R. Williams |first=Victoria |title=Indigenous Peoples: An Encyclopedia of Culture, History, and Threats to Survival |publisher=] |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-4408-6118-5 |page=318 |quote=As Druze is a nonritualistic religion without requirements to pray, fast, make pilgrimages, or observe days of rest, the Druze are not considered an Islamic people by Sunni Muslims.}}</ref> ] and ], either emerged from Islam or came to share certain beliefs with Islam, and whether each is a separate religion or a sect of Islam is sometimes controversial.<ref>{{Cite book |last=D. Grafton |first=David |title=Piety, Politics, and Power: Lutherans Encountering Islam in the Middle East |publisher=] |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-63087-718-7 |page=14 |quote=In addition, there are several quasi-Muslim sects, in that, although they follow many of the beliefs and practices of orthodox Islam, the majority of Sunnis consider them heretical. These would be the Ahmadiyya, Druze, Ibadi, and the Yazidis.}}</ref> The ] faith further split from ] as it developed its own unique doctrines, and finally separated from both Ismāʿīlīsm and Islam altogether; these include the belief that the Imam ] was ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Poonawala |first=Ismail K. |date=July–September 1999 |title=Review: ''The Fatimids and Their Traditions of Learning'' by Heinz Halm |journal=] |publisher=] |volume=119 |issue=3 |page=542 |doi=10.2307/605981 |issn=0003-0279 |jstor=605981 |lccn=12032032 |oclc=47785421}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last = Bryer | first = David R. W. | title = The Origins of the Druze Religion (Fortsetzung) | journal = ] | year = 1975 | volume = 52 | issue = 2 | pages = 239–262 | doi = 10.1515/islm.1975.52.2.239 | s2cid = 162363556 | url = https://doi.org/10.1515/islm.1975.52.2.239 | issn = 1613-0928 | ref = {{harvid|Bryer|1975b}} }}</ref> ] is seen as a blend of local Kurdish beliefs and Islamic Sufi doctrine introduced to ] by ] in the 12th century.<ref>{{cite book |last=Foltz |first=Richard |title=Religions of Iran: From Prehistory to the Present |date=7 November 2013 |isbn=978-1-78074-307-3 |page=219 |chapter=Two Kurdish Sects: The Yezidis and the Yaresan |publisher=Oneworld Publications |chapter-url= |chapter-url-access=}}</ref> ] stems from Twelver Shia passed through ] while one of his followers Mirza Husayn 'Ali Nuri ] founded the ].<ref>{{cite web |last=House of Justice |first=Universal |title=One Common Faith |url=http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/bic/OCF/ocf-8.html |access-date=1 April 2017 |website=reference.bahai.org}}</ref> ], founded by ] in late 15th century ], primarily incorporates aspects of ], with some Islamic influences.<ref>Elsberg, Constance (2003), ''Graceful Women.'' ]. {{ISBN|978-1-57233-214-0}}. pp. 27–28.</ref>


== Criticism ==
The Sunnis follow the Quran, then the Hadith. Then for legal matters not found in the Quran or the Hadith, they follow four ] (schools of thought): ], ], ] and ], established around the teachings of ], ], ] and ] respectively.
{{Main|Criticism of Islam}}
{{see also|Criticism of Muhammad|Criticism of the Quran}}
], under the ], viewed Islamic doctrines as a hodgepodge from the ].<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/general/stjohn_islam.aspx |title=Writings by St John of Damascus |publisher=Catholic University of America Press |year=1958 |series=The Fathers of the Church |volume=37 |location=Washington, DC |pages=153–160 |chapter=St. John of Damascus's Critique of Islam |access-date=8 July 2019}}</ref>]]


Criticism of Islam has existed since its formative stages. Early criticism came from Jewish authors, such as ], and Christian authors, many of whom viewed Islam as a ] or a form of ], often explaining it in apocalyptic terms.{{sfnp|Fahlbusch et al|2001|p=}}
All four accept the validity of the others and a Muslim may choose any one that he or she finds agreeable.<ref>
* {{Harvtxt|Esposito|2003|pp=275,306}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Shariah | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online | ref=harv }}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Sunnite | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online | ref=harv }}</ref>


Christian writers criticized Islam's sensual descriptions of paradise. ] defended the Quranic description of paradise by asserting that the Bible also implies such ideas, such as drinking wine in the ]. Catholic theologian ]'s doctrines led to the broad repudiation of bodily pleasure in both life and the afterlife.<ref>''Christian Lange Paradise and Hell in Islamic Traditions'' ], 2015 {{ISBN|978-0-521-50637-3}} pp. 18–20</ref>
] and ] movements of ] Islam accept the validity of all four Sunni schools of thought.<ref name="Kabir2010">{{cite book|author=Nahid Afrose Kabir|title=Young British Muslims: Identity, Culture, Politics and the Media|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XCGrBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA60|date=26 October 2010|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=978-0-7486-4373-8|pages=60–}}</ref> ] movement is a South Asian revivalist movement of ] Islam with over 200 million followers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780192800947.001.0001/acref-9780192800947-e-908?rskey=Qlx8eH&result=1|title=Barelvi - Oxford Reference|work=oxfordreference.com}}</ref> They believe themselves South Asia's heirs and representatives of the earliest Muslim community. The movement emphasizes primacy of Islamic law in all matters with adherence to ] practices and personal devotion to the Prophet ]. Since partition of India and Pakistan in 1947, it has addressed leading political issues for Muslims. It has spread to South Africa, Europe, United States of America and in Australia with the help of their missionary movements like ] and ].<ref name="journals.cambridge.org">Usha Sanyal. . Modern Asian Studies (1998), Cambridge University Press.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095357101?rskey=Qlx8eH&result=3|title=Ahl al-Sunnah wa'l-Jamaah|work=oxfordreference.com}}</ref>
While ] is an Indo-Pakistani reformist movement centered around the institution of Dar al-Ulum of ], ].The school was founded in 1867 and is much influenced by the ] in ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001/acref-9780195125580-e-522?rskey=ChItec&result=1|title=Deobandis - Oxford Reference|work=oxfordreference.com}}</ref> Alternatively, the Salafi (also known as ] or ]) is an ultra-orthodox Islamic movement which either rejects or doesn't strictly follow all four schools of Sunni thought, and they claim to take the first generation of Muslims as exemplary models.<ref> GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved on 2010-11-09.</ref>


Defamatory images of ], derived from early 7th-century depictions of the ],<ref>], and P. J. Stewart. 2003. ''Muhammad in Europe: A Thousand Years of Western Myth-Making''. ]. {{ISBN|978-0-8147-7564-6}}. p. 93–96.</ref> appear in the 14th-century epic poem '']'' by ].<ref name="Stone">Stone, G. 2006. ''Dante's Pluralism and the Islamic Philosophy of Religion''. ]. {{ISBN|978-1-4039-8309-1}}. p. 53-54.</ref> Here, Muhammad is depicted in the eighth circle of hell, along with Ali. Dante does not blame Islam as a whole but accuses Muhammad of ], by establishing another religion after Christianity.<ref name="Stone" />
===Shia===
{{Main|Shia Islam}}
{{See Also|Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam}}
] has a majority Shia Muslim population]]
The Shia constitute 10–20% of Islam and are its second-largest branch.<ref name=Shia>See
* {{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/540503/Shiite |title=Shīʿite |quote=Shīʿites have come to account for roughly one-tenth of the Muslim population worldwide. |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |accessdate=2010-08-25}}
* {{cite web|url= http://www.pewforum.org/2009/10/07/mapping-the-global-muslim-population/ |title=Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population |date=2009-10-07 |accessdate=2013-09-24 |work=] |quote=The Pew Forum's estimate of the Shia population (10-13%) is in keeping with previous estimates, which generally have been in the range of 10-15%. Some previous estimates, however, have placed the number of Shias at nearly 20% of the world's Muslim population.}}
* {{cite web |url=http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/shi-a |title=Shia |publisher=Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs |quote=Shi'a Islam is the second largest branch of the tradition, with up to 200 million followers who comprise around 15% of all Muslims worldwide...|accessdate=December 5, 2011}}
* {{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html |title=Religions |accessdate=2010-08-25 |work=]|publisher=]|quote=Shia Islam represents 10-20% of Muslims worldwide...}}
* "The majority of the world's Islamic population, which is Sunni, accounts for over 75% of the Islamic population; the other 10-20 percent is Shia." (reference: CIA)
* "Let me review, while Shia Islam makes up only 10-20 percent of the world's Muslim population, Iraq has a Shia majority (between 60-65 percent), but had a Sunni controlled government under Saddam Hussein and cronies from 1958-2003... (If you like government figures, see the CIA World Factbook.)"</ref>


Other criticisms center on the ], including issues related to human rights, particularly in relation to the application of Islamic law.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Yohanan|last1=Friedmann|year=2003|title=Tolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith Relations in the Muslim Tradition|url=https://archive.org/details/tolerancecoercio00frie|url-access=limited|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=, 35|isbn=978-0-521-02699-4}}</ref> Furthermore, in the wake of the recent ] trend, Islam's influence on the ability of ] in the West to assimilate has been ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Modood |first=Tariq |url=https://archive.org/details/multiculturalism00modo |title=Multiculturalism, Muslims and Citizenship: A European Approach |date=6 April 2006 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-415-35515-5 |edition=1st |page= |url-access=registration}}</ref>
Maria Massi Dakake argues that Shi'ism as a unique phenomenon within the larger body of Islamic community can not be adequately described as a "sect" or "school", and it is also wrong to view it as an offshoot or detached community therein. Shiites have always considered themselves an integral part of the Islamic community and, in fact, to represent the elite believers thereof. Additionally, being more than just one of the many schools of Islamic thought, different branches of Shiite scholarship are aspects of a larger and more comprehensive phenomenon, embodying a completely independent system of religious and political authority and historical interpretation that deeply informs its own highly structured intellectual and religious hierarchy. Shiism, as such, despite being a minority, has made remarkable contributions to Islamic civilization that far outweigh its size.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Charismatic Community: Shi'ite Identity in Early Islam |last1=Massi Dakake |first1=Maria |year=2008 |publisher=State University of New York Press |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/The_Charismatic_Community.html?id=E96bITltxbkC |page=1}}</ref>


== See also ==
While the Sunnis believe that a Caliph should be elected by the community, Shia's believe that Muhammad appointed his son-in-law, ], as his successor and only certain descendants of Ali could be Imams. As a result, they believe that ] was the first ''Imam'' (leader), rejecting the legitimacy of the previous Muslim caliphs ], ] and ].

Shia Islam has several branches, the most prominent being the ] (the largest branch), ] and ]s. Different branches accept different descendants of Ali as Imams. After the death of Imam ] who is considered the sixth Imam by the ] and the ]'s, the Ismailis recognized his son Isma'il ibn Jafar as his successor whereas the Twelver Shia's (Ithna Asheri) followed his other son ] as the seventh Imam. The ] consider ], the uncle of Imam ], as their fifth Imam, and follow a different line of succession after him.

Other smaller groups include the ] as well as the ] and ].<ref>
* Kramer (1987),
*
</ref> Some Shia branches label other Shia branches that do not agree with their doctrine as ].

===Sufism===
]'s tomb, ], Turkey]]
{{Main|Sufism}}

'''Sufism''' or '''Tasawwuf''' ({{lang-ar|تصوف}}), according to its adherents, is the inner ] dimension of Islam. Classical Sufi scholars have defined Sufism as "a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God".<ref>Ahmed Zarruq, Zaineb Istrabadi, Hamza Yusuf Hanson. ''The Principles of Sufism''. Amal Press. 2008.</ref> Alternatively, in the words of the ] Sufi teacher ], "a science through which one can know how to travel into the ], purify one's inner self from filth, and beautify it with a variety of praiseworthy traits".<ref>An English translation of ]'s biography has been published by ].</ref> Traditional Sufis, such as ], ], ], ], and ], define Sufism as purely based upon the tenets of Islam and the teachings of ].<ref>{{citation|url=http://www.dar-al-masnavi.org/corrections_popular.html|title= Corrections of Popular Versions of Poems From Rumi's Divan}}</ref><ref>{{citation|url=http://www.dar-al-masnavi.org/self-discovery.html|title=Rumi and Self-Discovery|author=Ibrahim Gamard}}</ref><ref name="chittick">{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/?id=LI0kjBlXS5UC&printsec=frontcover&dq=william+chittick+origins+of+sufism#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Sufism: A Beginner's Guide|publisher=|accessdate=17 January 2015|isbn=9781780740522|author1=Chittick|first1=William C|year=2008}}</ref><ref name="nasr">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=IgVtq3kNCrYC&pg=PA192&dq=origins+of+tasawwuf#v=onepage&q=origins%20of%20tasawwuf&f=false|title=An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines|publisher= |accessdate=17 January 2015|isbn=9780791415153|author1=Nasr|first1=Seyyed Hossein Nasr|date=1993-01-01}}</ref>
Sufism (Tasawwuf) is a mystical-ascetic approach to Islam that seeks to find divine love and knowledge through direct personal experience of God.<ref name="CIA">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html |title=Religions |accessdate=2010-08-25 |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)}}</ref> By focusing on the more spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis strive to obtain direct experience of God by making use of "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use.<ref>Trimingham (1998), p.1</ref><ref>
* {{Harvtxt|Esposito|2003|p=302}}
* {{Harvtxt|Malik|2006|p=3}}
* {{Harvtxt|Turner|1998|p=145}}
* {{cite web| url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+af0061) |publisher=] |title=Afghanistan: A Country Study - Sufism |year=1997 |accessdate=2007-04-18}}
</ref> ] was inspired by the ideas of piety and condemnation of worldliness preached by Muhammad and these ideas were later further developed by ] in his books on Sufism. Sufism is popular in countries such as ], ], ], ], ] and ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-1-religious-affiliation/#identity|title= The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity|work=]|date=2012-08-09|accessdate=2013-09-24}}</ref><ref>"Sufism and Religious Brotherhoods in Senegal", Babou, Cheikh Anta, ''The International Journal of African Historical Studies'', v. 40 no. 1 (2007) pp. 184–6</ref>

Sufism enjoyed a strong revival in central Asia. Central Asia is considered to be a center of Sufism. Sufism has played a significant role in fighting against Tsars of Russia and Soviet colonization. Here, Sufis and their different orders are the main religious sources.<ref>http://pu.edu.pk/images/journal/uoc/PDF-FILES/(2)%20The%20Significant%20Role%20of%20Sufism%20in%20Central%20Asia%20(Dr.%20Farh.pdf</ref>
<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/20071709?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents|title=Sufism in Southeast Asia: Reflections and Reconsiderations|work=jstor.org|accessdate=17 December 2015}}</ref>

===Other denominations===
* ] is an Islamic reform movement (with Sunni roots) founded by ]<ref>{{cite news | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8711026.stm|title=Who Are the Ahmadi? | publisher=bbc.co.uk | accessdate=6 October 2013}}</ref> that began in ] in 1889 and is practiced by 10 to 20 million<ref name="ahmadi">
* {{Cite book|title=Breach of Faith|last1=|first1=|quote=Estimates of around 20 million would be appropriate|authorlink=|volume=|publisher=Human Rights Watch|location=|isbn=|page=8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yi8ONIe1fv4C&pg=PA8&hl=en&sa=X&ei=-jgWU83CCIOZyAPJjoDYCQ&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false|accessdate=March 29, 2014|date=June 2005}}
* {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dgtgGhMUgIUC&pg=PA72&hl=en&sa=X&ei=e_E2U7GXMIrJ0QXou4CIAw&ved=0CDsQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Asian Religions in British Columbia|quote=The community currently numbers around 15 million spread around the world|author=Larry DeVries, Don Baker, and Dan Overmyer|accessdate=March 29, 2014|isbn=978-0-7748-1662-5|publisher=University of Columbia Press}}
* {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OZbyz_Hr-eIC&pg=PA23&hl=en&sa=X&ei=3fE2U56QCLGz0QXop4CoBg&ved=0CFkQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Encyclopedia of Islam|quote=The total size of the Ahmadiyya community in 2001 was estimated to be more than 10 million|author=Juan Eduardo Campo|publisher=|page=24|accessdate=March 29, 2014|isbn=0-8160-5454-1}}
* {{cite web | url=http://www.pbs.org/wnet/religionandethics/2012/01/20/january-20-2012-ahmadiyya-muslims/10124/|title=Ahmadiyya Muslims | publisher=pbs.org | accessdate=6 October 2013}}
* A figure of 10-20 million represents approximately 1% of the Muslim population. See also ].</ref> Muslims around the world. Ahmad claimed to have fulfilled the prophecies concerning the arrival of the 'Imam Mahdi' and the 'Promised Messiah'.
* The ] is a sect that dates back to the early days of Islam and is a branch of ] and is practiced by 1.45 million Muslims around the world.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vFq_KUqqWJMC&pg=PA15&dq&hl=en&sa=X&ei=3mBRU42-JOen0AXF-IG4DA&ved=0CDYQ6AEwATgK#v=onepage&q&f=false | title=The Sunni-Shi'a Divide: Islam's Internal Divisions and Their Global Consequences | pages=14–15 | accessdate=7 January 2015 | author=Robert Brenton Betts}}</ref> Unlike most Kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers.
* ] is an Islamic sect that believes in a 15th-century Mahdi, Muhammad Jaunpuri
* The ] are Muslims who generally reject the Hadith.
* ] is seen as a blend of local Kurdish beliefs and Islamic Sufi doctrine introduced to ] by ] in the 12th century.
* There are also black Muslim movements such as the ] (NOI), ] and ].

===Non-denominational Muslims===
{{Main|Nondenominational Muslim}}

Non-denominational Muslims defend their position by pointing to the Quranic verses such as ] verse 103, which asks the Muslims to stay united and not to become divided.<ref>Intra-Societal Tension and National Integration, p 119, A. Jamil Qadri - 1988</ref> The ] reports that Muslims self identifying as non-denominational Muslims make up a majority of Muslims in seven countries (and a plurality in three others), with the highest proportion in ] at 74%. At least one in five Muslims in at least 22 countries identify as non-denominational Muslims.<ref name="Pew">{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-1-religious-affiliation/#identity|title=Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation|date=August 9, 2012|work=The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity|publisher=]'s Religion & Public Life Project|accessdate=4 September 2013}}</ref> However, most of these countries have a dominant Muslim sect i.e., ] or ] (in case of ]) and lack competing denominations. As a result, most of the Muslims in these countries choose to identify themselves simply as Muslims rather than claiming to belong to a particular sect. Moreover, contrary to the estimates give by ], various other sources given ] majorities for the above-mentioned countries except ] which has been traditionally a ] ] majority country.<ref name="Sunni-eb" />

==Demographics==
], 2014).]]
{{Main|Muslim world|Ummah}}
{{See also|List of countries by Muslim population}}

A comprehensive 2009 demographic study of 232 countries and territories reported that 23% of the global population, or 1.57&nbsp;billion people, are Muslims. Of those, it is estimated that over 75–90% are ] and 10–20% are ]<ref name="mgmpPRC">
{{Harvtxt|Miller|2009}}</ref><ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/295507/Islam |title=Islām |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref> retrieved 21 Dec 2011</ref> with a small minority belonging to other sects. Approximately 57 countries are ],<ref>{{Harvtxt|Miller|2009|p=11}}</ref> and ] account for around 20% of all Muslims worldwide.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Muslims in the United States |last1=Ba-Yunus |first1=Ilyas |authorlink=|author2=Kone, Kassim|volume=|year=2006|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |location=|isbn=0-313-32825-0|page=172}}</ref> The number of Muslims worldwide increased from 200 million in 1900 to 551&nbsp;million in 1970,<ref>{{Cite book
| last = Whaling
| first = Frank
| title = Religion in today's world: the religious situation of the world from 1945 to the present day
| publisher = T & T Clark
| year = 1987
| page = 38
| isbn = 0-567-09452-9}}
</ref> and tripled to 1.57&nbsp;billion by 2009.{{citation needed|date=April 2014}}

The majority of Muslims live in Asia and Africa.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1087 |title=Islam: An Overview in Oxford Islamic Studies Online |publisher=Oxfordislamicstudies.com |date=2008-05-06 |accessdate=2010-05-16}}{{Subscription needed}}</ref> Approximately 62% of the world's Muslims live in ], with over 683&nbsp;million adherents in ], ], ], and ].<ref name="USN&WR">{{cite web|url=http://www.usnews.com/usnews/graphics/religion/islams_global_reach.htm|title=Secrets of Islam|publisher= ]|accessdate=2013-09-24}} Information provided by the International Population Center, Department of Geography, ] (2005).</ref><ref>{{Harvtxt|Miller|2009|pp=15,17}}</ref> In the ], non-Arab countries such as ] and ] are the largest Muslim-majority countries; in ], ] and ] have the most populous Muslim communities.<ref name="Islam_by_country">{{cite web|url=http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/rel_isl_num_of_mus-religion-islam-number-of-muslim
|title=Number of Muslim by country|publisher=nationmaster.com|accessdate=2007-05-30}}</ref>

Most estimates indicate that the ] has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the population).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ch.html |title=The World Factbook – China |publisher=CIA World Factbook |accessdate=2009-06-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2006/71338.htm |title=China (includes Hong Kong, Macau, and Tibet) |publisher=State.gov |accessdate=2013-09-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/bizchina/2008-07/09/content_6831389.htm |title=NW China region eyes global Muslim market |newspaper=China Daily |date=2008-07-09 |accessdate=2009-07-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://muslimmedianetwork.com/mmn/?p=1922 |title=Muslim Media Network |publisher=Muslim Media Network |date=2008-03-24 |accessdate=2009-07-14}}</ref> However, data provided by the ]'s International Population Center to ] suggests that China has 65.3&nbsp;million Muslims.<ref>, ]. Information provided by the International Population Center, Department of Geography, ].</ref> Islam is the second largest religion after ] in many ]an countries,<ref>
* {{Harvtxt|Esposito|2004|pp=2,43}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Islamic World | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online | ref=harv }}
* {{cite web| url=http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html | title=Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents | publisher=Adherents.com | accessdate=2007-01-09}}
* {{Cite news| title=Muslims in Europe: Country guide | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4385768.stm | publisher=BBC | work=BBC News | date=2005-12-23 | accessdate=2013-09-24}}
* {{cite web| title=Religion In Britain | url= http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/ethnicity/focus-on-ethnicity-and-religion/2006-edition/focus-on-ethnicity-and-religion---focus-on-ethnicity-and-religion-2006---full-report.pdf | publisher=Office for National Statistics | work=National Statistics | date=2003-02-13 | accessdate=2006-08-27}}
</ref> and is slowly catching up to that status in the ], with between 2,454,000, according to Pew Forum, and approximately 7 million Muslims, according to the Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR), in the United States.<ref name="mgmpPRC"/><ref> Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR). April 26, 2001. Retrieved on 2010-08-01.</ref>

==Culture==
{{Main|Islamic culture}}
] in ].]]
The term "]" could be used to mean aspects of culture that pertain to the ], such as ] and dress code. It is also commonly used to denote the cultural aspects of traditionally ] people.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/05/arts/05iht-rartmelikian05.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0|title='Islamic' Culture: A Groundless Myth|publisher=nytimes.com|accessdate=25 November 2013|date=4 November 2011}}</ref> Finally, "Islamic civilization" may also refer to the aspects of the synthesized culture of the early Caliphates, including that of non-Muslims,<ref>{{Harvtxt|Esposito|2010|p=56}}</ref> sometimes referred to as ']'.

===Architecture===
{{Main|Islamic architecture}}
].]]
Perhaps the most important expression of Islamic art is ], particularly that of the ] (four-iwan and hypostyle).<ref>"Islam", ''The New Encyclopædia Britannica'' (2005)</ref> Through the edifices, the effect of varying cultures within Islamic civilization can be illustrated. The North African and Spanish Islamic architecture, for example, has ]-] elements, as seen in the ] which contains ] and ] columns from Roman and Byzantine buildings,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=LgnhYDozENgC&pg=PA175&dq=mosque+kairouan+roman+columns#v=onepage&q=mosque%20kairouan%20roman%20columns&f=false |title=Elizabeth Allo Isichei, ''A history of African societies to 1870'', page 175. Cambridge University Press, 1997 |publisher=|accessdate=2010-08-06|isbn=978-0-521-45599-2|year=1997|author1=Isichei|first1=Elizabeth Allo}}</ref> in the ] palace at ], or in the ].

===Art===
{{Main|Islamic art}}
] ("In the name of God, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful") in ] form.]]

] encompasses the ] produced from the 7th century onwards by people (not necessarily ]) who lived within the territory that was inhabited by Muslim populations.<ref>Marilyn Jenkins-Madina, Richard Ettinghauset and Architecture 650–1250'', Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-08869-8, p.3</ref> It includes fields as varied as ], ], ], and ], among others.

Making images of human beings and animals is frowned on in many Islamic cultures and connected with laws against idolatry common to all Abrahamic religions, as 'Abdullaah ibn Mas'ood reported that Muhammad said, "Those who will be most severely punished by Allah on the Day of Resurrection will be the image-makers" (reported by al-Bukhaari, see al-Fath, 10/382). However this rule has been interpreted in different ways by different scholars and in different historical periods, and there are examples of paintings of both animals and humans in Mughal, Persian and Turkish art. The existence of this aversion to creating images of animate beings has been used to explain the prevalence of calligraphy, tessellation and pattern as key aspects of Islamic artistic culture.{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}}

===Calendar===
{{Main|Islamic calendar}}
]
The formal beginning of the Muslim era was chosen to be the ] in 622 CE, which was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes. The assignment of this year as the year 1 AH (''Anno Hegirae'') in the Islamic calendar was reportedly made by ]. It is a ] with days lasting from sunset to sunset.<ref>] – Islam Sacred Time – </ref> Islamic ] fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, which means that they occur in ] in different years in the ]. The most important Islamic festivals are '']'' ({{lang-ar|عيد الفطر}}) on the 1st of '']'', marking the end of the fasting month ''Ramadan'', and '']'' ({{lang|ar|عيد الأضحى}}) on the 10th of '']'', coinciding with the pilgrimage to Mecca.<ref>Ghamidi (2001): </ref>

==Criticism==
{{main|Criticism of Islam}}

Criticism of Islam has existed since Islam's formative stages. Early written criticism came from Christians, prior to the ninth century, many of whom viewed Islam as a radical Christian ].<ref name="John of Damascus2">De Haeresibus by ]. See ]. '']'', vol. 94, 1864, cols 763-73. An English translation by the Reverend John W Voorhis appeared in THE MOSLEM WORLD for October 1954, pp.&nbsp;392–398.</ref> Later there appeared criticism from the ] itself, and also from ] writers and from ecclesiastical Christians.<ref name="WarraqPoetry">{{Cite book| last=Warraq| first=Ibn | title=Leaving Islam: Apostates Speak Out | publisher=Prometheus Books | year=2003 | isbn=1-59102-068-9 | page=67}}</ref><ref name="Ibn Kammuna">{{cite book|first=Ibn|last=Kammuna|title=Examination of the Three Faiths|publisher=Moshe Perlmann|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles|date=1971|pages=148–49}}</ref><ref name="Oussani">{{cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10424a.htm|title=Mohammed and Mohammedanism|first=Gabriel|last=Oussani|publisher=Catholic Encyclopedia|work=Newadvent.org|accessdate=April 16, 2006}}</ref>

Objects of criticism include the morality of the life of Muhammad, the last law bearing prophet of Islam, both in his public and personal life.<ref name="Oussani"/><ref name="WarraqQuest">{{cite book|first=Ibn|last=Warraq|title=The Quest for Historical Muhammad|location=Amherst, Mass.|publisher=Prometheus Books|date=March 1, 2000|edition=1st|isbn=1-57392-787-2|page=103}}</ref> Issues relating to the authenticity and morality of the Qur'an, the Islamic holy book, are also discussed by critics.<ref name="BibleInQuran">, by Kaufmann Kohler Duncan B. McDonald, ''Jewish Encyclopedia''. Retrieved April 22, 2006.</ref><ref>{{cite book| first=Robert | last=Spencer | title=Islam Unveiled: Disturbing Questions About the World's Fastest Growing Faith | date= October 25, 2002 | pages=22–63 | publisher=Encounter Books | location= | isbn=1-893554-58-9 }}</ref> Other criticisms focus on the question of ] in modern Islamic nations, and the treatment of women in Islamic law and practice.<ref name="women">http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=22&year=2005&country=6825. See also {{Cite news| publisher=] | date=2006-10-05 | title=Islam in Europe | author=Timothy Garton Ash | url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/19371}}</ref><ref name="IslamInEurope">{{Cite news| publisher=] | date=2006-10-05 | title=Islam in Europe | author=Timothy Garton Ash | url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/19371}}</ref> In wake of the recent ] trend, Islam's influence on the ability of Muslim immigrants in the West to assimilate has been ].<ref name="Modood">{{Cite book| title=Multiculturalism, Muslims and Citizenship: A European Approach | first=Tariq | last=Modood | publisher=Routledge | edition=1st | date=April 6, 2006 | isbn=978-0-415-35515-5 | page=29}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Main|Outline of Islam}}
{{Misplaced Pages books
|1=Abrahamic religions
|3=Islam
}}
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{{Portal bar|Islam}}


==References== ==References==
===Footnotes===
{{notelist}}


===Notes=== ===Quran and hadith===
{{Reflist|group=note}} {{Reflist|group=lower-roman}}


===Citations=== ===Citations===
{{reflist}}
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}


===Books and journals=== ===Sources===
{{Refbegin|colwidth=30em}} {{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last=Ahmed |first=Imad-ad-Dean |title=Signs in the heavens |volume=2 |publisher=Amana Publications |year=2006 |isbn=1-59008-040-8}}
* {{Cite journal| last=Accad | first=Martin | title=The Gospels in the Muslim Discourse of the Ninth to the Fourteenth Centuries: An Exegetical Inventorial Table (Part I) | journal=Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations | volume=14 | issue=1 |year=2003 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Ahmed | first=Akbar | title=Islam Today: A Short Introduction to the Muslim World | publisher=I. B. Tauris | edition=2.00 | year=1999 | isbn=978-1-86064-257-9 | ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Arnold|first=Thomas |title=The Preaching of Islam: A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith.|volume= |publisher= |year=1896 |isbn=}}
* {{Cite book| publisher = Continuum International Publishing Group| isbn = 978-0-8264-9944-8| last = Bennett| first = Clinton |authorlink= Clinton Bennett| title = Interpreting the Qur'an: a guide for the uninitiated| year = 2010| page=101 | ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Bennett |first=Clinton |title=Interpreting the Qur'an: a guide for the uninitiated |publisher=] |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-8264-9944-8 |page=101 |author-link=Clinton Bennett}}
* {{cite book |last=Blankinship |first=K. |year=2008 |chapter=The early creed |editor=T. Winter |title=The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology |series=Cambridge Companions to Religion |pages=33–54 |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/CCOL9780521780582.003|isbn=978-0-521-78058-2 }}
* {{Cite book| last=Brockopp | first=Jonathan E. | title=Islamic Ethics of Life: abortion, war and euthanasia | publisher=University of South Carolina press | year=2003 | isbn=1-57003-471-0 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Cohen-Mor | first=Dalya | title=A Matter of Fate: The Concept of Fate in the Arab World as Reflected in Modern Arabic Literature | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2001 | isbn=0-19-513398-6 | ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Brockopp |first=Jonathan E. |title=Islamic Ethics of Life: abortion, war and euthanasia |publisher=] |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-57003-471-8}}
* {{Cite book| last=Curtis | first=Patricia A. | year=2005 | title=A Guide to Food Laws and Regulations | publisher=Blackwell Publishing Professional | isbn=978-0-8138-1946-4 | ref=harv}} *{{Cite book|last=Bulliet|first=Richard| publisher = ]| isbn = 0-618-42770-8| title = The Earth and Its Peoples
| location = Boston| year = 2005| url = | page = | quote = }}
* {{Cite book| last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink = John Esposito | title=Islam: The Straight Path | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2010 | edition=4th | isbn=978-0-19-539600-3 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Esposito | first=John | title=Islam: The Straight Path | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1998 | edition=3rd | isbn=978-0-19-511234-4 | ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Burge|first=Stephen|year=2015|title=Angels in Islam: Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti's al-Haba'ik fi akhbar al-mala'ik |place=London |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-50473-0}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Esposito |first1=John|last2=Haddad|first2=Yvonne Yazbeck| title=Muslims on the Americanization Path? | year=2000a | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=0-19-513526-1 | ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Çakmak |first=Cenap |title=Islam: A Worldwide Encyclopedia |series=4 volumes |publisher=] |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-61069-217-5}}
* {{Cite book| last=Esposito | first=John |year=2000b | title=Oxford History of Islam | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0-19-510799-9 | ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Campo |first=Juan E. |title=Encyclopedia of Islam |publisher=] |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8160-5454-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OZbyz_Hr-eIC}}
* {{Cite book| last=Esposito | first=John| year=2002a | title=Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0-19-516886-0 | ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Chittick |first=William C |title=Sufism: A Beginner's Guide |year=2008 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-1-78074-052-2 |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=LI0kjBlXS5UC}} |access-date=17 January 2015}}
* {{Cite book| last=Esposito | first=John| year=2002b | title=What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=0-19-515713-3 | ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Cohen-Mor |first=Dalya |title=A Matter of Fate: The Concept of Fate in the Arab World as Reflected in Modern Arabic Literature |publisher=] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-19-513398-1}}
* {{Cite book| last=Esposito | first=John| title=] | publisher=] | year=2003 | isbn=0-19-512558-4 | ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Curtis |first=Patricia A. |url=https://archive.org/details/guidetofoodlawsr0000curt |title=A Guide to Food Laws and Regulations |publisher=] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-8138-1946-4 |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book| last=Esposito | first=John| title=Islam: The Straight Path | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2004 | edition=3rd Rev Upd | isbn=978-0-19-518266-8 | ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Esposito |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/islamstraightpat0000espo |title=Islam: The Straight Path |publisher=] |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-511234-4 |edition=3rd |author-link=John Esposito}}
* {{Cite book| last=Farah | first=Caesar | authorlink=Caesar E. Farah | title=Islam: Beliefs and Observances | publisher=Barron's Educational Series | year=1994 | edition=5th | isbn=978-0-8120-1853-0 | ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=John |title=The Oxford History of Islam |publisher=] |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-19-510799-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofi00john |editor-mask=1}}
* {{Cite book| last=Farah | first=Caesar| title=Islam: Beliefs and Observances | publisher=Barron's Educational Series | year=2003 | edition=7th | isbn=978-0-7641-2226-2 | ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=John |title=The Oxford History of Islam |publisher=] |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-19-510799-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofi00john |editor-mask=1}}
* {{Cite book| last=Firestone | first=Reuven | title=Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam | publisher= Oxford University Press | year=1999 | isbn=0-19-512580-0 | ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Esposito |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/unholywarterrori0000espo |title=Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam |publisher=] |year=2002a |isbn=978-0-19-516886-0 |author-mask=1}}
* {{Cite book| last=Ghamidi | first=Javed | authorlink=Javed Ahmed Ghamidi | title=] | publisher=] | year=2001 | oclc=52901690 | ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Esposito |first=John |title=What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam |publisher=] |year=2002b |isbn=978-0-19-515713-0 |author-mask=1}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Goldschmidt, Jr. |first1=Arthur | last2=Davidson| first2 = Lawrence | title=A Concise History of the Middle East | publisher=Westview Press | year=2005 | edition=8th | isbn=978-0-8133-4275-7 | ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Esposito |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/islamstraightpat0001espo |title=Islam: The Straight Path |publisher=] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-19-518266-8 |edition=Revised 3rd |author-mask=1}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Griffith |first1=Ruth Marie | last2=Savage| first2=Barbara Dianne | title=Women and Religion in the African Diaspora: Knowledge, Power, and Performance | publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press | year=2006 | isbn=0-8018-8370-9 | ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Esposito |first=John |title=Islam: The Straight Path |publisher=] |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-539600-3 |edition=4th |author-mask=1}}
* {{Cite book| last= Haddad | first= Yvonne Yazbeck |title= Muslims in the West: from sojourners to citizens| publisher= ] | year=2002 | ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Esposito |first=John |year=2011 |title=What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam |edition=2nd |place=Oxford |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-19-979413-3 |author-mask=1}}
* {{Cite book| last=Hawting| first=G. R. | authorlink= G.R. Hawting | title=The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750 | publisher=Routledge | year=2000 | isbn=0-415-24073-5 | ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last1=Esposito |first1=John |url=https://archive.org/details/muslimsonamerica00yvon |title=Muslims on the Americanization Path? |last2=Haddad |first2=Yvonne Yazbeck |publisher=] |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-19-513526-8}}
* {{Cite book| last=Hedayetullah | first=Muhammad | title=Dynamics of Islam: An Exposition | publisher=Trafford Publishing | year=2006 | isbn=978-1-55369-842-5 | ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Farah |first=Caesar |title=Islam: Beliefs and Observances |publisher=] |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-8120-1853-0 |edition=5th |author-link=Caesar E. Farah}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Hofmann|first1=Murad|title=Islam and Qur'an|edition=|year=2007|publisher=|location=|isbn=978-1-59008-047-4|ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Farah |first=Caesar |url=https://archive.org/details/islambeliefsobse00fara_0 |title=Islam: Beliefs and Observances |publisher=] |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-7641-2226-2 |edition=7th |author-mask=1}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Holt|first1=P.M | last2=Lewis| first2=Bernard| authorlink2=Bernard Lewis | title=Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1 | year=1977a | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=0-521-29136-4 | ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Firestone |first=Reuven |title=Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam |publisher=] |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-19-512580-1}}
* {{Cite book| last1=Holt | first1=P. M. | last2=Lambton |first2=Ann K.S| last3=Lewis| first3=Bernard | title=Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 2 | year=1977b | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=0-521-29137-2 | ref=harv}} * {{Cite book | last1=Goldschmidt | first1=Arthur Jr. |title=A Concise History of the Middle East |last2=Davidson |first2=Lawrence |publisher=] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-8133-4275-7 |edition=8th |url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof0008gold |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book| last1=Hourani | first1=Albert | authorlink=Albert Hourani | last2=Ruthven| first2=Malise| authorlink2=Malise Ruthven | title=A History of the Arab Peoples | year=2003 | publisher=Belknap Press; Revised edition | isbn=978-0-674-01017-8 | ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last1=Griffith |first1=Ruth Marie |author1-link=Ruth Marie Griffith |title=Women and Religion in the African Diaspora: Knowledge, Power, and Performance |last2=Savage |first2=Barbara Dianne |author2-link=Barbara D. Savage |publisher=] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8018-8370-5}}
* {{Cite book| last=Kobeisy | first=Ahmed Nezar | title=Counseling American Muslims: Understanding the Faith and Helping the People | publisher=Praeger Publishers | year=2004 | isbn=978-0-313-32472-7 | ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last1=Haddad |first1=Yvonne Yazbeck |last2=Smith |first2=Jane I. |author-link=Jane Idleman Smith |title=Muslims in the West: Visible and Invisible |place=Walnut Creek, CA |publisher=Altamira |year=2002}}
* {{Cite book| last=Kramer | first=Martin | title=Shi'Ism, Resistance, and Revolution | publisher=Westview Press | year=1987 | isbn=978-0-8133-0453-3 | ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Hedayetullah |first=Muhammad |title=Dynamics of Islam: An Exposition |publisher=] |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-55369-842-5}}
* {{Cite book| last=Lapidus| first=Ira | title=A History of Islamic Societies | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2002 | edition=2nd | isbn=978-0-521-77933-3 | ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |editor-last1=Holt |editor-first1=P.M. |editor-last2=Lewis |editor-first2=Bernard |publisher=] |year=1977 |isbn=978-0-521-29136-1 |title=The Cambridge History of Islam |volume=1 |author-link2=Bernard Lewis}}
* {{Cite book| last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis| title=The Jews of Islam | publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul | year=1984 | isbn=0-7102-0462-0 | ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |editor-last1=Holt |editor-first1=P.M. |editor-last2=Lambton |editor-first2=Ann K.S. |editor2-link=Ann Lambton |editor-last3=Lewis |editor-first3=Bernard |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1977 |isbn=978-0-521-29137-8 |title=The Cambridge History of Islam |volume=2}}
* {{Cite book| last=Lewis | first=Bernard | title=The Arabs in History | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1993 | isbn=0-19-285258-2 | ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |editor-last1=Holt |editor-first1=P.M. |editor-last2=Lambton |editor-first2=Ann K.S. |editor-last3=Lewis |editor-first3=Bernard |title=The Cambridge History of Islam |volume=1A |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-521-21946-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistory00holt_798 |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book| last=Lewis | first=Bernard| title=The Middle East | publisher=Scribner | year=1997 | isbn=978-0-684-83280-7 | ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last1=Hourani |first1=Albert |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofarabpeo0122hour_06BYS |title=A History of the Arab Peoples |publisher=] |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-674-01017-8 |author-link=Albert Hourani}}
* {{cite book |title=The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wan-Nihayah |author=Ismāʻīl ibn ʻUmar Ibn Kathīr |isbn=978-603-500-080-2 |translator=Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad |place=Riyadh |publisher=Maktaba Dar-us-Salam |year=2012}}
* {{Cite book| last=Lewis | first=Bernard| title=Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East | publisher=Open Court | edition=2nd | year=2001 | isbn=978-0-8126-9518-2 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Lewis | first=Bernard| title=What Went Wrong?: The Clash Between Islam and Modernity in the Middle East | publisher=Harper Perennial | edition=Reprint | year=2003 | isbn=978-0-06-051605-5 | ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Kobeisy |first=Ahmed Nezar |title=Counseling American Muslims: Understanding the Faith and Helping the People |publisher=] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-313-32472-7}}
* {{Cite book| last=Lewis | first=Bernard| title=The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror | publisher=Random House, Inc., New York | year=2004 | isbn=978-0-8129-6785-2 | ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Kramer |first=Martin |title=Shi'Ism, Resistance, and Revolution |publisher=] |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-8133-0453-3}}
* {{Cite book| last=Madelung | first=Wilferd | authorlink=Wilferd Madelung | title=The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=1996 | isbn=0-521-64696-0 | ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Lapidus |first=Ira |title=A History of Islamic Societies |publisher=] |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-521-77933-3 |edition=2nd}}
* {{Cite book| last1=Malik| first1=Jamal| last2=Hinnells| first2=John R | title=Sufism in the West | publisher= Routledge | year=2006 | isbn=0-415-27408-7 | ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |title=The Jews of Islam |publisher=] |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-7102-0462-2 |author-link=Bernard Lewis}}
* {{Cite book| last=Menski | first=Werner F. | title=Comparative Law in a Global Context: The Legal Systems of Asia and Africa | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2006 | isbn=0-521-85859-3 | ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |title=The Arabs in History |publisher=] |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-19-285258-8 |author-mask=1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |url=https://archive.org/details/middleeastbriefh0000lewi |title=The Middle East |publisher=] |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-684-83280-7 |author-mask=1}}
* {{Cite book | editor-last = Miller | editor-first = Tracy |date=October 2009 | publisher = ] | title = Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population | format = PDF | url=http://www.pewforum.org/2009/10/07/mapping-the-global-muslim-population/ | accessdate = 2013-09-24 |ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Momen | first=Moojan | title=An Introduction to Shi'i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi'ism | publisher=Yale University Press | year=1987 | isbn=978-0-300-03531-5 | ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |url=https://archive.org/details/islaminhistory00bern |title=Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East |publisher=]|year=2001 |isbn=978-0-8126-9518-2 |edition=2nd |author-mask=1 |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book| last=Nasr | first=Seyed Muhammad | title=Our Religions: The Seven World Religions Introduced by Preeminent Scholars from Each Tradition (Chapter 7) | publisher=HarperCollins | year=1994| isbn=0-06-067700-7 | ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |url=https://archive.org/details/whatwentwrongcl00lewi |title=What Went Wrong?: The Clash Between Islam and Modernity in the Middle East |publisher=] |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-06-051605-5 |edition=reprint |author-mask=1}}
* {{cite book| last= Nigosian | first = Solomon Alexander | title=Islam: its history, teaching, and practices| publisher= ]| year =2004| isbn= | ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |url=https://archive.org/details/crisisofislam00bern |title=The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror |publisher=], New York |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-8129-6785-2 |author-mask=1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Madelung |first=Wilferd |title=The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate |publisher=] |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-521-64696-3 |author-link=Wilferd Madelung}}
* {{Cite journal| last=Patton | first=Walter M. | title=The Doctrine of Freedom in the Korân | journal=The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures |date=April 1900 | volume=16 | issue=3 | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | isbn=90-04-10314-7 | doi=10.1086/369367 | page=129 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Peters | first=F. E.| title=Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians | publisher=Princeton University Press | year=2003 | isbn=0-691-11553-2 | ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last1=Malik |first1=Jamal |title=Sufism in the West |last2=Hinnells |first2=John R. |publisher=] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-415-27408-1}}
* {{Cite book| last=Rahman | first=H. U. |title=Chronology of Islamic History, 570-1000 CE | publisher=Ta-Ha Publishers Ltd | edition=3rd | year=1999 | ref=harv }} * {{Cite book |last=Momen |first=Moojan |title=An Introduction to Shi'i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi'ism |publisher=] |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-300-03531-5}}
* {{Cite book |last=Nasr |first=Seyed Hossein |author-link=Seyyed Hossein Nasr |year=2003 |title=The Heart of Islam: Enduring Values for Humanity}}
* {{Cite book| last=Rippin | first=Andrew | authorlink=Andrew Rippin | title=Muslims: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices | publisher=Routledge | edition=2nd | year=2001 | isbn=978-0-415-21781-1 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Sachedina | first=Abdulaziz | title=The Just Ruler in Shi'ite Islam: The Comprehensive Authority of the Jurist in Imamite Jurisprudence | publisher=Oxford University Press US | year=1998 | isbn=0-19-511915-0 | authorlink=Abdulaziz Sachedina | ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Nasr |first=Seyed Muhammad |url=https://archive.org/details/ourreligions00shar |title=Our Religions: The Seven World Religions Introduced by Preeminent Scholars from Each Tradition (Chapter 7) |publisher=] |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-06-067700-8}}
* {{Cite book |last=Nigosian |first=Solomon Alexander |title=Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices |publisher=] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-253-21627-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/islamitshistoryt0000nigo |url-access=registration}}
* Siljander, Mark D. and John David Mann. ''A Deadly Misunderstanding: a Congressman's Quest to Bridge the Muslim-Christian Divide''. First ed. New York: Harper One, 2008. ISBN 978-0-06-143828-8
* {{Cite book| last=Smith | first=Jane I. | title=The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2006 | isbn=978-0-19-515649-2 | ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Peacock|first=A.C.S.|title=Islam, Literature and Society in Mongol Anatolia|date=2019 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume= |page=|doi= 10.1017/9781108582124|isbn=978-1-108-58212-4|s2cid=211657444}}
* {{Cite book| last1=Tabatabae | first1=Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn | last2=Nasr| first2=Seyyed Hossein | authorlink1=Allameh Tabatabaei | title= Shi'ite Islam | publisher=Suny press| year=1979 | isbn=0-87395-272-3 | ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Peters |first=F. E. |url=https://archive.org/details/islamguideforjew00fepe |title=Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians |publisher=] |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-691-11553-5}}
* {{Cite report |date=October 2009 |title=Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population |publisher=] |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/7/2009/10/Muslimpopulation.pdf |access-date=25 May 2020 |ref={{sfnref|Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life|2009}} }} .
* {{Cite book| last=Teece | first=Geoff | title=Religion in Focus: Islam | publisher=Franklin Watts Ltd | year=2003 | isbn=978-0-7496-4796-4 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Trimingham| first=John Spencer | title=The Sufi Orders in Islam | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1998| isbn=0-19-512058-2 | ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Rippin |first=Andrew |url=https://archive.org/details/muslimstheirreli0000ripp |title=Muslims: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices |publisher=] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-415-21781-1 |edition=2nd |author-link=Andrew Rippin}}
* {{cite journal |last=Serjeant |first=R.B. |date=1978 |title=Sunnah Jami'ah, pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrim of Yathrib |journal=] |volume=41 |pages=1–42 |publisher=]|doi=10.1017/S0041977X00057761 |s2cid=161485671 }}
* {{Cite book| last=Turner | first=Colin | title=Islam: the Basics | publisher=Routledge (UK) | year=2006 | isbn=0-415-34106-X | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book| last=Turner | first=Bryan S. | title=Weber and Islam | publisher=Routledge (UK) | year=1998 | isbn=0-415-17458-9 | ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Sachedina |first=Abdulaziz |title=The Just Ruler in Shi'ite Islam: The Comprehensive Authority of the Jurist in Imamite Jurisprudence |publisher=] US |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-511915-2 |author-link=Abdulaziz Sachedina}}
* {{Cite book| last=Waines | first=David | title=An Introduction to Islam | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2003 | isbn=0-521-53906-4 | ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Jane I. |author-link=Jane Idleman Smith |title=The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection |publisher=] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-19-515649-2}}
* {{Cite book| last=Watt | first=W. Montgomery | authorlink=William Montgomery Watt | title=The Formative Period of Islamic Thought | publisher=University Press Edinburgh| year=1973 | isbn=0-85224-245-X | ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |editor-last=Stefon |editor-first=Matt |title=Islamic Beliefs and Practices |publisher=] |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-61530-060-0 |location=New York |url=https://archive.org/details/islamicbeliefspr0000stef |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book| last=Watt | first=W. Montgomery|title=Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman | publisher=Oxford University Press | edition=New | year=1974 | isbn=0-19-881078-4 | ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last1=Ṭabāṭabāʼī |first1=Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn |title=Shi'ite Islam |translator-last=Nasr |translator-first=Seyyed Hossein |publisher=] |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-87395-272-9 |author-link=Allameh Tabatabaei}}
* {{Cite book| last=Weiss | first=Bernard G. | title=Studies in Islamic Legal Theory | year=2002 | location=Boston | publisher=Brill Academic publishers | isbn=90-04-12066-1 | ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Teece |first=Geoff |url=https://archive.org/details/islam0000teec_a5d6 |title=Religion in Focus: Islam |publisher=] |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-7496-4796-4}}
* {{Cite book |last=Trimingham |first=John Spencer |title=The Sufi Orders in Islam |publisher=] |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-512058-5}}
* {{Cite book |last=Turner |first=Colin |title=Islam: the Basics |publisher=] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-415-34106-6 |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |last=Turner |first=Bryan S. |title=Weber and Islam |publisher=] |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-415-17458-9 |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |last=Waines |first=David |title=An Introduction to Islam |publisher=] |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-521-53906-7}}
* {{Cite book |last=Watt |first=W. Montgomery |title=The Formative Period of Islamic Thought |publisher=University Press Edinburgh |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-85224-245-2 |author-link=William Montgomery Watt}}
* {{Cite book |last=Watt |first=W. Montgomery |url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadprophets00watt |title=Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman |publisher=] |year=1974 |isbn=978-0-19-881078-0 |edition=New |author-mask=1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Weiss |first=Bernard G. |title=Studies in Islamic Legal Theory |publisher=] |year=2002 |isbn=978-90-04-12066-2 |location=Boston |author-link=Bernard G. Weiss}}
{{Refend}} {{Refend}}


====Encyclopedias==== === Encyclopedias and dictionaries ===
{{Refbegin|colwidth=30em}} {{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{harvc |last1=Gardet|first1=L.|last2=Jomier|first2=J.|year=2012|c=Islām |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)}} {{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0387}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | editor=William H. McNeill, Jerry H. Bentley, David Christian | encyclopedia=Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History | publisher=Berkshire Publishing Group | year=2005 | isbn=978-0-9743091-0-1 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia|editor=Gabriel Oussani|encyclopedia=]|year=1910|ref=harv}} * {{Cite encyclopedia |title=Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=]}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | editor=Paul Lagasse, Lora Goldman, Archie Hobson, Susan R. Norton | encyclopedia=The Columbia Encyclopedia | publisher=Gale Group | year=2000 | edition=6th | isbn=978-1-59339-236-9 | ref=harv}} * {{Cite encyclopedia |ref={{harvid|Fahlbusch et al|2001}} |editor-last=Fahlbusch |editor-first=Erwin |display-editors=etal |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=yaecVMhMWaEC}} |title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity |publisher=] |year=2001 |isbn=978-90-04-11695-5 |volume=2}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |year=1913–1936 |title=] |editor1-last=Houtsma |editor1-first=M.T. |editor1-link=Martijn Theodoor Houtsma |editor2-first=T.W. |editor2-last=Arnold |editor2-link=Thomas Walker Arnold |editor3-first=R. |editor3-last=Basset |editor4-first=R. |editor4-last=Hartmann |edition=1st |place=Leiden |publisher=] |isbn=978-90-04-08265-6 |ref={{harvid|Encyclopaedia of Islam (1st ed.)|1913–1936}}}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | encyclopedia=] | publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. | ref=harv}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |year=2012 |title=] |editor-last=Bearman |editor-first=P.J. |issn=1573-3912 |editor1-link=Peri Bearman |editor2-first=Th. |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor3-first=C.E. |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor3-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |editor4-first=E. |editor4-last=van Donzel |editor5-first=W.P. |editor5-last=Heinrichs |editor5-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs |edition=2nd |place=Leiden |publisher=] |isbn=978-90-04-16121-4 |ref={{harvid|Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)|2012}}}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | editor=Erwin Fahlbusch, William Geoffrey Bromiley | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Christianity | publisher=Eerdmans Publishing Company, and Brill| year=2001 | edition=1st| isbn=0-8028-2414-5 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online |publisher=] |editor-last=Bearman |editor-first=P.J. |issn=1573-3912 |editor1-link=Peri Bearman |editor2-first=Th. |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor3-first=C.E. |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor3-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |editor4-first=E. |editor4-last=van Donzel |editor5-first=W.P. |editor5-last=Heinrichs |editor5-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs |ref={{harvid|Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|n.d.}} |year=n.d. |url=https://brill.com/view/package/eio?language=en |url-access=subscription}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | editor=John Bowden | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Christianity | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2005 | edition=1st | isbn=0-19-522393-4 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2004 |title=Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World |series=] |publisher=] |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofis0001unse |editor-last=Martin |editor-first=Richard C. |isbn=978-0-02-865603-8}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | editor1-first=P.J. | editor1-last=Bearman | editor1-link=Peri Bearman | editor2-first=Th. | editor2-last=Bianquis | editor3-first =C. E. | editor3-last=Bosworth | editor3-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth | editor4-first=E. | editor4-last=van Donzel | editor5-first=W. P. | editor5-last=Heinrichs | editor5-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs | encyclopedia=] | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | issn=1573-3912 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |title=] |publisher=] |year=n.d.|editor-first=Jane Dammen|editor-last=McAuliffe|editor-link=Jane Dammen McAuliffe}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | editor=Richard C. Martin, Said Amir Arjomand, Marcia Hermansen, Abdulkader Tayob, Rochelle Davis, John Obert Voll | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World|publisher=MacMillan Reference Books|year=2003|isbn=978-0-02-865603-8 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | editor=Jane Dammen McAuliffe | encyclopedia=] | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | ref=harv}} * {{cite encyclopedia |title=] |volume=2 |editor-first=Jane Dammen |editor-last=McAuliffe |publisher=] |year=2002}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=] |volume=3 |editor-first=Jane Dammen |editor-last=McAuliffe |publisher=] |year=2003}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia|editor=Salamone Frank|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals|publisher=Routledge|edition=1st|year=2004|isbn=978-0-415-94180-8|ref=harv}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |title=Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals |publisher=] |editor-last=Salamone |editor-first=Frank |edition=1st |isbn=978-0-415-94180-8 |series=Routledge Encyclopedias of Religion and Society |volume=6 |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre00sala |jstor=j.ctt1jd94wq |year=2004 <!-- no bot -->}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia | editor=Glasse Cyril | encyclopedia=New Encyclopedia of Islam: A Revised Edition of the Concise Encyclopedia of Islam | publisher=AltaMira Press | year=2003 | isbn=978-0759101906 | ref=harv}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2003 |title=The New Encyclopedia of Islam |publisher=] |url=https://archive.org/details/newencyclopediao0000glas |editor-last=Glassé |editor-first=Cyril |series=Revised Edition of the Concise Encyclopedia of Islam |isbn=978-0-7591-0190-6 |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=John |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam |publisher=] |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-19-512558-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary00bada |url-access=registration}} {{doi|10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001}} – via Oxford Reference.
* {{Cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=John |year=2004 |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam |place=Oxford |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-19-975726-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E324pQEEQQcC}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2006 |title=The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia |publisher=] |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=isDgI0-0Ip4C|page=}} |editor-last=Leaman |editor-first=Oliver |isbn=978-0-415-32639-1}}
{{Refend}} {{Refend}}


==Further reading== == Further reading ==
{{Sister project links |wikt=Islam |commons=Category:Islam |b=Subject:Islam |n=Category:Islam |q=Islam |s=Portal:Islam |v=Islam |voy=Islam |species=no |d=Q432 |m=no|mw=no}}
{{Refbegin}} {{Refbegin}}
* by Arabic Virtual Translation Center (New York 2019, ] {{ISBN|978-0-359-67265-3}}). The foundation of Islam: from revelation to tawhid.
* Abdul-Haqq, Abdiyah Akbar (1980). ''Sharing Your Faith with a Muslim''. Minneapolis: Bethany House Publishers. ''N.B''. Presents the genuine doctrines and concepts of Islam and of the Holy Qur'an, and this religion's affinities with Christianity and its Sacred Scriptures, in order to "dialogue" on the basis of what both faiths really teach. ISBN 0-87123-553-6
* Abdul-Haqq, Abdiyah Akbar (1980). ''Sharing Your Faith with a Muslim''. Minneapolis: ]. ''N.B''. Presents the genuine doctrines and concepts of Islam and of the Holy Qur'an, and this religion's affinities with Christianity and its Sacred Scriptures, in order to "dialogue" on the basis of what both faiths really teach. {{ISBN|0-87123-553-6}}
* {{Cite book| last=Akyol | first=Mustafa | authorlink=Mustafa Akyol | title=Islam Without Extremes | publisher=W. W. Norton & Company | edition=1st | year=2011 | isbn=978-0-393-07086-6}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2008 |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism |publisher=]; ] |location=Thousand Oaks, CA |last=Ahmad |first=Imad-ad-Dean |title=Islam |author-link=Imad-ad-Dean Ahmad |editor-last=Hamowy |editor-first=Ronald |editor-link=Ronald Hamowy |pages=256–258 |doi=10.4135/9781412965811.n155 |isbn=978-1-4129-6580-4 |lccn=2008009151 |oclc=750831024 |url={{Google books|yxNgXs3TkJYC|plainurl=yes}} }}
* {{Cite book| last=Arberry | first=A. J. | authorlink=A. J. Arberry | title=The Koran Interpreted: A Translation | publisher=Touchstone | edition=1st | year=1996 | isbn=978-0-684-82507-6}}
* {{Cite book |last=Akyol |first=Mustafa |url=https://archive.org/details/islamwithoutextr0000akyo |title=Islam Without Extremes |publisher=] |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-393-07086-6 |edition=1st |author-link=Mustafa Akyol }}
* Cragg, Kenneth (1975). ''The House of Islam'', in ''The Religious Life of Man Series''. Second ed. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1975. xiii, 145 p. ISBN 0-8221-0139-4
* {{Cite book |last=Arberry |first=A.J. |url=https://archive.org/details/koraninterpreted00ajar |title=The Koran Interpreted: A Translation |publisher=Touchstone |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-684-82507-6 |edition=1st |author-link=A. J. Arberry }}
* Hourani, Albert (1991). ''Islam in European Thought''. First pbk. ed. Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1992, cop. 1991. xi, 199 p. ISBN 0-521-42120-9; alternative ISBN on back cover, 0-521-42120-0
* Cragg, Kenneth (1975). ''The House of Islam'', in ''The Religious Life of Man Series''. Second ed. Belmont, CA: ] 1975. xiii, 145 p. {{ISBN|0-8221-0139-4}}.
* {{Cite book| last=Khan | first=Muhammad Muhsin | authorlink=Muhammad Muhsin Khan |author2=Al-Hilali Khan |author3=Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din | title=Noble Quran | year=1999 | publisher=Dar-us-Salam Publications | edition=1st | isbn=978-9960-740-79-9}}
* Hourani, Albert (1991). ''Islam in European Thought''. First pbk. ed. Cambridge, Eng.: ], 1992, cop. 1991. xi, 199 p. {{ISBN|0-521-42120-9}}; alternative ISBN on back cover, 0-521-42120-0.
* A. Khanbaghi (2006). ''The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early Modern Iran''. I. B. Tauris.
* {{Cite book |last1=Khan |first1=Muhammad Muhsin |title=Noble Quran |last2=Al-Hilali Khan |last3=Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din |publisher=] |year=1999 |isbn=978-9960-740-79-9 |edition=1st |author-link=Muhammad Muhsin Khan}}
* Khavari, Farid A. (1990). ''Oil and Islam: the Ticking Bomb''. First ed. Malibu, Calif.: Roundtable Publications. viii, 277 p., ill. with maps and charts. ISBN 0-915677-55-5
* Khanbaghi, A, (2006). ''The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early Modern Iran''. ].
* {{Cite book| last=Kramer (ed.) | first=Martin | authorlink=Martin Kramer | title=The Jewish Discovery of Islam: Studies in Honor of Bernard Lewis | publisher=Syracuse University | year=1999 | isbn=978-965-224-040-8}}
* Khavari, Farid A. (1990). ''Oil and Islam: the Ticking Bomb''. First ed. Malibu, Calif.: Roundtable Publications. viii, 277 p., ill. with maps and charts. {{ISBN|0-915677-55-5}}.
* {{Cite book| last=Kuban | first=Dogan | title=Muslim Religious Architecture | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | year=1974 | isbn=90-04-03813-2}}
* {{Cite book| last=Lewis | first=Bernard | title=Islam and the West | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1994 | isbn=978-0-19-509061-1}} * {{Cite book |title=The Jewish Discovery of Islam: Studies in Honor of Bernard Lewis |publisher=] |year=1999 |isbn=978-965-224-040-8 |editor-last=Kramer |editor-first=Martin |editor-link=Martin Kramer}}
* {{Cite book| last=Lewis | first=Bernard| title=Cultures in Conflict: Christians, Muslims, and Jews in the Age of Discovery | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1996 | isbn=978-0-19-510283-3}} * {{Cite book |last=Kuban |first=Dogan |title=Muslim Religious Architecture |publisher=] |year=1974 |isbn=978-90-04-03813-4}}
* {{Cite book| last=Mubarkpuri | first=Saifur-Rahman | title=]: Biography of the Prophet | publisher=Dar-us-Salam Publications | year=2002 | isbn=978-1-59144-071-0}} * {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |url=https://archive.org/details/islamwest00lewi_0 |title=Islam and the West |publisher=] |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-19-509061-1 }}
* {{Cite book| last=Najeebabadi | first=Akbar Shah | title=History of Islam | publisher=Dar-us-Salam Publications | year=2001 | ref=Harv | isbn=978-1-59144-034-5}} * {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |url=https://archive.org/details/culturesinconfli0000lewi |title=Cultures in Conflict: Christians, Muslims, and Jews in the Age of Discovery |publisher=] |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-19-510283-3 |url-access=registration }}
* {{Cite book| last=Nigosian | first=S. A. | title=Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices | publisher=Indiana University Press | year=2004 | edition=New | isbn=978-0-253-21627-4}} * {{Cite book |last=Mubarkpuri |first=Saifur-Rahman |title=The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Prophet |publisher=] |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-59144-071-0}}
* {{Cite book| last=Rahman | first=Fazlur | authorlink=Fazlur Rahman | title=Islam | publisher=University of Chicago Press | year=1979 | edition=2nd | isbn=0-226-70281-2}} * {{Cite book |last=Najeebabadi |first=Akbar Shah |title=History of Islam |publisher=] |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-59144-034-5}}
* {{Cite book| last=Tausch | first=Arno | authorlink=Arno Tausch | title=Muslim Calvinism | publisher=Rozenberg Publishers, Amsterdam | year=2009 | edition=1st | isbn=978-90-5170-995-7}} * {{Cite book |last=Rahman |first=Fazlur |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226702810 |title=Islam |publisher=] |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-226-70281-0 |edition=2nd |author-link=Fazlur Rahman Malik }}
* {{Cite book |last=Schimmel |first=Annemarie |url=https://www.giffordlectures.org/books/deciphering-signs-god-phenomenological-approach-islam |title=Deciphering the Signs of God: A Phenomenological Approach to Islam |publisher=] |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-7914-1982-3 |author-link=Annemarie Schimmel |access-date=31 January 2019 |archive-date=22 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190422154518/https://www.giffordlectures.org/books/deciphering-signs-god-phenomenological-approach-islam |url-status=dead }}
* {{Cite book| last=Tausch | first=Arno| title=What 1.3&nbsp;Billion Muslims Really Think: An Answer to a Recent Gallup Study, Based on the "]". Foreword Mansoor Moaddel, Eastern Michigan University | publisher=Nova Science Publishers, New York| year=2009 | edition=1st | isbn=978-1-60692-731-1}}
* {{Cite book| last=Walker | first=Benjamin | authorlink=Benjamin Walker (author) | title=Foundations of Islam: The Making of a World Faith | publisher=Peter Owen Publishers | year=1998 | isbn=978-0-7206-1038-3}} * {{Cite book |last=Schuon |first=Frithjof |title=Understanding Islam |publisher=] |year=1963 |isbn=978-0941532242 |edition=3rd |author-link=Frithjof Schuon}}
* {{Cite book |last=Tausch |first=Arno |title=What 1.3&nbsp;Billion Muslims Really Think: An Answer to a Recent Gallup Study, Based on the "World Values Survey". Foreword Mansoor Moaddel, Eastern Michigan University |publisher=], New York |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-60692-731-1 |edition=1st }}
* {{Cite book |last1=Tausch |first1=Arno |title=The political algebra of global value change. General models and implications for the Muslim world |first2=Almas |last2=Heshmati |first3=Hichem |last3=Karoui |publisher=] |place=New York |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-62948-899-8 |edition=1st }} Prepublication text available at: {{cite web |last1=Tausch |first1=Arno |last2=Heshmati |first2=Almas |last3=Karoui |first3=Hichem |date=January 2014 |title=The political algebra of global value change. General models and implications for the Muslim world |website=ResearchGate |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/290349218 }}
* {{Cite book |last1=Tausch |first1=Arno |title=Political Islam and Religiously Motivated Political Extremism |series=SpringerBriefs in Political Science |publisher=] |place=Cham |year=2023 |doi=10.1007/978-3-031-24854-2 |isbn=978-3-031-24853-5 |s2cid=256852082 |edition=1st |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-031-24854-2 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Walker |first=Benjamin |title=Foundations of Islam: The Making of a World Faith |publisher=] |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7206-1038-3 |author-link=Benjamin Walker (author)}}
{{Refend}} {{Refend}}


==External links==
{{Sister project links |wikt=Islam |commons=Category:Islam |b=Subject:Islam |n=Category:Islam |q=Islam |s=Portal:Islam |v=Islam |voy=Islam |species=no |d=Q432 |m=no|mw=no}}
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Revision as of 16:57, 22 December 2024

Abrahamic monotheistic religion This article is about the religion. For other uses, see Islam (disambiguation).

Islam
ٱلْإِسْلَام‎
al-Islām
The Kaaba at Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, the holiest Islamic site
ClassificationAbrahamic
ScriptureQuran
TheologyMonotheistic
RegionMiddle East, North Africa, West Africa, East Africa, Central Asia, Northern Caucasus, South Asia, Southeast Asia, Southeastern Europe
LanguageQuranic Arabic
TerritoryMuslim world
FounderMuhammad
Origin610 CE
Jabal al-Nour, Mecca, Hejaz, Arabian Peninsula
Separated fromArabian polytheism
SeparationsBábism
Baháʼí Faith
Druze Faith
Number of followersc. 1.9 billion Increase (individually referred to as Muslims, collectively referred to as the Ummah)
Part of a series on
Islam
Beliefs
Practices
History
Culture and society
Related topics
Part of a series on
Islam and Iman
Islam Iman Ihsan
Individuals
Groups
Terms
  • Din – Religion

Islam is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion centered on the Quran and the teachings of Muhammad, the religion's founder. Adherents of Islam are called Muslims, who are estimated to number approximately 1.9 billion worldwide and are the world's second-largest religious population after Christians.

Muslims believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a primordial faith that was revealed many times through earlier prophets and messengers, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus. Muslims consider the Quran to be the verbatim word of God and the unaltered, final revelation. Alongside the Quran, Muslims also believe in previous revelations, such as the Tawrat (the Torah), the Zabur (Psalms), and the Injil (Gospel). They believe that Muhammad is the main and final Islamic prophet, through whom the religion was completed. The teachings and normative examples of Muhammad, called the Sunnah, documented in accounts called the hadith, provide a constitutional model for Muslims. Islam is based on the belief in oneness and uniqueness of the God (tawhid), and belief in an afterlife (akhirah) with the Last Judgment—wherein the righteous will be rewarded in paradise (jannah) and the unrighteous will be punished in hell (jahannam). The Five Pillars—considered obligatory acts of worship—are the Islamic oath and creed (shahada), daily prayers (salah), almsgiving (zakat), fasting (sawm) in the month of Ramadan, and a pilgrimage (hajj) to Mecca. Islamic law, sharia, touches on virtually every aspect of life, from banking and finance and welfare to men's and women's roles and the environment. The two main religious festivals are Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha. The three holiest sites in Islam are Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, Prophet's Mosque in Medina, and al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.

The religion of Islam originated in Mecca in 610 CE. Muslims believe this is when Muhammad received his first revelation. By the time of his death, most of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam. Muslim rule expanded outside Arabia under the Rashidun Caliphate and the subsequent Umayyad Caliphate ruled from the Iberian Peninsula to the Indus Valley. In the Islamic Golden Age, specifically during the reign of the Abbasid Caliphate, most of the Muslim world experienced a scientific, economic and cultural flourishing. The expansion of the Muslim world involved various states and caliphates as well as extensive trade and religious conversion as a result of Islamic missionary activities (dawah), as well as through conquests, imperialism, and colonialism.

The two main Islamic branches are Sunni Islam (85–90%) and Shia Islam (10–15%). While the Shia–Sunni divide initially arose from disagreements over the succession to Muhammad, they grew to cover a broader dimension, both theologically and juridically. The Sunni canonical hadith collection consists of six books, while the Shia canonical hadith collection consists of four books. Muslims make up a majority of the population in 49 countries. Approximately 12% of the world's Muslims live in Indonesia, the most populous Muslim-majority country; 31% live in South Asia; 20% live in the Middle East–North Africa; and 15% live in sub-Saharan Africa. Muslim communities are also present in the Americas, China, and Europe. Muslims are the world's fastest-growing major religious group, according to Pew Research Center. This is due primarily to a higher fertility rate and younger age structure compared to other major religions.

Etymology

See also: Muslims § Etymology

In Arabic, Islam (Arabic: إسلام, lit. 'submission ') is the verbal noun of Form IV originating from the verb سلم (salama), from the triliteral root س-ل-م (S-L-M), which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of submission, safeness, and peace. In a religious context, it refers to the total surrender to the will of God. A Muslim (مُسْلِم), the word for a follower of Islam, is the active participle of the same verb form, and means "submitter (to God)" or "one who surrenders (to God)". In the Hadith of Gabriel, Islam is presented as one part of a triad that also includes imān (faith), and ihsān (excellence).

Islam itself was historically called Mohammedanism in the English-speaking world. This term has fallen out of use and is sometimes said to be offensive, as it suggests that a human being, rather than God, is central to Muslims' religion.

Articles of faith

Main articles: Aqidah and Iman

The Islamic creed (aqidah) requires belief in six articles: God, angels, revelation, prophets, the Day of Resurrection, and the divine predestination.

God

Calligraphy showing the word Allah in Arabic in Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, Turkey
Main article: God in Islam

The central concept of Islam is tawḥīd (Arabic: توحيد), the oneness of God. It is usually thought of as a precise monotheism, but is also panentheistic in Islamic mystical teachings. God is seen as incomparable and without multiplicity of persons such as in the Christian Trinity, and associating multiplicity to God or attributing God's attributes to others is seen as idolatory, called shirk. God is described as Al Ghayb so is beyond comprehension. Thus, Muslims are not iconodules and do not attribute forms to God. God is instead described and referred to by several names or attributes, the most common being Ar-Rahmān (الرحمان) meaning "The Entirely Merciful", and Ar-Rahīm (الرحيم) meaning "The Especially Merciful" which are invoked at the beginning of most chapters of the Quran.

Islam teaches that the creation of everything in the universe was brought into being by God's command as expressed by the wording, "Be, and it is," and that the purpose of existence is to worship God. He is viewed as a personal god and there are no intermediaries, such as clergy, to contact God. Consciousness and awareness of God is referred to as Taqwa. Allāh is a term with no plural or gender being ascribed to it and is also used by Muslims and Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews in reference to God, whereas ʾilāh (إله) is a term used for a deity or a god in general.

Angels

Muhammad receiving his first revelation from the angel Gabriel. From the manuscript Jami' al-Tawarikh by Rashid-al-Din Hamadani, 1307.
Main article: Angels in Islam

Angels (Arabic: ملك, malak) are beings described in the Quran and hadith. They are described as created to worship God and also to serve in other specific duties such as communicating revelations from God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's soul at the time of death. They are described as being created variously from 'light' (nūr) or 'fire' (nār). Islamic angels are often represented in anthropomorphic forms combined with supernatural images, such as wings, being of great size or wearing heavenly articles. Common characteristics for angels include a lack of bodily needs and desires, such as eating and drinking. Some of them, such as Gabriel (Jibrīl) and Michael (Mika'il), are mentioned by name in the Quran. Angels play a significant role in literature about the Mi'raj, where Muhammad encounters several angels during his journey through the heavens. Further angels have often been featured in Islamic eschatology, theology and philosophy.

Scriptures

A Quran manuscript resting on a rehal, a book rest for the holy text
Main articles: Islamic holy books, Quran, and Wahy See also: History of the Quran

The pre-eminent holy text of Islam is the Quran. Muslims believe that the verses of the Quran were revealed to Muhammad by God, through the archangel Gabriel, on multiple occasions between 610 CE and 632, the year Muhammad died. While Muhammad was alive, these revelations were written down by his companions, although the primary method of transmission was orally through memorization. The Quran is divided into 114 chapters (sūrah) which contain a combined 6,236 verses (āyāt). The chronologically earlier chapters, revealed at Mecca, are concerned primarily with spiritual topics, while the later Medinan chapters discuss more social and legal issues relevant to the Muslim community. Muslim jurists consult the hadith ('accounts'), or the written record of Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Quran and assist with its interpretation. The science of Quranic commentary and exegesis is known as tafsir. In addition to its religious significance, the Quran is widely regarded as the finest work in Arabic literature, and has influenced art and the Arabic language.

Islam also holds that God has sent revelations, called wahy, to different prophets numerous times throughout history. However, Islam teaches that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, such as the Tawrat (Torah) and the Injil (Gospel), have become distorted—either in interpretation, in text, or both, while the Quran (lit. 'Recitation') is viewed as the final, verbatim and unaltered word of God.

Prophets

Main articles: Prophets and messengers in Islam, Sunnah, and Hadith
A 15th century Persian miniature depicting Muhammad leading Abraham, Moses, Jesus and other prophets in prayer

Prophets (Arabic: أنبياء, anbiyāʾ) are believed to have been chosen by God to preach a divine message. Some of these prophets additionally deliver a new book and are called "messengers" (رسول‎, rasūl). Muslims believe prophets are human and not divine. All of the prophets are said to have preached the same basic message of Islam – submission to the will of God – to various nations in the past, and this is said to account for many similarities among religions. The Quran recounts the names of numerous figures considered prophets in Islam, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus, among others. The stories associated with the prophets beyond the Quranic accounts are collected and explored in the Qisas al-Anbiya (Stories of the Prophets).

Muslims believe that God sent Muhammad as the final prophet ("Seal of the prophets") to convey the completed message of Islam. In Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the sunnah (literally "trodden path"). Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's moral behaviors in their daily lives, and the sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Quran. This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith, which are accounts of his words, actions, and personal characteristics. Hadith Qudsi is a sub-category of hadith, regarded as God's verbatim words quoted by Muhammad that are not part of the Quran. A hadith involves two elements: a chain of narrators, called sanad, and the actual wording, called matn. There are various methodologies to classify the authenticity of hadiths, with the commonly used grading grading scale being "authentic" or "correct" (صحيح, ṣaḥīḥ); "good" (حسن, ḥasan); or "weak" (ضعيف, ḍaʻīf), among others. The Kutub al-Sittah are a collection of six books, regarded as the most authentic reports in Sunni Islam. Among them is Sahih al-Bukhari, often considered by Sunnis to be one of the most authentic sources after the Quran. Another well-known source of hadiths is known as The Four Books, which Shias consider as the most authentic hadith reference.

Resurrection and judgment

The Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, where according to Islamic tradition Isa (Jesus, seen as an Islamic prophet) will appear close to the Day of Judgment
Main article: Islamic eschatology

Belief in the "Day of Resurrection" or Yawm al-Qiyāmah (Arabic: يوم القيامة) is also crucial for Muslims. It is believed that the time of Qiyāmah is preordained by God, but unknown to man. The Quran and the hadith, as well as the commentaries of scholars, describe the trials and tribulations preceding and during the Qiyāmah. The Quran emphasizes bodily resurrection, a break from the pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death.

On Yawm al-Qiyāmah, Muslims believe all humankind will be judged by their good and bad deeds and consigned to Jannah (paradise) or Jahannam (hell). The Quran in Surat al-Zalzalah describes this as: "So whoever does an atom's weight of good will see it. And whoever does an atom's weight of evil will see it." The Quran lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell. However, the Quran makes it clear that God will forgive the sins of those who repent if he wishes. Good deeds, like charity, prayer, and compassion towards animals will be rewarded with entry to heaven. Muslims view heaven as a place of joy and blessings, with Quranic references describing its features. Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God. Yawm al-Qiyāmah is also identified in the Quran as Yawm ad-Dīn (يوم الدين "Day of Religion"); as-Sāʿah (الساعة "the Last Hour"); and al-Qāriʿah (القارعة "The Clatterer").

Divine predestination

Main article: Predestination in Islam

The concept of divine predestination in Islam (Arabic: القضاء والقدر, al-qadāʾ wa l-qadar) means that every matter, good or bad, is believed to have been decreed by God. Al-qadar, meaning "power", derives from a root that means "to measure" or "calculating". Muslims often express this belief in divine destiny with the phrase "In-sha-Allah" (Arabic: إن شاء الله) meaning "if God wills" when speaking on future events.

Acts of worship

Main articles: Five Pillars of Islam and Ibadah

There are five acts of worship that are considered duties–the Shahada (declaration of faith), the five daily prayers, Zakat (almsgiving), fasting during Ramadan, and the Hajj pilgrimage–collectively known as "The Pillars of Islam" (Arkān al-Islām). In addition, Muslims also perform other optional supererogatory acts that are encouraged but not considered to be duties.

Declaration of faith

Silver coin of the Mughal Emperor Akbar, c. 16th century, inscribed with the Shahadah
Main article: Shahada

The shahadah is an oath declaring belief in Islam. The expanded statement is "ʾašhadu ʾal-lā ʾilāha ʾillā-llāhu wa ʾašhadu ʾanna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh" (أشهد أن لا إله إلا الله وأشهد أن محمداً رسول الله), or, "I testify that there is no deity except God and I testify that Muhammad is the messenger of God." Islam is sometimes argued to have a very simple creed with the shahada being the premise for the rest of the religion. Non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the shahada in front of witnesses.

Prayer

Main article: Salah See also: Mosque and Jumu'ah
Muslim men prostrating in prayer, at the Umayyad Mosque, Damascus

Prayer in Islam, called as-salah or aṣ-ṣalāt (Arabic: الصلاة), is seen as a personal communication with God and consists of repeating units called rakat that include bowing and prostrating to God. There are five timed prayers each day that are considered duties. The prayers are recited in the Arabic language and performed in the direction of the Kaaba. The act also requires a state of ritual purity achieved by means of either a routine wudu ritual wash or, in certain circumstances, a ghusl full body ritual wash.

A mosque is a place of worship for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name masjid. Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also an important social center for the Muslim community. For example, the Masjid an-Nabawi ("Prophetic Mosque") in Medina, Saudi Arabia, used to also serve as a shelter for the poor. Minarets are towers used to call the adhan, a vocal call to signal the prayer time.

Almsgiving

Main article: Zakat See also: Sadaqah
A slot for giving zakat at the Zawiya of Moulay Idris II in Fez, Morocco

Zakat (Arabic: زكاة, zakāh), also spelled Zakāt or Zakah, is a type of almsgiving characterized by the giving of a fixed portion (2.5% annually) of accumulated wealth by those who can afford it to help the poor or needy, such as for freeing captives, those in debt, or for (stranded) travellers, and for those employed to collect zakat. It acts as a form of welfare in Muslim societies. It is considered a religious obligation that the well-off owe the needy because their wealth is seen as a trust from God's bounty, and is seen as a purification of one's excess wealth. The total annual value contributed due to zakat is 15 times greater than global humanitarian aid donations, using conservative estimates. Sadaqah, as opposed to Zakat, is a much-encouraged optional charity. A waqf is a perpetual charitable trust, which finances hospitals and schools in Muslim societies.

Fasting

A fast-breaking feast, known as Iftar, is served traditionally with dates.
Main article: Fasting in Islam See also: Fasting during Ramadan

In Islam, fasting (Arabic: صوم, ṣawm) precludes food and drink, as well as other forms of consumption, such as smoking, and is performed from dawn to sunset. During the month of Ramadan, it is considered a duty for Muslims to fast. The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God by restraining oneself for God's sake from what is otherwise permissible and to think of the needy. In addition, there are other days, such as the Day of Arafah, when fasting is optional.

Pilgrimage

Main articles: Hajj and Umrah See also: Holiest sites in Islam
Pilgrims at the Great Mosque of Mecca during the Hajj season

The Islamic pilgrimage, called the ḥajj (Arabic: حج), is to be done at least once a lifetime by every Muslim with the means to do so during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah. Rituals of the Hajj mostly imitate the story of the family of Abraham. In Mecca, pilgrims walk seven times around the Kaaba, which Muslims believe Abraham built as a place of worship, and they walk seven times between Mount Safa and Marwa, recounting the steps of Abraham's wife, Hagar, who was looking for water for her baby Ishmael in the desert before Mecca developed into a settlement. The pilgrimage also involves spending a day praying and worshipping in the plain of Mount Arafat as well as symbolically stoning the Devil. All Muslim men wear only two simple white unstitched pieces of cloth called ihram, intended to bring continuity through generations and uniformity among pilgrims despite class or origin. Another form of pilgrimage, Umrah, is optional and can be undertaken at any time of the year. Other sites of Islamic pilgrimage are Medina, where Muhammad died, as well as Jerusalem, a city of many Islamic prophets and the site of Al-Aqsa, which was the direction of prayer before Mecca.

Other acts of worship

Muslim men reading the Quran
See also: Quran § Recitation, Dua, and Dhikr

Muslims recite and memorize the whole or parts of the Quran as acts of virtue. Tajwid refers to the set of rules for the proper elocution of the Quran. Many Muslims recite the whole Quran during the month of Ramadan. One who has memorized the whole Quran is called a hafiz ("memorizer"), and hadiths mention that these individuals will be able to intercede for others on Judgment Day.

Supplication to God, called in Arabic duʿāʾ (Arabic: دعاء IPA: [dʊˈʕæːʔ]) has its own etiquette such as raising hands as if begging.

Al-Ikhlas Sincerity is the Quran's 112 chapter as recited by Imam Mishary Rashid Alafasy
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Remembrance of God (ذكر, Dhikr') refers to phrases repeated referencing God. Commonly, this includes Tahmid, declaring praise be due to God (الحمد لله, al-Ḥamdu lillāh) during prayer or when feeling thankful, Tasbih, declaring glory to God during prayer or when in awe of something and saying 'in the name of God' (بسملة, basmalah) before starting an act such as eating.

History

Main article: History of Islam For a chronological guide, see Timeline of the history of Islam. See also: List of Muslim empires and dynasties A panoramic view of Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) in Medina, Hejaz region, today's Saudi Arabia, the second most sacred mosque in Islam

Muhammad and the beginning of Islam (570–632)

Main articles: Muhammad and Muhammad in Islam See also: Early social changes under Islam
Cave of Hira

According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad was born in Mecca in 570 CE and was orphaned early in life. Growing up as a trader, he became known as the "trusted one" (Arabic: الامين) and was sought after as an impartial arbitrator. He later married his employer, the businesswoman Khadija. In the year 610 CE, troubled by the moral decline and idolatry prevalent in Mecca and seeking seclusion and spiritual contemplation, Muhammad retreated to the Cave of Hira in the mountain Jabal al-Nour, near Mecca. It was during his time in the cave that he is said to have received the first revelation of the Quran from the angel Gabriel. The event of Muhammad's retreat to the cave and subsequent revelation is known as the "Night of Power" (Laylat al-Qadr) and is considered a significant event in Islamic history. During the next 22 years of his life, from age 40 onwards, Muhammad continued to receive revelations from God, becoming the last or seal of the prophets sent to mankind.

"Muhammad at the Ka'ba" from the Siyer-i Nebi. Muhammad is shown with veiled face, c. 1595.

During this time, while in Mecca, Muhammad preached first in secret and then in public, imploring his listeners to abandon polytheism and worship one God. Many early converts to Islam were women, the poor, foreigners, and slaves like the first muezzin Bilal ibn Rabah al-Habashi. The Meccan elite felt Muhammad was destabilizing their social order by preaching about one God and giving questionable ideas to the poor and slaves because they profited from the pilgrimages to the idols of the Kaaba.

After 12 years of the persecution of Muslims by the Meccans, Muhammad and his companions performed the Hijra ("emigration") in 622 to the city of Yathrib (current-day Medina). There, with the Medinan converts (the Ansar) and the Meccan migrants (the Muhajirun), Muhammad in Medina established his political and religious authority. The Constitution of Medina was signed by all the tribes of Medina. This established religious freedoms and freedom to use their own laws among the Muslim and non-Muslim communities as well as an agreement to defend Medina from external threats. Meccan forces and their allies lost against the Muslims at the Battle of Badr in 624 and then fought an inconclusive battle in the Battle of Uhud before unsuccessfully besieging Medina in the Battle of the Trench (March–April 627). In 628, the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah was signed between Mecca and the Muslims, but it was broken by Mecca two years later. As more tribes converted to Islam, Meccan trade routes were cut off by the Muslims. By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless conquest of Mecca, and by the time of his death in 632 (at age 62) he had united the tribes of Arabia into a single religious polity.

Early Islamic period (632–750)

Further information: Succession to Muhammad and Early Muslim conquests See also: Event of Ghadir Khumm and Saqifa
Expansion of Rashidun Caliphate
Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem built by caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan; completed at the end of the Second Fitna

Muhammad died in 632 and the first successors, called Caliphs – Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman ibn al-Affan, Ali ibn Abi Talib and sometimes Hasan ibn Ali – are known in Sunni Islam as al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn ("Rightly Guided Caliphs"). Some tribes left Islam and rebelled under leaders who declared themselves new prophets but were crushed by Abu Bakr in the Ridda wars. Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and heretics and taxed heavily, often helped Muslims take over their lands, resulting in rapid expansion of the caliphate into the Persian and Byzantine empires. Uthman was elected in 644 and his assassination by rebels led to Ali being elected the next Caliph. In the First Civil War, Muhammad's widow, Aisha, raised an army against Ali, attempting to avenge the death of Uthman, but was defeated at the Battle of the Camel. Ali attempted to remove the governor of Syria, Mu'awiya, who was seen as corrupt. Mu'awiya then declared war on Ali and was defeated in the Battle of Siffin. Ali's decision to arbitrate angered the Kharijites, an extremist sect, who felt that by not fighting a sinner, Ali became a sinner as well. The Kharijites rebelled and were defeated in the Battle of Nahrawan but a Kharijite assassin later killed Ali. Ali's son, Hasan ibn Ali, was elected Caliph and signed a peace treaty to avoid further fighting, abdicating to Mu'awiya in return for Mu'awiya not appointing a successor. Mu'awiya began the Umayyad dynasty with the appointment of his son Yazid I as successor, sparking the Second Civil War. During the Battle of Karbala, Husayn ibn Ali was killed by Yazid's forces; the event has been annually commemorated by Shias ever since. Sunnis, led by Ibn al-Zubayr and opposed to a dynastic caliphate, were defeated in the siege of Mecca. These disputes over leadership would give rise to the Sunni-Shia schism, with the Shia believing leadership belongs to Muhammad's family through Ali, called the ahl al-bayt. Abu Bakr's leadership oversaw the beginning of the compilation of the Quran. The Caliph Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz set up the committee, The Seven Fuqaha of Medina, and Malik ibn Anas wrote one of the earliest books on Islamic jurisprudence, the Muwatta, as a consensus of the opinion of those jurists. The Kharijites believed there was no compromised middle ground between good and evil, and any Muslim who committed a grave sin would become an unbeliever. The term "kharijites" would also be used to refer to later groups such as ISIS. The Murji'ah taught that people's righteousness could be judged by God alone. Therefore, wrongdoers might be considered misguided, but not denounced as unbelievers. This attitude came to prevail into mainstream Islamic beliefs.

The Umayyad dynasty conquered the Maghreb, the Iberian Peninsula, Narbonnese Gaul and Sindh. The Umayyads struggled with a lack of legitimacy and relied on a heavily patronized military. Since the jizya tax was a tax paid by non-Muslims which exempted them from military service, the Umayyads denied recognizing the conversion of non-Arabs, as it reduced revenue. While the Rashidun Caliphate emphasized austerity, with Umar even requiring an inventory of each official's possessions, Umayyad luxury bred dissatisfaction among the pious. The Kharijites led the Berber Revolt, leading to the first Muslim states independent of the Caliphate. In the Abbasid Revolution, non-Arab converts (mawali), Arab clans pushed aside by the Umayyad clan, and some Shi'a rallied and overthrew the Umayyads, inaugurating the more cosmopolitan Abbasid dynasty in 750.

Classical era (750–1258)

Further information: Hadith studies and Islamic philosophy See also: Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe and Turco-Persian tradition

Al-Shafi'i codified a method to determine the reliability of hadith. During the early Abbasid era, scholars such as Muhammad al-Bukhari and Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj compiled the major Sunni hadith collections while scholars like Al-Kulayni and Ibn Babawayh compiled major Shia hadith collections. The four Sunni Madh'habs, the Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki, and Shafi'i, were established around the teachings of Abū Ḥanīfa, Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Malik ibn Anas and al-Shafi'i. In contrast, the teachings of Ja'far al-Sadiq formed the Ja'fari jurisprudence. In the 9th century, Al-Tabari completed the first commentary of the Quran, the Tafsir al-Tabari, which became one of the most cited commentaries in Sunni Islam. Some Muslims began questioning the piety of indulgence in worldly life and emphasized poverty, humility, and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Ascetics such as Hasan al-Basri inspired a movement that would evolve into tasawwuf or Sufism.

At this time, theological problems, notably on free will, were prominently tackled, with Hasan al Basri holding that although God knows people's actions, good and evil come from abuse of free will and the devil. Greek rationalist philosophy influenced a speculative school of thought known as Muʿtazila, who famously advocated the notion of free-will originated by Wasil ibn Ata. Caliph Mamun al Rashid made it an official creed and unsuccessfully attempted to force this position on the majority. Caliph Al-Mu'tasim carried out inquisitions, with the traditionalist Ahmad ibn Hanbal notably refusing to conform to the Muʿtazila idea that the Quran was created rather than being eternal, which resulted in him being tortured and kept in an unlit prison cell for nearly thirty months. However, other schools of speculative theology – Māturīdism founded by Abu Mansur al-Maturidi and Ash'ari founded by Al-Ash'ari – were more successful in being widely adopted. Philosophers such as Al-Farabi, Avicenna and Averroes sought to harmonize Aristotle's ideas with the teachings of Islam, similar to later scholasticism within Christianity in Europe and Maimonides' work within Judaism, while others like Al-Ghazali argued against such syncretism and ultimately prevailed.

The eye, according to Hunain ibn Ishaq from a manuscript dated c. 1200

This era is sometimes called the "Islamic Golden Age". Islamic scientific achievements spanned a wide range of subject areas including medicine, mathematics, astronomy, and agriculture as well as physics, economics, engineering and optics. Avicenna was a pioneer in experimental medicine, and his The Canon of Medicine was used as a standard medicinal text in the Islamic world and Europe for centuries. Rhazes was the first to identify the diseases smallpox and measles. Public hospitals of the time issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors. Ibn al-Haytham is regarded as the father of the modern scientific method and often referred to as the "world's first true scientist", in particular regarding his work in optics. In engineering, the Banū Mūsā brothers' automatic flute player is considered to have been the first programmable machine. In mathematics, the concept of the algorithm is named after Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, who is considered a founder of algebra, which is named after his book al-jabr, while others developed the concept of a function. The government paid scientists the equivalent salary of professional athletes today. Guinness World Records recognizes the University of Al Karaouine, founded in 859, as the world's oldest degree-granting university. Many non-Muslims, such as Christians, Jews and Sabians, contributed to the Islamic civilization in various fields, and the institution known as the House of Wisdom employed Christian and Persian scholars to both translate works into Arabic and to develop new knowledge.

Soldiers broke away from the Abbasid empire and established their own dynasties, such as the Tulunids in 868 in Egypt and the Ghaznavid dynasty in 977 in Central Asia. In this fragmentation came the Shi'a Century, roughly between 945 and 1055, which saw the rise of the millennialist Isma'ili Shi'a missionary movement. One Isma'ili group, the Fatimid dynasty, took control of North Africa in the 10th century and another Isma'ili group, the Qarmatians, sacked Mecca and stole the Black Stone, a rock placed within the Kaaba, in their unsuccessful rebellion. Yet another Isma'ili group, the Buyid dynasty, conquered Baghdad and turned the Abbasids into a figurehead monarchy. The Sunni Seljuk dynasty campaigned to reassert Sunni Islam by promulgating the scholarly opinions of the time, notably with the construction of educational institutions known as Nezamiyeh, which are associated with Al-Ghazali and Saadi Shirazi.

The expansion of the Muslim world continued with religious missions converting Volga Bulgaria to Islam. The Delhi Sultanate reached deep into the Indian Subcontinent and many converted to Islam, in particular low-caste Hindus whose descendants make up the vast majority of Indian Muslims. Trade brought many Muslims to China, where they virtually dominated the import and export industry of the Song dynasty. Muslims were recruited as a governing minority class in the Yuan dynasty.

Pre-modern era (1258 – 18th century)

Further information: Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam
Ghazan Khan, 7 Ilkhanate ruler of the Mongol Empire, converts to Islam. 14th-century depiction

Through Muslim trade networks and the activity of Sufi orders, Islam spread into new areas and Muslims assimilated into new cultures.

Under the Ottoman Empire, Islam spread to Southeast Europe. Conversion to Islam often involved a degree of syncretism, as illustrated by Muhammad's appearance in Hindu folklore. Muslim Turks incorporated elements of Turkish Shamanism beliefs to Islam. Muslims in Ming Dynasty China who were descended from earlier immigrants were assimilated, sometimes through laws mandating assimilation, by adopting Chinese names and culture while Nanjing became an important center of Islamic study.

Cultural shifts were evident with the decrease in Arab influence after the Mongol destruction of the Abbasid Caliphate. The Muslim Mongol Khanates in Iran and Central Asia benefited from increased cross-cultural access to East Asia under Mongol rule and thus flourished and developed more distinctively from Arab influence, such as the Timurid Renaissance under the Timurid dynasty. Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201–1274) proposed the mathematical model that was later argued to be adopted by Copernicus unrevised in his heliocentric model, and Jamshīd al-Kāshī's estimate of pi would not be surpassed for 180 years.

After the introduction of gunpowder weapons, large and centralized Muslim states consolidated around gunpowder empires, these had been previously splintered amongst various territories. The caliphate was claimed by the Ottoman dynasty of the Ottoman Empire and its claims were strengthened in 1517 as Selim I became the ruler of Mecca and Medina. The Shia Safavid dynasty rose to power in 1501 and later conquered all of Iran. In South Asia, Babur founded the Mughal Empire.

The religion of the centralized states of the gunpowder empires influenced the religious practice of their constituent populations. A symbiosis between Ottoman rulers and Sufism strongly influenced Islamic reign by the Ottomans from the beginning. The Mevlevi Order and Bektashi Order had a close relation to the sultans, as Sufi-mystical as well as heterodox and syncretic approaches to Islam flourished. The often forceful Safavid conversion of Iran to the Twelver Shia Islam of the Safavid Empire ensured the final dominance of the Twelver sect within Shia Islam. Persian migrants to South Asia, as influential bureaucrats and landholders, helped spread Shia Islam, forming some of the largest Shia populations outside Iran. Nader Shah, who overthrew the Safavids, attempted to improve relations with Sunnis by propagating the integration of Twelverism into Sunni Islam as a fifth madhhab, called Ja'farism, which failed to gain recognition from the Ottomans.

Modern era (18th–20th centuries)

Abdülmecid II was the last Caliph of Islam from the Ottoman dynasty.

Earlier in the 14th century, Ibn Taymiyya promoted a puritanical form of Islam, rejecting philosophical approaches in favor of simpler theology, and called to open the gates of itjihad rather than blind imitation of scholars. He called for a jihad against those he deemed heretics, but his writings only played a marginal role during his lifetime. During the 18th century in Arabia, Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, influenced by the works of Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn al-Qayyim, founded a movement called Wahhabi to return to what he saw as unadultered Islam. He condemned many local Islamic customs, such as visiting the grave of Muhammad or saints, as later innovations and sinful and destroyed sacred rocks and trees, Sufi shrines, the tombs of Muhammad and his companions and the tomb of Husayn at Karbala, a major Shia pilgrimage site. He formed an alliance with the Saud family, which, by the 1920s, completed their conquest of the area that would become Saudi Arabia. Ma Wanfu and Ma Debao promoted salafist movements in the 19th century such as Sailaifengye in China after returning from Mecca but were eventually persecuted and forced into hiding by Sufi groups. Other groups sought to reform Sufism rather than reject it, with the Senusiyya and Muhammad Ahmad both waging war and establishing states in Libya and Sudan respectively. In India, Shah Waliullah Dehlawi attempted a more conciliatory style against Sufism and influenced the Deobandi movement. In response to the Deobandi movement, the Barelwi movement was founded as a mass movement, defending popular Sufism and reforming its practices.

The Muslim world was generally in political decline starting the 1800s, especially compared to non-Muslim European powers. Earlier, in the 15th century, the Reconquista succeeded in ending the Muslim presence in Iberia. By the 19th century, the British East India Company had formally annexed the Mughal dynasty in India. As a response to Western Imperialism, many intellectuals sought to reform Islam. Islamic modernism, initially labelled by Western scholars as Salafiyya, embraced modern values and institutions such as democracy while being scripture oriented. Notable forerunners in the movement include Muhammad 'Abduh and Jamal al-Din al-Afghani. Abul A'la Maududi helped influence modern political Islam. Similar to contemporary codification, sharia was for the first time partially codified into law in 1869 in the Ottoman Empire's Mecelle code.

The Ottoman Empire dissolved after World War I, the Ottoman Caliphate was abolished in 1924 and the subsequent Sharifian Caliphate fell quickly, thus leaving Islam without a Caliph. Pan-Islamists attempted to unify Muslims and competed with growing nationalist forces, such as pan-Arabism. The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), consisting of Muslim-majority countries, was established in 1969 after the burning of the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.

Contact with industrialized nations brought Muslim populations to new areas through economic migration. Many Muslims migrated as indentured servants (mostly from India and Indonesia) to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas. Migration from Syria and Lebanon contributed to the Muslim population in Latin America. The resulting urbanization and increase in trade in sub-Saharan Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith, likely doubling its Muslim population between 1869 and 1914.

Contemporary era (20th century–present)

Leaders of Muslim countries during session of the Islamic Summit Conference in Istanbul, Turkey

Forerunners of Islamic modernism influenced Islamist political movements such as the Muslim Brotherhood and related parties in the Arab world, which performed well in elections following the Arab Spring, Jamaat-e-Islami in South Asia and the AK Party, which has democratically been in power in Turkey for decades. In Iran, revolution replaced a secular monarchy with an Islamic state. Others such as Sayyid Rashid Rida broke away from Islamic modernists and pushed against embracing what he saw as Western influence. The group Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant would even attempt to recreate the modern gold dinar as their monetary system. While some of those who broke away were quietist, others believed in violence against those opposing them, even against other Muslims.

In opposition to Islamic political movements, in 20th century Turkey, the military carried out coups to oust Islamist governments, and headscarves were legally restricted, as also happened in Tunisia. In other places, religious authority was co-opted and is now often seen as puppets of the state. For example, in Saudi Arabia, the state monopolized religious scholarship and, in Egypt, the state nationalized Al-Azhar University, previously an independent voice checking state power. Salafism was funded in the Middle East for its quietism. Saudi Arabia campaigned against revolutionary Islamist movements in the Middle East, in opposition to Iran.

Muslim minorities of various ethnicities have been persecuted as a religious group. This has been undertaken by communist forces like the Khmer Rouge, who viewed them as their primary enemy to be exterminated since their religious practice made them stand out from the rest of the population, the Chinese Communist Party in Xinjiang and by nationalist forces such as during the Bosnian genocide. Myanmar military's Tatmadaw targeting of Rohingya Muslims has been labeled as a crime against humanity by the UN and Amnesty International, while the OHCHR Fact-Finding Mission identified genocide, ethnic cleansing, and other crimes against humanity.

The advancement of global communication has facilitated the widespread dissemination of religious knowledge. The adoption of the hijab has grown more common and some Muslim intellectuals are increasingly striving to separate scriptural Islamic beliefs from cultural traditions. Among other groups, this access to information has led to the rise of popular "televangelist" preachers, such as Amr Khaled, who compete with the traditional ulema in their reach and have decentralized religious authority. More "individualized" interpretations of Islam notably involve Liberal Muslims who attempt to align religious traditions with contemporary secular governance, an approach that has been criticized by some regarding its compatibility. Moreover, secularism is perceived as a foreign ideology imposed by invaders and perpetuated by post-colonial ruling elites, and is frequently understood to be equivalent to anti-religion.

Demographics

Main articles: Muslim world and Ummah See also: Islam by country and Muslim population growth
World percentage of Muslims by country

As of 2020, about 24% of the global population, or about 1.9 billion people, are Muslims. In 1900, this estimate was 12.3%, in 1990 it was 19.9% and projections suggest the proportion will be 29.7% by 2050. The Pew Research Center estimates that 87–90% of Muslims are Sunni and 10–13% are Shia. Approximately 49 countries are Muslim-majority, with 62% of the world's Muslims living in Asia, and 683 million adherents in Indonesia, Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh alone. Arab Muslims form the largest ethnic group among Muslims in the world, followed by Bengalis and Punjabis. Most estimates indicate China has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the population). Islam in Europe is the second-largest religion after Christianity in many countries, with growth rates due primarily to immigration and higher birth rates of Muslims in 2005, accounting for 4.9% of all of Europe's population in 2016.

Religious conversion has no net impact on the Muslim population growth as "the number of people who become Muslims through conversion seems to be roughly equal to the number of Muslims who leave the faith." Although, Islam is expected to experience a modest gain of 3 million through religious conversion between 2010 and 2050, mostly from Sub Saharan Africa (2.9 million).

According to a report by CNN, "Islam has drawn converts from all walks of life, most notably African-Americans". In Britain, around 6,000 people convert to Islam per year and, according to an article in the British Muslims Monthly Survey, the majority of new Muslim converts in Britain were women. According to The Huffington Post, "observers estimate that as many as 20,000 Americans convert to Islam annually", most of them being women and African-Americans.

By both percentage and total numbers, Islam is the world's fastest growing major religious group, and is projected to be the world's largest by the end of the 21st century, surpassing that of Christianity. It is estimated that, by 2050, the number of Muslims will nearly equal the number of Christians around the world, "due to the young age and high fertility rate of Muslims relative to other religious groups."

Main branches or denominations

Main article: Islamic schools and branches § Main branches or denominationsSee also: Shia–Sunni relations

Sunni

Main article: Sunni Islam
The nine volumes of Sahih Al-Bukhari, one of the six Sunni hadith books

Sunni Islam, or Sunnism, is the name for the largest denomination in Islam. The term is a contraction of the phrase "ahl as-sunna wa'l-jamaat", which means "people of the sunna (the traditions of Muhammad) and the community". Sunni Islam is sometimes referred to as "orthodox Islam", though some scholars view this as inappropriate, and many non-Sunnis may find this offensive. Sunnis, or sometimes Sunnites, believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad and primarily reference six major hadith works for legal matters, while following one of the four traditional schools of jurisprudence: Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki or Shafi'i.

Traditionalist theology is a Sunni school of thought, prominently advocated by Ahmad ibn Hanbal (780–855 CE), that is characterized by its adherence to a textualist understanding of the Quran and the sunnah, the belief that the Quran is uncreated and eternal, and opposition to speculative theology, called kalam, in religious and ethical matters. Mu'tazilism is a Sunni school of thought inspired by Ancient Greek Philosophy. Maturidism, founded by Abu Mansur al-Maturidi (853–944 CE), asserts that scripture is not needed for basic ethics and that good and evil can be understood by reason alone, but people rely on revelation, for matters beyond human's comprehension. Ash'arism, founded by Al-Ashʿarī (c. 874–936), holds that ethics can derive just from divine revelation but accepts reason regarding exegetical matters and combines Muʿtazila approaches with traditionalist ideas.

Salafism is a revival movement advocating the return to the practices of the earliest generations of Muslims. In the 18th century, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab led a Salafi movement, referred by outsiders as Wahhabism, in modern-day Saudi Arabia. A similar movement called Ahl al-Hadith also de-emphasized the centuries' old Sunni legal tradition, preferring to directly follow the Quran and Hadith. The Nurcu Sunni movement was by Said Nursi (1877–1960); it incorporates elements of Sufism and science.

Shia

Main article: Shia Islam
Nahj al-balagha, collection of sermons, letters, and sayings attributed to Imam Ali.

Shia Islam, or Shi'ism, is the second-largest Muslim denomination. Shias, or Shiites, maintain that Muhammad's successor as leader, must be from certain descendants of Muhammad's family known as the Ahl al-Bayt and those leaders, referred to as Imams, have additional spiritual authority. Shias are guided by the Ja'fari school of jurisprudence.

According to both Sunni and Shia Muslims, a significant event took place at Ghadir Khumm during Muhammad's return from his final pilgrimage to Mecca, where he stopped thousands of Muslims in the midday heat. Muhammad appointed his cousin Ali as the executor of his last will and testament, as well as his Wali (authority). Shias recognize that Muhammad designated Ali as his successor (khalīfa) and Imam (spiritual and political leader) after him, but was prevented from succeeding Muhammad as the leader of the Muslims because of some other companions who selected Abū Bakr as caliph. Sunnis, instead believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor before his death and consider Abū Bakr to be the first rightful caliph after Muhammad. Shias state the community deliberately ignored Ali's nomination, citing Umar's appointment by Abu Bakr, other historical evidence, and the Qur'an's stance that majority does not imply legitimacy.

Some of the first Shia Imams are revered by all Shia and Sunnis Muslims, such as Ali and Husayn. Twelvers, the largest Shia branch and most influential, believe in Twelve Imams, the last of whom went into occultation to return one day. They recognize that the prophecy of the Twelve Imams has been foretold in the Hadith of the Twelve Successors which is recorded by both Sunni and Shia sources. Zaidism rejects special powers of Imams and are sometimes considered a 'fifth school' of Sunni Islam rather than a Shia denomination. They differed with other Shias over the status of the fifth imam and are sometimes known as "Fivers". The Isma'ilis split with the Twelvers over who was the seventh Imam and have further fragmented into more groups over the status of successive Imams, with the largest group being the Nizaris.

For Shias, the Imam Ali Shrine in Najaf, the Imam Husayn Shrine in Karbala, and the Fatima Masumeh Shrine in Qom are also among the Islamic Holy sites.

Imam Ali Shrine in Najaf, the third holiest place for Shia Muslims after Mecca and Medina.Imam Hussein Shrine in Karbala, a holy site for Shia Muslims.Imam Reza shrine, the world's largest mosque, in Mashhad, Iran. 25 million Shias visiting the shrine each year.

Muhakkima

Main articles: Muhakkima, Ibadi Islam, and Kharijites

Ibadi Islam or Ibadism is practised by 1.45 million Muslims around the world (~0.08% of all Muslims), most of them in Oman. Ibadism is often associated with and viewed as a moderate variation of the kharijites, though Ibadis themselves object to this classification. The kharijites were groups that rebelled against Caliph Ali for his acceptance of arbitration with someone they viewed as a sinner. Unlike most kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers. Ibadi hadiths, such as the Jami Sahih collection, use chains of narrators from early Islamic history they consider trustworthy, but most Ibadi hadiths are also found in standard Sunni collections and contemporary Ibadis often approve of the standard Sunni collections.

An overview of the major sects and madhahib of Islam
An overview of the major sects and madhahib of Islam

Other denominations

Non-denominational Muslims

Main article: Non-denominational Muslim

Non-denominational Muslims is an umbrella term that has been used for and by Muslims who do not belong to or do not self-identify with a specific Islamic denomination. Recent surveys report that large proportions of Muslims in some parts of the world self-identify as "just Muslim", although there is little published analysis available regarding the motivations underlying this response. The Pew Research Center reports that respondents self-identifying as "just Muslim" make up a majority of Muslims in seven countries (and a plurality in three others), with the highest proportion in Kazakhstan at 74%. At least one in five Muslims in at least 22 countries self-identifies in this way.

Mysticism

Main article: Sufism See also: Sufi–Salafi relations
The Whirling Dervishes, or Mevlevi Order by the tomb of Sufi-mystic Rumi
Sufism in Konya, Turkey

Sufism (Arabic: تصوف, tasawwuf), is a mystical-ascetic approach to Islam that seeks to find a direct personal experience of God. Classical Sufi scholars defined tasawwuf as "a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God", through "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use. Ahmad ibn Ajiba defined tasawwuf as "a return to the tradition, and its beginning is knowledge, its middle is action , and its end is a gift ." It is not a sect of Islam, and its adherents belong to the various Muslim denominations. Isma'ilism, whose teachings are rooted in Gnosticism and Neoplatonism as well as by the Illuminationist and Isfahan schools of Islamic philosophy, has developed mystical interpretations of Islam. Hasan al-Basri, the early Sufi ascetic often portrayed as one of the earliest Sufis, emphasized fear of failing God's expectations of obedience. In contrast, later prominent Sufis, such as Mansur Al-Hallaj and Jalaluddin Rumi, emphasized religiosity based on love towards God. Such devotion would also have an impact on the arts, with Rumi still one of the bestselling poets in America.

Sufis see tasawwuf as an inseparable part of Islam. Traditional Sufis, such as Bayazid Bastami, Jalaluddin Rumi, Haji Bektash Veli, Junaid Baghdadi, and Al-Ghazali, argued for Sufism as being based upon the tenets of Islam and the teachings of the prophet. Historian Nile Green argued that Islam in the Medieval period was more or less Sufism. Followers of the Sunni revivalist movement known as Salafism have viewed popular devotional practices, such as the veneration of Sufi saints, as innovations from the original religion. Salafists have sometimes physically attacked Sufis, leading to a deterioration in Sufi–Salafi relations.

Sufi congregations form orders (tariqa) centered around a teacher (wali) who traces a spiritual chain back to Muhammad. Sufis played an important role in the formation of Muslim societies through their missionary and educational activities. The Sufism-influenced Ahle Sunnat movement or Barelvi movement claims over 200 million followers in South Asia. Sufism is prominent in Central Asia, as well as in African countries like Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Senegal, Chad and Niger.

Law and jurisprudence

Main articles: Sharia and Fiqh See also: Logic in Islamic philosophy § Islamic law and theology
Islamic schools of law in the Muslim world

Shariah is the body of Islamic religious law. The desire to delineate and discover laws in a comprehensive and consistent method led to the development of the theory of law, called fiqh. Conversely, bid'ah is used to refer to unlawful innovations in matters of religion. Differing methodologies, called principles of fiqh or Usul al-fiqh, have developed and a school of jurisprudence arising around a methodology is known as a madhhab (Arabic: مذهب). The conformity in following of decisions by a religious expert or school is called taqlid. The term ghair muqallid refers to those who do not use taqlid and, by extension, do not have a madhab. The practice of an individual interpreting law with independent reasoning is called ijtihad. Those who interpret shariah are known as muftis and their legal opinions are called fatwas.

The primary sources of Shariah are the Quran and Sunnah. A common third source is qiyas (analogical reasoning) which is used for legal questions not dealt with literally in the Qur’ān or Sunnah. Parallels would be searched for to find the ‘’illah’’, or effective cause, which is the reason behind the existing ruling. For example, from the specific prohibition of wine is deduced a broad prohibition on alcohol as they share the operative cause identified as the mind-altering nature of all alcoholic drinks. The Zahiri school adheres to strict literalism and thus rejects qiyas. Consensus of opinion is ijma, while ikhtilaf refers to scholarly disagreement. Rulings assign actions to one of five categories called ahkam: mandatory (fard), recommended (mustahabb), permitted (mubah), abhorred (makruh), and prohibited (haram).

In the modern era, sharia-based criminal laws were widely replaced by statutes inspired by European models. The Ottoman Empire's 19th century Tanzimat reforms led to the Mecelle civil code and represented the first attempt to codify sharia. While the constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references to sharia, its classical rules were largely retained only in personal status (family) laws. Legislative bodies which codified these laws sought to modernize them without abandoning their foundations in traditional jurisprudence. The Islamic revival of the late 20th century brought along calls by Islamist movements for complete implementation of sharia. The role of sharia has become a contested topic around the world. There are ongoing debates as to whether sharia is compatible with secular forms of government, human rights, freedom of thought, and women's rights.

Society

Religious personages

Main article: Ulama
Crimean Tatar Muslim students (1856)

Islam has no clergy in the sacerdotal sense, such as priests who mediate between God and people. Imam (إمام) is the religious title used to refer to an Islamic leadership position, often in the context of conducting an Islamic worship service. Religious interpretation is presided over by the 'ulama (Arabic: علماء), a term used describe the body of Muslim scholars who have received training in Islamic studies. A scholar of the hadith is called a muhaddith, a scholar of jurisprudence is called a faqih (فقيه), a jurist who is qualified to issue legal opinions or fatwas is called a mufti, and a qadi is an Islamic judge. Honorific titles given to scholars include sheikh, mullah and mawlawi. Some Muslims also venerate saints associated with miracles (كرامات, karāmāt).

Governance

See also: Political aspects of Islam, Islamic economics, Islamic military jurisprudence, tasamuh, and Jihad

In Islamic economic jurisprudence, hoarding of wealth is reviled and thus monopolistic behavior is frowned upon. Attempts to comply with sharia has led to the development of Islamic banking. Islam prohibits riba, usually translated as usury, which refers to any unfair gain in trade and is most commonly used to mean interest. Instead, Islamic banks go into partnership with the borrower, and both share from the profits and any losses from the venture. Another feature is the avoidance of uncertainty, which is seen as gambling and Islamic banks traditionally avoid derivative instruments such as futures or options which has historically protected them from market downturns. The Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphate used to be involved in distribution of charity from the treasury, known as Bayt al-mal, before it became a largely individual pursuit around the year 720. The first Caliph, Abu Bakr, distributed zakat as one of the first examples of a guaranteed minimum income, with each citizen getting 10 to 20 dirhams annually. During the reign of the second Caliph Umar, child support was introduced and the old and disabled were entitled to stipends, while the Umayyad Caliph Umar II assigned a servant for each blind person and for every two chronically ill persons.

Jihad means "to strive or struggle " and, in its broadest sense, is "exerting one's utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of disapprobation". Shias in particular emphasize the "greater jihad" of striving to attain spiritual self-perfection while the "lesser jihad" is defined as warfare. When used without a qualifier, jihad is often understood in its military form. Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against illegal works, terrorists, criminal groups, rebels, apostates, and leaders or states who oppress Muslims. Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare. Jihad only becomes an individual duty for those vested with authority. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a general mobilization. For most Twelver Shias, offensive jihad can only be declared by a divinely appointed leader of the Muslim community, and as such, is suspended since Muhammad al-Mahdi's occultation in 868 CE.

Daily and family life

See also: Adab (Islam), Islamic dietary laws, Islam and children, Marriage in Islam, Women in Islam, and Polygyny in Islam
Islamic veils represent modesty

Many daily practices fall in the category of adab, or etiquette. Specific prohibited foods include pork products, blood and carrion. Health is viewed as a trust from God and intoxicants, such as alcoholic drinks, are prohibited. All meat must come from a herbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, except for game that one has hunted or fished for oneself. Beards are often encouraged among men as something natural and body modifications, such as permanent tattoos, are usually forbidden as violating the creation. Silk and gold are prohibited for men in Islam to maintain a state of sobriety. Haya, often translated as "shame" or "modesty", is sometimes described as the innate character of Islam and informs much of Muslim daily life. For example, clothing in Islam emphasizes a standard of modesty, which has included the hijab for women. Similarly, personal hygiene is encouraged with certain requirements.

A Muslim couple

In Islamic marriage, the groom is required to pay a bridal gift (mahr). Most families in the Islamic world are monogamous. Muslim men are allowed to practice polygyny and can have up to four wives simultaneously. Islamic teachings strongly advise that if a man cannot ensure equal financial and emotional support for each of his wives, it is recommended that he marry just one woman. One reason cited for polygyny is that it allows a man to give financial protection to multiple women, who might otherwise not have any support (e.g. widows). However, the first wife can set a condition in the marriage contract that the husband cannot marry another woman during their marriage. There are also cultural variations in weddings. Polyandry, a practice wherein a woman takes on two or more husbands, is prohibited in Islam.

Muslim girls studying the Quran placed atop folding lecterns (rehal) during Ramadan in Qom, Iran

After the birth of a child, the adhan is pronounced in the right ear. On the seventh day, the aqiqah ceremony is performed, in which an animal is sacrificed and its meat is distributed among the poor. The child's head is shaved, and an amount of money equaling the weight of its hair is donated to the poor. Male circumcision, called khitan, is often practised in the Muslim world. Respecting and obeying one's parents, and taking care of them especially in their old age is a religious obligation.

A dying Muslim is encouraged to pronounce the Shahada as their last words. Paying respects to the dead and attending funerals in the community are considered among the virtuous acts. In Islamic burial rituals, burial is encouraged as soon as possible, usually within 24 hours. The body is washed, except for martyrs, by members of the same gender and enshrouded in a garment that must not be elaborate called kafan. A "funeral prayer" called Salat al-Janazah is performed. Wailing, or loud, mournful outcrying, is discouraged. Coffins are often not preferred and graves are often unmarked, even for kings.

Arts and culture

Main article: Islamic culture See also: Islamic art, Islamic architecture, Islamic literature, Islam in association football, and Cultural Muslims

The term "Islamic culture" can be used to mean aspects of culture that pertain to the religion, such as festivals and dress code. It is also controversially used to denote the cultural aspects of traditionally Muslim people. Finally, "Islamic civilization" may also refer to the aspects of the synthesized culture of the early Caliphates, including that of non-Muslims, sometimes referred to as "Islamicate".

Islamic art encompasses the visual arts including fields as varied as architecture, calligraphy, painting, and ceramics, among others. While the making of images of animate beings has often been frowned upon in connection with laws against idolatry, this rule has been interpreted in different ways by different scholars and in different historical periods. This stricture has been used to explain the prevalence of calligraphy, tessellation, and pattern as key aspects of Islamic artistic culture. Additionally, the depiction of Muhammad is a contentious issue among Muslims. In Islamic architecture, varying cultures show influence such as North African and Spanish Islamic architecture such as the Great Mosque of Kairouan containing marble and porphyry columns from Roman and Byzantine buildings, while mosques in Indonesia often have multi-tiered roofs from local Javanese styles.

The Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar that begins with the Hijra of 622 CE, a date that was reportedly chosen by Caliph Umar as it was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes. Islamic holy days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, meaning they occur in different seasons in different years in the Gregorian calendar. The most important Islamic festivals are Eid al-Fitr (Arabic: عيد الفطر) on the 1st of Shawwal, marking the end of the fasting month Ramadan, and Eid al-Adha (عيد الأضحى) on the 10th of Dhu al-Hijjah, coinciding with the end of the Hajj (pilgrimage).

Cultural Muslims are religiously non-practicing individuals who still identify with Islam due to family backgrounds, personal experiences, or the social and cultural environment in which they grew up.

Influences on other religions

See also: Islam and Druze

Some movements, such as the Druze, Berghouata and Ha-Mim, either emerged from Islam or came to share certain beliefs with Islam, and whether each is a separate religion or a sect of Islam is sometimes controversial. The Druze faith further split from Isma'ilism as it developed its own unique doctrines, and finally separated from both Ismāʿīlīsm and Islam altogether; these include the belief that the Imam Al-Ḥākim bi-Amr Allāh was God incarnate. Yazdânism is seen as a blend of local Kurdish beliefs and Islamic Sufi doctrine introduced to Kurdistan by Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir in the 12th century. Bábism stems from Twelver Shia passed through Siyyid 'Ali Muhammad i-Shirazi al-Bab while one of his followers Mirza Husayn 'Ali Nuri Baha'u'llah founded the Baháʼí Faith. Sikhism, founded by Guru Nanak in late 15th century Punjab, primarily incorporates aspects of Hinduism, with some Islamic influences.

Criticism

Main article: Criticism of Islam See also: Criticism of Muhammad and Criticism of the Quran
John of Damascus, under the Umayyad Caliphate, viewed Islamic doctrines as a hodgepodge from the Bible.

Criticism of Islam has existed since its formative stages. Early criticism came from Jewish authors, such as Ibn Kammuna, and Christian authors, many of whom viewed Islam as a Christian heresy or a form of idolatry, often explaining it in apocalyptic terms.

Christian writers criticized Islam's sensual descriptions of paradise. Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari defended the Quranic description of paradise by asserting that the Bible also implies such ideas, such as drinking wine in the Gospel of Matthew. Catholic theologian Augustine of Hippo's doctrines led to the broad repudiation of bodily pleasure in both life and the afterlife.

Defamatory images of Muhammad, derived from early 7th-century depictions of the Byzantine Church, appear in the 14th-century epic poem Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri. Here, Muhammad is depicted in the eighth circle of hell, along with Ali. Dante does not blame Islam as a whole but accuses Muhammad of schism, by establishing another religion after Christianity.

Other criticisms center on the treatment of individuals within modern Muslim-majority countries, including issues related to human rights, particularly in relation to the application of Islamic law. Furthermore, in the wake of the recent multiculturalism trend, Islam's influence on the ability of Muslim immigrants in the West to assimilate has been criticized.

See also

References

Footnotes

  1. /ˈɪzlɑːm, ˈɪzlæm/ IZ-la(h)m; Arabic: ٱلْإِسْلَام‎, romanized: al-Islām, IPA: [alʔɪsˈlaːm], lit. 'submission '
  2. "Hasan al Basri is often considered one of the first who rejected an angelic origin for the devil, arguing that his fall was the result of his own free-will, not God's determination. Hasan al Basri also argued that angels are incapable of sin or errors and nobler than humans and even prophets. Both early Shias and Sunnis opposed his view.
  3. "In recent years, the idea of syncretism has been challenged. Given the lack of authority to define or enforce an Orthodox doctrine about Islam, some scholars argue there had no prescribed beliefs, only prescribed practise, in Islam before the 16th century.
  4. Some Muslims in dynastic era China resisted footbinding of girls for the same reason.

Quran and hadith

  1. Quran 2:117
  2. Quran 1:4;
  3. Quran 6:31;
  4. Quran 101:1

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