Misplaced Pages

Islam: Difference between revisions

Article snapshot taken from Wikipedia with creative commons attribution-sharealike license. Give it a read and then ask your questions in the chat. We can research this topic together.
Browse history interactively← Previous editNext edit →Content deleted Content addedVisualWikitext
Revision as of 16:19, 15 November 2006 view sourceOhms law (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users, Pending changes reviewers, Rollbackers20,746 edits The demographics of Islam today: Removed "The" as per WP:MOSHEAD← Previous edit Revision as of 16:57, 22 December 2024 view source Remsense (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users, Page movers, New page reviewers, Template editors58,730 edits Pre-Modern era (1258–18th century)Next edit →
Line 1: Line 1:
{{Short description|Abrahamic monotheistic religion}}
{{dablink|For other uses, including people named "Islam," see ].}}
{{About|the religion||Islam (disambiguation)}}
{{Islam}}
{{good article}}
'''Islam''' (]: {{Audio|ar-al_islam.ogg|الإسلام; ''al-'islām''}}) is a ] ] based upon the ], its principal ], whose followers, known as ]s (مسلم), believe ] (Arabic: الله '']'') sent through ]s to ]. Muslims believe Muhammad to have been God's ] ] (see: ]). As a result, most Muslims see the actions and teachings of Muhammad as related in the ] and ] to be indispensable tools for interpreting the Qur'an.
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{pp-move}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2022}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=May 2022}}
{{Infobox religion
| native_name = {{lang|ar|{{Script|Arab|ٱلْإِسْلَام}}}}<br/>{{transliteration|ar|al-Islām}}
| image = The Kaaba during Hajj.jpg
| imagewidth = 275px
| caption = The ] at ] in ], Saudi Arabia, the ]
| type =
| main_classification = ]
| scripture = ]
| theology = ]
| area = ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Center |first=Pew Research |date=2013-04-30 |title=The World's Muslims: Religion, Politics and Society |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2013/04/30/the-worlds-muslims-religion-politics-society-overview/ |access-date=2024-03-20 |website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project |language=en-US |archive-date=25 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231025124036/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2013/04/30/the-worlds-muslims-religion-politics-society-overview/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://spice.fsi.stanford.edu/docs/the_spread_of_islam_in_west_africa_containment_mixing_and_reform_from_the_eighth_to_the_twentieth_century#:~:text=While%20the%20motivations%20of%20early,intensified%20the%20Trans%2DSaharan%20trade | title=The Spread of Islam in West Africa: Containment, Mixing, and Reform from }}</ref>
| language = ]
| territory = ]
| separated_from = ]
| founder = ]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Welch |first1=Alford T. |last2=Moussalli |first2=Ahmad S. |last3=Newby |first3=Gordon D. |date=2009 |title=Muḥammad |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World |editor=John L. Esposito |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0550 |quote= |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211050118/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0550 |archive-date=11 February 2017 }}</ref>
| founded_date = 610 CE
| founded_place = ]<!-- Beginnings are understood to be where Muhammad is said to have received his first ever revelation, which was inside a cave in this mountain -->, ], ], ]
| number_of_followers = {{circa}} ]<ref name="pewresearch.orgReligion">{{Cite web |title=Religious Composition by Country, 2010-2050 |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/interactives/religious-composition-by-country-2010-2050/ |access-date=2024-03-09 |website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project |date=21 December 2022 |language=en-US |archive-date=28 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230128120036/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/interactives/religious-composition-by-country-2010-2050/ |url-status=live }}</ref> {{increase}} (individually referred to as ], collectively referred to as the {{transliteration|ar|]}})
| separations = ]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islam |year=1999 |article=Bāb |publisher=Koninklijke Brill NV |location=Leiden, The Netherlands |first=A. |last=Bausani}}</ref><br />]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Van der Vyer |first=J.D. |year=1996 |title=Religious human rights in global perspective: religious perspectives |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers |isbn=90-411-0176-4 |page=449|url=https://archive.org/details/religioushumanri0000unse |url-access=registration}}</ref><br />]<ref>{{cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of American Islam| first=Yvonne |last=Yazbeck Haddad|year=2014| isbn=9780199862634|page = 142|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>
}}
{{Islam|expanded=}}{{Islam and iman}}
'''Islam'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɪ|z|l|ɑː|m|,_|ˈ|ɪ|z|l|æ|m}} {{respell|IZ|la(h)m}};<ref>{{cite web |title=English pronunciation of Islam |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/pronunciation/english/islam |website=Cambridge Dictionary |access-date=19 Dec 2023 |archive-date=22 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122222922/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/pronunciation/english/islam |url-status=live }}</ref> {{langx|ar|{{Script|Arab|ٱلْإِسْلَام|al-Islām}}}}, {{small|romanized:}} ''al-Islām'', {{IPA|ar|alʔɪsˈlaːm|IPA}}, {{lit|submission ]]}}}} is an ] ] centered on the ] and the teachings of ],<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-04-10 |title=Muhammad: Biography, Prophet, Founder of Islam |url=https://www.biography.com/religious-figures/muhammad |access-date=2024-11-29 |website=Biography |language=en-US}}</ref> the religion's founder. Adherents of Islam are called ], who are estimated to number approximately ] and are the world's ] after ].<ref name="www.pewresearch.org-2022">{{Cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/topic/religion/religious-demographics/pew-templeton-global-religious-futures-project/|title=Pew-Templeton Global Religious Futures Project - Research and data from Pew Research Center|date=21 December 2022 |access-date=27 November 2023|archive-date=5 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205195540/https://www.pewresearch.org/topic/religion/religious-demographics/pew-templeton-global-religious-futures-project/|url-status=live}}</ref>


Muslims believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a ] that was revealed many times through earlier ], including ], ], ], ], and ]. Muslims consider the Quran to be the verbatim word of ] and the unaltered, final revelation. Alongside the Quran, Muslims also believe in previous ]s, such as the ] (the ]), the ] (]), and the ] (]). They believe that ] is the main and ], through whom the religion was completed. The teachings and normative examples of Muhammad, called the ], documented in accounts called the ], provide a constitutional model for Muslims. Islam is based on the belief in oneness and uniqueness of the God ('']''), and belief in an afterlife ('']'') with the ]—wherein the righteous will be rewarded in paradise ({{Transliteration|ar|]}}) and the unrighteous will be punished in hell ({{Transliteration|ar|]}}). The ]—considered ] acts of worship—are the Islamic oath and creed ({{Transliteration|ar|]}}), daily prayers ({{Transliteration|ar|]}}), almsgiving ({{Transliteration|ar|]}}), fasting ({{Transliteration|ar|]}}) in the month of ], and a pilgrimage ({{Transliteration|ar|]}}) to ]. Islamic law, '']'', touches on virtually every aspect of life, from ] and ] to ] and ] and the ]. The two main ] are ] and ]. The three ] are ] in Mecca, ] in ], and ] in ].
Like ] and ], Islam is an ].<ref>{{cite book|author=Vartan Gregorian|title=Islam: A Mosaic, Not a Monolith|publisher=Brookings Institution Press|location=Washington D.C.|year=2003|id=ISBN 0-8157-3283-X|pages=p. ix}}</ref> There are estimated to be 1.4 billion adherents, making Islam the ] in the world.<ref>{{cite book|author=Teece, Geoff|title=Religion in Focus: Islam|publisher=Smart Apple Media|year=2005|pages=p. 10}}</ref>


The religion of Islam originated in Mecca in 610 ]. Muslims believe this is when ]. By the time of his death, most of the ] had ]. Muslim rule expanded outside Arabia under the ] and the subsequent ] ruled from the ] to the ]. In the ], specifically during the reign of the ], most of the Muslim world experienced a ], ] and ]. The ] involved ] as well as extensive trade and religious conversion as a result of ] ('']''), as well as through ], ], and ].
Today, Muslims may be found throughout the world, particularly in the ], ], ], ], and ]. The majority of Muslims are not ]s; only 20 percent of Muslims originate from ].<ref> {{cite book |author= John L Esposito|title=What Everyone Needs to Know About Islam |publisher=Oxford University Press US| year=2002| pages=p. 2| id=ISBN 0-19-515713-3}}</ref> Islam is the second largest religion in the ], and many other European countries, including ], which has the largest Muslim population in ].<ref> {{cite web| title=Religion In Britain| url= http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=293| author=Office for National Statistics| date=]| accessdate=2006-08-27}} </ref><ref> {{cite web| title=Muslims in Europe: Country guide| url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4385768.stm| author=BBC| date=]| accessdate=2006-09-28}} </ref>
<!-- Please find a reliable source before reinserting etymology.
==Etymology==
The word ''Islam'' derives from the Arabic ] root ], which carries the basic meaning of safety and peace. The word ''islām'' is the noun form of ''aslam'', a verb derived from that root, which means to accept, surrender, or submit; thus, Islam effectively means submission to God (Arabic: ]) and accepting him. The legislative meaning is to submit to God by singling him out in all acts of worship, to yield obediently to him and to disassociate oneself from ]. -->


The two main ] are ] (85–90%) and ] (10–15%). While the ] initially arose from disagreements over the ], they grew to cover a broader dimension, both ] and ]. The Sunni canonical hadith collection consists of ], while the Shia canonical hadith collection consists of ]. Muslims make up a majority of the population in 49 countries. Approximately 12% of the world's Muslims live ], the most populous Muslim-majority country; {{#expr: 100 * 480/1570 round 0}}% live ]; 20% live ]; and 15% live ]. Muslim communities are also present ], ], and ]. Muslims are the ] major religious group, according to ]. This is due primarily to a higher ] and younger age structure compared to other major religions.<!--Do NOT add citations to the lead, except for material likely to be challenged, per ] (]. Move unneeded citations to the body.-->
== Beliefs ==


== Etymology{{anchor|Etymology}}<!-- Linked from many articles. If changing the section title, please let this anchor remain unchanged --> ==
{{main|Aqidah}}
{{See also|Muslims#Etymology}}
In Arabic, ''Islam'' ({{langx|ar|إسلام|lit=submission }})<ref name="Schimmel" /><ref>{{cite web |title=Definition of Islam {{!}} Dictionary.com |url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/islam |access-date=2022-05-09 |website=www.dictionary.com |language=en |archive-date=9 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220509110220/https://www.dictionary.com/browse/islam |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Haywood |first=John |title=Historical Atlas of the Medieval World (AD 600 - 1492) |publisher=Barnes & Noble, Inc. |year=2002 |isbn=0-7607-1975-6 |edition=1st |location=Spain |pages=3.13 |language=en}}</ref> is the verbal noun of ] originating from the verb {{lang|ar|سلم}} ({{transliteration|ar|salama}}), from the ] {{lang|ar|س-ل-م}} ({{transliteration|ar|]}}), which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of submission, safeness, and peace.<ref>" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110907230044/http://www.studyquran.co.uk/20_SIIN.htm |date=7 September 2011 }}." ''Lane's Lexicon'' 4. – via '']''.</ref> In a religious context, it refers to the total surrender to the will of ].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=Barnard |last2=Churchill |first2=Buntzie Ellis |url=https://archive.org/details/islamreligionpeo00lewi |title=Islam: The Religion and The People |publisher=Wharton School Publishing |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-13-223085-8 |page=}}</ref> A '']'' ({{lang|ar|مُسْلِم}}), the word for a follower of Islam,<ref>"." '']''. UK: ]. 2020.</ref> is the ] of the same verb form, and means "submitter (to God)" or "one who surrenders (to God)". In the ], ''Islam'' is presented as one part of a triad that also includes {{transliteration|ar|]}} (faith), and {{transliteration|ar|]}} (excellence).{{sfnp|Esposito|2000|pp=}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mahmutćehajić |first=Rusmir |url=https://archive.org/details/mosqueheartsubmi00mahm |title=The mosque: the heart of submission |publisher=] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8232-2584-2 |page= |url-access=registration}}</ref>


Islam itself was historically called ] in the ]. This term has fallen out of use and is sometimes said to be ], as it suggests that a human being, rather than God, is central to Muslims' religion.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = Oxford University Press| last = Gibb| first = Sir Hamilton| title = Mohammedanism: an historical survey|isbn=9780195002454| year = 1969| page=1 | quote=Modern Muslims dislike the terms Mohammedan and Mohammedanism, which seem to them to carry the implication of worship of Mohammed, as Christian and Christianity imply the worship of Christ.}}</ref>
Muslims believe that God ] a message to humanity through Muhammad (c. 570&ndash;July 6, 632) via the angel ].<ref>Watton, Victor, (1993), ''A student's approach to world religions:Islam'', Hodder & Stoughton, Introduction. ISBN 0-340-58795-4</ref> Muhammad is considered to have been God's final prophet, based on the Qur'anic phrase "]" and sayings of Muhammad himself. Muslims assert that their holy book, the ], is flawless, immutable, and the final revelation of God to humanity, and that its teachings will be valid until ].


== Articles of faith ==
Muslims hold that the message of Islam, that is submission to the one God's will, is the same as the message preached by all the messengers sent by God to humanity since ]. The Qur'an, used by all sects of the Muslim faith, codifies the direct words of God. Islamic texts depict ] and ] as prophetic successor traditions to the teachings of ]. The Qur'an calls Jews and Christians "]," and distinguishes them from "]." In order to reconcile the often radical disagreements regarding events and interpretation that exist between the earlier writers and the Qur'an, Muslims believe that Jews and Christians distorted the word of God after it was revealed to them. Specifically, Muslims believe that the Jews have changed the ] (]), and that Christians have changed the ] (]) by altering words in meaning, form and placement in their respective holy texts.
{{Main|Aqidah|Iman (Islam)|l2 = Iman}}
The Islamic ] ('']'') requires belief in ]: God, ], revelation, prophets, the ], and the divine predestination.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Sourcebook of the World's Religions: An Interfaith Guide to Religion and Spirituality|publisher=New World Library|pages=68–9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dbSPOoQfu0IC&pg=PA68|editor-first=Joel|editor-last=Beversluis|year=2011|isbn=9781577313328|access-date=15 January 2023|archive-date=28 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228022948/https://books.google.com/books?id=dbSPOoQfu0IC&pg=PA68#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>


===Oneness of God=== === God ===
] in Arabic in ], ], ]]]
{{Main|God in Islam}}
The central concept of Islam is '']'' ({{langx|ar|توحيد|link=no}}), the oneness of God. It is usually thought of as a ''precise ]'', but is also ] in Islamic mystical teachings.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/tawhid |title=Tawhid |encyclopedia=] |access-date=17 September 2021 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=7 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211107041300/https://www.britannica.com/topic/tawhid |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{harvc |last=Gimaret|first=D.|year=2012|c=Tawḥīd |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)}} {{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_7454}}</ref> God is seen as incomparable and without multiplicity of persons such as in the ], and associating multiplicity to God or attributing God's attributes to others is seen as ], called ]. God is described as ] so is beyond comprehension. {{under discussion inline|Al-Ghayb}} Thus, Muslims are not ]s and do not attribute forms to God. God is instead described and referred to by several ], the most common being ''Ar-Rahmān'' ({{lang|ar|الرحمان}}) meaning "The Entirely Merciful", and ''Ar-Rahīm'' ({{lang|ar|الرحيم}}) meaning "The Especially Merciful" which are invoked at the beginning of most chapters of the Quran.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ali |first1=Kecia |title=Islam : the key concepts |date=2008 |publisher=] |last2=Leaman |first2=Oliver |isbn=978-0-415-39638-7 |location=London |oclc=123136939}}</ref>{{sfnp|Campo|2009|p=34|loc="Allah"}}


Islam teaches that the creation of everything in the ] was brought into being by God's command as expressed by the wording, "],"<ref group="lower-roman">{{qref|2|117|b=yl}}</ref><ref name="Schimmel">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Schimmel |first=Annemarie |author-link=Annemarie Schimmel |title=Islam |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islam |encyclopedia=] |access-date=17 September 2021 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=4 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150504201633/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/295507/Islam |url-status=live }}</ref> and that the ] is to worship God.<ref>Leeming, David. 2005. ''The Oxford Companion to World Mythology''. Oxford: ]. {{ISBN|978-0-195-15669-0}}. p. 209.</ref> He is viewed as a personal god<ref name="Schimmel" /> and there are no intermediaries, such as ], to contact God. Consciousness and awareness of God is referred to as ]. '']'' is a term with no ] or ] being ascribed to it and is also used by Muslims and Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews in reference to God, whereas ''{{transliteration|ar|ISO|]}}'' ({{lang|ar|إله}}) is a term used for a deity or a god in general.<ref>{{cite web |title=God |url=https://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/faithgod.html |access-date=18 December 2010 |website=Islam: Empire of Faith |publisher=] |archive-date=27 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140327034958/http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/faithgod.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
{{main|Allah|God|Islamic concept of God|Tawhīd}}
] in Arabic]]
The fundamental concept in Islam is the Oneness of ] or '']'': ] which is absolute, not relative or pluralistic. The Oneness of God is the first pillar of ] which is also called the "]" (The two testimonies). By declaring the two testimonies one attests to the belief that there is no God but God (Allah), and that ] is God's (Allah's) messenger. God is described in ] ] as:


=== Angels ===
:"...God, the One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him." {{Quran-usc-range|112|1|4}}
] by ], 1307.]]
{{Main|Angels in Islam}}
Angels ({{langx|ar|ملك|link=no}}, ''{{transliteration|ar|ALA|malak}}'') are beings described in the Quran{{sfnp|Burge|2015|p=23}} and hadith.{{sfnp|Burge|2015|p=79}} They are described as created to worship God and also to serve in other specific duties such as communicating ]s from God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's ] at the time of death. They are described as being created variously from 'light' (])<ref>" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220423085030/https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/nur |date=23 April 2022 }}." '']''. – via '']''.</ref><ref>{{harvc|last1=Hartner, W.|last2=Tj Boer |year=2012 |c=Nūr |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)}} {{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0874}}</ref><ref>{{harvc |last=Elias |first=Jamal J. |year=2003|c=Light |in=McAuliffe}} {{doi|10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00261}}</ref> or 'fire' (''nār'').<ref>{{harvc |last=Campo |first=Juan E. |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/nar |c=Nar |in=Martin |year=2004}}. – via ].</ref><ref>{{harvc|last=Fahd, T. |year=2012 |c=Nār |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)}} {{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0846}}</ref><ref>{{harvc |last=Toelle |first=Heidi |year=2002 |c=Fire |in=McAuliffe}} {{doi|10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00156}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|McAuliffe|2003|p=45}}</ref> Islamic angels are often represented in ] combined with ] images, such as wings, being of great size or wearing heavenly articles.{{sfnp|Burge|2015|pp=97–99}}<ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2002b|pp=26–28}}</ref><ref>{{harvc |last=Webb |first=Gisela |c=Angel |year=n.d. |in=McAuliffe}}</ref><ref>{{harvc|last1=MacDonald, D. B.|last2=Madelung, W. |year=2012 |c=Malāʾika |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)}}{{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0642}}</ref> Common characteristics for angels include a lack of bodily needs and desires, such as eating and drinking.{{sfnp|Çakmak|2017|p=140}} Some of them, such as ] (''Jibrīl'') and ] (''Mika'il''), are mentioned by name in the Quran. Angels play a significant role in literature about the ], where Muhammad encounters several angels during his journey through the heavens.{{sfnp|Burge|2015|p=79}} Further angels have often been featured in ], ] and ].{{sfnp|Burge|2015|p=22}}


=== Scriptures ===
In Arabic, God is called ''Allāh''. The word is etymologically connected to ''ʾilāh'' "]".<ref>The name "Allah" is a singular neuter noun.</ref> A common misconception is that Muslims consider Allāh to be a different deity than that worshipped by Christians and Jews. However, Allah is simply the Arabic word for "God." The word predates Muhammad and, at least in origin, does not specify a "God" different from the one worshipped by Judaism and Christianity, the other Abrahamic religions. ''Allāh'' is also used by Arab speaking Christian and Jewish people to refer to God as they worship him.
] manuscript resting on a ], a book rest for the holy text]]
{{Main|Islamic holy books|Quran|Wahy}}
God is described numerous times in the Qur'an, for example:
{{See also|History of the Quran}}
The pre-eminent holy text of Islam is the ]. Muslims believe that the verses of the Quran were revealed to Muhammad by God, through the ] Gabriel, on multiple occasions between 610&nbsp;CE<ref name="610CE">{{harvc|c=Muhammad|in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|year=n.d.|last2=Welch|first2=A.T.|last1=Buhl|first1=F.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Watt |first=William Montgomery |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AQUZ6BGyohQC&pg=PA5 |title=Islam and the Integration of Society |date=2003 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-415-17587-6 |pages=5 |access-date=15 June 2021 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228022949/https://books.google.com/books?id=AQUZ6BGyohQC&pg=PA5#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> and 632, the year Muhammad died.{{sfnp|Esposito|2004|pp=17–18, 21}} While Muhammad was alive, these revelations were written down by ], although the primary method of transmission was orally through ].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Al Faruqi |first1=Lois Ibsen |author-link=Lois Lamya al-Faruqi |year=1987 |title=The Cantillation of the Qur'an |journal=] |issue=Autumn – Winter 1987 |pages=3–4}}</ref> The Quran is divided into 114 chapters ('']'') which contain a combined 6,236 verses ('']''). The chronologically earlier chapters, revealed at ], are concerned primarily with spiritual topics, while the later ]n chapters discuss more social and legal issues relevant to the Muslim community.<ref name="Schimmel" /><ref name="Ringgren">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Ringgren |first=Helmer |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Quran |title=Qurʾān |encyclopedia=] |access-date=17 September 2021 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=5 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150505001543/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/487666/Quran |url-status=live }} "The word ''Quran'' was invented and first used in the Quran itself. There are ] about this term and its formation."</ref> Muslim jurists consult the ''hadith'' ('accounts'), or the written record of Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Quran and assist with its interpretation. The science of Quranic commentary and exegesis is known as '']''.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=] |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/tafsir |title=Tafsīr |access-date=17 September 2021 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=19 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019035210/https://www.britannica.com/topic/tafsir |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfnp|Esposito|2004|pp=79–81}} In addition to its religious significance, the Quran is widely regarded as the finest work in ],<ref>{{cite book|first=Alan|last=Jones|location=London|publisher=]|year=1994|page=1|title=The Koran|quote="Its outstanding literary merit should also be noted: it is by far, the finest work of Arabic prose in existence."|isbn=1842126091}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Arthur|last=Arberry|title=The Koran Interpreted|location=London|publisher=]|year=1956|quote="It may be affirmed that within the literature of the Arabs, wide and fecund as it is both in poetry and in elevated prose, there is nothing to compare with it."|page=191|isbn=0684825074}}</ref> and has influenced art and the Arabic language.<ref>Kadi, Wadad, and Mustansir Mir. "Literature and the Quran." In '']'' 3. pp. 213, 216.</ref>


Islam also holds that God has sent revelations, called '']'', to different prophets numerous times throughout history. However, Islam teaches that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, such as the '']'' (]) and the '']'' (]), have become ]—either in interpretation, in text, or both,<ref name="harvp|Esposito|2002b|pp=4–5">{{harvp|Esposito|2002b|pp=4–5}}</ref><ref name="harvp|Peters|2003|p=9">{{harvp|Peters|2003|p=9}}</ref><ref>{{harvc|c=Muhammad |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|year=n.d. |last2=Welch |first2=A.T. |last1=Buhl |first1=F.}}</ref><ref>{{harvc|c=Tahrif |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|year=n.d. |author=]}}</ref> while the Quran (lit. 'Recitation') is viewed as the final, verbatim and unaltered word of God.<ref name="Ringgren" /><ref>{{harvp|Teece|2003|pp=12–13}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Turner|2006|p=42}}</ref>{{sfnp|Bennett|2010|p=101}}
:"(He is) the Creator of the heavens and the earth: He has made for you pairs from among yourselves, and pairs among cattle: by this means does He multiply you: there is nothing whatever like unto Him, and He is the One that hears and sees (all things)." {{Quran-usc|42|11}}.


=== Prophets ===
The implicit usage of the ] in ''Allah'' linguistically indicates the divine unity. Muslims believe that the God they worship is the same God of Abraham. Muslims reject the Christian doctrine concerning the ] of God, seeing it as akin to ].
{{Main|Prophets and messengers in Islam|Sunnah|Hadith}}
] |access-date=7 September 2023 |archive-date=9 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230909130407/https://gallica.bnf.fr/view3if/ga/ark:/12148/btv1b8427195m/f16 |url-status=live }}</ref> ] depicting ] leading ], ], ] and other prophets in prayer]]
Prophets (Arabic: {{langx|ar|أنبياء|label=none|translit=anbiyāʾ}}) are believed to have been chosen by God to preach a divine message. Some of these prophets additionally deliver a new book and are called "messengers" ({{langx|ar| رسول&lrm;|label=none|translit=rasūl}}).<ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2003|p=225}}</ref> Muslims believe prophets are human and not divine. All of the prophets are said to have preached the same basic message of Islam – submission to the will of God – to various nations in the past, and this is said to account for many similarities among religions. The Quran recounts the names of numerous figures considered ], including ], ], ], ] and ], among others.<ref name="Schimmel" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Reeves |first=J. C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WNId86Eu4TEC |title=Bible and Qurʼān: Essays in scriptural intertextuality |publisher=] |year=2004 |isbn=90-04-12726-7 |location=] |page=177 |access-date=21 August 2019 |archive-date=19 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230419164019/https://books.google.com/books?id=WNId86Eu4TEC |url-status=live }}</ref> The stories associated with the prophets beyond the Quranic accounts are collected and explored in the '']'' (Stories of the Prophets).


Muslims believe that God sent Muhammad as the final prophet ("]") to convey the completed message of Islam.<ref>Esposito, John L. 2009. "Islam." In ''{{Doi-inline|10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001|''The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World''}}'', edited by J. L. Esposito. Oxford: ]. {{ISBN|978-0-19-530513-5}}. (See also: {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110124812/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100012298 |date=10 January 2021 }}.) "Profession of Faith...affirms Islam's absolute monotheism and acceptance of Muḥammad as the messenger of Allah, the last and final prophet."</ref><ref>Peters, F. E. 2009. "Allāh." In {{Doi-inline|10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001|''The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World''}}, edited by J. L. Esposito. Oxford: ]. {{ISBN|978-0-19-530513-5}}. (See also: {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200926053837/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095403960 |date=26 September 2020 }}.) "he Muslims' understanding of Allāh is based...on the Qurʿān's public witness. Allāh is Unique, the Creator, Sovereign, and Judge of mankind. It is Allāh who directs the universe through his direct action on nature and who has guided human history through his prophets, Abraham, with whom he made his covenant, Moses/Moosa, Jesus/Eesa, and Muḥammad, through all of whom he founded his chosen communities, the 'Peoples of the Book.{{'"}}</ref> In Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the '']'' (literally "trodden path"). Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's moral behaviors in their daily lives, and the sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Quran.<ref>{{harvp|Martin|2004|p=666}}</ref><ref>{{harvc|c=Hadith|in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|year=n.d.|author=J. Robson}}</ref><ref>{{harvc|c=Sunna|in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|year=n.d.|author=D.W. Brown}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Goldman |first=Elizabeth |title=Believers: Spiritual Leaders of the World |date=1995 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-19-508240-1 |location=Oxford |page=63}}</ref> This example is preserved in traditions known as ], which are accounts of his words, actions, and personal characteristics. ] is a sub-category of hadith, regarded as God's verbatim words quoted by Muhammad that are not part of the Quran. A hadith involves two elements: a chain of narrators, called ], and the actual wording, called '']''. There are various methodologies to classify the authenticity of hadiths, with the commonly used grading grading scale being "authentic" or "correct" ({{langx|ar|صحيح|links=no|translit=]|label=none}}); "good" ({{langx|ar|حسن|links=no|label=none|translit=]}}); or "weak" ({{langx|ar|ضعيف|label=none|translit=]}}), among others. The '']'' are a collection of six books, regarded as the most authentic reports in ]. Among them is '']'', often considered by Sunnis to be one of the most ] sources after the Quran.<ref>], ed. 1990. '']''. Cairo: Dar al-Ma'arif, 1990. pp. 160–69</ref> Another well-known source of hadiths is known as '']'', which Shias consider as the most authentic hadith reference.<ref>Awliya'i, Mustafa. " {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170912144702/https://www.al-islam.org/al-tawhid/vol1-n12-3/outlines-development-science-hadith-dr-mustafa-awliyai/part-1#four-books |date=12 September 2017 }}." In ''Outlines of the Development of the Science of Hadith'' 1, translated by A. Q. Qara'i. – via ]. Retrieved 24 May 2020.</ref><ref>]. " {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170912191319/https://www.al-islam.org/quran-and-hadith-allamah-sayyid-saeed-akhtar-rizvi/chapter-4-hadith#four-books-al-kutubul-arbah |date=12 September 2017 }}." Ch 4 in ''The Qur'an and Hadith''. Tanzania: ]. – via ]. Retrieved 24 May 2020.</ref>
No Muslim visual images or depictions of God are meant to exist because such artistic depictions may lead to ]. Moreover, most Muslims believe that God is ], making any two- or three- dimensional depictions impossible. Such ] can also be found in Jewish and some Christian theology. Instead, Muslims describe God by the ] that he revealed to his creation. All but one Sura (chapter) of the Qur'an begins with the phrase "]".


=== Resurrection and judgment ===
===Prophecy===
] in ], where according to Islamic tradition ] (Jesus, seen as an Islamic prophet) will appear close to the ]]]
{{main|Prophet of Islam}}
{{Main|Islamic eschatology}}
The ] identifies several men as ]. ] believe such individuals were assigned a special mission by God to guide humanity. Aside from ], this includes other ] prophets such as ] and ]. The concept of prophesy in Islam is broader than ] and ] since Muslims distinguish between "]" (''messengers'') and "]" (''prophets''). Both are "divinely inspired" sinless recipients of God's revelation. However, messengers are given a message for a community in book form and, unlike prophets, are assured success by Allah. While all messengers are prophets, not all prophets are messengers.<ref>Esposito(2005), p.20</ref>
Belief in the "Day of Resurrection" or '']'' ({{langx|ar|يوم القيامة|link=no}}) is also crucial for Muslims. It is believed that the time of ''Qiyāmah'' is preordained by God, but unknown to man. The Quran and the hadith, as well as the commentaries of ], describe the trials and ] preceding and during the ''Qiyāmah''. The Quran emphasizes ], a break from the ]n understanding of death.<ref>{{harvp|Glassé|2003|loc="Resurrection"|pp=382–383}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)|2012|loc="Avicenna"}}. {{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_DUM_0467}}: "Ibn Sīnā, Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAbd Allāh b. Sīnā is known in the West as 'Avicenna'."</ref><ref>{{harvc|c=Qiyama |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|year=n.d. |author=Gardet, L.}}</ref>


On Yawm al-Qiyāmah, Muslims believe all humankind will be judged by their good and bad deeds and consigned to '']'' (paradise) or '']'' (hell).<ref>{{cite web |editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=John L. |editor-link=John Esposito |title=Eschatology |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e588 |url-access=subscription |work=] |via=Oxford Islamic Studies Online |access-date=18 April 2017 |archive-date=13 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100913062714/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e588 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Quran in ] describes this as: "So whoever does an atom's weight of good will see it. And whoever does an atom's weight of evil will see it." The Quran ] that can condemn a person to ]. However, the Quran makes it clear that God will forgive the sins of those who repent if he wishes. Good deeds, like charity, prayer, and compassion towards animals{{sfnp|Esposito|2011|p=130}} will be rewarded with entry to heaven. Muslims view heaven as a place of joy and blessings, with Quranic references describing its features. Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.<ref>{{harvp|Smith|2006|p=89}}; ''Encyclopedia of Islam and Muslim World'', p. 565</ref><ref>{{harvc |c=Garden |first=Asma |last=Afsaruddin |year=n.d. |in=McAuliffe}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Paradise|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online}}</ref> ''Yawm al-Qiyāmah'' is also identified in the Quran as ''Yawm ad-Dīn'' ({{lang|ar|يوم الدين}} "Day of Religion");<ref group="lower-roman">{{qref|1|4|b=y}};</ref> ''as-Sāʿah'' ({{lang|ar|الساعة}} "the Last Hour");<ref group="lower-roman">{{qref|6|31|b=y}};</ref> and '']'' ({{lang|ar|القارعة}} "The Clatterer").<ref group="lower-roman">{{qref|101|1|b=y}}</ref>
According to the ] creed, the essence of all the prophets' messages are what Islam calls for: worshipping God alone and rejecting false deities. Islam is the religion of all prophets in human history; all of them called for the beliefs which Islam calls for, and so they declared belief in Islam. The message of Islam resembles the messages of all previous prophets of God. The Qur'an states: "Abraham was not a Jew nor a Christian, but he was (an) upright (man), a Muslim (submission to God's will), and he was not one of the polytheists" ({{Quran-usc|3|67}}), but their ] were different and there were at least four Sharias which were revealed by ], ], ] and ]. Each of the prophets are believed to have been assigned a special mission by God to guide the whole or a group of humanity, depending on the mission assigned to each. God is believed to have instructed each of these prophets to warn his community against evil and urge his people to obey God.


====Muhammad==== === Divine predestination ===
{{Main|Predestination in Islam}}
The concept of divine predestination in Islam ({{langx|ar|القضاء والقدر}}, ''{{transliteration|ar|DIN|al-qadāʾ wa l-qadar}}'') means that every matter, good or bad, is believed to have been decreed by God. ''Al-qadar'', meaning "power", derives from a root that means "to measure" or "calculating".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.freeweb.hu/etymological/AEDweb.htm |date=2002 |title=Andras Rajki's A. E. D. (Arabic Etymological Dictionary) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111208204654/http://www.freeweb.hu/etymological/AEDweb.htm |archive-date=8 December 2011 |access-date=13 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Cohen-Mor|2001|p=4}}: "The idea of predestination is reinforced by the frequent mention of events 'being written' or 'being in a book' before they happen": Say: "Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us..."</ref><ref>{{harvc |last=Karamustafa |first=Ahmet T. |c=Fate |year=n.d. |in=McAuliffe}}: The verb ''qadara'' literally means "to measure, to determine". Here it is used to mean that "God measures and orders his creation".</ref><ref>{{harvc |last=Gardet|first=L.|year=2012|c=al-Ḳaḍāʾ Wa 'l-Ḳadar |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)}} {{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0407}}</ref> Muslims often express this belief in divine destiny with the phrase ] ({{langx|ar|إن شاء الله}}) meaning "if God wills" when speaking on future events.<ref>{{cite web |title=Muslim beliefs – Al-Qadr |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z43pfcw/revision/4 |access-date=13 November 2020 |publisher=BBC |work=Bitesize – GCSE – Edexcel |archive-date=15 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115112558/https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z43pfcw/revision/4 |url-status=live }}</ref>


== Acts of worship ==
]" in ].]]
{{Main|Five Pillars of Islam|Ibadah}}
{{main|Muhammad}}
There are five acts of worship that are considered ]–the ] (declaration of faith), the five daily prayers, ] (almsgiving), ], and the ] pilgrimage–collectively known as "The Pillars of Islam" (''Arkān al-Islām'').<ref name="www.britannica.com-2023">{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pillars-of-Islam|title=Pillars of Islam &#124; Islamic Beliefs & Practices &#124; Britannica|website=www.britannica.com|date=3 May 2023|access-date=16 December 2021|archive-date=5 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905102524/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pillars-of-Islam|url-status=live}}</ref> In addition, Muslims also perform other optional ] acts that are encouraged but not considered to be duties.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=ZAROUG|first=ABDULLAHI HASSAN|date=1985|title=THE CONCEPT OF PERMISSION, SUPEREROGATORY ACTS AND ASETICISM &#91;sic&#93; IN ISLAMIC JURISPRUDENCE|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20847307|journal=Islamic Studies|volume=24|issue=2|pages=167–180|jstor=20847307|issn=0578-8072|access-date=7 January 2023|archive-date=7 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207140013/https://www.jstor.org/stable/20847307|url-status=live}}</ref>
Muhammad, also ''Mohammed'', ''Mohamet'', and other variants<ref> ], a term used in the past by Christians to vilify Muhammad cf. ] (1999) p.250, meaning 'devil' or 'spirit of darkness', a thoroughly distorted view of Muhammad in the medieval West, cf. Schimmel, Islam: An Introduction, 1992. For some usage of this term in literature see for example William Shakespeare (1832) "Hamlet: And As You Like It." p.80, or Dante who uses this term in his Divine Comedy cf. ] (2002) p.45. ] states: "Of all the world's great men none has been so much maligned as Muhammad. At one point Muhammad was transformed into Mahound, the prince of darkness." ] states that "The development of the concept of Mahound started with considering Muhammad as a kind of demon or false god worshipped with Apollyon and Termangant in an unholy trinity. Finally after reformation, Muhammad was conceived as a cunning and self-seeking impostor." cf. Lewis (2002) p.45. In recent times ], in his book "The Satanic verses", chose the name Mahound to refer to Muhammad. ] issued a ] that condemned Rushdie to death and called for his execution. cf. ] (1999) p.250</ref><ref>Welch, noting the frequency of Muhammad being called as "Al-Amin", a common Arab name, suggests the possibility of "Al-Amin" being Muhammad's given name as it is a masculine form from the same root as his mother's name, A'mina. cf. ], Muhammad article; The sources frequently say that he, in his youth, was called with the nickname "Al-Amin" meaning "faithful, trustworthy" cf. Carl W. Ernst (2004), p.85 </ref> was a ] religious and political leader who established Islam and the ] community (]) to whom he preached. He is considered the greatest ] in Islam, and is venerated and honoured as such. Muslims do not regard him as the founder of a new religion, but rather believe him to be the last in a line of prophets of ] and regard his mission as one of restoring the original ] faith of ], ] and other ] that had become ] by man over time.<ref name="EspositoI"> John Esposito (1998) p.12; (1999) p.25; (2002) p.4-5</ref> <ref name="EoI"> ], Muhammad article </ref> <ref name="Peters"> F. E. Peters, ''Islam : a guide for Jews and Christians'', Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-11553-2, p.9 </ref>


=== Declaration of faith ===
For the last 23 years of his life, beginning at age 40, Muhammad reported receiving revelations from God delivered through the angel ]. The content of these revelations, known as the ],<ref> The term Qur'an was invented and first used in the Qur'an itself. There are two different theories about this term and its formation, that are discussed in ] cf. Encyclopedia of Islam article on Qur'an.</ref> was memorized and recorded by his followers. These memories and recordings were then compiled into a single volume shortly after his death.
] ], c. 16th century, inscribed with the ''Shahadah'']]
{{Main|Shahada}}
The ]h{{sfnp|Nasr|2003|pp=3, 39, 85, 270–272}} is an ] declaring belief in Islam. The expanded statement is "{{transliteration|ar|DIN|ʾašhadu ʾal-lā ʾilāha ʾillā-llāhu wa ʾašhadu ʾanna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh}}" ({{langx|ar|أشهد أن لا إله إلا الله وأشهد أن محمداً رسول الله|label=none}}), or, "I testify that there is no ] except ] and I testify that Muhammad is the messenger of God."<ref>Mohammad, N. 1985. "The doctrine of jihad: An introduction." '']'' 3(2):381–97.</ref> Islam is sometimes argued to have a very simple creed with the shahada being the premise for the rest of the religion. Non-Muslims wishing to ] are required to recite the shahada in front of witnesses.<ref>{{harvc |last=Kasim |first=Husain |year=2004 |c=Islam |pp=195–197 |in=Salamone}}</ref><ref>Galonnier, Juliette. "Moving In or Moving Toward? Reconceptualizing Conversion to Islam as a Liminal Process1". Moving In and Out of Islam, edited by Karin van Nieuwkerk, New York, US: University of Texas Press, 2021, pp. 44-66. https://doi.org/10.7560/317471-003 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023001/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.7560/317471-003/html |date=28 December 2023 }}</ref>


=== Prayer ===
All Muslims believe that Muhammad was sinless in the sense of transmitting the revelation:
{{Main|Salah}}
: “And if the apostle were to invent any sayings in Our name, We should certainly seize him by his right hand, And We should certainly then cut off the artery of his heart: Nor could any of you withhold him (from Our wrath).” 69:44-47.
{{See also|Mosque|Jumu'ah}}
The understanding that Muhammad did commit sin does exist among Sunnis. However, the doctrine of sinlessness of Muhammad is also more or less incorporated into Sunnis' beliefs. Some Sunni scholars believe that the doctrine of the sinlessness of the Prophets originated with the Shi'a, specifically in connection with the Imamat, and was transmitted to the Sunnis via the Sufis and Mu'tazila.<ref>, by R. Azzam, ''USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts'', March 27, 2000, retrieved March 27, 2006</ref> Shia scholars disagree.<ref>, by Ali A. Khalfan, May 07, 2005, retrieved March 27, 2006</ref>
] in prayer, at the ], ]]]
Prayer in Islam, called ] or aṣ-ṣalāt ({{langx|ar|الصلاة|link=no}}), is seen as a personal communication with God and consists of repeating units called ] that include ] and ] to God. There are five timed prayers each day that are considered duties. The prayers are recited in the Arabic language and performed in ] of the ]. The act also requires a state of ritual purity achieved by means of either a routine '']'' ritual wash or, in certain circumstances, a '']'' full body ritual wash.<ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2002b|pp=18, 19}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Hedayetullah|2006|pp=53–55}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Kobeisy|2004|pp=22–34}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Momen|1987|p=178}}</ref>


A ] is a ] for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name ''masjid''. Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also an important social center for the ]. For example, the ] ("Prophetic Mosque") in Medina, ], used to also serve as a shelter for the poor.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Mattson |first=Ingrid |year=2006 |title=Women, Islam, and Mosques |pages=615–629 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Women and Religion in North America |series=Volume 2, Part VII. Islam |editor1=R. S. Keller |name-list-style=and |editor2=R. R. Ruether |place=Bloomington and Indianapolis |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-253-34687-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WPILfbtT5tQC&pg=PA615 |access-date=2 October 2021 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023019/https://books.google.com/books?id=WPILfbtT5tQC&pg=PA615#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> ]s are towers used to call the ], a vocal call to signal the prayer time.<ref>Pedersen, J., R. Hillenbrand, ], et al. 2010. "{{Doi-inline|10.1163/9789004206106_eifo_COM_0694|Masd̲j̲id}}." ''Encyclopedia of Islam''. Leiden: ]. Retrieved 25 May 2020.</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/mosque |title=Mosque |encyclopedia=] |access-date=17 September 2021 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=28 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928065350/https://www.britannica.com/topic/mosque |url-status=live }}</ref>
===Qiyamah===
{{main|Qiyamah}}
] is the ] eqivelant of the Christian belief in the ]. Belief in Qiyâmah is part of Aqidah and is a fundamental tenet of faith in Islam. The trials and ]s of Qiyâmah are detailed in both the Qur'an and the ], as well as in the commentaries of the ] such as ], ], ], ], and Ibn Khuzaimah, who explain them in detail.


=== Almsgiving ===
Muslims believe that every human, Muslim and non-Muslim alike, is held accountable for his or her deeds and are judged by ] accordingly (Qur'an 74.38). At a time unknown to man, but preordained, when people least expect it, Allah will give permission for the Qiyâmah to begin. The ] ], referred to as the ''Caller'', will sound a horn sending out a "Blast of Truth". This event is also found in ], in the ] belief of "The Day of the Blowing of the ]", '']''.
{{Main|Zakat}}
{{See also|Sadaqah}}
] in ]]]
] (]: {{langx|ar|زكاة|translit=zakāh|label=none}}), also spelled ''Zakāt'' or ''Zakah'', is a type of ] characterized by the giving of a fixed portion (2.5% annually)<ref>Ahmed, Medani, and Sebastian Gianci. "Zakat." p. 479 in ''Encyclopedia of Taxation and Tax Policy''.</ref> of ] by those who can afford it to help the poor or needy, such as for freeing captives, those in ], or for (stranded) travellers, and for those employed to collect zakat. It acts as a form of ] in Muslim societies.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ariff |first=Mohamed |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NP4ZL0TJ9s4C&pg=PA55 |title=The Islamic Voluntary Sector in Southeast Asia: Islam and the Economic Development of Southeast Asia |publisher=] |year=1991 |isbn=978-981-3016-07-1 |pages=55– |access-date=7 October 2017 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023007/https://books.google.com/books?id=NP4ZL0TJ9s4C&&pg=PA55 |url-status=live }}</ref> It is considered a religious obligation that the well-off owe the needy because their wealth is seen as a trust from God's bounty,<ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2010|p=109-110}}: This is not regarded as charity because it is not really voluntary but instead is owed, by those who have received their wealth as a trust from God's bounty, to the poor.</ref> and is seen as a purification of one's excess wealth.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = RoutledgeCurzon| isbn = 9780415297967| title =Major World Religions: From Their Origins to the Present.| location = United Kingdom| year = 2003| last=Ridgeon| first=Lloyd| url = | page = 258|quote=Aside from its function of purifying believers' wealth, the payment of zakat may have contributed in no small way to the economic welfare of the Muslim community in Mecca.}}</ref> The total annual value contributed due to zakat is 15 times greater than global humanitarian aid donations, using conservative estimates.<ref>{{Cite news |date=1 June 2012 |title=A faith-based aid revolution in the Muslim world |work=] |url=https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/report/95564/analysis-faith-based-aid-revolution-muslim-world |access-date=27 August 2023 |archive-date=14 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210114014900/https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/report/95564/analysis-faith-based-aid-revolution-muslim-world |url-status=live }}</ref> ], as opposed to Zakat, is a much-encouraged optional charity.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Said |first=Abdul Aziz |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4bs7g0O4eLYC&pg=PA145 |title=Contemporary Islam: Dynamic, Not Static |publisher=] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-415-77011-8 |page=145 |display-authors=etal |access-date=7 October 2017 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023121/https://books.google.com/books?id=4bs7g0O4eLYC&pg=PA145 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfnp|Stefon|2010|p=}} A ] is a perpetual ], which finances hospitals and schools in Muslim societies.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hudson |first=A. |title=Equity and Trusts |year=2003 |edition=3rd |page=32 |location=London |publisher=Cavendish Publishing |isbn=1-85941-729-9}}</ref>


=== Fasting ===
The Qur'an explains Qiyamah thus: all men and women will fall unconscious. Muhammad is the first to awake and he sees ], who may or may not have awoken prior, holding up the Throne of ] at the mountain of Tur. On the other hand, those who truly believe in Allah, and are pious, the ''Al-Ghurr-ul-Muhajjalun'', due to the trace of ritual ] performed during their lives, repent their ] and return to "] (the ]) beneath which rivers flow,". The world is destroyed. ] will rise from their graves and gather, waiting to be judged for their actions (]).
]'', is served traditionally with ].]]
{{Main|Fasting in Islam}}
{{See also|Fasting during Ramadan}}
In Islam, fasting (]: {{langx|ar|صوم|translit=ṣawm|label=none}}) precludes food and drink, as well as other forms of consumption, such as ], and is performed from dawn to sunset. During the month of ], it is considered a duty for Muslims to fast.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ramadan |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ramadan |access-date=2023-08-16 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en |archive-date=9 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231009215438/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ramadan |url-status=live }}</ref> The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God by restraining oneself for God's sake from what is otherwise permissible and to think of the needy. In addition, there are other days, such as the ], when fasting is optional.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher =Tughra Books | isbn = 9781597846110| title = Fasting In Islam And The Month Of Ramadan| location = United States| year =2006 | last=Ramadanali| url = |page=51
| quote = }}</ref>


== Sources of Islam == === Pilgrimage ===
{{Main|Hajj|Umrah}}
{{See also|Holiest sites in Islam}}
] during the ] season]]


The Islamic ], called the {{transliteration|ar|ALA|ḥajj}} ({{langx|ar|حج|link=no}}), is to be done at least once a lifetime by every Muslim with the means to do so during the ] of ]. Rituals of the Hajj mostly imitate the story of the family of ]. In ], pilgrims walk seven times around the ], which Muslims believe Abraham built as a place of worship, and they walk seven times between Mount ], recounting the steps of Abraham's wife, ], who was looking for water for her baby ] in the desert before Mecca developed into a settlement.<ref>{{harvp|Goldschmidt|Davidson|2005|p=48}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Farah|1994|pp=145–147}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Hajj |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online}}</ref> The pilgrimage also involves spending a day praying and worshipping in the plain of ] as well as symbolically ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Peters |first=F.E. |title=Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians |date=2009 |isbn=978-1-4008-2548-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HYJ2c9E9IM8C&pg=PA19 |page=20 |publisher=Princeton University Press |access-date=7 October 2014 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023112/https://books.google.com/books?id=HYJ2c9E9IM8C&pg=PA19#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> All Muslim men wear only two simple white unstitched pieces of cloth called ], intended to bring continuity through generations and uniformity among pilgrims despite class or origin.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cornell |first=Vincent J. |title=Voices of Islam: Voices of tradition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g5LNUS0ciAAC&pg=PA29 |access-date=26 August 2012 |year=2007 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-275-98733-6 |page=29}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Glassé|2003|p=}}</ref> Another form of pilgrimage, ], is optional and can be undertaken at any time of the year. Other sites of Islamic pilgrimage are ], where Muhammad died, as well as ], a city of many Islamic prophets and the site of ], which was the direction of prayer before Mecca.<ref>{{cite book|author=Michigan Consortium for Medieval and Early Modern Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p44kAQAAMAAJ|title=The Meeting of Two Worlds: Cultural Exchange Between East and West During the Period of the Crusades|publisher=Medieval Institute Publications, Western Michigan University|year=1986|isbn=0918720583|editor1=Goss, V. P.|volume=21|page=208|editor2=Bornstein, C. V.|access-date=15 January 2023|archive-date=28 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023032/https://books.google.com/books?id=p44kAQAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>]. 2008. ''The Siege of Mecca: The 1979 Uprising at Islam's Holiest Shrine''. ]. New York. {{ISBN|978-0-307-47290-8}}. p. 79.</ref>
===Qur'an===


=== Other acts of worship ===
] ] in a Qur'anic manuscript by ].]]
]
{{main|Qur'an}}
{{Seealso|Quran#Recitation|Dua|Dhikr}}
The Qur'an is considered by Muslims to be the literal, undistorted word of God, and is the central ] of Islam. It has also been called, in English, "the Koran" and (archaically) "the Alcoran." Qur'an is the currently preferred English transliteration of the Arabic original (قرآن), which means “recitation”. Although the Qur'an is referred to as a "book", when Muslims refer in the abstract to "the Qur'an," they are usually referring to the scripture as recited in Arabic -- the words themselves -- rather than to the printed work or any translation of it. The printed work of Qur'an is referred to as "Mus-haf", which is a word etymologically derived from the word "Saheefah" (paper). "Mus-haf" is a word that is solely used to describe the Qur'an when it is in book form.
Muslims recite and memorize the whole or parts of the Quran as acts of virtue. ] refers to the set of rules for the proper ] of the Quran.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = | isbn = | title = Foundation of Tajweed| location = | year = 2013|edition=2| last=Aboo Yahyaa| url = | page = 1
| quote = }}</ref> Many Muslims recite the whole Quran during the month of Ramadan.{{sfnp|Stefon|2010|p=}} One who has memorized the whole Quran is called a hafiz ("memorizer"), and hadiths mention that these individuals will be able to intercede for others on Judgment Day.{{sfnp|Nigosian|2004|p=}}


Supplication to God, called in Arabic {{transl|ar|DIN|duʿāʾ}} ({{langx|ar|دعاء}}&nbsp;{{IPA|ar|dʊˈʕæːʔ|IPA}}) has its own etiquette such as ] as if begging.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = Brill| isbn = 9789004335523| title = The Quṣṣāṣ of Early Islam| location = Netherlands| year = 2016| last=Armstrong| first=Lyall| url = | page = 184| quote = }}</ref>
Muslims believe that the verses of the Qur'an were revealed to Muhammad by God through the ] on numerous occasions between the years 610 and up till his death on ] ]. In addition to memorizing his revelations, his followers wrote them down on parchments, stones, and leaves, to preserve the revelation.


{{Listen
Most Muslims regard paper copies of the Qur'an with veneration, washing as for prayers before reading the Qur'an. Old Qur'ans are not destroyed as wastepaper, but burned.
|filename=112.AlIkhlas-MisharyRashedAlafasy.ogg
|title=''Al-Ikhlas''
|pos=right
|description= '']'' is the Quran's ] ] as recited by ] ]
|format=]
}}


Remembrance of God ({{langx|ar|ذكر|translit=Dhikr'|label=none}}) refers to phrases repeated referencing God. Commonly, this includes Tahmid, declaring ] ({{langx|ar|الحمد لله|translit=al-Ḥamdu lillāh|label=none}}) during prayer or when feeling thankful, ], declaring glory to God during prayer or when in awe of something and saying ']' ({{lang|ar|بسملة}}, {{transliteration|ar|ALA-LC|basmalah}}) before starting an act such as eating.<ref>{{Cite web|title=alhamdulillah |url=https://www.lexico.com/definition/alhamdulillah|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227042540/https://www.lexico.com/definition/alhamdulillah|url-status=dead|archive-date=February 27, 2020|access-date=2021-10-16|website=Lexico}}</ref>
Many Muslims memorize at least some portion of the Qur'an in the original language (i.e. Arabic), at least the verses needed to recite prayers. Those who have memorized the entire Qur'an are known as '']'' (plural ''huffāz''). Muslims believe that the Qur'an is perfect only as revealed in the original Arabic. Translations, they maintain, are the result of human effort, and are deficient because of differences in human languages, because of the human fallibility of translators, and (not least) because any translation lacks the inspired content found in the original. Translations are therefore regarded only as commentaries on the Qur'an, or "interpretations of its meaning", not as the Qur'an itself. Many modern, printed versions of the Qur'an feature the Arabic text on one page, and a vernacular translation on the facing page.


===Sunnah=== == History ==
{{Main|History of Islam}}
{{main|Sunnah}}
{{For timeline|Timeline of the history of Islam}}
'''Sunnah''' ('''{{lang|ar|سنة}}''') literally means “trodden path”, and therefore, the sunnah of the prophet means “the way of the prophet”. Terminologically, the word ‘Sunnah’ in ] means those religious actions that were instituted by the Prophet ] during the 23 years of his ministry and which Muslims initially received through consensus of companions of Muhammad (]), and further through generation-to-generation transmission. According to some opinions, sunnah in fact consists of those religious actions that were initiated by prophet ] and were only revived by prophet Muhammad.
{{See also|List of Muslim empires and dynasties}}
{{wide image|Madina Haram at evening.jpg|1000px|align-cap=center|A panoramic view of ] (the Mosque of the Prophet) in ], ] region, today's ], the second most sacred mosque in Islam}}


=== Muhammad and the beginning of Islam (570–632) ===
The question of ] (words and deeds of the Prophet) falling within the abode of the sunnah is an interesting <!-- contentious? --> one, and is highly dependent on the context. In the context of Islamic Law, ] and the ] scholars differentiate between the Sunnah and the Hadith. Imam Malik, for instance, is supposed to have rejected hadiths that reached him because, according to him, they were against the established practice of the people of Medinah. In ], the word 'Sunnah' means the deeds, sayings and approvals of Muhammad and the twelve ] who Shi'a Muslims believe were chosen by God to succeed the prophet and to lead mankind in every aspect of life.
{{Main|Muhammad|Muhammad in Islam}}
{{See also|Early social changes under Islam}}
]]]
According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad was born in ] in ] ] and was orphaned early in life. Growing up as a trader, he became known as the "]" ({{langx|ar|الامين}}) and was sought after as an impartial arbitrator. He later married his employer, the businesswoman ].{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=6}} In the year 610 CE, troubled by the moral decline and idolatry prevalent in Mecca and seeking seclusion and spiritual contemplation, Muhammad retreated to the ] in the mountain ], near Mecca. It was during his time in the cave that he is said to have ] of the ] from the angel ].<ref>{{harvc |c=Muhammad |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online |year=n.d. |last2=Welch |first2=A.T. |last1=Buhl |first1=F.}}</ref> The event of Muhammad's retreat to the cave and subsequent revelation is known as the "]" (''Laylat al-Qadr'') and is considered a significant event in Islamic history. During the next 22 years of his life, from age 40 onwards, Muhammad continued to receive revelations from God, becoming the last or ] sent to mankind.<ref name="harvp|Esposito|2002b|pp=4–5"/><ref name="harvp|Peters|2003|p=9"/><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Muhammad |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online}}</ref>
]''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ottomans : religious painting |url=http://www.ee.bilkent.edu.tr/~history/ottoman33.html |access-date=1 May 2016}}</ref> Muhammad is shown with veiled face, {{Circa|1595}}.]]
During this time, ] preached first in secret and then in public, imploring his listeners to abandon ] and worship one God. Many early converts to Islam were women, the poor, foreigners, and slaves like the first ] ].<ref>Rabah, Bilal B. ''].''</ref> The Meccan elite felt Muhammad was destabilizing their social order by preaching about one God and giving questionable ideas to the poor and slaves because they profited from the pilgrimages to the idols of the Kaaba.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ünal |first=Ali |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DyuqdDIjaswC&pg=PA1323 |title=The Qurʼan with Annotated Interpretation in Modern English |publisher=Tughra Books |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-59784-000-2 |pages=1323– |access-date=7 October 2017 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024048/https://books.google.com/books?id=DyuqdDIjaswC&pg=PA1323#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Holt|Lambton|Lewis|1977|p=36}}</ref>


After 12 years of the ], Muhammad and his ] performed the '']'' ("emigration") in 622 to the city of Yathrib (current-day Medina). There, with the Medinan converts (the '']'') and the Meccan migrants (the '']''), ] established his ]. The ] was signed by all the tribes of Medina. This established religious freedoms and freedom to use their own laws among the Muslim and non-Muslim communities as well as an agreement to defend Medina from external threats.{{sfnp|Serjeant|1978|p=4}} Meccan forces and their allies lost against the Muslims at the ] in 624 and then fought an inconclusive battle in the ]<ref>{{Citation |last=Peter Crawford |title=The War of the Three Gods: Romans, Persians and the Rise of Islam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d-oHBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA83 |page=83 |publisher=Pen & Sword Books Limited |isbn=9781473828650 |date=2013-07-16 |access-date=5 August 2022 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023957/https://books.google.com/books?id=d-oHBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA83 |url-status=live }}.</ref> before unsuccessfully besieging Medina in the ] (March–April&nbsp;627). In 628, the ] was signed between Mecca and the Muslims, but it was broken by Mecca two years later. As more tribes converted to Islam, Meccan trade routes were cut off by the Muslims.<ref>{{harvp|Peters|2003|pp=78–79, 194}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Lapidus|2002|pp=23–28}}</ref> By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless ], and by the time of his death in 632 (at age 62) he had united the ] into a single religious ].<ref>{{harvc|c=Muhammad |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online |year=n.d. |last2=Welch |first2=A.T. |last1=Buhl |first1=F.}}</ref><ref name="610CE" />
===Hadith===


=== Early Islamic period (632–750) ===
{{Main|Hadith}}
{{Further|Succession to Muhammad|Early Muslim conquests}}
Hadith are traditions relating to the words and deeds of ]. Hadith collections are regarded as important tools for determining the ], or ] way of life, by all traditional ]. A hadith was originally an oral tradition relevant to the actions and customs of the ] Muhammad. Starting the ] of the ], those receiving the hadith started to question the sources of the saying <ref>http://people.uncw.edu/bergh/par246/L21RHadithCriticism.htm</ref>. This resulted in a chain of transmission, for example "A told me that B told him that Muhammad said".
{{See also|Event of Ghadir Khumm|Saqifa}}
The hadith were eventually recorded in written form, had their ] and were collected into ] mostly during the reign of ] during ], something that solidified in the ]. These works are still today referred to in matters of ] and ].
]]]
] in ] built by caliph ]; completed at the end of the ]]]
Muhammad died in 632 and the first successors, called ]s – ], ], ], ] and sometimes ]<ref>{{Cite book| last1 = Melchert| first1 = Christopher| date = 2020| contribution = The Rightly Guided Caliphs: The Range of Views Preserved in Ḥadīth| editor1-last = al-Sarhan| editor1-first = Saud| title = Political Quietism in Islam: Sunni and Shi'i Practice and Thought| location = London and New York| publisher = ]| isbn = 978-1-83860-765-4| pages = 70–71| contribution-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=96TDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA63| access-date = 17 February 2022| archive-date = 28 December 2023| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023957/https://books.google.com/books?id=96TDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA63#v=onepage&q&f=false| url-status = live}}</ref> – are known in Sunni Islam as ''al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn'' ("]").{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=40}} Some tribes left Islam and rebelled under leaders who declared themselves new prophets but were crushed by Abu Bakr in the ].<ref>{{harvp|Holt|Lewis|1977|p=57}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Hourani|2002|p=22}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Lapidus|2002|p=32}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Madelung|1996|p=43}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Ṭabāṭabāʼī|1979|pp=30–50}}</ref> Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and heretics and taxed heavily, often helped Muslims take over their lands,{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=38}} resulting in rapid expansion of the caliphate into the ] and ] empires.<ref>{{harvp|Holt|Lewis|1977|p=74}}</ref><ref name="harvp|Gardet|Jomier|2012">{{harvp|Gardet|Jomier|2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=J. Kuiper |first=Matthew |title=Da'wa: A Global History of Islamic Missionary Thought and Practice |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2021 |isbn=9781351510721 |page=85}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Lapidus |first=Ira M. |title=A History of Islamic Societies |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-521-51430-9 |pages=60–61 |author-link=Ira M. Lapidus}}</ref> Uthman ] and his assassination by rebels led to Ali being elected the next Caliph. In the ], Muhammad's widow, ], raised an army against Ali, attempting to avenge the death of Uthman, but was defeated at the ]. Ali attempted to remove the governor of Syria, ], who was seen as corrupt. Mu'awiya then declared war on Ali and was defeated in the ]. Ali's decision to arbitrate angered the ], an extremist sect, who felt that by not fighting a sinner, Ali became a sinner as well. The Kharijites rebelled and were defeated in the ] but a Kharijite assassin later killed Ali. Ali's son, Hasan ibn Ali, was elected Caliph and signed a ] to avoid further fighting, abdicating to Mu'awiya in return for Mu'awiya not appointing a successor.{{sfnp|Holt|Lewis|1977|pp=67–72}} Mu'awiya began the ] with the appointment of his son ] as successor, sparking the ]. During the ], ] was killed by Yazid's forces; the event has been ] by Shias ever since. Sunnis, led by ] and opposed to a dynastic caliphate, were defeated in the ]. These disputes over leadership would give rise to the ]-] schism,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Harney |first=John |date=3 January 2016 |title=How Do Sunni and Shia Islam Differ? |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/04/world/middleeast/q-and-a-how-do-sunni-and-shia-islam-differ.html |access-date=4 January 2016 |archive-date=11 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200511081444/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/04/world/middleeast/q-and-a-how-do-sunni-and-shia-islam-differ.html |url-status=live }}</ref> with the Shia believing leadership belongs to Muhammad's family through Ali, called the ].{{sfnp|Waines|2003|p=46}}
Abu Bakr's leadership oversaw the beginning of the compilation of the Quran. The Caliph ] set up the committee, ],{{sfnp|Ismāʻīl ibn ʻUmar Ibn Kathīr|2012|p=505}}<ref>''Umar Ibn Abdul Aziz'' By Imam Abu Muhammad Abdullah ibn Abdul Hakam died 214 AH 829 C.E. Publisher Zam Zam Publishers Karachi, pp. 54–59</ref> and ] wrote one of the earliest books on Islamic jurisprudence, the '']'', as a consensus of the opinion of those jurists.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Noel James Coulson |title=History of Islamic Law |year=1964 |isbn=978-0-7486-0514-9 |page=103 |publisher=King Abdulaziz Public Library |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d5Ks31qHlSYC |access-date=7 October 2014 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023959/https://books.google.com/books?id=d5Ks31qHlSYC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |editor-last1=Houtsma |editor-first1=M.T. |editor-last2=Wensinck |editor-first2=A.J. |editor-last3=Lévi-Provençal |editor-first3=E. |editor-last4=Gibb |editor-first4=H.A.R. |editor-last5=Heffening |editor-first5=W. |series=Volume V: L—Moriscos |title=E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936 |publisher=] |year=1993 |edition=reprint |isbn=978-90-04-09791-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Va6oSxzojzoC |pages=207– |access-date=19 September 2021 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024105/https://books.google.com/books?id=Va6oSxzojzoC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor=] |title=Studies in Islamic History and Civilization: In Honour of Professor David Ayalon |year=1986 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789652640147 |page=264 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0_wUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA264 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024050/https://books.google.com/books?id=0_wUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA264#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> The ] believed there was no compromised middle ground between good and evil, and any Muslim who committed a grave sin would become an unbeliever. The term "kharijites" would also be used to refer to later groups such as ].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Mamouri|first=Ali|date=8 January 2015|title=Who are the Kharijites and what do they have to do with IS?|work=Al-monitor|url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2015/01/islamic-state-kjarijites-continuation.html|access-date=6 March 2022|archive-date=6 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220306213145/https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2015/01/islamic-state-kjarijites-continuation.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The ] taught that people's righteousness could be judged by God alone. Therefore, wrongdoers might be considered misguided, but not denounced as unbelievers.{{sfnp|Blankinship|2008|p=43}} This attitude came to prevail into mainstream Islamic beliefs.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=87}}


The Umayyad dynasty conquered the ], the ], ] and ].<ref>{{cite book |first=Donald |last=Puchala |title=Theory and History in International Relations |page=137 |publisher=Routledge |year=2003}}</ref> The Umayyads struggled with a lack of legitimacy and relied on a heavily patronized military.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=45}} Since the ] tax was a tax paid by non-Muslims which exempted them from military service, the Umayyads denied recognizing the conversion of non-Arabs, as it reduced revenue.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=87}} While the Rashidun Caliphate emphasized austerity, with Umar even requiring an inventory of each official's possessions,<ref>{{cite book |first1=Ahmad Ibn Jabir|last1=Al-Biladhuri |first2=Philip|last2=Hitti|title=Kitab Futuhu'l-Buldan|page=219 |publisher=AMS Press |year=1969}}</ref> Umayyad luxury bred dissatisfaction among the pious.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=87}} The Kharijites led the ], leading to the first Muslim states independent of the Caliphate. In the ], non-Arab converts ('']''), Arab clans pushed aside by the Umayyad clan, and some Shi'a rallied and overthrew the Umayyads, inaugurating the more cosmopolitan Abbasid dynasty in 750.{{sfnp|Lapidus|2002|p=56}}{{sfnp|Lewis|1993|pp=71–83}}
The overwhelming majority of Muslims consider hadith to be essential supplements to and clarifications of the ], Islam's holy book. In Islamic jurisprudence, the Qur'an contains many rules for the behavior expected of Muslims. However, there are many matters of concern, both religious and practical, on which there are no specific Qur'anic rules. Muslims believe that they can look at the way of life, or '']'', of Muhammad and his companions to discover what to imitate and what to avoid. Muslim scholars also find it useful to know how Muhammad or his companions explained the revelations, or upon what occasion Muhammad received them. Sometimes this will clarify a passage that otherwise seems obscure. Hadith are a source for Islamic history and biography. For the vast majority of devout Muslims, authentic hadith are also a source of religious inspiration. However, some contemporary Muslims argue that the ] is sufficient.


=== Classical era (750–1258) ===
==Five Pillars of Islam==
{{Further|Hadith studies|Islamic philosophy}}
{{See also|Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe|Turco-Persian tradition}}


Al-Shafi'i codified a method to determine the reliability of hadith.{{sfnp|Lapidus|2002|p=86}} During the early Abbasid era, scholars such as ] and ] compiled the major ] while scholars like ] and ] compiled major Shia hadith collections. The four Sunni ]s, the Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki, and Shafi'i, were established around the teachings of ], ], Malik ibn Anas and ]. In contrast, the teachings of ] formed the ]. In the 9th century, ] completed the first commentary of the Quran, the '']'', which became one of the most cited commentaries in Sunni Islam. Some Muslims began questioning the piety of indulgence in worldly life and emphasized poverty, humility, and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Ascetics such as ] inspired a movement that would evolve into ''tasawwuf'' or ].<ref name=EB-Sufism />{{sfnp|Lapidus|2002|pp=90, 91}}
{{main|Five Pillars of Islam|Practices of the Religion}}
The Five Pillars of Islam is the term given to what are understood among many Muslims to be the five core aspects of Sunni Islam. Shi'a Muslims accept the Five Pillars, but also add several other practices to form the Branches of Religion.


At this time, theological problems, notably on free will, were prominently tackled, with Hasan al Basri holding that although God knows people's actions, good and evil come from abuse of free will and the ].{{sfnp|Blankinship|2008|pp=38-39}}{{efn|"Hasan al Basri is often considered one of the first who rejected an angelic origin for the devil, arguing that his fall was the result of his own free-will, not God's determination. Hasan al Basri also argued that angels are incapable of sin or errors and nobler than humans and even prophets. Both early Shias and Sunnis opposed his view.<ref>Omar Hamdan ''Studien zur Kanonisierung des Korantextes: al-Ḥasan al-Baṣrīs Beiträge zur Geschichte des Korans'' Otto Harrassowitz Verlag 2006 {{ISBN|978-3447053495}} pp. 291–292 (German)</ref>}} Greek rationalist philosophy influenced a speculative school of thought known as ], who famously advocated the notion of free-will originated by ].{{sfnp|Blankinship|2008|p=50}} Caliph ] made it an official creed and unsuccessfully attempted to force this position on the majority.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=88}} Caliph ] carried out ]s, with the traditionalist ] notably refusing to conform to the Muʿtazila idea that the Quran was ], which resulted in him being tortured and kept in an unlit prison cell for nearly thirty months.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Doi |first=Abdur Rahman |title=Shariah: The Islamic Law |location=London |publisher=Ta-Ha Publishers |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-907461-38-8 |page=110}}</ref> However, other ] of ] – ] founded by ] and ] founded by ] – were more successful in being widely adopted. Philosophers such as ], ] and ] sought to harmonize Aristotle's ideas with the teachings of Islam, similar to later ] within ] and ]' work within Judaism, while others like ] argued against such ] and ultimately prevailed.<ref>{{harvp|Lapidus|2002|p=160}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Waines|2003|pp=126–127}}</ref>
===Shahadah===
] from a manuscript dated c. 1200]]
This era is sometimes called the "]".<ref>{{harvp|Holt|Lewis|1977|pp=80, 92, 105}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Holt|Lambton|Lewis|1977|pp=661–663}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Lapidus|2002|p=56}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Lewis|1993|p=84}}</ref><ref name="harvp|Gardet|Jomier|2012"/> Islamic scientific achievements spanned a wide range of subject areas including ], ], ], and ] as well as ], ], ] and ].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=King |first=David A. |year=1983 |title=The Astronomy of the Mamluks |journal=] |volume=74 |issue=4 |pages=531–55 |doi=10.1086/353360 |s2cid=144315162 | issn=0021-1753}}</ref><ref>Hassan, Ahmad Y. 1996. "." Pp. 351–99 in ''Islam and the Challenge of Modernity'', edited by S. S. Al-Attas. Kuala Lumpur: ]. Archived from the on 2 April 2015.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ854295.pdf|title=Contributions of Islamic scholars to the scientific enterprise|access-date=13 December 2022|archive-date=23 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230523192533/https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ854295.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=The greatest scientific advances from the Muslim world|website=]|date=February 2010|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2010/feb/01/islamic-science|access-date=13 December 2022|archive-date=13 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221213154451/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2010/feb/01/islamic-science|url-status=live}}</ref> ] was a pioneer in ],<ref>Jacquart, Danielle (2008). "Islamic Pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Theories and Substances". European Review (Cambridge University Press) 16: 219–227.</ref><ref>David W. Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (August 2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine", Heart Views 4 (2).</ref> and his '']'' was used as a standard medicinal text in the Islamic world and ] for centuries. ] was the first to identify the diseases ] and ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/broughttolife/people/alrazi.aspx|title=Abu Bakr Mohammad Ibn Zakariya al-Razi (Rhazes) (c. 865-925)|publisher=sciencemuseum.org.uk|access-date=31 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150506072259/http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/broughttolife/people/alrazi.aspx|archive-date=6 May 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> ]s of the time issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Alatas |first=Syed Farid |year=2006 |title=From Jami'ah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian–Muslim Dialogue |url=https://zenodo.org/record/29439 |journal=] |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=112–132 |doi=10.1177/0011392106058837 |s2cid=144509355 |access-date=12 September 2019 |archive-date=23 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170923024727/https://zenodo.org/record/29439/files/6.1From_Jamiah_to_University.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Imamuddin |first=S.M. |title=Muslim Spain 711–1492 AD |publisher=] |year=1981 |isbn=978-90-04-06131-6 |page=169}}</ref> ] is regarded as the father of the modern ] and often referred to as the "world's first true scientist", in particular regarding his work in ].<ref>{{cite journal |author-link=Gerald J. Toomer|first=G. J. |last=Toomer |jstor=228328 |title=Review Work: Matthias Schramm (1963) ''Ibn Al-Haythams Weg zur Physik'' |journal=Isis |volume=55 |issue=4 |date=Dec 1964 |page=464 |quote=Schramm sums up achievement in the development of scientific method.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Al-Khalili |first=Jim |date=4 January 2009 |title=The 'first true scientist' |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7810846.stm |access-date=24 September 2013 |archive-date=26 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150426041228/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7810846.stm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gorini |first=Rosanna |date=October 2003 |title=Al-Haytham the man of experience. First steps in the science of vision |journal=Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=53–55 |url=http://www.ishim.net/ishimj/4/10.pdf |access-date=25 September 2008 |archive-date=17 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190717022851/http://www.ishim.net/ishimj/4/10.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In engineering, the ] brothers' ] ] player is considered to have been the first ].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Koetsier |first1=Teun |title=On the prehistory of programmable machines: musical automata, looms, calculators |journal=Mechanism and Machine Theory |date=May 2001 |volume=36 |issue=5 |pages=589–603 |doi=10.1016/S0094-114X(01)00005-2 }}</ref> In ], the concept of the ] is named after ], who is considered a founder of ], which is named after his book ], while others developed the concept of a ].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Katz |first1=Victor J. |last2=Barton |first2=Bill |title=Stages in the History of Algebra with Implications for Teaching |journal=Educational Studies in Mathematics |date=18 September 2007 |volume=66 |issue=2 |pages=185–201 |doi=10.1007/s10649-006-9023-7 |s2cid=120363574 }}</ref> The government paid scientists the equivalent salary of professional athletes today.<ref>{{harvp|Ahmed|2006|pp=23, 42, 84}}</ref> ] recognizes the ], founded in 859, as the world's oldest degree-granting university.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Young |first=Mark |url=https://archive.org/details/guinnessbookofwo1998newy |title=The Guinness Book of Records |year=1998 |page= |publisher=Bantam |isbn=978-0-553-57895-9}}</ref> Many non-Muslims, such as ], ] and ],<ref name="Brague 2009"/> ] in various fields,<ref>Hill, Donald. ''Islamic Science and Engineering''. 1993. Edinburgh Univ. Press. {{ISBN|0-7486-0455-3}}, p.4</ref><ref>Rémi Brague, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927015958/http://www.christiansofiraq.com/assyriancontributionstotheislamiccivilization.htm |date=2013-09-27 }}</ref> and the institution known as the ] employed ] and ] to both translate works into Arabic and to develop new knowledge.<ref>Meri, Josef W. and Jere L. Bacharach. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024001/https://books.google.com/books?id=MypbfKdMePIC&pg=PA304#v=onepage&q&f=false |date=28 December 2023 }}. 2006, p. 304.</ref><ref name="Brague 2009">{{cite book|title=The Legend of the Middle Ages: Philosophical Explorations of Medieval Christianity, Judaism, and Islam|first=Rémi |last=Brague|year= 2009| isbn=9780226070803| page =164|publisher=University of Chicago Press|quote=Neither were there any Muslims among the Ninth-Century translators. Amost all of them were Christians of various Eastern denominations: Jacobites, Melchites, and, above all, Nestorians... A few others were Sabians.}}</ref><ref>]. 1994. ''A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam''. New York: ]. {{ISBN|0-8147-8023-7}}. pp. 245, 250, 256–57.</ref>


Soldiers broke away from the Abbasid empire and established their own dynasties, such as the ]s in 868 in Egypt<ref>{{cite book|last=Holt|first=Peter Malcolm|author-link=Peter Holt (historian)|title=The Crusader States and Their Neighbours, 1098–1291|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A0qLHVGgH7AC&pg=PA8|year=2004|publisher=Pearson Longman|isbn=978-0-582-36931-3|page=6|access-date=2 February 2023|archive-date=28 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024001/https://books.google.com/books?id=A0qLHVGgH7AC&pg=PA8|url-status=live}}</ref> and the ] in 977 in Central Asia.<ref>{{cite book |title=Islamic Central Asia: an anthology of historical sources |editor-first1=Scott Cameron |editor-last1=Levi |editor-first2=Ron |editor-last2=Sela |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=2010 |page=83}}</ref> In this fragmentation came the ], roughly between 945 and 1055, which saw the rise of the ] ] Shi'a missionary movement. One Isma'ili group, the ], took control of North Africa in the 10th century<ref>Neue Fischer Weltgeschichte "Islamisierung in Zentralasien bis zur Mongolenzeit" Band 10: Zentralasien, 2012, p. 191 (German)</ref> and another Isma'ili group, the ], sacked Mecca and stole the ], a rock placed within the Kaaba, in their unsuccessful rebellion.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Glubb |first=John Bagot |title=Mecca (Saudi Arabia) |encyclopedia=] |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Mecca#ref887188 |access-date=18 September 2021 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=6 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200506004706/https://www.britannica.com/place/Mecca#ref887188 |url-status=live }}</ref> Yet another Isma'ili group, the ], conquered Baghdad and turned the Abbasids into a figurehead monarchy. The Sunni Seljuk dynasty campaigned to ] by promulgating the scholarly opinions of the time, notably with the construction of educational institutions known as ], which are associated with Al-Ghazali and ].<ref>Andreas Graeser ''Zenon von Kition: Positionen u. Probleme'' ] 1975 {{ISBN|978-3-11-004673-1}} p. 260</ref>
The basic creed or tenet of Islam is found in the ] ("two testimonies"): ''{{ArabDIN|'ašhadu 'al-lā ilāha illā-llāhu wa 'ašhadu 'anna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh}}''; "I testify that there is none worthy of worship except God and I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of God."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/pillars/shahadah/shahadahprereq.html|title=USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts|accessdate=2006-09-12}}</ref> As the most important pillar, this testament can be considered a foundation for all other beliefs and practices in Islam. Ideally, it is the first words a new-born will hear, and children are taught to recite and understand the shahadah as soon as they are able to. Muslims must repeat the shahadah in prayer, and non-Muslims must use the creed to formally convert to Islam.<ref>{{cite book | title=Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices |author= Nigosian, S A| publisher=Indiana University Press |year=2004 |location=Bloomington, Indiana}}</ref>


The expansion of the Muslim world continued with religious missions converting ] to Islam. The ] reached deep into the ] and many converted to Islam,{{sfnp|Arnold|1896|pp=227–228}} in particular ]s whose descendants make up the vast majority of Indian Muslims.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-36220329|title=Why are many Indian Muslims seen as untouchable?|publisher=BBCnews|date=10 May 2016|access-date=6 October 2022|archive-date=7 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221007024220/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-36220329|url-status=live}}</ref> Trade brought many ], where they virtually dominated the import and export industry of the ].<ref>{{cite web |title=Islam in China |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/china_1.shtml |access-date=10 August 2011 |publisher=BBC |archive-date=22 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181122142756/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/china_1.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> Muslims were recruited as a ] in the ].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lipman|first=Jonathan Newman|title=Familiar Strangers, a history of Muslims in Northwest China|location=Seattle, WA|publisher=University of Washington Press|year=1997|isbn=978-0-295-97644-0|page=33}}</ref>
===Salat===


=== Pre-modern era (1258 – 18th century) ===
] (prayer).]]
{{Further|Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam}}
The second pillar of Islam is ], the requirement to pray five times a day at fixed times. <ref name=davidB> David B. Doroquez ] </ref> <ref name=coim>{{cite book | last = Kobeisy| first = Ahmed Nezar| authorlink = Ahmed Nezar Kobeisy | year = 2004 | title = Counseling American Muslims | pages = 22-23| publisher = Praeger/Greenwood| id = ISBN 0313324727}} </ref> Each salat is performed facing towards the ] in Mecca. <ref name=davidB/> However, in the early days of Islam prior to the ] and until the beginning of the seventh month after hijra Muslims offered salat facing towards Jerusalem. <ref name=james>{{cite book | last = Lindsay| first = James | authorlink = James E. Lindsay| year = 2005| title = Daily Life in the Medieval Islamic World | pages = 142-143| publisher = Greenwood Press| id = ISBN 0313322708}}</ref> Salat is intended to focus the mind on God; it is a personal communication with God, expressing gratitude and worship.<ref name=davidB/> According to the Qur'an ({{Quran-usc|29|40}}) the benefit of prayer "restrains from shameful and evil deeds"<ref name=coim/>. Salat is compulsory but there are flexibilities under certain circumstances. <ref name=heday>{{cite book | last = Hedáyetullah| first = Muhammad | authorlink = Muhammad Hedáyetullah | year = 2002 | title = Dynamics of Islam | pages = 53-55| publisher = Trafford Publishing| id = ISBN 1553698428}}</ref> For example in the case of sickness or lack of space, a worshipper can offer salat while sitting or even lying, and the prayer can be shortened when travelling. <ref name=heday/>
], 7{{sup|th}} ] ruler of the ], converts to Islam. 14th-century depiction]]
Through Muslim trade networks and the activity of Sufi orders,{{sfnp|Arnold|1896|pp=125–258}} Islam spread into new areas<ref>{{cite web |title=The Spread of Islam |url=http://www.yale.edu/yup/pdf/cim6.pdf |access-date=2 November 2013 |archive-date=3 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103220022/http://www.yale.edu/yup/pdf/cim6.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> and Muslims assimilated into new cultures.


Under the ], Islam spread to ].<ref>{{cite web |date=6 May 2008 |title=Ottoman Empire |publisher=Oxford Islamic Studies Online |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1801?_hi=41&_pos=3 |access-date=26 August 2010 |archive-date=10 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220610093907/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1801?_hi=41 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Conversion to Islam often involved a degree of ],<ref>{{Cite book |title=Islamic and European Expansion |publisher=] |year=1993 |editor-last=Adas |editor-first=Michael |location=Philadelphia |page=25}}</ref> as illustrated by Muhammad's appearance in ] folklore.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Metcalf |first=Barbara |title=Islam in South Asia in Practice |publisher=] |year=2009 |page=104}}</ref> Muslim Turks incorporated elements of ] to Islam.{{efn|"In recent years, the idea of syncretism has been challenged. Given the lack of authority to define or enforce an Orthodox doctrine about Islam, some scholars argue there had no prescribed beliefs, only prescribed practise, in Islam before the 16th century.{{sfnp|Peacock|2019|p=20–22}}}}{{sfnp|Çakmak|2017|pp=1425–1429}} ] who were descended from earlier immigrants were assimilated, sometimes through laws mandating assimilation,<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Farmer|editor1-first=Edward L.|title=Zhu Yuanzhang and Early Ming Legislation: The Reordering of Chinese Society Following the Era of Mongol Rule|date=1995|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9004103910|page=82|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TCIjZ7l6TX8C&pg=PA82|access-date=19 February 2023|archive-date=28 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024330/https://books.google.com/books?id=TCIjZ7l6TX8C&pg=PA82#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> by adopting Chinese names and ] while ] became an important center of Islamic study.<ref>Israeli, Raphael (2002). ''Islam in China''. p. 292. ]. {{ISBN|0-7391-0375-X}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dillon |first=Michael |year=1999 |title=China's Muslim Hui Community |publisher=Curzon |url=https://archive.org/details/chinasmuslimhuic00dill |isbn=978-0-7007-1026-3 |page= |url-access=registration}}</ref>
The salat must be performed in the ] to the best of each worshipper's ability (although the '']'' afterwards need not be in Arabic), and the lines are to be recited by heart, although beginners may use written aids. The worshipper's body and clothing, as well as the place of prayer, must be cleansed. <ref name=heday/> All salat should be conducted within the prescribed time period or ''waqt'' and with the appropriate number of ]. While prayers may be made at any point within the ''waqt'', it is considered best to begin them as soon as possible after the call to prayer is heard. When a worshipper is too far from a ] to hear a call to prayer, the time may be inferred from the position of the sun in the sky.{{fact}}


Cultural shifts were evident with the decrease in Arab influence after the ] of the Abbasid Caliphate.<ref>{{harvp|Bulliet|2005|p=497}}</ref> The Muslim Mongol Khanates in ] and ] benefited from increased cross-cultural access to East Asia under ] and thus flourished and developed more distinctively from Arab influence, such as the ] under the ].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Subtelny |first=Maria Eva |date=November 1988 |title=Socioeconomic Bases of Cultural Patronage under the Later Timurids |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-middle-east-studies/article/socioeconomic-bases-of-cultural-patronage-under-the-later-timurids/2A0F3018EE155F23FC4A7F5F25D7DE6D |journal=] |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=479–505 |doi=10.1017/S0020743800053861 |s2cid=162411014 |access-date=7 November 2016 |archive-date=13 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200813204329/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-middle-east-studies/article/socioeconomic-bases-of-cultural-patronage-under-the-later-timurids/2A0F3018EE155F23FC4A7F5F25D7DE6D |url-status=live }}</ref> ] (1201–1274) proposed the ] that was later argued to be adopted by ] unrevised in his ] model,<ref>{{cite web|date=1999|title=Nasir al-Din al-Tusi|publisher=University of St Andrews|url=https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Al-Tusi_Nasir/|access-date=27 August 2023|archive-date=6 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181006055638/http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Al-Tusi_Nasir.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and ]'s estimate of ] would not be surpassed for 180 years.<ref>{{cite web |date=1999 |title=Ghiyath al-Din Jamshid Mas'ud al-Kashi |publisher=University of St Andrews |url=https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Al-Kashi/ |access-date=29 December 2021 |archive-date=4 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220104103227/https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Al-Kashi/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
===Zakat===


After the introduction of gunpowder weapons, large and centralized Muslim states consolidated around ], these had been previously splintered amongst various territories. The ] was claimed by the ] of the Ottoman Empire and its claims were strengthened in 1517 as ] became the ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Drews |first=Robert |url=https://my.vanderbilt.edu/robertdrews/publications/ |title=Coursebook: Judaism, Christianity and Islam, to the Beginnings of Modern Civilization |date=August 2011 |publisher=] |chapter=Chapter Thirty – "The Ottoman Empire, Judaism, and Eastern Europe to 1648" |chapter-url=https://my.vanderbilt.edu/robertdrews/files/2014/01/Chapter-Thirty.-The-Ottoman-Empire-Judaism-and-Eastern-Europe-to-1648.pdf |access-date=21 April 2020 |archive-date=26 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221226173808/https://my.vanderbilt.edu/robertdrews/publications/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The Shia ] rose to power in 1501 and later conquered all of Iran.<ref>Peter B. Golden: An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples; In: Osman Karatay, Ankara 2002, p. 321</ref> In South Asia, ] founded the ].<ref>{{citation|last=Gilbert|first=Marc Jason|title=South Asia in World History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1dhKDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA75|year=2017|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-066137-3|pages=75|access-date=15 January 2023|archive-date=22 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922031915/https://books.google.com/books?id=1dhKDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA75|url-status=live}}</ref>
], or alms-giving, is giving charity to the poor and needy by able Muslims, based on the wealth that one has accumulated. It is a personal responsibility intended to ease economic hardship for others and eliminate inequality.<ref>{{cite book |title=Major World Religions: From Their Origins to the Present |author=Lloyd Ridgeon |year= 2003 |publisher= RoutledgeCorizon |location= New York, NY |pages= p. 258}}</ref> It consists spending a fixed portion of one's wealth for the ] or ]y, including people whose hearts need to be reconciled, ], those in "debt," those in the way of ], and the travelers in the society. A ] may also donate an additional amount as an act of voluntary charity (]), in order to achieve additional divine reward.


The religion of the centralized states of the gunpowder empires influenced the religious practice of their constituent populations. A ] between ] and Sufism strongly influenced Islamic reign by the Ottomans from the beginning. The ] and ] had a close relation to the sultans,<ref>Ga ́bor A ́goston, Bruce Alan Masters ''Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire'' ] 2010 {{ISBN|978-1-4381-1025-7}} p. 540</ref> as Sufi-mystical as well as ] and ] approaches to Islam flourished.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Algar |first=Ayla Esen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fc69BhBDjhwC&q=ottomans+sufism |title=The Dervish Lodge: Architecture, Art, and Sufism in Ottoman Turkey |page=15 |date=1 January 1992 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-520-07060-8 |access-date=29 April 2020 |via=Google Books |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024414/https://books.google.com/books?id=fc69BhBDjhwC&q=ottomans+sufism#v=snippet&q=ottomans%20sufism&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> The often forceful ] to the Twelver Shia Islam of the Safavid Empire ensured the final dominance of the ] within Shia Islam. Persian migrants to South Asia, as influential bureaucrats and landholders, helped spread Shia Islam, forming some of the largest Shia populations outside Iran.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/conversion-iii|title=CONVERSION To Imami Shiʿism in India|publisher=Iranica Online|language=English|access-date=6 October 2022|archive-date=7 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221007024220/https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/conversion-iii|url-status=live}}</ref> ], who overthrew the Safavids, attempted to improve relations with Sunnis by propagating the integration of Twelverism into Sunni Islam as a fifth ''madhhab'', called Ja'farism,<ref>{{cite journal |title=Nadir Shah and the Ja 'fari Madhhab Reconsidered |first=Ernest |last=Tucker |journal=Iranian Studies |volume=27 |issue=1–4 |date=1994 |pages=163–179 |doi=10.1080/00210869408701825 |jstor=4310891}}</ref> which failed to gain recognition from the Ottomans.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Nāder Shāh |encyclopedia=] |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/nader-shah |date=29 March 2006 |first=Ernest |last=Tucker |access-date=9 March 2021 |archive-date=25 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225103212/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/nader-shah%20 |url-status=live }}</ref>
There are two main types of zakât, zakât on traffic, which is a per head payment equivalent to cost of around 2.25 kilograms of the main food of the region paid during the month of ] by the head of a family for himself and his dependents, and zakât on wealth, which covers money made in business, savings, income, crops, livestock, gold, minerals, hidden treasures unearthed, and so on.


=== Modern era (18th–20th centuries) ===
The payment of zakât is obligatory on all Muslims. In current usage it is interpreted as a 2.5% levy on most valuables and savings held for a full ] year, if the total value is more than a basic minimum known as ] (3 ]s or 87.48g of gold). At present (as of 5 October 2006), nisab is approximately US $1,725 or an equivalent amount in any other currency.<ref>{{cite web| title = Zakat calculator| url = http://www.ramadhanzone.com/zakat_calculator.asp| accessdate = 2006-11-13}}</ref>
] was the last Caliph of Islam from the ].]]


Earlier in the 14th century, ] promoted a ]ical form of Islam,<ref name="ReferenceA">Mary Hawkesworth, Maurice Kogan ''Encyclopedia of Government and Politics: 2-volume set'' ] 2013 {{ISBN|978-1-136-91332-7}} pp. 270–271</ref> rejecting philosophical approaches in favor of simpler theology,<ref name="ReferenceA" /> and called to open the gates of ] rather than blind imitation of scholars.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=150}} He called for a jihad against those he deemed heretics,<ref>Richard Gauvain ''Salafi Ritual Purity: In the Presence of God'' ] 2013 {{ISBN|978-0-7103-1356-0}} p. 6</ref> but his writings only played a marginal role during his lifetime.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Spevack |first=Aaron |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=htx8BAAAQBAJ |title=The Archetypal Sunni Scholar: Law, Theology, and Mysticism in the Synthesis of al-Bajuri |date=2014 |publisher=] |isbn=978-1-4384-5371-2 |pages=129–130 |access-date=10 December 2018 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024415/https://books.google.com/books?id=htx8BAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> During the 18th century in Arabia, ], influenced by the works of Ibn Taymiyya and ], founded a movement called ] to return to what he saw as unadultered Islam.<ref>Donald Quataert ''The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922'' ] 2005 {{ISBN|978-0-521-83910-5}} p. 50</ref><ref name="ReferenceE">Ga ́bor A ́goston, Bruce Alan Masters ''Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire'' ] 2010 {{ISBN|978-1-4381-1025-7}} p. 260</ref> He condemned many local Islamic customs, such as visiting the grave of Muhammad or saints, as later ] and sinful<ref name="ReferenceE" /><ref name="Musa-2022">{{Cite thesis |title=The Emergence of a Scholar from a Garrison Society: A contextual analysis of Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhāb's doctrine in the light of the Qur'ān and Hadīth |url=https://repository.uwtsd.ac.uk/id/eprint/2096/ |publisher=University of Wales Trinity Saint David |date=2022-08-23 |degree=masters |language=en |first=Shahajada Md |last=Musa |access-date=19 December 2023 |archive-date=2 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230502100026/https://repository.uwtsd.ac.uk/id/eprint/2096/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and destroyed sacred rocks and trees, Sufi shrines, the ] and the tomb of Husayn at Karbala, a major Shia pilgrimage site.<ref name="Musa-2022" /><ref>{{Cite news |date=4 September 2013 |title=Graves desecrated in Mizdah |work=] |url=http://www.libyaherald.com/2013/09/04/graves-desecrated-in-mizdah/#axzz2jWG0vDDO |access-date=2 November 2013 |archive-date=3 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103172759/http://www.libyaherald.com/2013/09/04/graves-desecrated-in-mizdah/#axzz2jWG0vDDO |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=146}} He formed an alliance with the ], which, by the 1920s, completed their conquest of the area that would become ].<ref name="Musa-2022" /><ref>Nicolas Laos ''The Metaphysics of World Order: A Synthesis of Philosophy, Theology, and Politics'' ] Publishers 2015 {{ISBN|978-1-4982-0102-5}} p. 177</ref> ] and Ma Debao promoted salafist movements in the 19th century such as ] in China after returning from Mecca but were eventually persecuted and forced into hiding by Sufi groups.<ref>{{cite book|first=Barry M.|last=Rubin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wEih57-GWQQC&pg=PA79|page=79|title=Guide to Islamist Movements|year=2000|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|isbn=0-7656-1747-1|access-date=28 June 2010|archive-date=28 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024259/https://books.google.com/books?id=wEih57-GWQQC&pg=PA79#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> Other groups sought to reform Sufism rather than reject it, with the ] and ] both waging war and establishing states in Libya and Sudan respectively.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=147}} In India, ] attempted a more conciliatory style against Sufism and influenced the ] movement.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=149}} In response to the Deobandi movement, the ] movement was founded as a mass movement, defending popular ] and reforming its practices.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Robert L. Canfield |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g3JhKNSk8tQC&pg=PAPA131 |title=Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective |date=2002 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-521-52291-5 |pages=131– |access-date=1 December 2018 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024259/https://books.google.com/books?id=g3JhKNSk8tQC&pg=PAPA131#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sanyal |first=Usha |date=23 July 1998 |title=Generational Changes in the Leadership of the Ahl-e Sunnat Movement in North India during the twentieth Century |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/generational-changes-in-the-leadership-of-the-ahle-sunnat-movement-in-north-india-during-the-twentieth-century/8AAAC4CFEFC4F4084731C3964A5CAE84 |journal=] |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=635–656 |doi=10.1017/S0026749X98003059 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |via=Cambridge Core |access-date=23 February 2020 |archive-date=17 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200317013822/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/generational-changes-in-the-leadership-of-the-ahle-sunnat-movement-in-north-india-during-the-twentieth-century/8AAAC4CFEFC4F4084731C3964A5CAE84 |url-status=live }}</ref>
]'') to ], ], ], is an important practice for Muslims to perform]]


The ] was generally in political decline starting the 1800s, especially compared to non-Muslim European powers. Earlier, in the 15th century, the ] succeeded in ending the ]. By the 19th century, the British ] had formally annexed the ] in India.{{sfnp|Lapidus|2002|pp=358, 378–380, 624}} As a response to ], many intellectuals sought to ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Buzpinar |first=Ş. Tufan |date=March 2007 |title=Celal Nuri's Concepts of Westernization and Religion |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=247–258 |doi=10.1080/00263200601114091 |jstor=4284539|s2cid=144461915 }}</ref> ], initially labelled by Western scholars as ], embraced modern values and institutions such as democracy while being scripture oriented. Notable forerunners in the movement include ] and ].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lauziere|first=Henri|title=The Making of Salafism: Islamic Reform in the Twentieth Century|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2016|isbn=978-0-231-17550-0|location=New York, Chichester, West Sussex|pages=231–232|quote="Beginning with Louis Massignon in 1919, it is true that Westerners played a leading role in labeling Islamic modernists as Salafis, even though the term was a misnomer. At the time, European and American scholars felt the need for a useful conceptual box to place Muslim figures such as Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, Muhammad Abduh, and their epigones, all of whom seemed inclined toward a scripturalist understanding of Islam but proved open to rationalism and Western modernity. They chose to adopt salafiyya—a technical term of theology, which they mistook for a reformist slogan and wrongly associated with all kinds of modernist Muslim intellectuals."}}</ref> ] helped influence modern ].<ref>{{Cite news |date=3 January 2014 |title=Political Islam: A movement in motion |work=] |url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/erasmus/2014/01/political-islam |access-date=1 January 2014 |archive-date=4 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140104032602/http://www.economist.com/blogs/erasmus/2014/01/political-islam |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Wilfred Cantwell |title=Islam in Modern History |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1957 |isbn=0-691-03030-8 |page=233 |author-link=Wilfred Cantwell Smith}}</ref> Similar to contemporary ], sharia was for the first time partially codified into law in 1869 in the Ottoman Empire's ] code.<ref name=Oxfordref>{{cite web |editor-link=John Esposito |editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=John L. |title=Mecelle |work=] |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100146176 |url-access=subscription |via=Oxford Islamic Studies Online |access-date=17 August 2023 |archive-date=17 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230817003534/https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100146176 |url-status=live }}</ref>
===Sawm===


The ] after ], the ] ]<ref>{{Cite news |date=29 June – 5 July 2000 |title=New Turkey |work=] |issue=488 |url=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2000/488/chrncls.htm |url-status=dead |access-date=16 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101004145229/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2000/488/chrncls.htm |archive-date=4 October 2010}}</ref> and the subsequent ] fell quickly,<ref>{{Cite web |last1=الوطن |first1=جريدة |last2=webmaster |date=2020-05-05 |title=«مملكة الحجاز».. وقــصـــة الـغــزو المـســلّـــح |url=https://www.al-watan.com/article/230610/NEWS/%C2%AB%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B2%C2%BB-%D9%88%D9%82%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B5%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%80%D8%BA%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B2%D9%88-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%80%D8%B3%D9%80%D9%80%D9%84%D9%91%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%AD |access-date=2023-12-19 |website=جريدة الوطن |language=ar |archive-date=16 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230516230552/https://www.al-watan.com/article/230610/NEWS/%C2%AB%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B2%C2%BB-%D9%88%D9%82%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B5%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%80%D8%BA%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B2%D9%88-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%80%D8%B3%D9%80%D9%80%D9%84%D9%91%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%AD |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bani Issa |first=Mohammad Saleh |date=2023-11-01 |title=Factors of stability and sustainable development in Jordan in its first centenary 1921–2021 (an analytical descriptive study) |journal=Heliyon |volume=9 |issue=11 |pages=e20993 |doi=10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e20993 |issn=2405-8440 |doi-access=free|pmid=37928029 |pmc=10623165 |bibcode=2023Heliy...920993B }}</ref><ref name="والخلفاء-2023">{{Cite book |last=والخلفاء |first=قصص الخلافة الإسلامية |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r-5EAAAQBAJ |title=قصص الخلافة الإسلامية والخلفاء |date=2023-03-31 |publisher=Austin Macauley Publishers |isbn=978-1-3984-9251-6 |language=en |access-date=26 December 2023 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024259/https://books.google.com/books?id=_r-5EAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> thus leaving Islam without a ].<ref name="والخلفاء-2023" /> ]ists attempted to unify Muslims and competed with growing nationalist forces, such as ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Doran |first=Michael |title=Pan-Arabism before Nasser: Egyptian power politics and the Palestine question |date=1999 |publisher=Oxford university press |isbn=978-0-19-512361-6 |series=Studies in Middle Eastern history |location=New York Oxford}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Landau |first=Yaʿaqov M. |title=The politics of Pan-Islam: ideology and organization |date=1994 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-827709-5 |edition= paperback (with additions and corr.) |location=Oxford}}</ref> The ] (OIC), consisting of ], was established in 1969 after the burning of the ] in ].<ref>{{Cite news |date=26 December 2010 |title=Organization of the Islamic Conference |work=] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/country_profiles/1555062.stm |access-date=24 September 2013 |archive-date=28 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180628190335/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/country_profiles/1555062.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>
], or fasting, is an obligatory act during the month of ]. Muslims must abstain from food, drink, and sexual intercourse from dawn to dusk during this month, and are to be especially mindful of other sins that are prohibited. This activity is intended to allow Muslims to seek nearness to God as well as remind them of the needy. During Ramadan, Muslims are also expected to put more effort into following the teachings of Islam by refraining from violence, anger, envy, greed, lust, angry/sarcastic retorts, gossip, and are meant to try to get along with each other better than normal. All obscene and irreligious sights and sounds are to be avoided. The fast is an exacting act of deeply personal worship in which Muslims seek a raised level of closeness to God. The act of fasting is said to redirect the heart away from worldly activities and its purpose being to cleanse your inner soul, and free it of harm.


Contact with industrialized nations brought Muslim populations to new areas through economic migration. Many Muslims migrated as indentured servants (mostly from India and Indonesia) to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas.{{sfnp|Haddad|Smith|2002|p=271}} Migration from Syria and Lebanon contributed to the ].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Zabel|first=Darcy|title=Arabs in the Americas: Interdisciplinary Essays on the Arab Diaspora|publisher=Peter Lang|year=2006|isbn=9780820481111|location=Austria|page=5}}</ref> The resulting urbanization and increase in trade in sub-Saharan Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith,<ref name="Pew Research Center-2011">{{Cite report |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/ |title=The Future of the Global Muslim Population |date=27 January 2011 |publisher=] |access-date=27 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110209094904/http://www.pewforum.org/The-Future-of-the-Global-Muslim-Population.aspx |archive-date=9 February 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> likely doubling its Muslim population between 1869 and 1914.<ref>{{harvp|Bulliet|2005|p=722}}</ref>
Fasting during Ramadan is not obligatory for several groups for whom it would be excessively problematic. Children before the onset of puberty are not required to fast, though some do. Also some small children fast for half a day instead of a whole day so they get used to fasting. However, if puberty is delayed, fasting becomes obligatory for males and females after a certain age. According to Qur'an, if fasting would be dangerous to people's health, such as to people with an illness or medical condition, and sometimes elderly people, they are excused. For example, ] and ] or ] women usually are not expected to fast. According to ], observing the Ramadan fast is not allowed for menstruating women. Other individuals for whom it is usually considered acceptable not to fast are those in battle, and travelers who intended to spend fewer than five days away from home. If one's condition preventing fasting is only temporary, one is required to make up for the days missed after the month of Ramadan is over and before the next Ramadan arrives. If one's condition is permanent or present for an extended amount of time, one may make up for the fast by feeding a needy person for every day missed.<ref>{{cite book |title=Islam 101: Principles and Practice |author=Arshad Khan |publisher= Writers Club Press |year=2003 |location=Lincoln, Nebraska |pages= p.54}}</ref>


=== Contemporary era (20th century–present) ===
===Hajj===
] in Istanbul, Turkey|upright=1.35]]
Forerunners of Islamic modernism influenced Islamist political movements such as the ] and related parties in the Arab world,<ref>{{Cite news |date=9 August 2011 |title=Are secular forces being squeezed out of Arab Spring? |work=] |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14447820 |access-date=10 August 2011 |archive-date=4 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104171024/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14447820 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Slackman |first=Michael |date=23 December 2008 |title=Jordanian students rebel, embracing conservative Islam |work=] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/24/world/middleeast/24jordan.html |access-date=15 August 2011 |archive-date=4 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104153440/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/24/world/middleeast/24jordan.html |url-status=live }}</ref> which performed well in elections following the ],<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kirkpatrick |first=David D. |date=3 December 2011 |title=Egypt's vote puts emphasis on split over religious rule |work=] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/04/world/middleeast/egypts-vote-propels-islamic-law-into-spotlight.html |access-date=8 December 2011 |archive-date=4 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104153442/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/04/world/middleeast/egypts-vote-propels-islamic-law-into-spotlight.html |url-status=live }}</ref> ] in South Asia and the ], which has democratically been in power in Turkey for decades. In ], ] replaced a ] monarchy with an ]. Others such as ] broke away from Islamic modernists<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lauziere|first=Henri|title=The Making of Salafism: Islamic Reform in the Twentieth Century|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2016|isbn=978-0-231-17550-0|location=New York, Chichester, West Sussex|page=237|quote="Prior to the fall of the Ottoman Empire, leading reformers who happened to be Salafi in creed were surprisingly open-minded: although they adhered to neo-Hanbali theology. However, the aftermath of the First World War and the expansion of European colonialism paved the way for a series of shifts in thought and attitude. The experiences of Rida offer many examples... he turned against the Shi'is who dared, with reason, to express doubts about the Saudi-Wahhabi project... . Shi'is were not the only victims: Rida and his associates showed their readiness to turn against fellow Salafis who questioned some of the Wahhabis' religious interpretations."}}</ref> and pushed against embracing what he saw as Western influence.<ref>{{Cite book|last=G. Rabil|first=Robert|title=Salafism in Lebanon: From Apoliticism to Transnational Jihadism|publisher=Georgetown University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-1-62616-116-0|location=Washington DC, US|pages=32–33|quote="Western colonialists established in these countries political orders... that, even though not professing enmity to Islam and its institutions, left no role for Islam in society. This caused a crisis among Muslim reformists, who felt betrayed not only by the West but also by those nationalists, many of whom were brought to power by the West... Nothing reflects this crisis more than the ideological transformation of Rashid Rida (1865–1935)... He also revived the works of Ibn Taymiyah by publishing his writings and promoting his ideas. Subsequently, taking note of the cataclysmic events brought about by Western policies in the Muslim world and shocked by the abolition of the caliphate, he transformed into a Muslim intellectual mostly concerned about protecting Muslim culture, identity, and politics from Western influence. He supported a theory that essentially emphasized the necessity of an Islamic state in which the scholars of Islam would have a leading role... Rida was a forerunner of Islamist thought. He apparently intended to provide a theoretical platform for a modern Islamic state. His ideas were later incorporated into the works of Islamic scholars. Significantly, his ideas influenced none other than Hassan al-Bannah, founder of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt... The Muslim Brethren have taken up Rida's Islamic fundamentalism, a right-wing radical movement founded in 1928,.."}}</ref> The group ] would even attempt to recreate the modern gold dinar as their monetary system. While some of those who broke away were ], others believed in violence against those opposing them, even against other Muslims.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/nov/14/isis-gold-silver-copper-islamic-dinar-coins |title=Isis to mint own Islamic dinar coins in gold, silver and copper |work=The Guardian |date=21 November 2014 |access-date=31 July 2022 |archive-date=4 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104153442/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/nov/14/isis-gold-silver-copper-islamic-dinar-coins |url-status=live }}</ref>


In opposition to Islamic political movements, in 20th century Turkey, the military carried out ] to oust Islamist governments, and headscarves were legally restricted, as also happened in Tunisia.<ref>{{Cite news |date=29 April 2011 |title=Huge rally for Turkish secularism |work=] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6604643.stm |access-date=6 December 2011 |archive-date=29 May 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120529003102/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6604643.stm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Saleh |first=Heba |date=15 October 2011 |title=Tunisia moves against headscarves |work=] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6053380.stm |access-date=6 December 2011 |archive-date=29 May 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120529003101/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6053380.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> In other places, religious authority was co-opted and is now often seen as puppets of the state. For example, in Saudi Arabia, the state monopolized religious scholarship<ref>{{Cite news |date=28 June 2007 |title=Laying down the law: Islam's authority deficit |newspaper=] |url=http://www.economist.com/node/9409354?story_id=9409354 |access-date=15 August 2011 |archive-date=6 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306094736/http://www.economist.com/node/9409354?story_id=9409354 |url-status=live }}</ref> and, in Egypt, the state nationalized ], previously an independent voice checking state power.<ref>{{cite book| title = The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought| last1 = Bowering | first1 = Gerhard | last2=Mirza |first2=Mahan |last3=Crone |first3=Patricia| year = 2013 | publisher = Princeton University Press | page=59| isbn = 9780691134840
The ] is a pilgrimage that occurs during the month of ] in the city of ]. Every able-bodied Muslim who can afford to do so is obliged to make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his or her lifetime. Mecca is so important because it was the place where the Islamic prophet Muhammad was said to have lived and gained his prophet status. The government of Saudi Arabia issues special visas to foreigners for the purpose of the pilgrimage, which takes place during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah. Entrance to Mecca itself is forbidden to non-Muslims, and the entire city is considered a holy site to Islam.
}}</ref> Salafism was funded in the Middle East for its quietism.<ref>{{cite web |date=18 October 2008 |title=Ultraconservative Islam on rise in Mideast |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna27256187 |access-date=24 September 2013 |publisher=] |archive-date=4 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104032423/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/27256187/page/2/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Saudi Arabia campaigned against revolutionary Islamist movements in the Middle East, in opposition to Iran.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Almukhtar |first1=Sarah |last2=Peçanha |first2=Sergio |last3=Wallace |first3=Tim |date=5 January 2016 |title=Behind Stark Political Divisions, a More Complex Map of Sunnis and Shiites |work=] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/01/04/world/middleeast/sunni-shiite-map-middle-east-iran-saudi-arabia.html |access-date=6 January 2016 |archive-date=4 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104153442/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/01/04/world/middleeast/sunni-shiite-map-middle-east-iran-saudi-arabia.html |url-status=live }}</ref>


Muslim minorities of various ethnicities have been persecuted as a religious group.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Thames |first1=Knox |title=Why the Persecution of Muslims Should Be on Biden's Agenda |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/01/06/muslims-islam-china-india-myanmar-persecution-repression-biden-human-rights/ |work=] |date=6 January 2021 |language=English |access-date=5 February 2022 |archive-date=11 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220211114303/https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/01/06/muslims-islam-china-india-myanmar-persecution-repression-biden-human-rights/ |url-status=live }}</ref> This has been undertaken by communist forces like the ], who viewed them as their primary enemy to be exterminated since their religious practice made them stand out from the rest of the population,<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Perrin |first=Andrew |date=10 October 2003 |title=Weakness in numbers |magazine=] |url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,428133,00.html |access-date=24 September 2013 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=24 September 2013 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130924035829/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,428133,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> the ] in ]<ref>{{cite web |last1=Beydoun |first1=Khaled A. |title=For China, Islam is a 'mental illness' that needs to be 'cured' |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/china-islam-mental-illness-cured-181127135358356.html |publisher=] |language=English |access-date=5 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181210012542/https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/china-islam-mental-illness-cured-181127135358356.html |archive-date=10 December 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> and by nationalist forces such as during the ].<ref>{{cite book |last=Mojzes |first=Paul |title=Balkan Genocides: Holocaust and Ethnic Cleansing in the Twentieth Century |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-4422-0663-2|page=178}}</ref> Myanmar military's ] targeting of ] has been labeled as a crime against humanity by the UN and Amnesty International,<ref>{{cite news |author=Oliver Holmes |date=19 December 2016 |title=Myanmar's Rohingya campaign 'may be crime against humanity' |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/dec/19/myanmars-rohingya-campaign-may-be-against-humanity |url-status=live |access-date=5 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106013700/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/dec/19/myanmars-rohingya-campaign-may-be-against-humanity |archive-date=6 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=19 December 2016|title=Rohingya abuse may be crimes against humanity: Amnesty|website=Al Jazeera|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/12/19/rohingya-abuse-may-be-crimes-against-humanity-amnesty/|access-date=2023-02-21|archive-date=22 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922232529/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/12/19/rohingya-abuse-may-be-crimes-against-humanity-amnesty/|url-status=live}}</ref> while the ] Fact-Finding Mission identified ], ethnic cleansing, and other crimes against humanity.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/MyanmarFFM/Pages/ReportoftheMyanmarFFM.aspx|title=Report of Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Myanmar |date=27 August 2018|website=ohchr.org|access-date=14 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181019232309/https://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/MyanmarFFM/Pages/ReportoftheMyanmarFFM.aspx|archive-date=19 October 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
The pilgrim, the hajj, is honoured in his or her community. For some, this is an incentive to perform the Hajj. Islamic teachers say that the Hajj should be an expression of devotion to God, not a means to gain social standing. The believer should be self-aware and examine his or her intentions in performing the pilgrimage. This should lead to constant striving for self-improvement.<ref>{{cite book |title= A Concise History of the Middle East| author= Goldschmidt, Arthur| publisher=Westview Press |year=2002 |location= Boulder, Colorado |pages=p. 48}}</ref>
<br clear="all">


The advancement of global communication has facilitated the widespread dissemination of religious knowledge. The adoption of the ] has grown more common<ref>{{Cite news |last=Slackman |first=Michael |date=28 January 2007 |title=In Egypt, a new battle begins over the veil |work=] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/28/weekinreview/28slackman.html |access-date=15 August 2011 |archive-date=3 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190503150409/https://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/28/weekinreview/28slackman.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and some Muslim intellectuals are increasingly striving to separate scriptural Islamic beliefs from cultural traditions.{{sfnp|Nigosian|2004|p=41}} Among other groups, this access to information has led to the rise of popular "]" preachers, such as ], who compete with the traditional ] in their reach and have decentralized religious authority.<ref>{{Cite news|last=|first=|title=Islamic televangelist; holy smoke|agency=]|url=http://www.economist.com/node/21534763|access-date=5 February 2022|archive-date=4 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130904164441/http://www.economist.com/node/21534763|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=263}} More "individualized" interpretations of Islam<ref>V. Šisler: ''The Internet and the Construction of Islamic Knowledge in Europe'' p. 212</ref> notably involve ] who attempt to align religious traditions with contemporary secular governance,{{sfnp|Esposito|2004|pp=118–119, 179}}{{sfnp|Rippin|2001|p=288}} an approach that has been criticized by some regarding its compatibility.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Adams, Charles J.|editor1-last=Esposito|editor1-first=John L.|title=Voices of Resurgent Islam|url=https://archive.org/details/voicesofresurgen00hcen|url-access=registration|date=1983|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages= |chapter=Maududi and the Islamic State|quote= when religion is relegated to the personal realm, men inevitably give way to their bestial impulses and perpetrate evil upon one another. In fact it is precisely because they wish to escape the restraints of morality and the divine guidance that men espouse secularism.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Meisami|first=Sayeh|date=2013|title='Abdolkarim Soroush |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195390155/obo-9780195390155-0034.xml|url-status=live|access-date=2021-10-12 |website=Oxford Bibliographies|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105164410/http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195390155/obo-9780195390155-0034.xml |archive-date=2013-11-05 }}</ref> Moreover, secularism is perceived as a foreign ideology imposed by invaders and perpetuated by post-colonial ],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Secularism, State Neutrality, and Islam|author=Abdullah Saeed|encyclopedia=The Oxford Handbook of Secularism|editor1=Phil Zuckerman|editor2=John R. Shook |url=http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/abstract/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199988457.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199988457-e-12|year=2017|page=188 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199988457.013.12|isbn=978-0-19-998845-7|access-date=7 August 2023|archive-date=3 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210903020955/https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/abstract/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199988457.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199988457-e-12|url-status=live}}{{subscription required}}</ref> and is frequently understood to be equivalent to ].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|author=Nader Hashemi|title=Secularism|encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World|editor=John L. Esposito|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2009|isbn=978-0-19-530513-5 |url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001/acref-9780195305135-e-0714|access-date=7 August 2023|archive-date=6 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221206153300/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001/acref-9780195305135-e-0714|url-status=live}}{{subscription required}}</ref>
== Organization ==
===Mosques===
{{Main|Mosque}}
] in ] as it exists today|thumb|right|220px]]
A mosque is a ] for Muslims. ] often refer to the mosque by its ] name, ''masjid''. The word "mosque" in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated for Islamic worship, although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller, privately owned mosque and the larger, "collective" mosque (''masjid jami'') (]: جامع), which has more community and social amenities.


== Demographics ==
The primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place where ]s can come together for prayer. Nevertheless, mosques are known around the world nowadays for their general importance to the ] as well as their demonstration of ]. They have developed significantly from the open-air spaces that were the ] and ] in the ]. Today, most mosques have elaborate domes, ]s, and prayer halls. Mosques originated on the ], but now exist on all the world's inhabited continents. They are not only places for worship and prayer, but also places to learn about Islam and meet fellow believers.


{{Main|Muslim world|Ummah}}
According to Islamic beliefs, the first mosque in the world was the ], which was built by ] upon an order from God. The oldest Islamic-built mosque is the ] in ]. When Muhammad lived in Mecca, he viewed Kaaba as his first and principal mosque and performed prayers there together with his followers. Even during times when the pagan Arabs performed their rituals inside the Kaaba, Muhammad always held the Kaaba in very high esteem. The Meccan tribe of ], which was responsible for guarding Kaaba, attempted to exclude Muhammad's followers from the sanctuary, which became a subject of Muslim complaints recorded in the Qur'an.<ref name="Masdjid1">{{cite encyclopedia | last = Hillenbrand| first = R | editor = P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, ], E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs | encyclopedia =] Online| title = Masdjid. I. In the central Islamic lands | publisher = Brill Academic Publishers | id = {{ISSN|1573-3912}} }}</ref> When Muhammad conquered Mecca in 630, he converted Kaaba to a mosque, which has since become known as the ], or Sacred Mosque. The Masjid al-Haram was significantly expanded and improved in the early centuries of Islam in order to accommodate the increasing number of Muslims who either lived in the area or made the annual ], or pilgrimage, to ], before it acquired its present shape in 1577 in the reign of the ] ] ].<ref name="Haram">{{cite encyclopedia | last = Weinsinck| first = A.J | editor = P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, ], E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs | encyclopedia =] Online| title = Masdjid al-Haram. | publisher = Brill Academic Publishers | id = ISSN 1573-3912}}</ref>
{{See also|Islam by country|Muslim population growth}}
]
As of 2020, about 24% of the global population, or about 1.9&nbsp;billion people, are Muslims.<ref name="pewresearch.orgReligion"/><ref name="www.pewresearch.org-2022"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/muslim-population-by-country|title=Muslim Population by Country 2023|website=worldpopulationreview.com|access-date=14 August 2021|archive-date=31 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221031214555/https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/muslim-population-by-country|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/|title=The Future of the Global Muslim Population|date=27 January 2011|access-date=26 October 2022|archive-date=30 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230930233955/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/08/09/muslims-and-islam-key-findings-in-the-u-s-and-around-the-world/ | title=Muslims and Islam: Key findings in the U.S. and around the world | date=9 August 2017 | access-date=19 December 2022 | archive-date=8 November 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221108121140/https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/08/09/muslims-and-islam-key-findings-in-the-u-s-and-around-the-world/ | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Lipka, Michael, and Conrad Hackett. 6 April 2017. " {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190514123559/https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/04/06/why-muslims-are-the-worlds-fastest-growing-religious-group/ |date=14 May 2019 }}" (data analysis). ''Fact Tank''. ].</ref> In 1900, this estimate was 12.3%,<ref>David B. Barrett, George T. Kurian, and Todd M. Johnson, World Christian Encyclopedia: A comparative survey of churches and religions in the modern world, Vol. 1: The world by countries: religionists, churches, ministries 2d ed. (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2001), 4.</ref> in 1990 it was 19.9%<ref name="Pew Research Center-2011" /> and projections suggest the proportion will be 29.7% by 2050.<ref name=pew2015 /> The ] estimates that 87–90% of Muslims are Sunni and 10–13% are Shia.{{sfnp|Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life|2009|p=1|ps=. "Of the total Muslim population, 10–13% are Shia Muslims and 87–90% are Sunni Muslims."}} Approximately 49 countries are ],{{sfnp|Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life|2009|p=11}}<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ba-Yunus |first1=Ilyas |title=Muslims in the United States |last2=Kone, Kassim |publisher=] Group |year=2006 |page= |url=https://archive.org/details/muslimsunitedsta00bayu |url-access=registration |isbn=978-0-313-32825-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Muslim Majority Countries 2021 |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/muslim-majority-countries |access-date=25 July 2021 |website=worldpopulationreview.com |archive-date=1 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220101055328/https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/muslim-majority-countries |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>]. December 2012. " {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180323215026/http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2014/01/global-religion-full.pdf |date=23 March 2018 }}." DC: Pew Research Center. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180926222120/http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-exec/ |date=26 September 2018 }}.</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=7 March 2018 |title=Islam in Russia |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/amp/features/2018/03/07/islam-in-russia/ |access-date=15 June 2021 |website=] |publisher=] |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024349/https://www.aljazeera.com/amp/features/2018/3/7/islam-in-russia |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Book review: Russia's Muslim Heartlands reveals diverse population |date=21 April 2018 |url=https://www.thenational.ae/arts-culture/book-review-russia-s-muslim-heartlands-reveals-diverse-population-1.723230 |work=] |access-date=13 January 2019 |archive-date=14 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190114210257/https://www.thenational.ae/arts-culture/book-review-russia-s-muslim-heartlands-reveals-diverse-population-1.723230 |url-status=live }}</ref> with 62% of the world's Muslims living in Asia, and 683 million adherents in ],<ref>Pew Forum for Religion and Public Life. April 2015. " {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170207115222/http://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/muslims/pf_15-04-02_projectionstables74/ |date=7 February 2017 }}" (projections table). ].</ref> ], ], and ] alone.<ref>{{cite web |title=Secrets of Islam |url=https://www.usnews.com/usnews/graphics/religion/islams_global_reach.htm |access-date=24 September 2013 |website=] |archive-date=22 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110122200555/http://www.usnews.com/usnews/graphics/religion/islams_global_reach.htm |url-status=live }} Information provided by the International Population Center, Department of Geography, ] (2005).</ref>{{sfnp|Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life|2009|pp=15, 17}}<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Pechilis |first1=Karen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kaubzRxh-U0C |title=South Asian Religions: Tradition and Today |last2=Raj |first2=Selva J. |date=2013 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-415-44851-2 |page= |access-date=3 May 2019 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024331/https://books.google.com/books?id=kaubzRxh-U0C |url-status=live }}</ref> ] form the ] in the world,<ref>Margaret Kleffner Nydell {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024737/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZNoiieefqAcC |date=28 December 2023 }}, Intercultural Press, 2005, {{ISBN|1931930252}}, page xxiii, 14</ref> followed by ]<ref>{{cite book|author=Richard Eaton|editor=Barbara D. Metcalf|title=Islam in South Asia in Practice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pR0LzVCpfw8C|date=8 September 2009|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-3138-8|page=275|chapter=Forest Clearing and the Growth of Islam in Bengal}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=haGORCJRlOUC&pg=PA50 |title=The Bangladesh Reader: History, Culture, Politics |author1=Meghna Guhathakurta |author2=Willem van Schendel |page=50 |date=30 April 2013 |publisher=Duke University Press |access-date=7 November 2016 |isbn=978-0822353188 |archive-date=7 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230707092408/https://books.google.com/books?id=haGORCJRlOUC&pg=PA50 |url-status=live }}</ref> and ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Gandhi|first=Rajmohan|title=Punjab: A History from Aurangzeb to Mountbatten|year=2013|page=1|publisher=Aleph Book Company|location=New Delhi, India, Urbana, ]|isbn=978-93-83064-41-0}}.</ref> Most estimates indicate ] has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the population).<ref>{{cite web |work=] |title=Explore All Countries – China |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/china/ |access-date=15 September 2009 |publisher=] |archive-date=13 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213122152/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/china/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=China (includes Hong Kong, Macau, and Tibet) |website=Archived Content |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2006/71338.htm |access-date=24 September 2013 |publisher=U.S. Department of State |archive-date=10 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190710075050/https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2006/71338.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> ] is the second-largest religion after ] in many countries, with growth rates due primarily to immigration and higher birth rates of Muslims in 2005,<ref>{{Cite news |date=23 December 2005 |title=Muslims in Europe: Country guide |work=] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4385768.stm |access-date=1 April 2010 |archive-date=29 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090929213440/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4385768.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> accounting for 4.9% of all of Europe's population in 2016.<ref>{{citation|url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/11/29/5-facts-about-the-muslim-population-in-europe/|title=5 facts about the Muslim population in Europe|date=November 29, 2017|work=]|first=Conrad|last=Hackett|access-date=17 January 2023|archive-date=5 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190105202657/http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/11/29/5-facts-about-the-muslim-population-in-europe/|url-status=live}}</ref>


] has no net impact on the Muslim population growth as "the number of people who ] seems to be roughly equal to the number of Muslims who leave the faith."<ref>{{Cite report |title=The Future of the Global Muslim Population |section=Conversion |date=27 January 2011 |publisher=Pew Research Center |section-url=https://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-related-factors/#conversion |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/ |quote=there is no substantial net gain or loss in the number of Muslims through conversion globally; the number of people who become Muslims through conversion seems to be roughly equal to the number of Muslims who leave the faith |access-date=12 May 2020 |archive-date=24 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224211126/http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Although, Islam is expected to experience a modest gain of 3 million through religious conversion between 2010 and 2050, mostly from ] (2.9 million).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/files/2015/03/PF_15.04.02_ProjectionsFullReport.pdf|title=Cumulative Change Due to Religious Switching, 2010–2050, p.43|access-date=4 May 2016|archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20150429153811/http://www.pewforum.org/files/2015/03/PF_15.04.02_ProjectionsFullReport.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pewforum.org/2017/04/05/the-changing-global-religious-landscape/|title=The Changing Global Religious Landscape|work=Pew Research Center|date=5 April 2017|access-date=17 December 2022|archive-date=18 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220218030628/https://www.pewforum.org/2017/04/05/the-changing-global-religious-landscape/|url-status=live}}</ref>
The first thing Muhammad did upon arriving with his followers near ] (then named ''Yathrib'') after the ] in 622 was build the ] in a village outside Medina.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hajinformation.com/main/h2022.htm |publisher=Ministry of Hajj - Kingdom of Saudi Arabia|accessdate=2006-04-15 |title=Masjid Quba'}}</ref> Today, the ] in ], the ] in ] and ] (for the majority of Muslims) in ] are considered the three holiest sites in Islam.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/OTTOMAN/ORIGIN.HTM|title=The Ottomans: Origins|accessdate=2006-04-15|publisher=Washington State University}}</ref>


According to a report by ], "Islam has drawn converts from all walks of life, most notably African-Americans".<ref>{{cite news|title=Fast-growing Islam winning converts in Western world|publisher=]|url=http://edition.cnn.com/WORLD/9704/14/egypt.islam/|access-date=6 May 2016|archive-date=15 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181015114027/http://edition.cnn.com/WORLD/9704/14/egypt.islam/|url-status=live}}</ref> ], around 6,000 people convert to Islam per year and, according to an article in the British Muslims Monthly Survey, the majority of new Muslim converts in Britain were women.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://artsweb.bham.ac.uk/bmms/2000/06June00.asp#Women%20convert |title=British Muslims Monthly Survey for June 2000, Vol. VIII, No. 6 |at=Women convert |access-date=2020-09-28 |archive-date=2008-02-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080214160750/http://artsweb.bham.ac.uk/bmms/2000/06June00.asp#Women%20convert |url-status=live }}</ref> According to ''The Huffington Post'', "observers estimate that as many as 20,000 Americans convert to Islam annually", most of them being ] and ].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2011-08-24|title=Conversion To Islam One Result Of Post-9/11 Curiosity|url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/post-911-islam-converts_n_935572|access-date=2020-11-26|website=HuffPost|language=en|archive-date=2021-01-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210111201117/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/post-911-islam-converts_n_935572|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author-first=Julie|author-last=Bindel|author-link=Julie Bindel|title=Why do Western Women Convert?|url=http://standpointmag.co.uk/features-may-10-why-do-western-women-convert-julie-bindel-islam-female-conversion|access-date=8 May 2016|work=]|date=26 April 2010|archive-date=6 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006102003/http://standpointmag.co.uk/features-may-10-why-do-western-women-convert-julie-bindel-islam-female-conversion|url-status=live}}</ref>
===Islamic calendar===
{{main|Islamic calendar}}


By both percentage and total numbers, Islam is the world's fastest growing major religious group, and is projected to be the world's largest by the end of the 21st century, surpassing that of ].<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lipka |first1=Michael |last2=Hackett |first2=Conrad |date=April 6, 2017 |title=Why Muslims are the world's fastest-growing religious group |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/04/06/why-muslims-are-the-worlds-fastest-growing-religious-group/ |access-date=2022-11-21 |website=Pew Research Center |language=en-US |archive-date=14 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190514123559/https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/04/06/why-muslims-are-the-worlds-fastest-growing-religious-group/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="pew2015" /> It is estimated that, by 2050, the number of Muslims will nearly equal the number of Christians around the world, "due to the young age and high ] of Muslims relative to other religious groups."<ref name="pew2015">Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life. April 2015. " {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201211090450/http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2015/03/PF_15.04.02_ProjectionsFullReport.pdf |date=11 December 2020 }}." ]. p. 70 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201207093700/https://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projections-2010-2050/ |date=7 December 2020 }}.</ref>
Islam dates from the ], or migration from Mecca to Medina. Year 1, AH (Anno Hegira) corresponds to AD 622 or 622 CE, depending on the notation preferred (see ]). It is a ], but differs from other such calendars (e.g. the ]) in that it omits ]s, being synchronized only with ]s, but not with the ], resulting in years of either 354 or 355 days. Therefore, Islamic dates cannot be converted to the usual CE/AD dates simply by adding 622 years. Islamic holy days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, which means that they occur in different seasons in different years in the ].


==Main branches or denominations==
=== Customs and behavioral laws ===
{{Main|Islamic schools and branches#Main branches or denominations}}{{See also|Shia–Sunni relations}}
There are many customs associated with ], coming mainly from ] (practices of Muhammad as part of the religion). These customs are generally considered mandatory. These include:<ref name="cul">Ghamidi(2001), </ref>
* Taking God's name before eating and drinking and using the right hand for the purpose.<ref>] 1513</ref><ref>] 2020</ref>
* When meeting someone, saying ] (]: '''السلام عليكم''' , literally: peace be upon you) and answering with ''Wa alaykumus-Salam''.<ref>] 6234</ref>
* When ], saying ] (]:'''الحمد لله''', literally: all gratitude is for only Allah), and a person who listens should respond with ''Yarhamukallah'' (literally: God have mercy on you).<ref>] 6224</ref>
* Saying the ] in the right ear of a newborn and the ] in his/her left.
* Clipping the moustache, shaving the ], removing hair from under the armpits, cutting nails, and ] the male offspring.<ref>] 257, 258</ref>
* Cleaning the ]s, the mouth, and the teeth.<ref>] 252</ref>
* Cleaning the body after urination and defecation.<ref>] 45</ref>
* Abstention from sexual relations during the ] cycle and the ] discharge,<ref>{{Quran|2|222}}</ref> and then a ceremonial bath after the menstrual cycle and puerperal discharge.
* Ceremonial bath after ''Janabah'' (]/] discharge or sexual intercourse).<ref>{{quran|4|43}}, {{quran|5|6}}</ref>
* Bathing a dead body<ref>] 1254</ref> except in extraordinary circumstances as done in the ].<ref>] 1346</ref>
* Enshrouding a dead body in coffin cloth.<ref>] 943</ref>
* Burying the dead in a grave.


===Festivals=== === Sunni ===
{{Main|Sunni Islam}}
{{main|Eid|Eid ul-Fitr|Eid ul-Adha}}
], one of the ]]]
Two festivals of Muslims are celebrated universally in the Islamic world, which are sanctioned by ].<ref name="cul"/><ref>] 1134</ref>
Sunni Islam, or Sunnism, is the name for the largest denomination in Islam.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sunni |title=Sunni |encyclopedia=] |access-date=17 September 2021 |archive-date=30 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150430101807/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/574006/Sunnite |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Sunni Islam |editor-first=John L. |editor-last=Esposito |encyclopedia=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=2014 |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e2280 |access-date=10 January 2010 |archive-date=5 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181005013247/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e2280 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>Denny, Frederick. 2010. . Oxford: ]. p. 3. "Sunni Islam is the dominant division of the global Muslim community, and throughout history it has made up a substantial majority (85 to 90%) of that community."</ref> The term is a contraction of the phrase "ahl as-sunna wa'l-jamaat", which means "people of the ] (the traditions of Muhammad) and the community".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Ahl as-Sunnah |encyclopedia=] |publisher=Turkish Diyanet Foundation |location=Istanbul |url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ehl-i-sunnet |last=Yavuz |first=Yusuf Şevki |date=1994 |volume=10 |pages=525–530 |lang=tr |access-date=28 December 2021 |archive-date=28 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211228114411/https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ehl-i-sunnet |url-status=live }}</ref> Sunni Islam is sometimes referred to as "orthodox Islam",<ref>{{cite book |author1=John Richard Thackrah |title=Dictionary of Terrorism |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1135165956 |edition=2, revised |page=252}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Status of Women Under Islamic Law and Modern Islamic Legislation |date=2009 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-9004172739 |editor1-last=Nasir |editor1-first=Jamal J. |edition=revised |page=11}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=George W. Braswell |title=What You Need to Know about Islam & Muslims |date=2000 |publisher=B&H Publishing Group |isbn=978-0805418293 |edition=illustrated |page=62}}</ref> though some scholars view this as inappropriate, and many non-Sunnis may find this offensive.<ref>An Introduction to the Hadith. John Burton. Published by Edinburgh University Press. 1996. p. 201. Cite: "Sunni: Of or pertaining ''sunna'', especially the ''Sunna'' of the Prophet. Used in conscious opposition to Shi'a, Shi'í. There being no ecclesia or centralized magisterium, the translation 'orthodox' is inappropriate. To the Muslim 'unorthodox' implies heretical, ''mubtadi'', from ''bid'a'', the contrary of ''sunna'' and so 'innovation'."</ref> Sunnis, or sometimes Sunnites, believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad and primarily reference ] for legal matters, while following one of the four traditional schools of jurisprudence: ], ], ] or ].<ref name="Lexico">{{cite web |title=sharia |url=https://www.lexico.com/definition/sharia |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200122164555/https://www.lexico.com/definition/sharia |archive-date=22 January 2020 |website=Lexico |publisher=] |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2003|pp=275, 306}}</ref>
# ]
# ]


] is a Sunni school of thought, prominently advocated by ] (780–855 CE), that is characterized by its adherence to a ] understanding of the Quran and the sunnah, the belief that the Quran is uncreated and eternal, and opposition to speculative theology, called ], in religious and ethical matters.<ref>Hadi Enayat ''Islam and Secularism in Post-Colonial Thought: A Cartography of Asadian Genealogies'' ], 30 June 2017 {{ISBN|978-3-319-52611-9}} p.48</ref> ] is a Sunni school of thought inspired by Ancient Greek Philosophy. ], founded by ] (853–944 CE), asserts that scripture is not needed for basic ethics and that ''good'' and ''evil'' can be understood by reason alone,<ref>Rico Isaacs, Alessandro Frigerio ''Theorizing Central Asian Politics: The State, Ideology and Power'' ] 2018 {{ISBN|978-3-319-97355-5}} p. 108</ref> but people rely on revelation, for matters beyond human's comprehension. ], founded by ] (c. 874–936), holds that ethics can derive just from divine revelation but accepts reason regarding exegetical matters and combines Muʿtazila approaches with traditionalist ideas.{{sfnp|Esposito|1999|p=280}}
Rituals associated with these festivals are:<ref name="cul"/>
# ] (charity) before ] prayer.<ref>] 1503</ref>
# The ] and the ] on ] day.
# ]s (glorifying God) after every prayer in the Days of ''Tashriq'' (the 10th, 11th , 12th, and 13th of ]).


] is a revival movement advocating the return to the practices of the earliest generations of Muslims. In the 18th century, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab led a ], referred by outsiders as Wahhabism, in modern-day Saudi Arabia.<ref>Richard Gauvain ''Salafi Ritual Purity: In the Presence of God'' ] 2013 {{ISBN|978-0-7103-1356-0}} page 8</ref> A similar movement called ] also de-emphasized the centuries' old Sunni legal tradition, preferring to directly follow the Quran and Hadith. The '']'' Sunni movement was by ] (1877–1960);<ref name="Svante E. Cornell p. 283">Svante E. Cornell ''Azerbaijan Since Independence'' ] {{ISBN| 9780765630049}} p. 283</ref> it incorporates elements of Sufism and science.<ref name="Svante E. Cornell p. 283" /><ref>Robert W. Hefner ''Shariʻa Politics: Islamic Law and Society in the Modern World'' ] 2011 {{ISBN|978-0-253-22310-4}} p. 170</ref>
===Dietary laws===
] does not present a comprehensive list of pure foods and drinks. However, it sanctions:<ref name="die">Ghamidi(2001), </ref>
#prohibition of ], ], meat of dead animals and animals slaughtered in the name of someone other than ].
#slaughtering in the prescribed manner of ''tadhkiyah'' (cleansing) by taking Allah’s name.
#prohibition of ]s


=== Shia ===
The prohibition of dead meat is not applicable to ] and ]s.<ref>] 2314</ref><ref>] 59</ref><ref>]. '']'', vol. 1, (Beirut: Daru’l-Kitab al-‘Arabi), p. 215</ref> Also ] literature prohibits beasts having sharp canine teeth, birds having claws and tentacles in their feet,<ref>] 1934</ref> ''Jallalah''(animals whose meat carries a stink in it because they feed on filth)<ref>] 4447</ref>, tamed donkeys<ref>] 4199</ref>, and any piece cut from a living animal<ref>] 2858</ref>.<ref name="die"/>
{{Main|Shia Islam}}
], collection of sermons, letters, and sayings attributed to ].]]
Shia Islam, or Shi'ism, is the second-largest Muslim denomination.<ref>{{cite web |title=Field Listing :: Religions |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100706231326/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html |archive-date=6 July 2010 |access-date=25 October 2010 |website=] |publisher=] |quote=Sunni Islam accounts for over 75% of the world's Muslim population." ... "Shia Islam represents 10–15% of Muslims worldwide.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Sunni |url=https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/sunni |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200614103622/https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/sunni |archive-date=14 June 2020 |access-date=24 May 2020 |publisher=] |quote=Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam, comprising about 85% of the world's over 1.5 billion Muslims.}}</ref>{{sfnp|Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life|2009|p=1|ps=. "Of the total Muslim population, 10–13% are Shia Muslims and 87–90% are Sunni Muslims."}} Shias, or Shiites, maintain that Muhammad's ] as leader, must be from certain descendants of Muhammad's family known as the ] and those leaders, referred to as ]s, have additional spiritual authority.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shii|title=Shiʿi|last=Newman|first=Andrew J.|publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=28 December 2021|archive-date=20 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190720054917/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shii|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2004 |title=Sunni Islam |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and North Africa |publisher=] Reference |editor-last=Philip Mattar |edition=2nd |author=Tayeb El-Hibri, Maysam J. al Faruqi}}</ref> Shias are guided by the ].<ref>{{Cite book |author=John Corrigan, Frederick Denny, Martin S Jaffee, Carlos Eire |year=2011 |title=Jews, Christians, Muslims: A Comparative Introduction to Monotheistic Religions |publisher= Cambridge University Press |id=978-0205026340 }}</ref>


According to both Sunni and Shia Muslims, a significant event took place at ] during Muhammad's return from his final pilgrimage to Mecca, where he stopped thousands of Muslims in the midday heat.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Charismatic Community: Shi'ite Identity in Early Islam |author-first=Maria Massi |author-last=Dakake |year=2007 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=9780791470336 |author-link=Maria Massi Dakake}}</ref> Muhammad appointed his cousin ] as the executor of his last will and testament, as well as his ] (authority).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Veccia Vaglieri|first=L.|date=2012|title=Encyclopaedia of Islam |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/*-SIM_2439|section=G̲h̲adīr K̲h̲umm|publisher=Brill|access-date=July 14, 2023|isbn=9789004161214|archive-date=14 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230714174420/https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/*-SIM_2439|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfnp|Campo|2009|pp=257–258}} Shias recognize that Muhammad designated Ali as his successor (khalīfa) and ] (spiritual and political leader) after him, but was prevented from succeeding Muhammad as the leader of the ] because of some ] who selected ] as ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Foody |first=Kathleen |date=September 2015 |title=Interiorizing Islam: Religious Experience and State Oversight in the Islamic Republic of Iran |editor-last=Jain |editor-first=Andrea R. |journal=] |volume=83 |issue=3 |pages=599–623 |doi=10.1093/jaarel/lfv029 |doi-access=free |location=Oxford |publisher=] on behalf of the ] |eissn=1477-4585 |issn=0002-7189 |jstor=24488178 |lccn=sc76000837 |oclc=1479270 |quote=For Shiʿi Muslims, Muhammad not only designated Ali as his friend, but appointed him as his successor—as the "lord" or "master" of the new Muslim community. Ali and his descendants would become known as the Imams, divinely guided leaders of the Shiʿi communities, sinless, and granted special insight into the Qurʾanic text. The theology of the Imams that developed over the next several centuries made little distinction between the authority of the Imams to politically lead the Muslim community and their spiritual prowess; quite to the contrary, their right to political leadership was grounded in their special spiritual insight. While in theory, the only just ruler of the Muslim community was the Imam, the Imams were politically marginal after the first generation. In practice, Shiʿi Muslims negotiated varied approaches to both interpretative authority over Islamic texts and governance of the community, both during the lifetimes of the Imams themselves and even more so following the disappearance of the twelfth and final Imam in the ninth century.}}</ref> Sunnis, instead believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor before ] and consider Abū Bakr to be the first ] caliph after Muhammad.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Foody |first=Kathleen |date=September 2015 |editor-last=Jain |editor-first=Andrea R. |title=Interiorizing Islam: Religious Experience and State Oversight in the Islamic Republic of Iran |journal=] |location=Oxford |publisher=] on behalf of the ] |volume=83 |issue=3 |pages=599–623 |doi=10.1093/jaarel/lfv029 |issn=0002-7189 |eissn=1477-4585 |jstor=24488178 |lccn=sc76000837 |oclc=1479270 |quote=For Shiʿi Muslims, Muhammad not only designated Ali as his friend, but appointed him as his successor—as the "lord" or "master" of the new Muslim community. Ali and his descendants would become known as the Imams, divinely guided leaders of the Shiʿi communities, sinless, and granted special insight into the Qurʾanic text. The theology of the Imams that developed over the next several centuries made little distinction between the authority of the Imams to politically lead the Muslim community and their spiritual prowess; quite to the contrary, their right to political leadership was grounded in their special spiritual insight. While in theory, the only just ruler of the Muslim community was the Imam, the Imams were politically marginal after the first generation. In practice, Shiʿi Muslims negotiated varied approaches to both interpretative authority over Islamic texts and governance of the community, both during the lifetimes of the Imams themselves and even more so following the disappearance of the twelfth and final Imam in the ninth century. |doi-access=free}}</ref> Shias state the community deliberately ignored Ali's nomination,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Daftary |first1=Farhad |title=A History Of Shi'i Islam |url=https://archive.org/details/shii-heritage-series-farhad-daftary-a-history-of-shii-islam-i.-b.-tauris-2013_202104/mode/2up |website=Internet Archive |access-date=July 22, 2024 |date=2013}}</ref> citing ]'s appointment by Abu Bakr,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lalani |first1=Arzina R. |title=Early Shi'i Thought: The Teachings of Imam Muhammad al-Baqir |date=2000 |publisher=I.B. Tauris |isbn=1850435928}}</ref> other historical evidence,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |author-last=Amir-Moezzi |author-first=Mohammad Ali |title=Ghadīr Khumm |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam |edition=Third |editor1-first=Kate |editor1-last=Fleet |editor2-first=Gudrun |editor2-last=Krämer |editor3-first=Denis |editor3-last=Matringe |editor4-first=John |editor4-last=Nawas |editor5-first=Devin J. |editor5-last=Stewart |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_27419 |year=2014 |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_27419 |isbn=9789004269613 |author-link=Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi |url-access=subscription}}</ref> and the ] stance that majority does not imply legitimacy.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Mavani|first=Hamid|url=https://archive.org/details/religiousauthori0000mava/mode/|title=Religious Authority and Political Thought in Twelver Shi'ism: From Ali to Post-Khomeini|publisher=Routledge|year=2013|isbn=9780415624404|url-access=registration}}</ref>
==Islamic knowledge==
There are some branches of knowledge which have been developed on the basis of the ] and ] to answer Muslims' questions in their religious life.


Some of the first Shia Imams are revered by all Shia and Sunnis Muslims, such as Ali and ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Armajani |first=Jon |title=Shia Islam and Politics: Iran, Iraq, and Lebanon |date=2020 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-1-7936-2136-8 |location=Lanham (Md.) |pages=11}}</ref> ], the largest Shia branch and most influential, believe in ], the last of whom went into ] to return one day. They recognize that the prophecy of the Twelve Imams has been foretold in the ] which is recorded by both Sunni and Shia sources.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kohlberg|first=Etan|title=From Imāmiyya to Ithnā-'ashariyya|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bulletin-of-the-school-of-oriental-and-african-studies/article/abs/from-imamiyya-to-ithnaashariyya/32F60507F79BEE8C3732011F4D092CAF|journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies|year=1976|volume=39|issue=3|pages=521–534|doi=10.1017/S0041977X00050989|s2cid=155070530|access-date=July 14, 2023|archive-date=14 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230714174420/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bulletin-of-the-school-of-oriental-and-african-studies/article/abs/from-imamiyya-to-ithnaashariyya/32F60507F79BEE8C3732011F4D092CAF|url-status=live}}</ref> ] rejects special powers of Imams and are sometimes considered a 'fifth school' of Sunni Islam rather than a Shia denomination.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social and Military History |editor-first1=Spencer C. |editor-last1=Tucker |editor2=Priscilla Mary Roberts |year=2008 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-842-2 |page=917 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YAd8efHdVzIC&pg=PA917 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024726/https://books.google.com/books?id=YAd8efHdVzIC&pg=PA917 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Iraq Effect: The Middle East After the Iraq War |first=Frederic M. |last=Wehrey |year=2010 |publisher=Rand Corporation |isbn=978-0-8330-4788-5 |page=91 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i-3LAlfW7DIC&pg=PA91 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024742/https://books.google.com/books?id=i-3LAlfW7DIC&pg=PA91#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> They differed with other Shias over the status of the fifth imam and are sometimes known as "Fivers".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Peterson |first=Daniel |title=Zaydiyya |url=|journal=Islamic Studies |year=2011 |language=en |volume= |issue= |pages= |doi=10.1093/obo/9780195390155-0153 |issn=}}</ref> The ] split with the Twelvers over who was the seventh Imam and have further fragmented into more groups over the status of successive Imams, with the largest group being the ]s.<ref>{{cite book|last=Newman|first=Andrew J.|author-link=Andrew J. Newman|title=Twelver Shiism: Unity and Diversity in the Life of Islam, 632 to 1722|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-_M8BQAAQBAJ|year=2013|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=978-0-7486-7833-4|chapter=Introduction|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-_M8BQAAQBAJ&pg=PP18|page=2|access-date=13 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160501201413/https://books.google.com/books?id=-_M8BQAAQBAJ|archive-date=1 May 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>
===Theology===
{{Main|Muslim theology|Kalam}}
Muslim theology is a branch of knowledge about Islamic ] which tries to rationalize the ideas expressed in ] and ] and answer Muslim questions about them, and to try to challenge non-Muslims' faith and beliefs.
The contents of Muslim theology can be divided into theology proper, ], ], ], ], and ]. The major schools of theology are ], ], ], ], ] and ].


For Shias, the ] in Najaf, the ] in Karbala, and the ] in ] are also among the ].<ref name="Sardeg2">{{cite web |last=Escobar |first=Pepe |date=May 24, 2002 |title=Knocking on heaven's door |url=http://www.atimes.com/c-asia/DE24Ag04.html |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020603155002/http://atimes.com/c-asia/DE24Ag04.html |archive-date=June 3, 2002 |access-date=2006-11-12 |work=] |quote=our sixth imam, Imam Sadeg, says that we have five definitive holy places... first is Mecca... second is Medina... third belongs to our first imam of Shia, Ali, which is in Najaf. The fourth belongs to our third imam, Hussein, in Kerbala. The last one belongs to the daughter of our seventh imam and sister of our eighth imam, who is called Fatemah, and will be buried in Qom. |department=Central Asia/Russia}}</ref>
===Law===
]
{{main|Sharia|Fiqh}}
The sharia (Arabic for "well-trodden path") is Islamic law, as shown by traditional Islamic scholarship. The Qur'an is the foremost source of Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh). The second source is the ] of Muhammad and the early Muslim community. The sunnah is not itself a text like the Qur'an, but it is the practical adherence of Muslims to matters of worship. The role of ] is a disputed one in Islamic law. Collections of Hadith (Arabic for ''report'') contain narrations of Muhammad's sayings, deeds, and actions. According to a few scholars, such as ], it is secondary to the Qur'an, whereas others, such as ] and the ] scholars, hold it in subjugation to ] and often reject a hadith if it goes against established practices. ] (consensus of the community of Muslims) and ] (analogical reasoning) are generally regarded as the third and fourth sources of Sharia, but have been contested by some scholars, who believe that according to the Qur'an other sources should take precedence.


{{multiple image
Islamic law covers all aspects of life, from broad topics of governance and foreign relations all the way down to issues of daily living. Islamic laws that were covered expressly in the Qur’an were referred to as '']'' laws and include specifically the five crimes of theft, highway robbery, ], ] and falsely accusing another of adultery, each of which has a prescribed "hadd" punishment that cannot be forgone or mitigated. The Qur'an also details laws of ], ], ], as well as rules for fasting, ], and prayer. However, the ] and ] may be broad, so how they are applied in practice varies. Islamic scholars, the '']]'', have elaborated systems of law on the basis of these broad rules, supplemented by the hadith reports of how Muhammad and his companions interpreted them.
| align = center
| image1 = Imam_Ali_shrine_-_1_May_2015_19.jpg
| width1 = 217
| alt1 =
| caption1 = ] in ], the third holiest place for Shia Muslims after Mecca and Medina.
| image2 = حرم الامام الحسين.jpg
| width2 = 200
| alt2 =
| caption2 = ] in ], a holy site for Shia Muslims.
| width3 = 289
| alt3 =
| footer =
| image3 = ImamReza(A).jpg
| caption3 = ], the world's largest mosque, in ], ]. 25 million Shias visiting the shrine each year.
}}


=== Muhakkima ===
In current times, as Islam has spread to non Arabic speaking countries such as ], ], Great Britain, and the ], not all Muslims understand the Qur'an in its original Arabic. Thus, when Muslims are divided in how to handle situations, they seek the assistance of a ] (Islamic judge) who can offer them advice based on the sharia and hadith.
{{Main|Muhakkima|Ibadi Islam|Kharijites}}


] or ] is practised by 1.45&nbsp;million Muslims around the world (~0.08% of all Muslims), most of them in ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Robert Brenton Betts |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vFq_KUqqWJMC&pg=PA15 |title=The Sunni-Shi'a Divide: Islam's Internal Divisions and Their Global Consequences |date=31 July 2013 |isbn=978-1-61234-522-2 |pages=14–15 |publisher=Potomac Books |access-date=7 January 2015 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024743/https://books.google.com/books?id=vFq_KUqqWJMC&pg=PA15#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> Ibadism is often associated with and viewed as a moderate variation of the ], though Ibadis themselves object to this classification. The kharijites were groups that rebelled against Caliph Ali for his acceptance of arbitration with someone they viewed as a sinner. Unlike most kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers. Ibadi hadiths, such as the ] collection, use chains of narrators from early Islamic history they consider trustworthy, but most Ibadi hadiths are also found in standard Sunni collections and contemporary Ibadis often approve of the standard Sunni collections.<ref>{{Cite book|first= Valerie Jon|last= Hoffman|title= The Essentials of Ibadi Islam|location= ]|pages=3–4|publisher= ]|year= 2012|isbn= 9780815650843|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=JNxvMRJM3EAC}}</ref>
Fiqh is the ] for Islamic ]. It is regarded as an expansion of the ] or sharia, complemented by the rulings (]) of Islamic jurists (]) to direct the lives of Muslims. The modus operandi of the Muslim jurist is ].
]
Recognised fields of Islamic jurisprudence include those relating to the ] (فقه المعاملات), ], the ], ] (فقه العقوبات), ] (الآداب), ], ], and ](فقه الجهاد).


===Tafsir=== === Other denominations ===
{{main|Tafsir}}
Tafsir is Qur'anic ] or commentary. Someone who writes tafsir is a mufassir. The Qur'an has sparked a huge body of commentary and explication. According to ], tafsir means "explaining the meanings of the Qur'anic verse, clarifying its import and finding out its significance."<ref></ref>


* The ] was founded in British India in 1889 by ] of ], who claimed to be the promised ] ("] of ]"), the ] awaited by the Muslims as well as a ] to the Islamic prophet Muhammad.<ref name="Upal 2021">{{cite book |author-last=Upal |author-first=M. Afzal |author-link=Afzal Upal |title=Handbook of Islamic Sects and Movements |publisher=] |year=2021 |isbn=978-90-04-43554-4 |editor1-last=Cusack |editor1-first=Carole M. |editor1-link=Carole M. Cusack |series=Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion |volume=21 |location=] and ] |pages=637–657 |chapter=The Cultural Genetics of the Aḥmadiyya Muslim Jamāʿat |doi=10.1163/9789004435544_034 |issn=1874-6691 |editor2-last=Upal |editor2-first=M. Afzal |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Turner 2003">{{cite book |last=Turner |first=Richard Brent |title=Islam in the African-American Experience |publisher=] |year=2003 |isbn=9780253216304 |edition=2nd |location=] and ] |pages=109–146 |chapter=The Ahmadiyya Mission to America: A Multi-Racial Model for American Islam |lccn=2003009791 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4XMuLWlTgjMC&pg=PA109 }}</ref> There are a wide variety of distinct beliefs and teachings of Ahmadis compared to those of ''most other'' Muslims,<ref name="Upal 2021" /><ref name="Drover 2020">{{cite book |author-last=Drover |author-first=Lauren |title=New Religious Movements in Modern Asian History: Socio-Cultural Alternatives |publisher=] |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-7936-3403-0 |editor-last=Kim |editor-first=David W. |series=Ethnographies of Religion |location=] |pages=21–36 |chapter=The Ahmadiyya Muslim Jamaat: A New Religious Movement Derived from Islam? |oclc=1220880253 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9WQGEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA21}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Korbel |first1=Jonathan |title=Religious Dynamics under the Impact of Imperialism and Colonialism |last2=Preckel |first2=Claudia |publisher=] |year=2016 |isbn=978-90-04-32511-1 |editor1-last=Bentlage |editor1-first=Björn |series=Numen Book Series |volume=154 |location=] |pages=426–442 |chapter=Ghulām Aḥmad al-Qādiyānī: The Messiah of the Christians—Peace upon Him—in India (India, 1908) |doi=10.1163/9789004329003_034 |editor2-last=Eggert |editor2-first=Marion |editor3-last=Krämer |editor3-first=Hans-Martin |editor4-last=Reichmuth |editor4-first=Stefan |editor4-link=Stefan Reichmuth (academic) |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZtY6DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA426}}</ref><ref name="Turner 2003" /> which include the interpretation of the Quranic title '']''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Balzani |first=Marzia |title=Ahmadiyya Islam and the Muslim Diaspora: Living at the End of Days |isbn=978-1-315-19728-9 |location=Abingdon, Oxon |pages=6–8 |oclc=1137739779}}</ref> and interpretation of the ].<ref name="Drover 2020" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-03-23 |title=What are the Signs of the Second Coming of the Messiah? |url=https://www.reviewofreligions.org/12457/what-are-the-signs-of-the-second-coming-of-the-messiah/ |access-date=2020-06-23 |website=Review of Religions |language=en-GB}}</ref> These perceived deviations from normative Islamic thought have resulted in rejection by most Muslims as heretics<ref>{{Cite web |last=Paracha |first=Nadeem F. |date=2013-11-21 |title=The 1974 ouster of the 'heretics': What really happened? |url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1057427 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150613025520/http://www.dawn.com/news/1057427 |archive-date=13 June 2015 |access-date=2024-03-19 |website=DAWN.COM |language=en}}</ref> and ] in various countries,<ref name="Drover 2020" /> particularly ],<ref name="Drover 2020" /><ref>{{cite book |last=Uddin |first=Asma T. |title=State Responses to Minority Religions |publisher=]/] |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-4724-1647-6 |editor-last=Kirkham |editor-first=David M. |series=Ashgate Inform Series on Minority Religions and Spiritual Movements |location=] and ] |pages=81–98 |chapter=A Legal Analysis of Ahmadi Persecution in Pakistan |lccn=2013019344 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k9TVCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA81 |via=]}}</ref> where they have been officially declared as non-Muslims by the ].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution (Second Amendment) Act, 1974 |url=https://pakistani.org/pakistan/constitution/amendments/2amendment.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170717144752/http://www.pakistani.org/pakistan/constitution/amendments/2amendment.html |archive-date=17 July 2017 |access-date=2024-03-19 |website=pakistani.org}}</ref> The followers of the Ahmadiyya Movement in Islam are divided into two groups: the first being the ], currently the dominant group, and the ].<ref name="Drover 2020" />
Tafsir was one of the earliest academic activities in Islam. The Prophet was the first person who described the ] for Muslims: " A similar (favour have ye already received) in that We have sent among you a Messenger of your own, rehearsing to you Our Signs, and sanctifying you, and instructing you in Scripture and Wisdom, and in new knowledge."


* ] is a ] and ] local Islamic tradition, whose adherents follow the mystical (]) teachings of Ali and ].<ref>{{cite web |title=Bektāšīya |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bektasiya |website=Encyclopaedia Iranica |first1=Hamid |last1=Algar |date=December 15, 1989 |access-date=13 February 2019 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910201955/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bektasiya |url-status=live }}</ref> Alevism is a blend of traditional 14th century Turkish beliefs,<ref>Jorgen S Nielsen Muslim ''Political Participation in Europe'' ] 2013 {{ISBN|978-0-748-67753-5}} page 255</ref> with possible syncretist origins in ] and ], alongside Shia and Sufi beliefs. It has been estimated that there are 10 million to over 20 million (~0.5–1% of all Muslims) Alevis worldwide.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161130111738/http://www.alevi.dk/ENGELSK/Turkish_Alevis_Today.pdf |date=30 November 2016 }}, PDF-Datei, See also {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613045624/https://i-cias.com/e.o/alevi.htm |date=13 June 2021 }}, consulted on 30 May 2017.</ref>
There are some sources that are used to understand the meaning of Qur'anic verses: the Qur'an itself, hadith, Aribiq (Fiqh alloghat), memories of the ''occasions of revelation (])'', the circumstances under which Muhammad spoke, and reason. There are also different approaches to the explanation of the meaning of verses.
*] is a religious movement of Islam based on the belief that Islamic law and guidance should only be based on the ] and not the ] or ],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Musa |first=Aisha Y. |date=2010 |title=The Qur'anists |journal=Religion Compass |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=12–21 |doi=10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00189.x}}</ref> with Quranists notably differing in their approach to the ].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Musa |first=Aisha Y. |title=The Qur'anists |url=https://www.academia.edu/1035742 |journal=Religion Compass |year=2010 |language=en |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=12–21 |doi=10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00189.x |issn=1749-8171 |access-date=8 June 2021 |archive-date=28 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220128062123/https://www.academia.edu/1035742 |url-status=live }}</ref> The movement developed from the 19th century onwards, with thinkers like ], Abdullah Chakralawi and ] in India questioning the hadith tradition.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brown |first=Daniel W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6RPcYgx5u_MC |title=Rethinking Tradition in Modern Islamic Thought |date=1999-03-04 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-65394-7 |pages=7–45, 68 |language=en}}</ref> In Egypt, ] penned the article ''Islam is the Quran alone'' in the magazine '']'', arguing for the sole authority of the Quran.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Juynboll |first=G. H. A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xAUVAAAAIAAJ |title=The Authenticity of the Tradition Literature: Discussions in Modern Egypt,... G.H.A. Juynboll,... |date=1969 |publisher=Brill Archive |pages=23–25 |language=en}}</ref> A prominent late 20th century Quranist was ], an Egyptian-American biochemist who claimed to have discovered a ] ], and founded the Quranist organization ].<ref>{{Cite journal |date=September 1989 |title=Why the name change? |url=http://www.quranalone.com/SP/57_1989_09.pdf |journal=Submission Perspective |volume=57 |page=1 |access-date=29 August 2022 |archive-date=31 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210731115713/https://www.quranalone.com/SP/57_1989_09.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>


=== Non-denominational Muslims ===
== Denominations ==
{{Main|Non-denominational Muslim}}
{{main|Divisions of Islam}}
Non-denominational Muslims is an ] that has been used for and by Muslims who do not belong to or do not self-identify with a specific ].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Benakis |first=Theodoros |date=13 January 2014 |title=Islamophoobia in Europe! |work=New Europe |location=Brussels |url=http://neurope.eu/article/islamophobia-europe/ |url-status=dead |access-date=20 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160131145036/http://neurope.eu/article/islamophobia-europe/ |archive-date=31 January 2016 |quote=Anyone who has travelled to Central Asia knows of the non-denominational Muslims—those who are neither Shiites nor Sounites, but who accept Islam as a religion generally.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Pollack |first=Kenneth |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=jQGZBAAAQBAJ|page=29}} |title=Unthinkable: Iran, the Bomb, and American Strategy |date=2014 |isbn=978-1-4767-3393-7 |page=29 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |quote=Although many Iranian hardliners are Shi'a chauvinists, Khomeini's ideology saw the revolution as pan-Islamist, and therefore embracing Sunni, Shi'a, Sufi, and other, more nondenominational Muslims}}</ref> Recent surveys report that large proportions of Muslims in some parts of the world self-identify as "just Muslim", although there is little published analysis available regarding the motivations underlying this response.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Burns |first=Robert |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=akWUGyN7fwEC|page=55}} |title=Christianity, Islam, and the West |date=2011 |isbn=978-0-7618-5560-6 |page=55 |publisher=University Press of America |quote=40 per cent called themselves "just a Muslim" according to the Council of American-Islamic relations}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Tatari |first=Eren |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=x_4QBQAAQBAJ|page=111}} |title=Muslims in British Local Government: Representing Minority Interests in Hackney, Newham and Tower Hamlets |date=2014 |isbn=978-90-04-27226-2 |page=111 |publisher=BRILL |quote=Nineteen said that they are Sunni Muslims, six said they are just Muslim without specifying a sect, two said they are Ahmadi, and two said their families are Alevi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Lopez |first=Ralph |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=vuNfXxnYWPIC|page=65}} |title=Truth in the Age of Bushism |date=2008 |isbn=978-1-4348-9615-5 |page=65 |publisher=Lulu.com |quote=Many Iraqis take offense at reporters' efforts to identify them as Sunni or Shiite. A 2004 Iraq Centre for Research and Strategic Studies poll found the largest category of Iraqis classified themselves as "just Muslim."}}</ref> The ] reports that respondents self-identifying as "just Muslim" make up a majority of Muslims in seven countries (and a plurality in three others), with the highest proportion in ] at 74%. At least one in five Muslims in at least 22 countries self-identifies in this way.<ref name="Pew" />
{{Muslim Beliefs}}


== Mysticism ==
There are a number of Islamic religious denominations, each of which have significant theological and legal differences from each other but possess similar essential beliefs. The major schools of thought are ] and ]; ]sm is generally considered to be a mystical inflection of Islam rather than a distinct school. According to most sources, present estimates indicate that approximately 85% of the world's Muslims are Sunni and approximately 15% are Shi'a.<ref> {{cite book |author= John L Esposito|title=What Everyone Needs to Know About Islam |publisher=Oxford University Press US| year=2002| pages=p. 2| id=ISBN 0-19-515713-3}}</ref><ref>, ''Country Studies'', retrieved April 04, 2006</ref>
{{Main|Sufism}}
{{See also|Sufi–Salafi relations}}
] by the tomb of Sufi-mystic ]]]
] in ], ]]]
Sufism (Arabic: {{langx|ar|تصوف|translit=tasawwuf|label=none}}), is a ]-] approach to Islam that seeks to find a direct ]. Classical Sufi scholars defined ''tasawwuf'' as "a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God", through "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use.<ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2003|p=302}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Malik|Hinnells|2006|p=3}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Turner|1998|p=145}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Trimingham|1998|p=1}}</ref> ] defined tasawwuf as "a return to the tradition, and its beginning is knowledge, its middle is action , and its end is a gift ."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ibn-ʿAǧība |first1=Aḥmad Ibn-Muḥammad |last2=Aresmouk |first2=Mohamed Fouad |last3=Fitzgerald |first3=Michael Abdurrahman |last4=Ibn-ʿAǧība |first4=Aḥmad Ibn-Muḥammad |title=The Book of ascension to the essential truths of Sufism: a lexicon of Sufic terminology = Miʿrāj al-tashawwuf ilā ḥaqāʾiq al-taṣawwuf |date=2011 |publisher=Fons Vitae |location=Louisville, KY |isbn=978-1891785849}}</ref> It is not a sect of Islam, and its adherents belong to the various Muslim denominations. ], whose teachings are rooted in ] and ]<ref>Andani, Khalil. "A Survey of Ismaili Studies Part 1: Early Ismailism and Fatimid Ismailism." Religion Compass 10.8 (2016): 191–206.</ref> as well as by the ] and ] schools of Islamic philosophy, has developed mystical interpretations of Islam.<ref>]. 2016. "." '']'', edited by ]. Retrieved 25 May 2020.</ref> ], the early Sufi ascetic often portrayed as one of the earliest Sufis,<ref>Knysh, Alexander. 2015. ''Islam in Historical Perspective''. Routledge. {{ISBN|978-1-317-34712-5}}. p. 214.</ref> emphasized fear of failing God's expectations of obedience. In contrast, later prominent Sufis, such as ] and ], emphasized religiosity based on love towards God. Such devotion would also have an impact on the arts, with Rumi still one of the bestselling poets in America.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Haviland |first=Charles |date=30 September 2007 |title=The roar of Rumi – 800 years on |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7016090.stm |access-date=10 August 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=1 September 2009 |title=Islam: Jalaluddin Rumi |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/art/rumi_1.shtml |access-date=10 August 2011 |publisher=BBC}}</ref>


Sufis see ''tasawwuf'' as an inseparable part of Islam.{{sfnp|Chittick|2008|pp=3–4, 11}} Traditional Sufis, such as ], Jalaluddin Rumi, ], ], and Al-Ghazali, argued for Sufism as being based upon the tenets of Islam and the teachings of the prophet.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nasr |first=Seyyed Hossein |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontois00nasr |access-date=17 January 2015 |title=An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines |date=1993 |isbn=978-0-7914-1515-3 |page=|publisher=SUNY Press }}</ref>{{sfnp|Chittick|2008|pp=3–4, 11}} Historian ] argued that Islam in the Medieval period was more or less Sufism.{{sfnp|Peacock|2019|p=24,77}} Followers of the Sunni ] movement known as ] have viewed popular devotional practices, such as the veneration of Sufi saints, as innovations from the original religion. Salafists have sometimes physically attacked Sufis, leading to a deterioration in ].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |author-last=Cook |author-first=David |author-link=David Cook (historian) |date=May 2015 |title=Mysticism in Sufi Islam |url=https://oxfordre.com/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-51 |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion |location=] |publisher=] |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.51 |isbn=9780199340378 |doi-access=free |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181128012740/http://oxfordre.com/religion/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-51 |archive-date=28 November 2018 |url-status=live |access-date=15 January 2023}}</ref>
===Sunni===


Sufi congregations form orders ('']'') centered around a teacher ('']'') who traces a spiritual chain back to Muhammad.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url= https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/583591/tariqa |title= tariqa &#124; Islam |encyclopedia= Britannica.com |date= 4 February 2014 |access-date= 29 May 2015}}</ref> Sufis played an important role in the formation of Muslim societies through their missionary and educational activities.<ref name=EB-Sufism>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Schimmel |first=Annemarie |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sufism |title=Sufism |encyclopedia=] |access-date=17 September 2021 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> The Sufism-influenced Ahle Sunnat movement or ] movement claims over 200 million followers in South Asia.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bowker |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780192800947 |title=The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-19-280094-7 |doi=10.1093/acref/9780192800947.001.0001}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sanyal |first=Usha |date=1998 |url=http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayFulltext?type=1&fid=69415&jid=ASS&volumeId=32&issueId=03&aid=69414 |title=Generational Changes in the Leadership of the Ahl-e Sunnat Movement in North India during the Twentieth Century |journal=] |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=635–656 |doi=10.1017/S0026749X98003059|doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2003|loc=}} – via Oxford Reference.</ref> Sufism is prominent in Central Asia,<ref>{{cite web |last=Alvi |first=Farhat |title=The Significant Role of Sufism in Central Asia |url=http://pu.edu.pk/images/journal/uoc/PDF-FILES/(2)%20The%20Significant%20Role%20of%20Sufism%20in%20Central%20Asia%20(Dr.%20Farh.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Johns |first=Anthony H |year=1995 |title=Sufism in Southeast Asia: Reflections and Reconsiderations |journal=] |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=169–183 |doi=10.1017/S0022463400010560 |jstor=20071709|s2cid=154870820 }}</ref> as well as in African countries like ], ], ], ], ] and ].<ref name="Pew">{{cite web|date=9 August 2012|title=Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-1-religious-affiliation/#identity|access-date=4 September 2013|website=The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity|publisher=]'s Religion & Public Life Project}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Babou |first=Cheikh Anta |date=2007 |title=Sufism and Religious Brotherhoods in Senegal |journal=] |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=184–186}}</ref>
The ] are the largest group in Islam. In ], '''as-Sunnah''' literally means "principle" or "path."
Sunnis and Shi'a believe that Muhammad is a perfect example to follow, and that they must imitate the words and acts of Muhammad as accurately as possible. Because of this reason, the ] (practices which Muhammad established in the community) is described as a main pillar of Sunni doctrine, with the place of ] having been argued by scholars as part of the sunnah.


== Law and jurisprudence ==
Sunnis recognize four major legal traditions (]s): ], ], ], and ]. All four accept the validity of the others and a Muslim might choose any one that he/she finds agreeable to his/her ideas. There are also several orthodox theological or philosophical traditions (]). The more recent ] movement among Sunnis, adherents of which often refuse to categorize themselves under any single legal tradition, sees itself as restorationist and claims to derive its teachings from the original sources of Islam.
{{Main|Sharia|Fiqh}}
{{See also|Logic in Islamic philosophy#Islamic law and theology}}
] in the ]|upright=1.35]]
] is the body of Islamic ].<ref name="Lexico" />{{sfnp|Esposito|2002b|pp=17, 111–112, 118}} The desire to delineate and discover laws in a comprehensive and consistent method led to the development of the ], called ].<ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2010|p=96}}</ref><ref name="vikor">Vikør, Knut S. 2014. "." In ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics'', edited by ]. Oxford: ]. Archived from the on 4 June 2014. Retrieved 25 May 2020.</ref> Conversely, ] is used to refer to unlawful innovations in matters of religion.<ref>{{cite book|last1 = A.C. Brown|first1 = Jonathan|author-link=Jonathan A.C. Brown|title = Hadith: Muhammad's Legacy in the Medieval and Modern World ''(Foundations of Islam)''|date = 2009|publisher = ]|isbn = 978-1851686636|page = 277}}</ref> Differing methodologies, called principles of fiqh or '']'', have developed and a school of jurisprudence arising around a methodology is known as a ''madhhab'' ({{langx|ar|مذهب}}). The conformity in following of decisions by a religious expert or school is called '']''. The term '']'' refers to those who do not use taqlid and, by extension, do not have a madhab.<ref>Bharathi, K. S. 1998. ''Encyclopedia of Eminent Thinkers''. p. 38.</ref> The practice of an individual interpreting law with independent reasoning is called '']''.{{sfnp|Weiss|2002|pp=3, 161}}<ref name="ODI">{{cite web |editor-link=John Esposito|editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=John L. |title=Islamic Law |work=] |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t125/e1107 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170203033813/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t125/e1107 |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 February 2017 |via=Oxford Islamic Studies Online}}</ref> Those who interpret shariah are known as ]s and their legal opinions are called ]s.<ref name="ODI" /><ref name="vikor" />


The primary sources of Shariah are the Quran and Sunnah.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Esposito |first1=John L. |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=MOmaDq8HKCgC|page=2}} |title=Women in Muslim Family Law |last2=DeLong-Bas |first2=Natana J. |publisher=] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-8156-2908-5 |pages=2– |author-link=John Esposito |author-link2=Natana J. DeLong-Bas}} Quote: ", by the ninth century, the classical theory of law fixed the sources of Islamic law at four: the ''Quran'', the ''Sunnah'' of the Prophet, ''qiyas'' (analogical reasoning), and ''ijma'' (consensus)."</ref> A common third source is ] (analogical reasoning) which is used for legal questions not dealt with literally in the Qur’ān or Sunnah. Parallels would be searched for to find the ‘’illah’’, or effective cause, which is the reason behind the existing ruling.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095957640|publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=1 October 2024 |location=Oxford |title=illah}}</ref> For example, from the specific prohibition of wine is deduced a broad prohibition on alcohol as they share the operative cause identified as the mind-altering nature of all alcoholic drinks.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Fairak |first1= A. |title= Analogy (Islamic)|edition=2014|page=56|year=2014|publisher=Springer |location=Boston|isbn= 978-1-4614-6085-5|language=English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last= Fairak |first= A. |year=2014 |title= Analogy (Islamic)|journal= Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion|volume=74 |issue=4 |pages=531–55 |doi=10.1086/353360 |s2cid=144315162 | issn=0021-1753}}</ref> The ] adheres to strict literalism and thus rejects qiyas. Consensus of opinion is ], while ] refers to scholarly disagreement. Rulings assign actions to one of five categories called ]: mandatory ('']''), recommended ('']''), permitted ('']''), abhorred ('']''), and prohibited ('']'').<ref name="ODI" /><ref name="vikor" />
===Shi'a===


In the modern era, sharia-based criminal laws were widely replaced by statutes inspired by European models.<ref name="vikor" /> The ]'s 19th century ] reforms led to the ] civil code and represented the first attempt to ] sharia.<ref name=Oxfordref/> While the constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references to sharia, its classical rules were largely retained only in ] (family) laws.<ref name="vikor" /> Legislative bodies which codified these laws sought to modernize them without abandoning their foundations in traditional jurisprudence.<ref name="vikor" /><ref name="mayer">Mayer, Ann Elizabeth. 2009. "." In ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World'', edited by J. L. Esposito. Oxford: ].</ref> The ] of the late 20th century brought along calls by ] movements for complete implementation of sharia.<ref name="vikor" /><ref name="mayer" /> The role of sharia has become a contested topic around the world. There are ongoing debates as to whether sharia is compatible with secular forms of government, human rights, ], and ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=An-Na'im |first=Abdullahi A. |title=Religious Human Rights in Global Perspective: Religious Perspectives |year=1996 |isbn=978-90-411-0179-2 |editor-last=Witte |editor-first=John |pages=337–359 |chapter=Islamic Foundations of Religious Human Rights |publisher=BRILL |editor-last2=van der Vyver |editor-first2=Johan D. |chapter-url={{Google books|aqyWwF5YA1gC|page=337|plainurl=yes}}}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hajjar |first=Lisa |year=2004 |title=Religion, State Power, and Domestic Violence in Muslim Societies: A Framework for Comparative Analysis |journal=] |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=1–38 |doi=10.1111/j.1747-4469.2004.tb00329.x |jstor=4092696 |s2cid=145681085}}</ref>
] Muslims, the second-largest branch, differ from the Sunni in rejecting the authority of the first three ]. They honor different accounts of Muhammad (]) and have their own legal traditions. The concept of ] (leadership) plays a central role in Shi'a doctrine. Shi'a Muslims hold that leadership should not be passed down through a system such as the ], but rather, descendants of Muhammad should be given this right as ]. Furthermore, they believe that the first Imam, Ali ibn Abu Talib, was explicitly appointed by Muhammad to be his successor.
{{see also|Historic background of the Sunni-Shi'a split}}


===Sufism=== == Society ==
=== Religious personages ===
{{Main|Ulama}}
] Muslim students (1856)]]
Islam has no clergy in the ] sense, such as priests who mediate between God and people. '']'' ({{langx|ar|إمام|label=none}}) is the religious title used to refer to an Islamic leadership position, often in the context of conducting an Islamic worship service.<ref>{{cite web |title=Imam|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/imam|access-date=15 January 2023|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> Religious interpretation is presided over by the '''ulama'' (Arabic: علماء), a term used describe the body of Muslim scholars who have received training in ]. A scholar of the hadith is called a '']'', a scholar of jurisprudence is called a '']'' ({{langx|ar|فقيه|label=none}}), a jurist who is qualified to issue legal opinions or '']'' is called a ], and a '']'' is an Islamic judge. ] titles given to scholars include ], ] and '']''. Some Muslims also venerate ] associated with ] ({{langx|ar|كرامات|translit=karāmāt|label=none}}).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Radtke |first1=B. |last2=Lory |first2=P. |last3=Zarcone |first3=Th. |last4=DeWeese |first4=D. |last5=Gaborieau |first5=M. |last6=Denny |first6=F. M. |last7=Aubin |first7=F. |last8=Hunwick |first8=J. O. |last9=Mchugh |first9=N. |title=Walī |orig-year=1993 |year=2012 |editor1-last=Bearman |editor1-first=P. J. |editor1-link=Peri Bearman |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor2-first=Th. |editor2-link=Thierry Bianquis |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor3-first=C. E. |editor3-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |editor4-last=van Donzel |editor4-first=E. J. |editor4-link=Emeri Johannes van Donzel |editor5-last=Heinrichs |editor5-first=W. P. |editor5-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs |encyclopedia=] |edition=2nd |location=] |publisher=] |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_1335 |isbn=978-90-04-16121-4}}</ref>


=== Governance ===
] is a mystical form of Islam followed by some Muslims within both the Sunni and Shi'a sects. Sufis generally believe that following Islamic law or jurisprudence (or '']'') is only the first step on the path to perfect submission; they focus on the internal or more spiritual aspects of Islam, such as perfecting one's faith and subduing one's own ego ('']''). Most Sufi orders, or ]s, can be classified as either Sunni or Shi'a. However, there are some that are not easily categorized as either Sunni or Shi'a, such as the ]. Sufis are found throughout the Islamic world, from ] to ]. Their innovative beliefs and actions often come under criticism from ], who consider certain practices to be against the letter of Islamic law.


{{See also|Political aspects of Islam|Islamic economics|Islamic military jurisprudence|tasamuh|Jihad}}
===Others===
In ], hoarding of wealth is reviled and thus ] behavior is frowned upon.<ref>Iqbal, Zamir, Abbas Mirakhor, Noureddine Krichenne, and Hossein Askari. ''The Stability of Islamic Finance: Creating a Resilient Financial Environment''. p. 75.</ref> Attempts to comply with sharia has led to the development of ]. Islam prohibits '']'', usually translated as ], which refers to any unfair gain in trade and is most commonly used to mean ].<ref>{{harvc |c=Riba |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online |year=n.d. |last1= Schacht|first1=Joseph}}</ref> Instead, Islamic banks go into partnership with the borrower, and both share from the profits and any losses from the venture. Another feature is the avoidance of uncertainty, which is seen as gambling<ref>{{Cite news |last=Foster|first=John |date=1 December 2009|title=How Islamic finance missed heavenly chance|work=BBC |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/8388644.stm|access-date=13 February 2022}}</ref> and Islamic banks traditionally avoid derivative instruments such as futures or options which has historically protected them from market downturns.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Domat|first=Chloe|date=20 October 2020|title=What Is Islamic Finance And How Does It Work?|work=Global Finance magazine|url=https://www.gfmag.com/topics/blogs/islamic-finance-faq-what-islamic-finance-and-how-does-it-work|access-date=13 February 2022}}</ref> The Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphate used to be involved in distribution of charity from the treasury, known as ], before it became a largely individual pursuit around the year 720. The first ], ], distributed zakat as one of the first examples of a ], with each citizen getting 10 to 20 ] annually.<ref>{{cite web |last=Merchant, Brian |date=14 November 2013 |title=Guaranteeing a Minimum Income Has Been a Utopian Dream for Centuries |url=https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/z4mbg3/guaranteeing-a-minimum-income-has-been-a-utopian-dream-for-centuries |access-date=3 June 2019 |website=]}}</ref> During the reign of the second Caliph Umar, ] was introduced and the old and disabled were entitled to stipends,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Al-Buraey |first=Muhammad |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=lT8OAAAAQAAJ|page=}} |title=Administrative Development: An Islamic Perspective |publisher=KPI |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-7103-0059-1 |pages=252–}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Akgündüz |first1=Ahmed |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=EnT_zhqEe5cC|page=539}} |title=Ottoman History: Misperceptions and Truths |last2=Öztürk |first2=Said |publisher=IUR Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-90-90-26108-9 |pages=539– |access-date=7 October 2014}}</ref> while the Umayyad Caliph ] assigned a servant for each blind person and for every two chronically ill persons.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Al-Jawzi|first1=Ibn |url=|title=The Biography and Virtues of Omar Bin Abd al-Aziz – The Ascetic Caliph |publisher=IUR Press |year=2001 |isbn= |page=130 }}</ref>


] means "to strive or struggle " and, in its broadest sense, is "exerting one's utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of ]".{{sfnp|Firestone|1999|pp=17–18}} Shias in particular emphasize the "greater jihad" of striving to attain spiritual ]<ref name="Afsaruddin">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Afsaruddin |first=Asma |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/jihad |title=Jihad |encyclopedia=] |access-date=17 September 2021 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Brockopp|2003|pp=99–100}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2003|p=93}}</ref> while the "lesser jihad" is defined as warfare.{{sfnp|Firestone|1999|p=17}}<ref name="EI2">{{harvc|last=Tyan, E. |year=2012 |c=D̲j̲ihād |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)}}. {{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0189}}</ref> When used without a qualifier, jihad is often understood in its military form.{{sfnp|Firestone|1999|pp=17–18}}<ref name="Afsaruddin" /> Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against illegal works, terrorists, criminal groups, rebels, ], and leaders or states who oppress Muslims.{{sfnp|Firestone|1999|p=17}}<ref name="EI2" /> Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare.<ref>Habeck, Mary R. ''Knowing the Enemy: Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror''. ]. pp. 108–109, 118.</ref> Jihad only becomes an individual duty for those vested with authority. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a ].<ref name="EI2" /> For most ], ] can only be declared by a ] of the Muslim community, and as such, is suspended since ]'s ] in 868&nbsp;CE.{{sfnp|Sachedina|1998|pp=105–106}}{{sfnp|Nasr|2003|p=72}}
] on the ] in ], a holy site in Islam]]


=== Daily and family life ===
Another sect which dates back to the early days of Islam is that of the ]. The only surviving branch of the Kharijites are the ]s. Ibadism is distinguished from Shiism by its belief that the Imam (Leader) should be chosen solely on the basis of his faith, not on the basis of descent, and from Sunnism in its rejection of ] and ] and strong emphasis on the need to depose unjust rulers. Ibadi Islam is noted for its strictness, but, unlike the Kharijites proper, Ibadis do not regard major sins as automatically making a Muslim an unbeliever. Most Ibadi Muslims live in ].
{{See also|Adab (Islam)|Islamic dietary laws|Islam and children|Marriage in Islam|Women in Islam|Polygyny in Islam}}
] represent ]]]
Many daily practices fall in the category of ''adab'', or etiquette. Specific prohibited foods include pork products, blood and ]. Health is viewed as a trust from God and ], such as ]s, are prohibited.<ref>{{cite book|author=Fahd Salem Bahammam|title=Food and Dress in Islam: An explanation of matters relating to food and drink and dress in Islam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CRojJ7lnb18C&pg=PP1|publisher=Modern Guide|isbn=978-1-909322-99-8|page=1}}</ref> All meat must come from a ] animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, except for game that one has hunted or fished for oneself.<ref>{{harvp|Curtis|2005|p=164}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2002b|p=111}}</ref><ref>{{harvc |c=Slaughter |first=Ersilia |last=Francesca |year=n.d. |in=McAuliffe}}</ref> Beards are often encouraged among men as something natural<ref>{{Cite news |last=De Sondy |first=Amanullah |date=28 January 2016|title=The relationship between Muslim men and their beards is a tangled one|work=] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/jan/28/muslim-men-beards-facial-hair-islam |access-date=7 March 2022}}</ref> and body modifications, such as ], are usually forbidden as violating the creation.{{efn|Some Muslims in dynastic era China resisted ] of girls for the same reason.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/religionsofchina00legg|quote=mohammedan.|title=The religions of China: Confucianism and Tâoism described and compared with Christianity|first=James|last=Legge|year=1880|publisher=Hodder and Stoughton|location=London|page=|access-date=28 June 2010}}(Original from Harvard University)</ref> }}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.learnreligions.com/tattoos-in-islam-2004393|title=Are Muslims Allowed to Get Tattoos? |website=|access-date=7 March 2022 }}</ref> Silk and gold are prohibited for men in Islam to maintain a state of sobriety.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Glassé |first1=Cyril |title=The New Encyclopedia of Islam |publisher=AltaMira Press |page=158 |language=en|year=2001}}</ref> '']'', often translated as "shame" or "modesty", is sometimes described as the innate character of Islam<ref>{{cite book |last1=Zine |first1=Jasmin |last2=Babana-Hampton |first2=Safoi |last3=Mazid |first3=Nergis |last4=Bullock |first4=Katherine |last5=Chishti |first5=Maliha |title=American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 19:4 |publisher=International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT) |page=59 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0JM4DwAAQBAJ&q=haya+islam&pg=PA59 |access-date=4 June 2020 |language=en}}</ref> and informs much of Muslim daily life. For example, ] emphasizes a standard of modesty, which has included the '']'' for women. Similarly, ] is encouraged with certain requirements.<ref>{{cite web |last=Esposito |first=John |title=Oxford Islamic Studies Online |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t243/e4 |access-date=3 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161114153249/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t243/e4 |archive-date=14 November 2016}}</ref>


]
Another trend in modern Islam is that which is sometimes called progressive. Followers may be called ]. They may be either Sunni or Shi'ite, and generally favor the development of personal interpretations of Qur'an and Hadith.
In ], the groom is required to pay a bridal gift ('']'').<ref>{{harvp|Waines|2003|pp=93–96}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Esposito|2003|p=339}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Esposito|1998|p=79}}</ref>
Most families in the Islamic world are monogamous.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Newby |first=Gordon D. |url=https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope00newb |title=A concise encyclopedia of Islam |publisher=] |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-85168-295-9 |location=Oxford |page=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Nasr |first=Seyyed Hossein |url=https://archive.org/details/islamreligionhis00nasr_0/page/68 |title=Islam : religion, history, and civilization |publisher=] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-06-050714-5 |location=New York |page=}}</ref> Muslim men are allowed to practice ] and can have up to four wives simultaneously. Islamic teachings strongly advise that if a man cannot ensure equal financial and emotional support for each of his wives, it is recommended that he marry just one woman. One reason cited for polygyny is that it allows a man to give financial protection to multiple women, who might otherwise not have any support (e.g. widows). However, the first wife can set a condition in the ] that the husband cannot marry another woman during their marriage.<ref>{{cite book|author=Ratno Lukito|title=Legal Pluralism in Indonesia: Bridging the Unbridgeable|page=81|publisher=]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.islamweb.net/ver2/fatwa/ShowFatwa.php?lang=A&Id=18444&Option=FatwaId |title=IslamWeb |publisher=IslamWeb |date=7 February 2002 |access-date=13 September 2011}}</ref> There are also cultural variations in weddings.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eaton |first=Gai |url=https://archive.org/details/rememberinggodre0000eato |title=Remembering God: Reflections on Islam |publisher=The ] |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-946621-84-2 |location=Cambridge |pages=}}</ref> ], a practice wherein a woman takes on two or more husbands, is prohibited in Islam.<ref>{{cite web |title=Why Can't a Woman have 2 Husbands? |url=http://www.14publications.com/question-and-answer/why-cant-a-woman-have-2-husbands/ |access-date=27 December 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223012707/http://www.14publications.com/question-and-answer/why-cant-a-woman-have-2-husbands/ |archive-date=23 December 2015 |website=14 Publications}}</ref>


] girls studying the ] placed atop folding ]s (]) during ] in ], ]]]
There is also a very small sect isolated within India and Pakistan which identifies themselves as ] Muslims, who believe in the continuation of prophethood after Muhammad, in contradiction to mainstream Muslims who believe that Muhammad was the final prophet. Although this sect is not accepted as Muslim by mainstream Islamic scholars, they continue to identify themselves with the term Muslim. Likewise, Ahmadis believe that rest of the ] who do not share faith with them are non-Muslims.
After the birth of a child, the '']'' is pronounced in the right ear.{{sfnp|Campo|2009|p=106}} On the seventh day, the '']'' ceremony is performed, in which an animal is sacrificed and its meat is distributed among the poor.{{sfnp|Nigosian|2004|p=}} The child's head is shaved, and an amount of money equaling the weight of its hair is donated to the poor.{{sfnp|Nigosian|2004|p=}} Male ], called '']'',<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2014 |title=Khitān |encyclopedia=] |publisher=] |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/khitan-Islam |access-date=27 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200127165754/https://www.britannica.com/topic/khitan-Islam |archive-date=27 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> is often practised in the Muslim world.<ref>{{cite journal |date=January 2017 |title=Reported Male Circumcision Practices in a Muslim-Majority Setting |journal=] |publisher=] |volume=2017 |pages=1–8 |doi=10.1155/2017/4957348 |pmc=5282422 |pmid=28194416 |doi-access=free |author1-last=Anwer |author1-first=Abdul Wahid |author2-last=Samad |author2-first=Lubna |author3-last=Baig-Ansari |author3-first=Naila |author4-last=Iftikhar |author4-first=Sundus}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=13 August 2009 |title=Islam: Circumcision of boys |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/islamethics/malecircumcision.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121112170938/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/islamethics/malecircumcision.shtml |archive-date=12 November 2012 |access-date=27 May 2020 |work=Religion & ethics—Islam |publisher=]}}</ref> Respecting and obeying one's parents, and taking care of them especially in their old age is a religious obligation.{{sfnp|Campo|2009|p=136}}


A ] is encouraged to pronounce the ''Shahada'' as their last words.<ref>{{Cite book| isbn = 9783643900678| title =Changing European Death Ways| location = Austria| year = 2013| last1=Mathijssen| first1=Brenda|last2=Venhorst|first2=Claudia|last3=Venbrux|first3=Eric|last4=Quartier|first4=Thomas| url =| page = 265 |publisher=Lit }}</ref> Paying respects to the dead and attending funerals in the community are considered among the virtuous acts. In ], burial is encouraged as soon as possible, usually within 24 hours. The body is washed, except for martyrs, by members of the same gender and enshrouded in a garment that must not be elaborate called ''kafan''.{{sfnp|Stefon|2010|p=}} A "funeral prayer" called '']'' is performed. Wailing, or loud, mournful outcrying, is discouraged. Coffins are often not preferred and graves are often unmarked, even for kings.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rahman|first=Rema |date=25 October 2011|title=Who, What, Why: What are the burial customs in Islam?|work=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-15444275|access-date=28 January 2022}}</ref>
== Islam and other religions ==
{{main|Islam and other religions}}


=== Arts and culture ===
The Qur'an contains both injunctions to respect other religions, and to fight and subdue unbelievers during war. Some Muslims have respected ] and ] as fellow ] (monotheists following ]), while others have reviled them as having abandoned monotheism and corrupted their scriptures. At different times and places, Islamic communities have been both intolerant and tolerant. Support can be found in the Qur'an for both attitudes.
{{Main|Islamic culture}}
{{See also|Islamic art|Islamic architecture|Islamic literature|Islam in association football|Cultural Muslims}}
The term "]" can be used to mean aspects of culture that pertain to the religion, such as ] and ]. It is also controversially used to denote the cultural aspects of traditionally Muslim people.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Melikian |first=Souren |author-link=Souren Melikian |date=4 November 2011 |title='Islamic' Culture: A Groundless Myth |work=] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/05/arts/05iht-rartmelikian05.html |url-access=subscription |access-date=25 November 2013}}</ref> Finally, "Islamic civilization" may also refer to the aspects of the synthesized culture of the early Caliphates, including that of non-Muslims,{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=56}} sometimes referred to as "]".<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = Wiley| isbn = 9781405155144| title =Islamicate Cosmopolitan Spirit | location = United Kingdom| year = 2021| last=Lawrence| first=Bruce| url =| page = xii| quote = }}</ref>


] encompasses the ] including fields as varied as architecture, ], painting, and ], among others.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ettinghausen |first1=Richard |first2=Oleg |last2=Grabar |first3=Marilyn |last3=Jenkins-Madina |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780300088670/page/3 |title=Islamic Art and Architecture 650-1250 |publisher=] |year=2003 |isbn=0-300-08869-8 |edition=2nd |page=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Suarez|first=Michael F.|title=The Oxford companion to the book|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2010|isbn=9780198606536|location=Oxford and New York|pages=331ff|chapter=38 The History of the Book in the Muslim World|oclc=50238944}}</ref> While the making of images of animate beings has often been frowned upon in connection with ], this rule has been interpreted in different ways by different scholars and in different historical periods. This stricture has been used to explain the prevalence of ], ], and pattern as key aspects of Islamic artistic culture.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Salim Ayduz |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=or-6BwAAQBAJ&q=islamic+art+idolatry+geometry&pg=PA263 |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam |last2=Ibrahim Kalin |last3=Caner Dagli |date=2014 |page=263|publisher=] |isbn=978-0-19-981257-8 |quote=Figural representation is virtually unused in Islamic art because of Islam's strong antagonism of idolatry. It was important for Muslim scholars and artists to find a style of art that represented the Islamic ideals of unity (''tawhid'') and order without figural representation. Geometric patterns perfectly suited this goal.}}</ref> Additionally, the ] is a contentious issue among Muslims.<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=860736| title = An Indian Picture of Muhammad and His Companions
The classical Islamic solution was a limited tolerance &mdash; Jews and Christians were to be allowed to privately practice their faith and follow their own family law. They were called ] and paid a special tax called the ], since the ] paid by Muslims was not compulsory on them. The status of dhimmis is a matter of dispute, with some claiming that dhimmis were persecuted second-class citizens, and others that their lot was not difficult.
| author = T. W. Arnold| journal = The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs
| author-link = T. W. Arnold| date = June 1919| volume = 34| issue = 195
| publisher = The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs, Vol. 34, No. 195.
| pages = 249–252}}</ref> In ], varying cultures show influence such as North African and Spanish Islamic architecture such as the ] containing ] and ] columns from Roman and Byzantine buildings,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Isichei |first=Elizabeth Allo |url={{Google books|LgnhYDozENgC|page=PA175|keywords=mosque%20kairouan%20roman columns|text=mosque+kairouan+roman+columns|plainurl=yes}} |title=A history of African societies to 1870 |publisher=] |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-521-45599-2 |location=Cambridge |pages=175 |access-date=6 August 2010}}</ref> while ] often have multi-tiered roofs from local ]nese styles.<ref>{{cite book |first=Gunawan |last=Tjahjono |title=Indonesian Heritage-Architecture |url=https://archive.org/details/architecture00indo/page/88 |year=1998 |publisher=Archipelago Press |location=Singapore |isbn=981-3018-30-5 |pages= }}</ref>


The ] is a ] that begins with the ] of 622&nbsp;CE, a date that was reportedly chosen by Caliph Umar as it was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Muslim-calendar|title=Islamic calendar|website=www.britannica.com|date=|access-date=8 August 2022}}</ref> Islamic ] fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, meaning they occur in ] in different years in the ]. The most important Islamic festivals are '']'' ({{langx|ar|عيد الفطر}}) on the 1st of '']'', marking the end of the fasting month ''Ramadan'', and '']'' ({{lang|ar|عيد الأضحى}}) on the 10th of ''Dhu al-Hijjah'', coinciding with the end of the ] (pilgrimage).<ref>{{Cite book| publisher =Oxford University Press| isbn =9780195165203| title =The Islamic World: Past and Present| year = 2004| last=Esposito| first=John| pages = 75–76 |ref=none}}</ref><ref name="www.britannica.com-2023" />
The medieval Islamic state was often more tolerant than many other states of the time which insisted on complete conformity to a state religion. The record of ] Muslim-majority states is mixed. Some are generally regarded as tolerant, while others have been accused of intolerance and human rights violations.


] are religiously non-practicing individuals who still identify with Islam due to family backgrounds, personal experiences, or the social and cultural environment in which they grew up.<ref>{{cite book|first1= Cara|last1= Aitchison|author1-link= Cara Aitchison|first2= Peter E.|last2= Hopkins|author3-link= Mei-Po Kwan|author3= Mei-Po Kwan|title= Geographies of Muslim Identities: Diaspora, Gender and Belonging|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=DRnthQxB8lYC&pg=PA147|access-date= 30 June 2013|year= 2007|publisher= Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn= 978-1-4094-8747-0|pages=147}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Islamic Counselling: An Introduction to theory and practice|first=G. Hussein|last= Rassool|year= 2015| isbn=9781317441250| page =10|publisher=Routledge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o_QsCgAAQBAJ&dq=Muslims+who+are+religiously+unobservant,+secular+or+irreligious+individuals+who+still+identify+with+the+Muslim&pg=PA10|quote=The label 'Cultural Muslim' is used in the literature to describe those Muslims who are religiously unobservant, secular or irreligious individuals who still identify with the Muslim culture due to family background, personal experiences, or the social and cultural environment in which they grew up... For Cultural Muslim the declaration of faith is superficial and has no effect of their religious practices.}}</ref>
One of the open issues is the claim from hardline ] that once a certain territory has been under 'Muslim' rule, it can never be relinquished anymore, and that such a period of Islamic rule would give the Muslims an eternal right on the claimed territory. This claim is particularly controversial with regard to ] and to a lesser degree ] and parts of the ].


<gallery class="left">
===Related faiths===
File:Sixty Dome Mosque,Bagerhat.jpg|14th century ], in ], ]
File:Djenne great mud mosque.jpg|], in the ]n country of ]
File:Closeup of Mir-i-Arab Madrasa.jpg|Dome in ], ], ]
File:1 great mosque xian 2011.JPG|14th century ] in China
File:Masjid Menara Kudus.jpg|16th century ] in Indonesia showing Indian influence
File:Basmalah-1wm.svg|The phrase '']'' in an 18th-century Islamic calligraphy from the ] region
File:Roof hafez tomb.jpg|Geometric arabesque tiling on the underside of the dome of Hafiz Shirazi's tomb in ], ]
</gallery>


== Influences on other religions ==
The ], ], ], ] and ] religions either emerged out of an Islamic milieu or have beliefs in common with Islam in varying degrees; in almost all cases those religions were also influenced by traditional beliefs in the regions where they emerged, but consider themselves independent religions with distinct laws and institutions. The last two religions no longer have any followers.
{{See also|Islam and Druze}}
Some movements, such as the ],<ref>{{Cite book |last=De McLaurin |first=Ronald |url=https://archive.org/details/politicalroleofm0000unse |title=The Political Role of Minority Groups in the Middle East |publisher=Michigan University Press |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-03-052596-4 |page= |quote=Theologically, one would have to conclude that the Druze are not Muslims. They do not accept the five pillars of Islam. In place of these principles, the Druze have instituted the seven precepts noted above...}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hunter |first=Shireen |url=https://archive.org/details/politicsofislami0000unse |title=The Politics of Islamic Revivalism: Diversity and Unity: Center for Strategic and International Studies (Washington, D.C.), Georgetown University. Center for Strategic and International Studies |publisher=] |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-253-34549-3 |page= |quote=Druze – An offshoot of Shi'ism; its members are not considered Muslims by orthodox Muslims.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=R. Williams |first=Victoria |title=Indigenous Peoples: An Encyclopedia of Culture, History, and Threats to Survival |publisher=] |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-4408-6118-5 |page=318 |quote=As Druze is a nonritualistic religion without requirements to pray, fast, make pilgrimages, or observe days of rest, the Druze are not considered an Islamic people by Sunni Muslims.}}</ref> ] and ], either emerged from Islam or came to share certain beliefs with Islam, and whether each is a separate religion or a sect of Islam is sometimes controversial.<ref>{{Cite book |last=D. Grafton |first=David |title=Piety, Politics, and Power: Lutherans Encountering Islam in the Middle East |publisher=] |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-63087-718-7 |page=14 |quote=In addition, there are several quasi-Muslim sects, in that, although they follow many of the beliefs and practices of orthodox Islam, the majority of Sunnis consider them heretical. These would be the Ahmadiyya, Druze, Ibadi, and the Yazidis.}}</ref> The ] faith further split from ] as it developed its own unique doctrines, and finally separated from both Ismāʿīlīsm and Islam altogether; these include the belief that the Imam ] was ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Poonawala |first=Ismail K. |date=July–September 1999 |title=Review: ''The Fatimids and Their Traditions of Learning'' by Heinz Halm |journal=] |publisher=] |volume=119 |issue=3 |page=542 |doi=10.2307/605981 |issn=0003-0279 |jstor=605981 |lccn=12032032 |oclc=47785421}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last = Bryer | first = David R. W. | title = The Origins of the Druze Religion (Fortsetzung) | journal = ] | year = 1975 | volume = 52 | issue = 2 | pages = 239–262 | doi = 10.1515/islm.1975.52.2.239 | s2cid = 162363556 | url = https://doi.org/10.1515/islm.1975.52.2.239 | issn = 1613-0928 | ref = {{harvid|Bryer|1975b}} }}</ref> ] is seen as a blend of local Kurdish beliefs and Islamic Sufi doctrine introduced to ] by ] in the 12th century.<ref>{{cite book |last=Foltz |first=Richard |title=Religions of Iran: From Prehistory to the Present |date=7 November 2013 |isbn=978-1-78074-307-3 |page=219 |chapter=Two Kurdish Sects: The Yezidis and the Yaresan |publisher=Oneworld Publications |chapter-url= |chapter-url-access=}}</ref> ] stems from Twelver Shia passed through ] while one of his followers Mirza Husayn 'Ali Nuri ] founded the ].<ref>{{cite web |last=House of Justice |first=Universal |title=One Common Faith |url=http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/bic/OCF/ocf-8.html |access-date=1 April 2017 |website=reference.bahai.org}}</ref> ], founded by ] in late 15th century ], primarily incorporates aspects of ], with some Islamic influences.<ref>Elsberg, Constance (2003), ''Graceful Women.'' ]. {{ISBN|978-1-57233-214-0}}. pp. 27–28.</ref>


== History == == Criticism ==
{{Main|Criticism of Islam}}

{{see also|Criticism of Muhammad|Criticism of the Quran}}
]
], under the ], viewed Islamic doctrines as a hodgepodge from the ].<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/general/stjohn_islam.aspx |title=Writings by St John of Damascus |publisher=Catholic University of America Press |year=1958 |series=The Fathers of the Church |volume=37 |location=Washington, DC |pages=153–160 |chapter=St. John of Damascus's Critique of Islam |access-date=8 July 2019}}</ref>]]
{{main|History of Islam}}

Islam began in ] in the 7th century under the leadership of Muhammad, who spread Islam across all of Arabia. Within a century of his death, an Islamic state stretched from the ] in the west to ] in the east, which, however, was soon torn by civil wars (]s). After this, there would always be rival dynasties claiming the ], or leadership of the Muslim world, and many Islamic states or empires offering only token obedience to an increasingly powerless ].

Despite this fragmentation of Islam as a political community, the empires of the ] caliphs, the ], and the ], ] Persia and Ottomans were among the largest and most powerful in the world. Arabs made many Islamic centers of culture and science and produced notable scientists, astronomers, mathematicians, doctors and philosophers during the Golden Age of Islam. Technology flourished; there was much investment in economic infrastructure, such as irrigation systems and canals; stress on the importance of reading the Qur'an produced a comparatively high level of literacy in the general populace.

Islam at its geographical height stretched for thousands of miles. Islamic conquest into Christian Europe spread as far as ]. After the disastrous defeat of the Byzantines at the ] in 1071, Christian Europe, at the behest of the Pope, launched a series of ] and for a time captured Jerusalem. ], however, recaptured ] and defeated the ] ]s.

In the ] and ] three major Muslim empires were created: the ] in much of the ], ] and ]; the Safavid Empire in ]; and the Mughul Empire in ]. These new imperial powers were made possible by the discovery and exploitation of ], and more efficient administration.<ref>Armstrong (2000) p. 116</ref>

By the end of the ], however all three had declined due to internal conflict and were later destroyed by Western cultural influence and military ambitions. Following ], the remnants of the Ottoman Empire were parceled out as European ]s or ]. Many Islamic countries have now been formed from these protectorates, such as ], ], of ]. Islam and Islamic political power have become much more influential in the 21st century, particularly due to Islamic control of most of the world's oil.{{fact}}

], the process of the conversion of societies to Islam, originally closely followed the rapid growth of the ] in the first centuries after Muhammad's death. ] were soon established in ], the ] and ] and the conversion of the population was a protracted process. Although the expansion of Muslim empires eventually slowed, ] continued in other ways. Muslim countries dominated trade in the ] and the ] and it was through trade, ] ]s, and interaction with locals that Islam grew in areas such as the ] and the ].

===Caliphate===
{{main|Caliph}}

Muhammed died in ] without appointing a successor or leaving in place a system for choosing one, according to the majority of Muslims. As a result, the caliphate was established. Caliph is the title for the Islamic leader of the Ummah, or community of Islam. It is a transliterated version of the Arabic word "Khalīfah" which means "successor" or "representative". Some of the early leaders of the Muslim community following Muhammad's death called themselves "Khalifat Allah", meaning representative of God, but the alternative title of "Khalifat rasul Allah", meaning the successor to the prophet of God, eventually became the standard title. Some academics prefer to transliterate the term as Khalīf.

Caliphs were often also referred to as Amīr al-Mu'minīn (أمير المؤمنين) "Commander of the Faithful", or, more colloquially, leader of the Muslims. This title has been shortened and romanized to "emir".

None of the early caliphs claimed to receive divine revelations, as did Muhammad; since Muhammad is the last divine messenger, none of them claimed to be a ''nabī'', "a prophet" or a "rasul" or divine messenger. Muhammad's revelations were soon codified and written down as the ], which was accepted as a supreme authority, limiting what a caliph could legitimately command. However, the early caliphs believed themselves to be the spiritual and temporal leaders of Islam, and insisted that implicit obedience to the caliph in all things was the hallmark of the good Muslim. The role became strictly temporal however, on the rise of the ].

After the first four caliphs (], ], ], and ]), the title was claimed by the Umayyads, the Abbasids, and the Ottomans, as well as by other, competing lineages in Spain, Northern Africa, and Egypt. Most historical Muslim rulers simply titled themselves sultans or amirs, and gave token obedience to a caliph who often had very little real authority. The title has been defunct since the Republic of Turkey abolished the Ottoman caliphate in 1924.

Once the subject of intense conflict and rivalry amongst Muslim rulers, the caliphate has lain dormant and largely unclaimed for much of the past 82 years. Though many Muslims might favor a caliphate in the abstract, tight restrictions on political activity in many Muslim countries coupled with the tremendous practical obstacles to uniting over fifty disparate nation-states under a single institution have prevented efforts to revive the caliphate from garnering much active support, even amongst devout Muslims. No attempts at rebuilding a power structure based on Islam were successful anywhere in the Muslim World until the ] in 1979, which was based on ] principles and whose leaders did not outwardly call for the restoration of a global Caliphate (although Iran has subsequently made efforts to 'export' its revolution to other Muslim countries).

== Contemporary Islam ==

Although the most prominent movement in Islam in recent times has been ] ], there are a number of ], which seek alternative ways to align the Islamic faith with contemporary questions.

Early ] had a much more flexible character than is currently associated with ], and many modern Muslim scholars believe that it should be renewed, and the classical jurists should lose their special status. This would require formulating a new ] suitable for the modern world, e.g. as proposed by advocates of the ], and would deal with the modern context. One vehicle proposed for such a change has been the revival of the principle of ], or independent reasoning by a qualified Islamic scholar, which has lain dormant for centuries.{{fact}}

This movement does not aim to challenge the fundamentals of Islam; rather, it seeks to clear away misinterpretations and to free the way for the renewal of the previous status of the Islamic world as a centre of modern thought and freedom.{{fact}}

Many Muslims counter the claim that only "liberalization" of the Islamic Sharia law can lead to distinguishing between ] and true Islam by saying that meaningful "fundamentalism", by definition, will eject non-Islamic cultural inventions &mdash; for instance, acknowledging and implementing Muhammad's insistence that women have God-given rights that no human being may legally infringe upon. Proponents of modern Islamic philosophy sometimes respond to this by arguing that, as a practical matter, "fundamentalism" in popular discourse about Islam may actually refer, not to core precepts of the faith, but to various systems of cultural traditionalism.

{{see also|Modern Islamic philosophy}}

====Demographics of Islam today====
{{main|Islam by country|Demographics of Islam}}
] majority and blue represents a ] majority.]]

Based on the figures published in the 2005 ] (), Islam is the second largest religion in the world. According to the , and ], Islam is the ] ] by percent (though not by raw numbers). estimate that it is growing at about 2.9% annually, as opposed to 2.3% per year global population growth.<ref name="ont"></ref> Most of this growth is due to the high population growth in many Islamic countries (six out of the top-ten countries in the world with the highest birth rates are majority Muslim <ref>, ''NationMaster.com'', retrieved March 27, 2006</ref>). The birth rates in some Muslim countries are now declining.<ref>, by Spengler, ''Asia Time Online'', August 23, 2005, retrieved March 27, 2006</ref>

Commonly cited estimates of the Muslim population today range between 900 million and 1.5 billion people (cf. ); estimates of ] based on U.S. State Department figures yield a total of 1.48 billion, while the Muslim delegation at the United Nations quoted 1.2 billion as the global Muslim population in September 2005.{{fact}}

Only 18% of ]s live in the ] world; 20% are found in Sub-Saharan Africa, about 30% in the ]n region of ], ] and ], and the world's largest single Muslim community (within the bounds of one nation) is in ]. There are also significant Muslim populations in ], ], ], and ].

] has the highest Muslim population of any nation in Western Europe, with up to 6 million Muslims (10% of the population<ref>, ''CIA - The World Factbook'', January, 2006, retrieved March 27, 2006</ref>). ] has the highest proportion of Muslims as part of its population in Europe (70%), although this figure is only an estimate (see ]). Countries in Europe with many Muslims include ] (estimated around 50% are Bosniaks, Muslims) and Macedonia where over 30% of the population is Muslim, mostly ethnic Albanians in Macedonia. The country in Europe with the most Muslims is Russia.
The number of Muslims in ] is variously estimated as anywhere from 1.8 to 7 million.<ref name="ont" />

===Political and religious extremism===
{{main|Islamic extremist terrorism}}

The term ] describes a set of political ideologies derived from ].<ref></ref> Most Islamist ideologies hold that Islam is not only a religion, but also a ] that governs the legal, economic and social imperatives of the state according to interpretations of ].

] refers to acts of terrorism claimed by its supporters and practitioners to be in furtherance of the goals of Islam. Its prevalence has heavily increased in recent years, and it has become a contentious political issue in many nations.

The validity of an Islamic justification for these acts is contested by many Muslims, in particular defying some of the rules of Jihad.<ref> Harun Yahya</ref><ref></ref> Islamic extremist violence is not synonymous with all terrorist activities committed by Muslims: nationalists, separatists, and others in the Muslim world often derive inspiration from ] ideologies.<ref> New York Times</ref>

== Criticism of Islam ==
{{main|Criticism of Islam}}
In recent years, Islam has been the subject of criticism and controversy, and is often viewed with considerable negativity in the West.<ref>Ernst, Carl (2002), ''Following Muhammad : rethinking Islam in the contemporary world'', University of North Carolina Press, ISBN 0807828378 p. 11</ref> Islam, the Qur'an, and Muhammad, have all been subject to both criticism and vilification, some of which has been dismissed as a product of ].<ref> Ernst (2002) p. 11 </ref>
The earliest surviving written criticisms of Islam are to be found in the writings of ]s who came under the early dominion of the Islamic empire. One such Christian was ] (born c. ]), who was familiar with Islam and ]. The second chapter of his book, ''The Fount of Wisdom'', titled 'Concerning Heresies' presents a series of discussions between Christians and Muslims. John claimed a ] ] influenced Muhammad.<ref name="John of Damascus1"> The Muslim World, Volume XLI (1951), pages 88-99, </ref><ref name="John of Damascus2"> De Haeresibus by John of Damascus. See Migne. Patrologia Graeca, vol. 94, 1864, cols 763-73. An English translation by the Reverend John W Voorhis appeared in THE MOSLEM WORLD for October 1954, pp. 392-398. </ref>


Criticism of Islam has existed since its formative stages. Early criticism came from Jewish authors, such as ], and Christian authors, many of whom viewed Islam as a ] or a form of ], often explaining it in apocalyptic terms.{{sfnp|Fahlbusch et al|2001|p=}}
Some medieval ecclesiastical writers portrayed Muhammad as possessed by ], a "precursor of the ]" or the Antichrist himself.<ref name="Oussani"> , by Gabriel Oussani, ''Catholic Encyclopedia'', retrieved April 16, 2006</ref>


Christian writers criticized Islam's sensual descriptions of paradise. ] defended the Quranic description of paradise by asserting that the Bible also implies such ideas, such as drinking wine in the ]. Catholic theologian ]'s doctrines led to the broad repudiation of bodily pleasure in both life and the afterlife.<ref>''Christian Lange Paradise and Hell in Islamic Traditions'' ], 2015 {{ISBN|978-0-521-50637-3}} pp. 18–20</ref>
], one of the foremost rabbinical ] and philosophers in Jewish history, saw the relation of Islam to Judaism as primarily theoretical. Maimonides has no quarrel with the strict monotheism of Islam, but finds fault with the practical politics of Muslim regimes. Maimonides criticised what he perceived as the lack of virtue in the way Muslims rule their societies and relate to one another.<ref> , by David Novak, retrieved April 29, 2006 </ref>


Defamatory images of ], derived from early 7th-century depictions of the ],<ref>], and P. J. Stewart. 2003. ''Muhammad in Europe: A Thousand Years of Western Myth-Making''. ]. {{ISBN|978-0-8147-7564-6}}. p. 93–96.</ref> appear in the 14th-century epic poem '']'' by ].<ref name="Stone">Stone, G. 2006. ''Dante's Pluralism and the Islamic Philosophy of Religion''. ]. {{ISBN|978-1-4039-8309-1}}. p. 53-54.</ref> Here, Muhammad is depicted in the eighth circle of hell, along with Ali. Dante does not blame Islam as a whole but accuses Muhammad of ], by establishing another religion after Christianity.<ref name="Stone" />
Modern criticism of Islam comes in many varieties and from various corners. Notable critics include personalities such as ] leader ], who stated that Islam wants to take over the world and is not a religion of peace, and that radical Muslims are "satanic", and that ] was a "true follower of Muhammad".<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=693718&contrassID=1&subContrassID=1 | title = Evangelical broadcaster Pat Robertson calls radical Muslims 'satanic' | publisher = Associated Press | date = ] | accessdate = 2006-07-21 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4805952.stm | title = Top US evangelist targets Islam | publisher = BBC News | date = ] | accessdate = 2006-07-21 }}</ref> Some critics argue that in Islam women have fewer rights than men and that non-Muslims under the ] system have fewer rights than Muslims. According to Freedom House , Saudi Arabia relegates women to second-class citizenship. "Women are not treated as equal members of society. They may not legally drive cars, and their use of public facilities is restricted when men are present. ...Laws discriminate against women in a range of matters including family law, and a woman's testimony is treated as inferior to a man's in court." <ref></ref>


Other criticisms center on the ], including issues related to human rights, particularly in relation to the application of Islamic law.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Yohanan|last1=Friedmann|year=2003|title=Tolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith Relations in the Muslim Tradition|url=https://archive.org/details/tolerancecoercio00frie|url-access=limited|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=, 35|isbn=978-0-521-02699-4}}</ref> Furthermore, in the wake of the recent ] trend, Islam's influence on the ability of ] in the West to assimilate has been ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Modood |first=Tariq |url=https://archive.org/details/multiculturalism00modo |title=Multiculturalism, Muslims and Citizenship: A European Approach |date=6 April 2006 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-415-35515-5 |edition=1st |page= |url-access=registration}}</ref>


== See also == == See also ==
* ]

* ]
{{portal}}
* ]
{{Further|]}}
* ]

{{Col-begin|width=}}

{{Col-1-of-3}}
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ] * ]
* ]
* ]


==References==
{{Col-2-of-3}}
===Footnotes===
* ]
{{notelist}}
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]


===Quran and hadith===
{{Col-3-of-3}}
{{Reflist|group=lower-roman}}
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
{{Col-end}}


== References == ===Citations===
{{reflist}}


===Sources===
<div class="references-small">
{{Refbegin|30em}}
<references />
* {{cite book |last=Ahmed |first=Imad-ad-Dean |title=Signs in the heavens |volume=2 |publisher=Amana Publications |year=2006 |isbn=1-59008-040-8}}
</div>
* {{cite book |last=Arnold|first=Thomas |title=The Preaching of Islam: A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith.|volume= |publisher= |year=1896 |isbn=}}
* {{Cite book |last=Bennett |first=Clinton |title=Interpreting the Qur'an: a guide for the uninitiated |publisher=] |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-8264-9944-8 |page=101 |author-link=Clinton Bennett}}
* {{cite book |last=Blankinship |first=K. |year=2008 |chapter=The early creed |editor=T. Winter |title=The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology |series=Cambridge Companions to Religion |pages=33–54 |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/CCOL9780521780582.003|isbn=978-0-521-78058-2 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Brockopp |first=Jonathan E. |title=Islamic Ethics of Life: abortion, war and euthanasia |publisher=] |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-57003-471-8}}
*{{Cite book|last=Bulliet|first=Richard| publisher = ]| isbn = 0-618-42770-8| title = The Earth and Its Peoples
| location = Boston| year = 2005| url = | page = | quote = }}
* {{Cite book |last=Burge|first=Stephen|year=2015|title=Angels in Islam: Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti's al-Haba'ik fi akhbar al-mala'ik |place=London |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-50473-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Çakmak |first=Cenap |title=Islam: A Worldwide Encyclopedia |series=4 volumes |publisher=] |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-61069-217-5}}
* {{Cite book |last=Campo |first=Juan E. |title=Encyclopedia of Islam |publisher=] |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8160-5454-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OZbyz_Hr-eIC}}
* {{Cite book |last=Chittick |first=William C |title=Sufism: A Beginner's Guide |year=2008 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-1-78074-052-2 |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=LI0kjBlXS5UC}} |access-date=17 January 2015}}
* {{Cite book |last=Cohen-Mor |first=Dalya |title=A Matter of Fate: The Concept of Fate in the Arab World as Reflected in Modern Arabic Literature |publisher=] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-19-513398-1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Curtis |first=Patricia A. |url=https://archive.org/details/guidetofoodlawsr0000curt |title=A Guide to Food Laws and Regulations |publisher=] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-8138-1946-4 |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Esposito |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/islamstraightpat0000espo |title=Islam: The Straight Path |publisher=] |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-511234-4 |edition=3rd |author-link=John Esposito}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=John |title=The Oxford History of Islam |publisher=] |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-19-510799-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofi00john |editor-mask=1}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=John |title=The Oxford History of Islam |publisher=] |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-19-510799-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofi00john |editor-mask=1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Esposito |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/unholywarterrori0000espo |title=Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam |publisher=] |year=2002a |isbn=978-0-19-516886-0 |author-mask=1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Esposito |first=John |title=What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam |publisher=] |year=2002b |isbn=978-0-19-515713-0 |author-mask=1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Esposito |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/islamstraightpat0001espo |title=Islam: The Straight Path |publisher=] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-19-518266-8 |edition=Revised 3rd |author-mask=1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Esposito |first=John |title=Islam: The Straight Path |publisher=] |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-539600-3 |edition=4th |author-mask=1}}
* {{cite book |last=Esposito |first=John |year=2011 |title=What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam |edition=2nd |place=Oxford |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-19-979413-3 |author-mask=1}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Esposito |first1=John |url=https://archive.org/details/muslimsonamerica00yvon |title=Muslims on the Americanization Path? |last2=Haddad |first2=Yvonne Yazbeck |publisher=] |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-19-513526-8}}
* {{Cite book |last=Farah |first=Caesar |title=Islam: Beliefs and Observances |publisher=] |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-8120-1853-0 |edition=5th |author-link=Caesar E. Farah}}
* {{Cite book |last=Farah |first=Caesar |url=https://archive.org/details/islambeliefsobse00fara_0 |title=Islam: Beliefs and Observances |publisher=] |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-7641-2226-2 |edition=7th |author-mask=1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Firestone |first=Reuven |title=Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam |publisher=] |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-19-512580-1}}
* {{Cite book | last1=Goldschmidt | first1=Arthur Jr. |title=A Concise History of the Middle East |last2=Davidson |first2=Lawrence |publisher=] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-8133-4275-7 |edition=8th |url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof0008gold |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Griffith |first1=Ruth Marie |author1-link=Ruth Marie Griffith |title=Women and Religion in the African Diaspora: Knowledge, Power, and Performance |last2=Savage |first2=Barbara Dianne |author2-link=Barbara D. Savage |publisher=] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8018-8370-5}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Haddad |first1=Yvonne Yazbeck |last2=Smith |first2=Jane I. |author-link=Jane Idleman Smith |title=Muslims in the West: Visible and Invisible |place=Walnut Creek, CA |publisher=Altamira |year=2002}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hedayetullah |first=Muhammad |title=Dynamics of Islam: An Exposition |publisher=] |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-55369-842-5}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last1=Holt |editor-first1=P.M. |editor-last2=Lewis |editor-first2=Bernard |publisher=] |year=1977 |isbn=978-0-521-29136-1 |title=The Cambridge History of Islam |volume=1 |author-link2=Bernard Lewis}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last1=Holt |editor-first1=P.M. |editor-last2=Lambton |editor-first2=Ann K.S. |editor2-link=Ann Lambton |editor-last3=Lewis |editor-first3=Bernard |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1977 |isbn=978-0-521-29137-8 |title=The Cambridge History of Islam |volume=2}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last1=Holt |editor-first1=P.M. |editor-last2=Lambton |editor-first2=Ann K.S. |editor-last3=Lewis |editor-first3=Bernard |title=The Cambridge History of Islam |volume=1A |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-521-21946-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistory00holt_798 |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Hourani |first1=Albert |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofarabpeo0122hour_06BYS |title=A History of the Arab Peoples |publisher=] |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-674-01017-8 |author-link=Albert Hourani}}
* {{cite book |title=The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wan-Nihayah |author=Ismāʻīl ibn ʻUmar Ibn Kathīr |isbn=978-603-500-080-2 |translator=Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad |place=Riyadh |publisher=Maktaba Dar-us-Salam |year=2012}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kobeisy |first=Ahmed Nezar |title=Counseling American Muslims: Understanding the Faith and Helping the People |publisher=] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-313-32472-7}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kramer |first=Martin |title=Shi'Ism, Resistance, and Revolution |publisher=] |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-8133-0453-3}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lapidus |first=Ira |title=A History of Islamic Societies |publisher=] |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-521-77933-3 |edition=2nd}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |title=The Jews of Islam |publisher=] |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-7102-0462-2 |author-link=Bernard Lewis}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |title=The Arabs in History |publisher=] |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-19-285258-8 |author-mask=1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |url=https://archive.org/details/middleeastbriefh0000lewi |title=The Middle East |publisher=] |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-684-83280-7 |author-mask=1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |url=https://archive.org/details/islaminhistory00bern |title=Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East |publisher=]|year=2001 |isbn=978-0-8126-9518-2 |edition=2nd |author-mask=1 |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |url=https://archive.org/details/whatwentwrongcl00lewi |title=What Went Wrong?: The Clash Between Islam and Modernity in the Middle East |publisher=] |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-06-051605-5 |edition=reprint |author-mask=1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |url=https://archive.org/details/crisisofislam00bern |title=The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror |publisher=], New York |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-8129-6785-2 |author-mask=1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Madelung |first=Wilferd |title=The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate |publisher=] |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-521-64696-3 |author-link=Wilferd Madelung}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Malik |first1=Jamal |title=Sufism in the West |last2=Hinnells |first2=John R. |publisher=] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-415-27408-1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Momen |first=Moojan |title=An Introduction to Shi'i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi'ism |publisher=] |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-300-03531-5}}
* {{Cite book |last=Nasr |first=Seyed Hossein |author-link=Seyyed Hossein Nasr |year=2003 |title=The Heart of Islam: Enduring Values for Humanity}}
* {{Cite book |last=Nasr |first=Seyed Muhammad |url=https://archive.org/details/ourreligions00shar |title=Our Religions: The Seven World Religions Introduced by Preeminent Scholars from Each Tradition (Chapter 7) |publisher=] |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-06-067700-8}}
* {{Cite book |last=Nigosian |first=Solomon Alexander |title=Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices |publisher=] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-253-21627-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/islamitshistoryt0000nigo |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Peacock|first=A.C.S.|title=Islam, Literature and Society in Mongol Anatolia|date=2019 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume= |page=|doi= 10.1017/9781108582124|isbn=978-1-108-58212-4|s2cid=211657444}}
* {{Cite book |last=Peters |first=F. E. |url=https://archive.org/details/islamguideforjew00fepe |title=Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians |publisher=] |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-691-11553-5}}
* {{Cite report |date=October 2009 |title=Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population |publisher=] |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/7/2009/10/Muslimpopulation.pdf |access-date=25 May 2020 |ref={{sfnref|Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life|2009}} }} .
* {{Cite book |last=Rippin |first=Andrew |url=https://archive.org/details/muslimstheirreli0000ripp |title=Muslims: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices |publisher=] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-415-21781-1 |edition=2nd |author-link=Andrew Rippin}}
* {{cite journal |last=Serjeant |first=R.B. |date=1978 |title=Sunnah Jami'ah, pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrim of Yathrib |journal=] |volume=41 |pages=1–42 |publisher=]|doi=10.1017/S0041977X00057761 |s2cid=161485671 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Sachedina |first=Abdulaziz |title=The Just Ruler in Shi'ite Islam: The Comprehensive Authority of the Jurist in Imamite Jurisprudence |publisher=] US |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-511915-2 |author-link=Abdulaziz Sachedina}}
* {{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Jane I. |author-link=Jane Idleman Smith |title=The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection |publisher=] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-19-515649-2}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Stefon |editor-first=Matt |title=Islamic Beliefs and Practices |publisher=] |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-61530-060-0 |location=New York |url=https://archive.org/details/islamicbeliefspr0000stef |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Ṭabāṭabāʼī |first1=Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn |title=Shi'ite Islam |translator-last=Nasr |translator-first=Seyyed Hossein |publisher=] |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-87395-272-9 |author-link=Allameh Tabatabaei}}
* {{Cite book |last=Teece |first=Geoff |url=https://archive.org/details/islam0000teec_a5d6 |title=Religion in Focus: Islam |publisher=] |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-7496-4796-4}}
* {{Cite book |last=Trimingham |first=John Spencer |title=The Sufi Orders in Islam |publisher=] |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-512058-5}}
* {{Cite book |last=Turner |first=Colin |title=Islam: the Basics |publisher=] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-415-34106-6 |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |last=Turner |first=Bryan S. |title=Weber and Islam |publisher=] |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-415-17458-9 |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |last=Waines |first=David |title=An Introduction to Islam |publisher=] |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-521-53906-7}}
* {{Cite book |last=Watt |first=W. Montgomery |title=The Formative Period of Islamic Thought |publisher=University Press Edinburgh |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-85224-245-2 |author-link=William Montgomery Watt}}
* {{Cite book |last=Watt |first=W. Montgomery |url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadprophets00watt |title=Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman |publisher=] |year=1974 |isbn=978-0-19-881078-0 |edition=New |author-mask=1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Weiss |first=Bernard G. |title=Studies in Islamic Legal Theory |publisher=] |year=2002 |isbn=978-90-04-12066-2 |location=Boston |author-link=Bernard G. Weiss}}
{{Refend}}


=== Encyclopedias and dictionaries ===
== Bibliography ==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* Khan, Muhammad Muhsin & Al-Hilali, Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din. ''Noble Quran'', ISBN 1-59144-004-1
* {{harvc |last1=Gardet|first1=L.|last2=Jomier|first2=J.|year=2012|c=Islām |in=Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)}} {{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0387}}
* Mubarkpuri, Saifur-Rahman. ''The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Noble Prophet''. Dar-us-Salam, ISBN 9960-899-55-1
* {{Cite encyclopedia |title=Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=]}}
* Al-Asqalani, Ibn Hajar. ''Bulugh Al-Maram'', ISBN 1-59144-056-4
* {{Cite encyclopedia |ref={{harvid|Fahlbusch et al|2001}} |editor-last=Fahlbusch |editor-first=Erwin |display-editors=etal |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=yaecVMhMWaEC}} |title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity |publisher=] |year=2001 |isbn=978-90-04-11695-5 |volume=2}}
* Arberry, A. J. ''The Koran Interpreted: a translation by A. J. Arberry''. Touchstone, ISBN 0-684-82507-4
* {{cite encyclopedia |year=1913–1936 |title=] |editor1-last=Houtsma |editor1-first=M.T. |editor1-link=Martijn Theodoor Houtsma |editor2-first=T.W. |editor2-last=Arnold |editor2-link=Thomas Walker Arnold |editor3-first=R. |editor3-last=Basset |editor4-first=R. |editor4-last=Hartmann |edition=1st |place=Leiden |publisher=] |isbn=978-90-04-08265-6 |ref={{harvid|Encyclopaedia of Islam (1st ed.)|1913–1936}}}}
* Kramer, Martin. ''The Islamism Debate''. University Press, (1997) ISBN 965-224-024-9
* {{cite encyclopedia |year=2012 |title=] |editor-last=Bearman |editor-first=P.J. |issn=1573-3912 |editor1-link=Peri Bearman |editor2-first=Th. |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor3-first=C.E. |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor3-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |editor4-first=E. |editor4-last=van Donzel |editor5-first=W.P. |editor5-last=Heinrichs |editor5-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs |edition=2nd |place=Leiden |publisher=] |isbn=978-90-04-16121-4 |ref={{harvid|Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)|2012}}}}
* Rahman, Fazlur. ''Islam''. University of Chicago Press; 2nd edition, (1979) ISBN 0-226-70281-2
* {{Cite encyclopedia |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online |publisher=] |editor-last=Bearman |editor-first=P.J. |issn=1573-3912 |editor1-link=Peri Bearman |editor2-first=Th. |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor3-first=C.E. |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor3-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |editor4-first=E. |editor4-last=van Donzel |editor5-first=W.P. |editor5-last=Heinrichs |editor5-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs |ref={{harvid|Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|n.d.}} |year=n.d. |url=https://brill.com/view/package/eio?language=en |url-access=subscription}}
* Safi, Omid. ''Progressive Muslims: On Justice, Gender and Pluralism''. Oneworld Publications, (2003) ISBN 1-85168-316-X
* {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2004 |title=Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World |series=] |publisher=] |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofis0001unse |editor-last=Martin |editor-first=Richard C. |isbn=978-0-02-865603-8}}
* Tibi, Bassam. ''The Challenge of Fundamentalism: Political Islam and the New World Disorder''. Univ. of California Press, (1998) ISBN 0-520-08868-9
* {{Cite encyclopedia |title=] |publisher=] |year=n.d.|editor-first=Jane Dammen|editor-last=McAuliffe|editor-link=Jane Dammen McAuliffe}}
* Najeebabadi, Akbar Shah. ''History of Islam''. Dar-us-Salam, ISBN 1-59144-031-9
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=] |volume=2 |editor-first=Jane Dammen |editor-last=McAuliffe |publisher=] |year=2002}}
* ]. ''Foundations of Islam: The Making of a World Faith,'' Peter Owen Publishers, London and New York, 1978, ISBN 0-7206-1038-9; Harper Collins, New Delhi, 1999.
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=] |volume=3 |editor-first=Jane Dammen |editor-last=McAuliffe |publisher=] |year=2003}}
* {{cite book | last = Ghamidi | first = Javed | authorlink = Javed Ahmed Ghamidi | title = ] | publisher = ] | year = 2001 | doi = | id = {{OCLC|52901690}} }}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |title=Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals |publisher=] |editor-last=Salamone |editor-first=Frank |edition=1st |isbn=978-0-415-94180-8 |series=Routledge Encyclopedias of Religion and Society |volume=6 |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre00sala |jstor=j.ctt1jd94wq |year=2004 <!-- no bot -->}}
* {{cite book | last = Esposito | first = John | authorlink = John Esposito | title = Islam: The Straight Path | publisher = ] | year = 2005 | edition = 3rd | doi = | id = ISBN 0195112334 }}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2003 |title=The New Encyclopedia of Islam |publisher=] |url=https://archive.org/details/newencyclopediao0000glas |editor-last=Glassé |editor-first=Cyril |series=Revised Edition of the Concise Encyclopedia of Islam |isbn=978-0-7591-0190-6 |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=John |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam |publisher=] |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-19-512558-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary00bada |url-access=registration}} {{doi|10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001}} – via Oxford Reference.
* {{Cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=John |year=2004 |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam |place=Oxford |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-19-975726-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E324pQEEQQcC}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2006 |title=The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia |publisher=] |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=isDgI0-0Ip4C|page=}} |editor-last=Leaman |editor-first=Oliver |isbn=978-0-415-32639-1}}
{{Refend}}


== External links == == Further reading ==
{{Sister project links |wikt=Islam |commons=Category:Islam |b=Subject:Islam |n=Category:Islam |q=Islam |s=Portal:Islam |v=Islam |voy=Islam |species=no |d=Q432 |m=no|mw=no}}
{{sisterlinks}}
{{Refbegin}}

* by Arabic Virtual Translation Center (New York 2019, ] {{ISBN|978-0-359-67265-3}}). The foundation of Islam: from revelation to tawhid.
===Academic resources===
* Abdul-Haqq, Abdiyah Akbar (1980). ''Sharing Your Faith with a Muslim''. Minneapolis: ]. ''N.B''. Presents the genuine doctrines and concepts of Islam and of the Holy Qur'an, and this religion's affinities with Christianity and its Sacred Scriptures, in order to "dialogue" on the basis of what both faiths really teach. {{ISBN|0-87123-553-6}}
*
* {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2008 |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism |publisher=]; ] |location=Thousand Oaks, CA |last=Ahmad |first=Imad-ad-Dean |title=Islam |author-link=Imad-ad-Dean Ahmad |editor-last=Hamowy |editor-first=Ronald |editor-link=Ronald Hamowy |pages=256–258 |doi=10.4135/9781412965811.n155 |isbn=978-1-4129-6580-4 |lccn=2008009151 |oclc=750831024 |url={{Google books|yxNgXs3TkJYC|plainurl=yes}} }}
*
* {{Cite book |last=Akyol |first=Mustafa |url=https://archive.org/details/islamwithoutextr0000akyo |title=Islam Without Extremes |publisher=] |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-393-07086-6 |edition=1st |author-link=Mustafa Akyol }}
*
* {{Cite book |last=Arberry |first=A.J. |url=https://archive.org/details/koraninterpreted00ajar |title=The Koran Interpreted: A Translation |publisher=Touchstone |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-684-82507-6 |edition=1st |author-link=A. J. Arberry }}
* from the ] Arab Culture and Civilization Online Resource
* Cragg, Kenneth (1975). ''The House of Islam'', in ''The Religious Life of Man Series''. Second ed. Belmont, CA: ] 1975. xiii, 145 p. {{ISBN|0-8221-0139-4}}.
*
* Hourani, Albert (1991). ''Islam in European Thought''. First pbk. ed. Cambridge, Eng.: ], 1992, cop. 1991. xi, 199 p. {{ISBN|0-521-42120-9}}; alternative ISBN on back cover, 0-521-42120-0.
*
* {{Cite book |last1=Khan |first1=Muhammad Muhsin |title=Noble Quran |last2=Al-Hilali Khan |last3=Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din |publisher=] |year=1999 |isbn=978-9960-740-79-9 |edition=1st |author-link=Muhammad Muhsin Khan}}
* - Emphasis on comparative religion
* Khanbaghi, A, (2006). ''The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early Modern Iran''. ].

* Khavari, Farid A. (1990). ''Oil and Islam: the Ticking Bomb''. First ed. Malibu, Calif.: Roundtable Publications. viii, 277 p., ill. with maps and charts. {{ISBN|0-915677-55-5}}.
===Directories===
* {{Cite book |title=The Jewish Discovery of Islam: Studies in Honor of Bernard Lewis |publisher=] |year=1999 |isbn=978-965-224-040-8 |editor-last=Kramer |editor-first=Martin |editor-link=Martin Kramer}}
* Islam in , , and
* {{Cite book |last=Kuban |first=Dogan |title=Muslim Religious Architecture |publisher=] |year=1974 |isbn=978-90-04-03813-4}}
* (a list of links of Islam)
* {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |url=https://archive.org/details/islamwest00lewi_0 |title=Islam and the West |publisher=] |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-19-509061-1 }}
*
* {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |url=https://archive.org/details/culturesinconfli0000lewi |title=Cultures in Conflict: Christians, Muslims, and Jews in the Age of Discovery |publisher=] |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-19-510283-3 |url-access=registration }}

* {{Cite book |last=Mubarkpuri |first=Saifur-Rahman |title=The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Prophet |publisher=] |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-59144-071-0}}
===Islam and the arts, and other media===
* {{Cite book |last=Najeebabadi |first=Akbar Shah |title=History of Islam |publisher=] |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-59144-034-5}}
* - religious multimedia files
* {{Cite book |last=Rahman |first=Fazlur |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226702810 |title=Islam |publisher=] |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-226-70281-0 |edition=2nd |author-link=Fazlur Rahman Malik }}
*
* {{Cite book |last=Schimmel |first=Annemarie |url=https://www.giffordlectures.org/books/deciphering-signs-god-phenomenological-approach-islam |title=Deciphering the Signs of God: A Phenomenological Approach to Islam |publisher=] |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-7914-1982-3 |author-link=Annemarie Schimmel |access-date=31 January 2019 |archive-date=22 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190422154518/https://www.giffordlectures.org/books/deciphering-signs-god-phenomenological-approach-islam |url-status=dead }}
* (Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation, UK)
* {{Cite book |last=Schuon |first=Frithjof |title=Understanding Islam |publisher=] |year=1963 |isbn=978-0941532242 |edition=3rd |author-link=Frithjof Schuon}}
* illustrated descriptions and reviews of a large number of mosques, palaces, and monuments.
* {{Cite book |last=Tausch |first=Arno |title=What 1.3&nbsp;Billion Muslims Really Think: An Answer to a Recent Gallup Study, Based on the "World Values Survey". Foreword Mansoor Moaddel, Eastern Michigan University |publisher=], New York |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-60692-731-1 |edition=1st }}
* (Journal of Islamic Philosophy, University of Michigan)
* {{Cite book |last1=Tausch |first1=Arno |title=The political algebra of global value change. General models and implications for the Muslim world |first2=Almas |last2=Heshmati |first3=Hichem |last3=Karoui |publisher=] |place=New York |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-62948-899-8 |edition=1st }} Prepublication text available at: {{cite web |last1=Tausch |first1=Arno |last2=Heshmati |first2=Almas |last3=Karoui |first3=Hichem |date=January 2014 |title=The political algebra of global value change. General models and implications for the Muslim world |website=ResearchGate |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/290349218 }}
*
* {{Cite book |last1=Tausch |first1=Arno |title=Political Islam and Religiously Motivated Political Extremism |series=SpringerBriefs in Political Science |publisher=] |place=Cham |year=2023 |doi=10.1007/978-3-031-24854-2 |isbn=978-3-031-24853-5 |s2cid=256852082 |edition=1st |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-031-24854-2 }}
* Photos from Muslim locations from all over the world.
* {{Cite book |last=Walker |first=Benjamin |title=Foundations of Islam: The Making of a World Faith |publisher=] |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7206-1038-3 |author-link=Benjamin Walker (author)}}
*
{{Refend}}


{{Islam topics}}
{{Religion topics}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Portal bar|Islam|Religions}}
] ]
] ]
] ]
] ]
] ]
]

{{Link FA|he}}
{{Link FA|pt}}
{{Link FA|ru}}

]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]

Revision as of 16:57, 22 December 2024

Abrahamic monotheistic religion This article is about the religion. For other uses, see Islam (disambiguation).

Islam
ٱلْإِسْلَام‎
al-Islām
The Kaaba at Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, the holiest Islamic site
ClassificationAbrahamic
ScriptureQuran
TheologyMonotheistic
RegionMiddle East, North Africa, West Africa, East Africa, Central Asia, Northern Caucasus, South Asia, Southeast Asia, Southeastern Europe
LanguageQuranic Arabic
TerritoryMuslim world
FounderMuhammad
Origin610 CE
Jabal al-Nour, Mecca, Hejaz, Arabian Peninsula
Separated fromArabian polytheism
SeparationsBábism
Baháʼí Faith
Druze Faith
Number of followersc. 1.9 billion Increase (individually referred to as Muslims, collectively referred to as the Ummah)
Part of a series on
Islam
Beliefs
Practices
History
Culture and society
Related topics
Part of a series on
Islam and Iman
Islam Iman Ihsan
Individuals
Groups
Terms
  • DinReligion

Islam is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion centered on the Quran and the teachings of Muhammad, the religion's founder. Adherents of Islam are called Muslims, who are estimated to number approximately 1.9 billion worldwide and are the world's second-largest religious population after Christians.

Muslims believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a primordial faith that was revealed many times through earlier prophets and messengers, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus. Muslims consider the Quran to be the verbatim word of God and the unaltered, final revelation. Alongside the Quran, Muslims also believe in previous revelations, such as the Tawrat (the Torah), the Zabur (Psalms), and the Injil (Gospel). They believe that Muhammad is the main and final Islamic prophet, through whom the religion was completed. The teachings and normative examples of Muhammad, called the Sunnah, documented in accounts called the hadith, provide a constitutional model for Muslims. Islam is based on the belief in oneness and uniqueness of the God (tawhid), and belief in an afterlife (akhirah) with the Last Judgment—wherein the righteous will be rewarded in paradise (jannah) and the unrighteous will be punished in hell (jahannam). The Five Pillars—considered obligatory acts of worship—are the Islamic oath and creed (shahada), daily prayers (salah), almsgiving (zakat), fasting (sawm) in the month of Ramadan, and a pilgrimage (hajj) to Mecca. Islamic law, sharia, touches on virtually every aspect of life, from banking and finance and welfare to men's and women's roles and the environment. The two main religious festivals are Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha. The three holiest sites in Islam are Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, Prophet's Mosque in Medina, and al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.

The religion of Islam originated in Mecca in 610 CE. Muslims believe this is when Muhammad received his first revelation. By the time of his death, most of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam. Muslim rule expanded outside Arabia under the Rashidun Caliphate and the subsequent Umayyad Caliphate ruled from the Iberian Peninsula to the Indus Valley. In the Islamic Golden Age, specifically during the reign of the Abbasid Caliphate, most of the Muslim world experienced a scientific, economic and cultural flourishing. The expansion of the Muslim world involved various states and caliphates as well as extensive trade and religious conversion as a result of Islamic missionary activities (dawah), as well as through conquests, imperialism, and colonialism.

The two main Islamic branches are Sunni Islam (85–90%) and Shia Islam (10–15%). While the Shia–Sunni divide initially arose from disagreements over the succession to Muhammad, they grew to cover a broader dimension, both theologically and juridically. The Sunni canonical hadith collection consists of six books, while the Shia canonical hadith collection consists of four books. Muslims make up a majority of the population in 49 countries. Approximately 12% of the world's Muslims live in Indonesia, the most populous Muslim-majority country; 31% live in South Asia; 20% live in the Middle East–North Africa; and 15% live in sub-Saharan Africa. Muslim communities are also present in the Americas, China, and Europe. Muslims are the world's fastest-growing major religious group, according to Pew Research Center. This is due primarily to a higher fertility rate and younger age structure compared to other major religions.

Etymology

See also: Muslims § Etymology

In Arabic, Islam (Arabic: إسلام, lit.'submission ') is the verbal noun of Form IV originating from the verb سلم (salama), from the triliteral root س-ل-م (S-L-M), which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of submission, safeness, and peace. In a religious context, it refers to the total surrender to the will of God. A Muslim (مُسْلِم), the word for a follower of Islam, is the active participle of the same verb form, and means "submitter (to God)" or "one who surrenders (to God)". In the Hadith of Gabriel, Islam is presented as one part of a triad that also includes imān (faith), and ihsān (excellence).

Islam itself was historically called Mohammedanism in the English-speaking world. This term has fallen out of use and is sometimes said to be offensive, as it suggests that a human being, rather than God, is central to Muslims' religion.

Articles of faith

Main articles: Aqidah and Iman

The Islamic creed (aqidah) requires belief in six articles: God, angels, revelation, prophets, the Day of Resurrection, and the divine predestination.

God

Calligraphy showing the word Allah in Arabic in Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, Turkey
Main article: God in Islam

The central concept of Islam is tawḥīd (Arabic: توحيد), the oneness of God. It is usually thought of as a precise monotheism, but is also panentheistic in Islamic mystical teachings. God is seen as incomparable and without multiplicity of persons such as in the Christian Trinity, and associating multiplicity to God or attributing God's attributes to others is seen as idolatory, called shirk. God is described as Al Ghayb so is beyond comprehension. Thus, Muslims are not iconodules and do not attribute forms to God. God is instead described and referred to by several names or attributes, the most common being Ar-Rahmān (الرحمان) meaning "The Entirely Merciful", and Ar-Rahīm (الرحيم) meaning "The Especially Merciful" which are invoked at the beginning of most chapters of the Quran.

Islam teaches that the creation of everything in the universe was brought into being by God's command as expressed by the wording, "Be, and it is," and that the purpose of existence is to worship God. He is viewed as a personal god and there are no intermediaries, such as clergy, to contact God. Consciousness and awareness of God is referred to as Taqwa. Allāh is a term with no plural or gender being ascribed to it and is also used by Muslims and Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews in reference to God, whereas ʾilāh (إله) is a term used for a deity or a god in general.

Angels

Muhammad receiving his first revelation from the angel Gabriel. From the manuscript Jami' al-Tawarikh by Rashid-al-Din Hamadani, 1307.
Main article: Angels in Islam

Angels (Arabic: ملك, malak) are beings described in the Quran and hadith. They are described as created to worship God and also to serve in other specific duties such as communicating revelations from God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's soul at the time of death. They are described as being created variously from 'light' (nūr) or 'fire' (nār). Islamic angels are often represented in anthropomorphic forms combined with supernatural images, such as wings, being of great size or wearing heavenly articles. Common characteristics for angels include a lack of bodily needs and desires, such as eating and drinking. Some of them, such as Gabriel (Jibrīl) and Michael (Mika'il), are mentioned by name in the Quran. Angels play a significant role in literature about the Mi'raj, where Muhammad encounters several angels during his journey through the heavens. Further angels have often been featured in Islamic eschatology, theology and philosophy.

Scriptures

A Quran manuscript resting on a rehal, a book rest for the holy text
Main articles: Islamic holy books, Quran, and Wahy See also: History of the Quran

The pre-eminent holy text of Islam is the Quran. Muslims believe that the verses of the Quran were revealed to Muhammad by God, through the archangel Gabriel, on multiple occasions between 610 CE and 632, the year Muhammad died. While Muhammad was alive, these revelations were written down by his companions, although the primary method of transmission was orally through memorization. The Quran is divided into 114 chapters (sūrah) which contain a combined 6,236 verses (āyāt). The chronologically earlier chapters, revealed at Mecca, are concerned primarily with spiritual topics, while the later Medinan chapters discuss more social and legal issues relevant to the Muslim community. Muslim jurists consult the hadith ('accounts'), or the written record of Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Quran and assist with its interpretation. The science of Quranic commentary and exegesis is known as tafsir. In addition to its religious significance, the Quran is widely regarded as the finest work in Arabic literature, and has influenced art and the Arabic language.

Islam also holds that God has sent revelations, called wahy, to different prophets numerous times throughout history. However, Islam teaches that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, such as the Tawrat (Torah) and the Injil (Gospel), have become distorted—either in interpretation, in text, or both, while the Quran (lit. 'Recitation') is viewed as the final, verbatim and unaltered word of God.

Prophets

Main articles: Prophets and messengers in Islam, Sunnah, and Hadith
A 15th century Persian miniature depicting Muhammad leading Abraham, Moses, Jesus and other prophets in prayer

Prophets (Arabic: أنبياء, anbiyāʾ) are believed to have been chosen by God to preach a divine message. Some of these prophets additionally deliver a new book and are called "messengers" (رسول‎, rasūl). Muslims believe prophets are human and not divine. All of the prophets are said to have preached the same basic message of Islam – submission to the will of God – to various nations in the past, and this is said to account for many similarities among religions. The Quran recounts the names of numerous figures considered prophets in Islam, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus, among others. The stories associated with the prophets beyond the Quranic accounts are collected and explored in the Qisas al-Anbiya (Stories of the Prophets).

Muslims believe that God sent Muhammad as the final prophet ("Seal of the prophets") to convey the completed message of Islam. In Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the sunnah (literally "trodden path"). Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's moral behaviors in their daily lives, and the sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Quran. This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith, which are accounts of his words, actions, and personal characteristics. Hadith Qudsi is a sub-category of hadith, regarded as God's verbatim words quoted by Muhammad that are not part of the Quran. A hadith involves two elements: a chain of narrators, called sanad, and the actual wording, called matn. There are various methodologies to classify the authenticity of hadiths, with the commonly used grading grading scale being "authentic" or "correct" (صحيح, ṣaḥīḥ); "good" (حسن, ḥasan); or "weak" (ضعيف, ḍaʻīf), among others. The Kutub al-Sittah are a collection of six books, regarded as the most authentic reports in Sunni Islam. Among them is Sahih al-Bukhari, often considered by Sunnis to be one of the most authentic sources after the Quran. Another well-known source of hadiths is known as The Four Books, which Shias consider as the most authentic hadith reference.

Resurrection and judgment

The Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, where according to Islamic tradition Isa (Jesus, seen as an Islamic prophet) will appear close to the Day of Judgment
Main article: Islamic eschatology

Belief in the "Day of Resurrection" or Yawm al-Qiyāmah (Arabic: يوم القيامة) is also crucial for Muslims. It is believed that the time of Qiyāmah is preordained by God, but unknown to man. The Quran and the hadith, as well as the commentaries of scholars, describe the trials and tribulations preceding and during the Qiyāmah. The Quran emphasizes bodily resurrection, a break from the pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death.

On Yawm al-Qiyāmah, Muslims believe all humankind will be judged by their good and bad deeds and consigned to Jannah (paradise) or Jahannam (hell). The Quran in Surat al-Zalzalah describes this as: "So whoever does an atom's weight of good will see it. And whoever does an atom's weight of evil will see it." The Quran lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell. However, the Quran makes it clear that God will forgive the sins of those who repent if he wishes. Good deeds, like charity, prayer, and compassion towards animals will be rewarded with entry to heaven. Muslims view heaven as a place of joy and blessings, with Quranic references describing its features. Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God. Yawm al-Qiyāmah is also identified in the Quran as Yawm ad-Dīn (يوم الدين "Day of Religion"); as-Sāʿah (الساعة "the Last Hour"); and al-Qāriʿah (القارعة "The Clatterer").

Divine predestination

Main article: Predestination in Islam

The concept of divine predestination in Islam (Arabic: القضاء والقدر, al-qadāʾ wa l-qadar) means that every matter, good or bad, is believed to have been decreed by God. Al-qadar, meaning "power", derives from a root that means "to measure" or "calculating". Muslims often express this belief in divine destiny with the phrase "In-sha-Allah" (Arabic: إن شاء الله) meaning "if God wills" when speaking on future events.

Acts of worship

Main articles: Five Pillars of Islam and Ibadah

There are five acts of worship that are considered duties–the Shahada (declaration of faith), the five daily prayers, Zakat (almsgiving), fasting during Ramadan, and the Hajj pilgrimage–collectively known as "The Pillars of Islam" (Arkān al-Islām). In addition, Muslims also perform other optional supererogatory acts that are encouraged but not considered to be duties.

Declaration of faith

Silver coin of the Mughal Emperor Akbar, c. 16th century, inscribed with the Shahadah
Main article: Shahada

The shahadah is an oath declaring belief in Islam. The expanded statement is "ʾašhadu ʾal-lā ʾilāha ʾillā-llāhu wa ʾašhadu ʾanna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh" (أشهد أن لا إله إلا الله وأشهد أن محمداً رسول الله), or, "I testify that there is no deity except God and I testify that Muhammad is the messenger of God." Islam is sometimes argued to have a very simple creed with the shahada being the premise for the rest of the religion. Non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the shahada in front of witnesses.

Prayer

Main article: Salah See also: Mosque and Jumu'ah
Muslim men prostrating in prayer, at the Umayyad Mosque, Damascus

Prayer in Islam, called as-salah or aṣ-ṣalāt (Arabic: الصلاة), is seen as a personal communication with God and consists of repeating units called rakat that include bowing and prostrating to God. There are five timed prayers each day that are considered duties. The prayers are recited in the Arabic language and performed in the direction of the Kaaba. The act also requires a state of ritual purity achieved by means of either a routine wudu ritual wash or, in certain circumstances, a ghusl full body ritual wash.

A mosque is a place of worship for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name masjid. Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also an important social center for the Muslim community. For example, the Masjid an-Nabawi ("Prophetic Mosque") in Medina, Saudi Arabia, used to also serve as a shelter for the poor. Minarets are towers used to call the adhan, a vocal call to signal the prayer time.

Almsgiving

Main article: Zakat See also: Sadaqah
A slot for giving zakat at the Zawiya of Moulay Idris II in Fez, Morocco

Zakat (Arabic: زكاة, zakāh), also spelled Zakāt or Zakah, is a type of almsgiving characterized by the giving of a fixed portion (2.5% annually) of accumulated wealth by those who can afford it to help the poor or needy, such as for freeing captives, those in debt, or for (stranded) travellers, and for those employed to collect zakat. It acts as a form of welfare in Muslim societies. It is considered a religious obligation that the well-off owe the needy because their wealth is seen as a trust from God's bounty, and is seen as a purification of one's excess wealth. The total annual value contributed due to zakat is 15 times greater than global humanitarian aid donations, using conservative estimates. Sadaqah, as opposed to Zakat, is a much-encouraged optional charity. A waqf is a perpetual charitable trust, which finances hospitals and schools in Muslim societies.

Fasting

A fast-breaking feast, known as Iftar, is served traditionally with dates.
Main article: Fasting in Islam See also: Fasting during Ramadan

In Islam, fasting (Arabic: صوم, ṣawm) precludes food and drink, as well as other forms of consumption, such as smoking, and is performed from dawn to sunset. During the month of Ramadan, it is considered a duty for Muslims to fast. The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God by restraining oneself for God's sake from what is otherwise permissible and to think of the needy. In addition, there are other days, such as the Day of Arafah, when fasting is optional.

Pilgrimage

Main articles: Hajj and Umrah See also: Holiest sites in Islam
Pilgrims at the Great Mosque of Mecca during the Hajj season

The Islamic pilgrimage, called the ḥajj (Arabic: حج), is to be done at least once a lifetime by every Muslim with the means to do so during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah. Rituals of the Hajj mostly imitate the story of the family of Abraham. In Mecca, pilgrims walk seven times around the Kaaba, which Muslims believe Abraham built as a place of worship, and they walk seven times between Mount Safa and Marwa, recounting the steps of Abraham's wife, Hagar, who was looking for water for her baby Ishmael in the desert before Mecca developed into a settlement. The pilgrimage also involves spending a day praying and worshipping in the plain of Mount Arafat as well as symbolically stoning the Devil. All Muslim men wear only two simple white unstitched pieces of cloth called ihram, intended to bring continuity through generations and uniformity among pilgrims despite class or origin. Another form of pilgrimage, Umrah, is optional and can be undertaken at any time of the year. Other sites of Islamic pilgrimage are Medina, where Muhammad died, as well as Jerusalem, a city of many Islamic prophets and the site of Al-Aqsa, which was the direction of prayer before Mecca.

Other acts of worship

Muslim men reading the Quran
See also: Quran § Recitation, Dua, and Dhikr

Muslims recite and memorize the whole or parts of the Quran as acts of virtue. Tajwid refers to the set of rules for the proper elocution of the Quran. Many Muslims recite the whole Quran during the month of Ramadan. One who has memorized the whole Quran is called a hafiz ("memorizer"), and hadiths mention that these individuals will be able to intercede for others on Judgment Day.

Supplication to God, called in Arabic duʿāʾ (Arabic: دعاء IPA: [dʊˈʕæːʔ]) has its own etiquette such as raising hands as if begging.

Al-Ikhlas Sincerity is the Quran's 112 chapter as recited by Imam Mishary Rashid Alafasy
Problems playing this file? See media help.

Remembrance of God (ذكر, Dhikr') refers to phrases repeated referencing God. Commonly, this includes Tahmid, declaring praise be due to God (الحمد لله, al-Ḥamdu lillāh) during prayer or when feeling thankful, Tasbih, declaring glory to God during prayer or when in awe of something and saying 'in the name of God' (بسملة, basmalah) before starting an act such as eating.

History

Main article: History of Islam For a chronological guide, see Timeline of the history of Islam. See also: List of Muslim empires and dynasties A panoramic view of Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) in Medina, Hejaz region, today's Saudi Arabia, the second most sacred mosque in Islam

Muhammad and the beginning of Islam (570–632)

Main articles: Muhammad and Muhammad in Islam See also: Early social changes under Islam
Cave of Hira

According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad was born in Mecca in 570 CE and was orphaned early in life. Growing up as a trader, he became known as the "trusted one" (Arabic: الامين) and was sought after as an impartial arbitrator. He later married his employer, the businesswoman Khadija. In the year 610 CE, troubled by the moral decline and idolatry prevalent in Mecca and seeking seclusion and spiritual contemplation, Muhammad retreated to the Cave of Hira in the mountain Jabal al-Nour, near Mecca. It was during his time in the cave that he is said to have received the first revelation of the Quran from the angel Gabriel. The event of Muhammad's retreat to the cave and subsequent revelation is known as the "Night of Power" (Laylat al-Qadr) and is considered a significant event in Islamic history. During the next 22 years of his life, from age 40 onwards, Muhammad continued to receive revelations from God, becoming the last or seal of the prophets sent to mankind.

"Muhammad at the Ka'ba" from the Siyer-i Nebi. Muhammad is shown with veiled face, c. 1595.

During this time, while in Mecca, Muhammad preached first in secret and then in public, imploring his listeners to abandon polytheism and worship one God. Many early converts to Islam were women, the poor, foreigners, and slaves like the first muezzin Bilal ibn Rabah al-Habashi. The Meccan elite felt Muhammad was destabilizing their social order by preaching about one God and giving questionable ideas to the poor and slaves because they profited from the pilgrimages to the idols of the Kaaba.

After 12 years of the persecution of Muslims by the Meccans, Muhammad and his companions performed the Hijra ("emigration") in 622 to the city of Yathrib (current-day Medina). There, with the Medinan converts (the Ansar) and the Meccan migrants (the Muhajirun), Muhammad in Medina established his political and religious authority. The Constitution of Medina was signed by all the tribes of Medina. This established religious freedoms and freedom to use their own laws among the Muslim and non-Muslim communities as well as an agreement to defend Medina from external threats. Meccan forces and their allies lost against the Muslims at the Battle of Badr in 624 and then fought an inconclusive battle in the Battle of Uhud before unsuccessfully besieging Medina in the Battle of the Trench (March–April 627). In 628, the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah was signed between Mecca and the Muslims, but it was broken by Mecca two years later. As more tribes converted to Islam, Meccan trade routes were cut off by the Muslims. By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless conquest of Mecca, and by the time of his death in 632 (at age 62) he had united the tribes of Arabia into a single religious polity.

Early Islamic period (632–750)

Further information: Succession to Muhammad and Early Muslim conquests See also: Event of Ghadir Khumm and Saqifa
Expansion of Rashidun Caliphate
Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem built by caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan; completed at the end of the Second Fitna

Muhammad died in 632 and the first successors, called CaliphsAbu Bakr, Umar, Uthman ibn al-Affan, Ali ibn Abi Talib and sometimes Hasan ibn Ali – are known in Sunni Islam as al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn ("Rightly Guided Caliphs"). Some tribes left Islam and rebelled under leaders who declared themselves new prophets but were crushed by Abu Bakr in the Ridda wars. Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and heretics and taxed heavily, often helped Muslims take over their lands, resulting in rapid expansion of the caliphate into the Persian and Byzantine empires. Uthman was elected in 644 and his assassination by rebels led to Ali being elected the next Caliph. In the First Civil War, Muhammad's widow, Aisha, raised an army against Ali, attempting to avenge the death of Uthman, but was defeated at the Battle of the Camel. Ali attempted to remove the governor of Syria, Mu'awiya, who was seen as corrupt. Mu'awiya then declared war on Ali and was defeated in the Battle of Siffin. Ali's decision to arbitrate angered the Kharijites, an extremist sect, who felt that by not fighting a sinner, Ali became a sinner as well. The Kharijites rebelled and were defeated in the Battle of Nahrawan but a Kharijite assassin later killed Ali. Ali's son, Hasan ibn Ali, was elected Caliph and signed a peace treaty to avoid further fighting, abdicating to Mu'awiya in return for Mu'awiya not appointing a successor. Mu'awiya began the Umayyad dynasty with the appointment of his son Yazid I as successor, sparking the Second Civil War. During the Battle of Karbala, Husayn ibn Ali was killed by Yazid's forces; the event has been annually commemorated by Shias ever since. Sunnis, led by Ibn al-Zubayr and opposed to a dynastic caliphate, were defeated in the siege of Mecca. These disputes over leadership would give rise to the Sunni-Shia schism, with the Shia believing leadership belongs to Muhammad's family through Ali, called the ahl al-bayt. Abu Bakr's leadership oversaw the beginning of the compilation of the Quran. The Caliph Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz set up the committee, The Seven Fuqaha of Medina, and Malik ibn Anas wrote one of the earliest books on Islamic jurisprudence, the Muwatta, as a consensus of the opinion of those jurists. The Kharijites believed there was no compromised middle ground between good and evil, and any Muslim who committed a grave sin would become an unbeliever. The term "kharijites" would also be used to refer to later groups such as ISIS. The Murji'ah taught that people's righteousness could be judged by God alone. Therefore, wrongdoers might be considered misguided, but not denounced as unbelievers. This attitude came to prevail into mainstream Islamic beliefs.

The Umayyad dynasty conquered the Maghreb, the Iberian Peninsula, Narbonnese Gaul and Sindh. The Umayyads struggled with a lack of legitimacy and relied on a heavily patronized military. Since the jizya tax was a tax paid by non-Muslims which exempted them from military service, the Umayyads denied recognizing the conversion of non-Arabs, as it reduced revenue. While the Rashidun Caliphate emphasized austerity, with Umar even requiring an inventory of each official's possessions, Umayyad luxury bred dissatisfaction among the pious. The Kharijites led the Berber Revolt, leading to the first Muslim states independent of the Caliphate. In the Abbasid Revolution, non-Arab converts (mawali), Arab clans pushed aside by the Umayyad clan, and some Shi'a rallied and overthrew the Umayyads, inaugurating the more cosmopolitan Abbasid dynasty in 750.

Classical era (750–1258)

Further information: Hadith studies and Islamic philosophy See also: Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe and Turco-Persian tradition

Al-Shafi'i codified a method to determine the reliability of hadith. During the early Abbasid era, scholars such as Muhammad al-Bukhari and Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj compiled the major Sunni hadith collections while scholars like Al-Kulayni and Ibn Babawayh compiled major Shia hadith collections. The four Sunni Madh'habs, the Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki, and Shafi'i, were established around the teachings of Abū Ḥanīfa, Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Malik ibn Anas and al-Shafi'i. In contrast, the teachings of Ja'far al-Sadiq formed the Ja'fari jurisprudence. In the 9th century, Al-Tabari completed the first commentary of the Quran, the Tafsir al-Tabari, which became one of the most cited commentaries in Sunni Islam. Some Muslims began questioning the piety of indulgence in worldly life and emphasized poverty, humility, and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Ascetics such as Hasan al-Basri inspired a movement that would evolve into tasawwuf or Sufism.

At this time, theological problems, notably on free will, were prominently tackled, with Hasan al Basri holding that although God knows people's actions, good and evil come from abuse of free will and the devil. Greek rationalist philosophy influenced a speculative school of thought known as Muʿtazila, who famously advocated the notion of free-will originated by Wasil ibn Ata. Caliph Mamun al Rashid made it an official creed and unsuccessfully attempted to force this position on the majority. Caliph Al-Mu'tasim carried out inquisitions, with the traditionalist Ahmad ibn Hanbal notably refusing to conform to the Muʿtazila idea that the Quran was created rather than being eternal, which resulted in him being tortured and kept in an unlit prison cell for nearly thirty months. However, other schools of speculative theologyMāturīdism founded by Abu Mansur al-Maturidi and Ash'ari founded by Al-Ash'ari – were more successful in being widely adopted. Philosophers such as Al-Farabi, Avicenna and Averroes sought to harmonize Aristotle's ideas with the teachings of Islam, similar to later scholasticism within Christianity in Europe and Maimonides' work within Judaism, while others like Al-Ghazali argued against such syncretism and ultimately prevailed.

The eye, according to Hunain ibn Ishaq from a manuscript dated c. 1200

This era is sometimes called the "Islamic Golden Age". Islamic scientific achievements spanned a wide range of subject areas including medicine, mathematics, astronomy, and agriculture as well as physics, economics, engineering and optics. Avicenna was a pioneer in experimental medicine, and his The Canon of Medicine was used as a standard medicinal text in the Islamic world and Europe for centuries. Rhazes was the first to identify the diseases smallpox and measles. Public hospitals of the time issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors. Ibn al-Haytham is regarded as the father of the modern scientific method and often referred to as the "world's first true scientist", in particular regarding his work in optics. In engineering, the Banū Mūsā brothers' automatic flute player is considered to have been the first programmable machine. In mathematics, the concept of the algorithm is named after Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, who is considered a founder of algebra, which is named after his book al-jabr, while others developed the concept of a function. The government paid scientists the equivalent salary of professional athletes today. Guinness World Records recognizes the University of Al Karaouine, founded in 859, as the world's oldest degree-granting university. Many non-Muslims, such as Christians, Jews and Sabians, contributed to the Islamic civilization in various fields, and the institution known as the House of Wisdom employed Christian and Persian scholars to both translate works into Arabic and to develop new knowledge.

Soldiers broke away from the Abbasid empire and established their own dynasties, such as the Tulunids in 868 in Egypt and the Ghaznavid dynasty in 977 in Central Asia. In this fragmentation came the Shi'a Century, roughly between 945 and 1055, which saw the rise of the millennialist Isma'ili Shi'a missionary movement. One Isma'ili group, the Fatimid dynasty, took control of North Africa in the 10th century and another Isma'ili group, the Qarmatians, sacked Mecca and stole the Black Stone, a rock placed within the Kaaba, in their unsuccessful rebellion. Yet another Isma'ili group, the Buyid dynasty, conquered Baghdad and turned the Abbasids into a figurehead monarchy. The Sunni Seljuk dynasty campaigned to reassert Sunni Islam by promulgating the scholarly opinions of the time, notably with the construction of educational institutions known as Nezamiyeh, which are associated with Al-Ghazali and Saadi Shirazi.

The expansion of the Muslim world continued with religious missions converting Volga Bulgaria to Islam. The Delhi Sultanate reached deep into the Indian Subcontinent and many converted to Islam, in particular low-caste Hindus whose descendants make up the vast majority of Indian Muslims. Trade brought many Muslims to China, where they virtually dominated the import and export industry of the Song dynasty. Muslims were recruited as a governing minority class in the Yuan dynasty.

Pre-modern era (1258 – 18th century)

Further information: Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam
Ghazan Khan, 7 Ilkhanate ruler of the Mongol Empire, converts to Islam. 14th-century depiction

Through Muslim trade networks and the activity of Sufi orders, Islam spread into new areas and Muslims assimilated into new cultures.

Under the Ottoman Empire, Islam spread to Southeast Europe. Conversion to Islam often involved a degree of syncretism, as illustrated by Muhammad's appearance in Hindu folklore. Muslim Turks incorporated elements of Turkish Shamanism beliefs to Islam. Muslims in Ming Dynasty China who were descended from earlier immigrants were assimilated, sometimes through laws mandating assimilation, by adopting Chinese names and culture while Nanjing became an important center of Islamic study.

Cultural shifts were evident with the decrease in Arab influence after the Mongol destruction of the Abbasid Caliphate. The Muslim Mongol Khanates in Iran and Central Asia benefited from increased cross-cultural access to East Asia under Mongol rule and thus flourished and developed more distinctively from Arab influence, such as the Timurid Renaissance under the Timurid dynasty. Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201–1274) proposed the mathematical model that was later argued to be adopted by Copernicus unrevised in his heliocentric model, and Jamshīd al-Kāshī's estimate of pi would not be surpassed for 180 years.

After the introduction of gunpowder weapons, large and centralized Muslim states consolidated around gunpowder empires, these had been previously splintered amongst various territories. The caliphate was claimed by the Ottoman dynasty of the Ottoman Empire and its claims were strengthened in 1517 as Selim I became the ruler of Mecca and Medina. The Shia Safavid dynasty rose to power in 1501 and later conquered all of Iran. In South Asia, Babur founded the Mughal Empire.

The religion of the centralized states of the gunpowder empires influenced the religious practice of their constituent populations. A symbiosis between Ottoman rulers and Sufism strongly influenced Islamic reign by the Ottomans from the beginning. The Mevlevi Order and Bektashi Order had a close relation to the sultans, as Sufi-mystical as well as heterodox and syncretic approaches to Islam flourished. The often forceful Safavid conversion of Iran to the Twelver Shia Islam of the Safavid Empire ensured the final dominance of the Twelver sect within Shia Islam. Persian migrants to South Asia, as influential bureaucrats and landholders, helped spread Shia Islam, forming some of the largest Shia populations outside Iran. Nader Shah, who overthrew the Safavids, attempted to improve relations with Sunnis by propagating the integration of Twelverism into Sunni Islam as a fifth madhhab, called Ja'farism, which failed to gain recognition from the Ottomans.

Modern era (18th–20th centuries)

Abdülmecid II was the last Caliph of Islam from the Ottoman dynasty.

Earlier in the 14th century, Ibn Taymiyya promoted a puritanical form of Islam, rejecting philosophical approaches in favor of simpler theology, and called to open the gates of itjihad rather than blind imitation of scholars. He called for a jihad against those he deemed heretics, but his writings only played a marginal role during his lifetime. During the 18th century in Arabia, Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, influenced by the works of Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn al-Qayyim, founded a movement called Wahhabi to return to what he saw as unadultered Islam. He condemned many local Islamic customs, such as visiting the grave of Muhammad or saints, as later innovations and sinful and destroyed sacred rocks and trees, Sufi shrines, the tombs of Muhammad and his companions and the tomb of Husayn at Karbala, a major Shia pilgrimage site. He formed an alliance with the Saud family, which, by the 1920s, completed their conquest of the area that would become Saudi Arabia. Ma Wanfu and Ma Debao promoted salafist movements in the 19th century such as Sailaifengye in China after returning from Mecca but were eventually persecuted and forced into hiding by Sufi groups. Other groups sought to reform Sufism rather than reject it, with the Senusiyya and Muhammad Ahmad both waging war and establishing states in Libya and Sudan respectively. In India, Shah Waliullah Dehlawi attempted a more conciliatory style against Sufism and influenced the Deobandi movement. In response to the Deobandi movement, the Barelwi movement was founded as a mass movement, defending popular Sufism and reforming its practices.

The Muslim world was generally in political decline starting the 1800s, especially compared to non-Muslim European powers. Earlier, in the 15th century, the Reconquista succeeded in ending the Muslim presence in Iberia. By the 19th century, the British East India Company had formally annexed the Mughal dynasty in India. As a response to Western Imperialism, many intellectuals sought to reform Islam. Islamic modernism, initially labelled by Western scholars as Salafiyya, embraced modern values and institutions such as democracy while being scripture oriented. Notable forerunners in the movement include Muhammad 'Abduh and Jamal al-Din al-Afghani. Abul A'la Maududi helped influence modern political Islam. Similar to contemporary codification, sharia was for the first time partially codified into law in 1869 in the Ottoman Empire's Mecelle code.

The Ottoman Empire dissolved after World War I, the Ottoman Caliphate was abolished in 1924 and the subsequent Sharifian Caliphate fell quickly, thus leaving Islam without a Caliph. Pan-Islamists attempted to unify Muslims and competed with growing nationalist forces, such as pan-Arabism. The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), consisting of Muslim-majority countries, was established in 1969 after the burning of the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.

Contact with industrialized nations brought Muslim populations to new areas through economic migration. Many Muslims migrated as indentured servants (mostly from India and Indonesia) to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas. Migration from Syria and Lebanon contributed to the Muslim population in Latin America. The resulting urbanization and increase in trade in sub-Saharan Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith, likely doubling its Muslim population between 1869 and 1914.

Contemporary era (20th century–present)

Leaders of Muslim countries during session of the Islamic Summit Conference in Istanbul, Turkey

Forerunners of Islamic modernism influenced Islamist political movements such as the Muslim Brotherhood and related parties in the Arab world, which performed well in elections following the Arab Spring, Jamaat-e-Islami in South Asia and the AK Party, which has democratically been in power in Turkey for decades. In Iran, revolution replaced a secular monarchy with an Islamic state. Others such as Sayyid Rashid Rida broke away from Islamic modernists and pushed against embracing what he saw as Western influence. The group Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant would even attempt to recreate the modern gold dinar as their monetary system. While some of those who broke away were quietist, others believed in violence against those opposing them, even against other Muslims.

In opposition to Islamic political movements, in 20th century Turkey, the military carried out coups to oust Islamist governments, and headscarves were legally restricted, as also happened in Tunisia. In other places, religious authority was co-opted and is now often seen as puppets of the state. For example, in Saudi Arabia, the state monopolized religious scholarship and, in Egypt, the state nationalized Al-Azhar University, previously an independent voice checking state power. Salafism was funded in the Middle East for its quietism. Saudi Arabia campaigned against revolutionary Islamist movements in the Middle East, in opposition to Iran.

Muslim minorities of various ethnicities have been persecuted as a religious group. This has been undertaken by communist forces like the Khmer Rouge, who viewed them as their primary enemy to be exterminated since their religious practice made them stand out from the rest of the population, the Chinese Communist Party in Xinjiang and by nationalist forces such as during the Bosnian genocide. Myanmar military's Tatmadaw targeting of Rohingya Muslims has been labeled as a crime against humanity by the UN and Amnesty International, while the OHCHR Fact-Finding Mission identified genocide, ethnic cleansing, and other crimes against humanity.

The advancement of global communication has facilitated the widespread dissemination of religious knowledge. The adoption of the hijab has grown more common and some Muslim intellectuals are increasingly striving to separate scriptural Islamic beliefs from cultural traditions. Among other groups, this access to information has led to the rise of popular "televangelist" preachers, such as Amr Khaled, who compete with the traditional ulema in their reach and have decentralized religious authority. More "individualized" interpretations of Islam notably involve Liberal Muslims who attempt to align religious traditions with contemporary secular governance, an approach that has been criticized by some regarding its compatibility. Moreover, secularism is perceived as a foreign ideology imposed by invaders and perpetuated by post-colonial ruling elites, and is frequently understood to be equivalent to anti-religion.

Demographics

Main articles: Muslim world and Ummah See also: Islam by country and Muslim population growth
World percentage of Muslims by country

As of 2020, about 24% of the global population, or about 1.9 billion people, are Muslims. In 1900, this estimate was 12.3%, in 1990 it was 19.9% and projections suggest the proportion will be 29.7% by 2050. The Pew Research Center estimates that 87–90% of Muslims are Sunni and 10–13% are Shia. Approximately 49 countries are Muslim-majority, with 62% of the world's Muslims living in Asia, and 683 million adherents in Indonesia, Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh alone. Arab Muslims form the largest ethnic group among Muslims in the world, followed by Bengalis and Punjabis. Most estimates indicate China has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the population). Islam in Europe is the second-largest religion after Christianity in many countries, with growth rates due primarily to immigration and higher birth rates of Muslims in 2005, accounting for 4.9% of all of Europe's population in 2016.

Religious conversion has no net impact on the Muslim population growth as "the number of people who become Muslims through conversion seems to be roughly equal to the number of Muslims who leave the faith." Although, Islam is expected to experience a modest gain of 3 million through religious conversion between 2010 and 2050, mostly from Sub Saharan Africa (2.9 million).

According to a report by CNN, "Islam has drawn converts from all walks of life, most notably African-Americans". In Britain, around 6,000 people convert to Islam per year and, according to an article in the British Muslims Monthly Survey, the majority of new Muslim converts in Britain were women. According to The Huffington Post, "observers estimate that as many as 20,000 Americans convert to Islam annually", most of them being women and African-Americans.

By both percentage and total numbers, Islam is the world's fastest growing major religious group, and is projected to be the world's largest by the end of the 21st century, surpassing that of Christianity. It is estimated that, by 2050, the number of Muslims will nearly equal the number of Christians around the world, "due to the young age and high fertility rate of Muslims relative to other religious groups."

Main branches or denominations

Main article: Islamic schools and branches § Main branches or denominationsSee also: Shia–Sunni relations

Sunni

Main article: Sunni Islam
The nine volumes of Sahih Al-Bukhari, one of the six Sunni hadith books

Sunni Islam, or Sunnism, is the name for the largest denomination in Islam. The term is a contraction of the phrase "ahl as-sunna wa'l-jamaat", which means "people of the sunna (the traditions of Muhammad) and the community". Sunni Islam is sometimes referred to as "orthodox Islam", though some scholars view this as inappropriate, and many non-Sunnis may find this offensive. Sunnis, or sometimes Sunnites, believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad and primarily reference six major hadith works for legal matters, while following one of the four traditional schools of jurisprudence: Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki or Shafi'i.

Traditionalist theology is a Sunni school of thought, prominently advocated by Ahmad ibn Hanbal (780–855 CE), that is characterized by its adherence to a textualist understanding of the Quran and the sunnah, the belief that the Quran is uncreated and eternal, and opposition to speculative theology, called kalam, in religious and ethical matters. Mu'tazilism is a Sunni school of thought inspired by Ancient Greek Philosophy. Maturidism, founded by Abu Mansur al-Maturidi (853–944 CE), asserts that scripture is not needed for basic ethics and that good and evil can be understood by reason alone, but people rely on revelation, for matters beyond human's comprehension. Ash'arism, founded by Al-Ashʿarī (c. 874–936), holds that ethics can derive just from divine revelation but accepts reason regarding exegetical matters and combines Muʿtazila approaches with traditionalist ideas.

Salafism is a revival movement advocating the return to the practices of the earliest generations of Muslims. In the 18th century, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab led a Salafi movement, referred by outsiders as Wahhabism, in modern-day Saudi Arabia. A similar movement called Ahl al-Hadith also de-emphasized the centuries' old Sunni legal tradition, preferring to directly follow the Quran and Hadith. The Nurcu Sunni movement was by Said Nursi (1877–1960); it incorporates elements of Sufism and science.

Shia

Main article: Shia Islam
Nahj al-balagha, collection of sermons, letters, and sayings attributed to Imam Ali.

Shia Islam, or Shi'ism, is the second-largest Muslim denomination. Shias, or Shiites, maintain that Muhammad's successor as leader, must be from certain descendants of Muhammad's family known as the Ahl al-Bayt and those leaders, referred to as Imams, have additional spiritual authority. Shias are guided by the Ja'fari school of jurisprudence.

According to both Sunni and Shia Muslims, a significant event took place at Ghadir Khumm during Muhammad's return from his final pilgrimage to Mecca, where he stopped thousands of Muslims in the midday heat. Muhammad appointed his cousin Ali as the executor of his last will and testament, as well as his Wali (authority). Shias recognize that Muhammad designated Ali as his successor (khalīfa) and Imam (spiritual and political leader) after him, but was prevented from succeeding Muhammad as the leader of the Muslims because of some other companions who selected Abū Bakr as caliph. Sunnis, instead believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor before his death and consider Abū Bakr to be the first rightful caliph after Muhammad. Shias state the community deliberately ignored Ali's nomination, citing Umar's appointment by Abu Bakr, other historical evidence, and the Qur'an's stance that majority does not imply legitimacy.

Some of the first Shia Imams are revered by all Shia and Sunnis Muslims, such as Ali and Husayn. Twelvers, the largest Shia branch and most influential, believe in Twelve Imams, the last of whom went into occultation to return one day. They recognize that the prophecy of the Twelve Imams has been foretold in the Hadith of the Twelve Successors which is recorded by both Sunni and Shia sources. Zaidism rejects special powers of Imams and are sometimes considered a 'fifth school' of Sunni Islam rather than a Shia denomination. They differed with other Shias over the status of the fifth imam and are sometimes known as "Fivers". The Isma'ilis split with the Twelvers over who was the seventh Imam and have further fragmented into more groups over the status of successive Imams, with the largest group being the Nizaris.

For Shias, the Imam Ali Shrine in Najaf, the Imam Husayn Shrine in Karbala, and the Fatima Masumeh Shrine in Qom are also among the Islamic Holy sites.

Imam Ali Shrine in Najaf, the third holiest place for Shia Muslims after Mecca and Medina.Imam Hussein Shrine in Karbala, a holy site for Shia Muslims.Imam Reza shrine, the world's largest mosque, in Mashhad, Iran. 25 million Shias visiting the shrine each year.

Muhakkima

Main articles: Muhakkima, Ibadi Islam, and Kharijites

Ibadi Islam or Ibadism is practised by 1.45 million Muslims around the world (~0.08% of all Muslims), most of them in Oman. Ibadism is often associated with and viewed as a moderate variation of the kharijites, though Ibadis themselves object to this classification. The kharijites were groups that rebelled against Caliph Ali for his acceptance of arbitration with someone they viewed as a sinner. Unlike most kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers. Ibadi hadiths, such as the Jami Sahih collection, use chains of narrators from early Islamic history they consider trustworthy, but most Ibadi hadiths are also found in standard Sunni collections and contemporary Ibadis often approve of the standard Sunni collections.

An overview of the major sects and madhahib of Islam
An overview of the major sects and madhahib of Islam

Other denominations

Non-denominational Muslims

Main article: Non-denominational Muslim

Non-denominational Muslims is an umbrella term that has been used for and by Muslims who do not belong to or do not self-identify with a specific Islamic denomination. Recent surveys report that large proportions of Muslims in some parts of the world self-identify as "just Muslim", although there is little published analysis available regarding the motivations underlying this response. The Pew Research Center reports that respondents self-identifying as "just Muslim" make up a majority of Muslims in seven countries (and a plurality in three others), with the highest proportion in Kazakhstan at 74%. At least one in five Muslims in at least 22 countries self-identifies in this way.

Mysticism

Main article: Sufism See also: Sufi–Salafi relations
The Whirling Dervishes, or Mevlevi Order by the tomb of Sufi-mystic Rumi
Sufism in Konya, Turkey

Sufism (Arabic: تصوف, tasawwuf), is a mystical-ascetic approach to Islam that seeks to find a direct personal experience of God. Classical Sufi scholars defined tasawwuf as "a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God", through "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use. Ahmad ibn Ajiba defined tasawwuf as "a return to the tradition, and its beginning is knowledge, its middle is action , and its end is a gift ." It is not a sect of Islam, and its adherents belong to the various Muslim denominations. Isma'ilism, whose teachings are rooted in Gnosticism and Neoplatonism as well as by the Illuminationist and Isfahan schools of Islamic philosophy, has developed mystical interpretations of Islam. Hasan al-Basri, the early Sufi ascetic often portrayed as one of the earliest Sufis, emphasized fear of failing God's expectations of obedience. In contrast, later prominent Sufis, such as Mansur Al-Hallaj and Jalaluddin Rumi, emphasized religiosity based on love towards God. Such devotion would also have an impact on the arts, with Rumi still one of the bestselling poets in America.

Sufis see tasawwuf as an inseparable part of Islam. Traditional Sufis, such as Bayazid Bastami, Jalaluddin Rumi, Haji Bektash Veli, Junaid Baghdadi, and Al-Ghazali, argued for Sufism as being based upon the tenets of Islam and the teachings of the prophet. Historian Nile Green argued that Islam in the Medieval period was more or less Sufism. Followers of the Sunni revivalist movement known as Salafism have viewed popular devotional practices, such as the veneration of Sufi saints, as innovations from the original religion. Salafists have sometimes physically attacked Sufis, leading to a deterioration in Sufi–Salafi relations.

Sufi congregations form orders (tariqa) centered around a teacher (wali) who traces a spiritual chain back to Muhammad. Sufis played an important role in the formation of Muslim societies through their missionary and educational activities. The Sufism-influenced Ahle Sunnat movement or Barelvi movement claims over 200 million followers in South Asia. Sufism is prominent in Central Asia, as well as in African countries like Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Senegal, Chad and Niger.

Law and jurisprudence

Main articles: Sharia and Fiqh See also: Logic in Islamic philosophy § Islamic law and theology
Islamic schools of law in the Muslim world

Shariah is the body of Islamic religious law. The desire to delineate and discover laws in a comprehensive and consistent method led to the development of the theory of law, called fiqh. Conversely, bid'ah is used to refer to unlawful innovations in matters of religion. Differing methodologies, called principles of fiqh or Usul al-fiqh, have developed and a school of jurisprudence arising around a methodology is known as a madhhab (Arabic: مذهب). The conformity in following of decisions by a religious expert or school is called taqlid. The term ghair muqallid refers to those who do not use taqlid and, by extension, do not have a madhab. The practice of an individual interpreting law with independent reasoning is called ijtihad. Those who interpret shariah are known as muftis and their legal opinions are called fatwas.

The primary sources of Shariah are the Quran and Sunnah. A common third source is qiyas (analogical reasoning) which is used for legal questions not dealt with literally in the Qur’ān or Sunnah. Parallels would be searched for to find the ‘’illah’’, or effective cause, which is the reason behind the existing ruling. For example, from the specific prohibition of wine is deduced a broad prohibition on alcohol as they share the operative cause identified as the mind-altering nature of all alcoholic drinks. The Zahiri school adheres to strict literalism and thus rejects qiyas. Consensus of opinion is ijma, while ikhtilaf refers to scholarly disagreement. Rulings assign actions to one of five categories called ahkam: mandatory (fard), recommended (mustahabb), permitted (mubah), abhorred (makruh), and prohibited (haram).

In the modern era, sharia-based criminal laws were widely replaced by statutes inspired by European models. The Ottoman Empire's 19th century Tanzimat reforms led to the Mecelle civil code and represented the first attempt to codify sharia. While the constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references to sharia, its classical rules were largely retained only in personal status (family) laws. Legislative bodies which codified these laws sought to modernize them without abandoning their foundations in traditional jurisprudence. The Islamic revival of the late 20th century brought along calls by Islamist movements for complete implementation of sharia. The role of sharia has become a contested topic around the world. There are ongoing debates as to whether sharia is compatible with secular forms of government, human rights, freedom of thought, and women's rights.

Society

Religious personages

Main article: Ulama
Crimean Tatar Muslim students (1856)

Islam has no clergy in the sacerdotal sense, such as priests who mediate between God and people. Imam (إمام) is the religious title used to refer to an Islamic leadership position, often in the context of conducting an Islamic worship service. Religious interpretation is presided over by the 'ulama (Arabic: علماء), a term used describe the body of Muslim scholars who have received training in Islamic studies. A scholar of the hadith is called a muhaddith, a scholar of jurisprudence is called a faqih (فقيه), a jurist who is qualified to issue legal opinions or fatwas is called a mufti, and a qadi is an Islamic judge. Honorific titles given to scholars include sheikh, mullah and mawlawi. Some Muslims also venerate saints associated with miracles (كرامات, karāmāt).

Governance

See also: Political aspects of Islam, Islamic economics, Islamic military jurisprudence, tasamuh, and Jihad

In Islamic economic jurisprudence, hoarding of wealth is reviled and thus monopolistic behavior is frowned upon. Attempts to comply with sharia has led to the development of Islamic banking. Islam prohibits riba, usually translated as usury, which refers to any unfair gain in trade and is most commonly used to mean interest. Instead, Islamic banks go into partnership with the borrower, and both share from the profits and any losses from the venture. Another feature is the avoidance of uncertainty, which is seen as gambling and Islamic banks traditionally avoid derivative instruments such as futures or options which has historically protected them from market downturns. The Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphate used to be involved in distribution of charity from the treasury, known as Bayt al-mal, before it became a largely individual pursuit around the year 720. The first Caliph, Abu Bakr, distributed zakat as one of the first examples of a guaranteed minimum income, with each citizen getting 10 to 20 dirhams annually. During the reign of the second Caliph Umar, child support was introduced and the old and disabled were entitled to stipends, while the Umayyad Caliph Umar II assigned a servant for each blind person and for every two chronically ill persons.

Jihad means "to strive or struggle " and, in its broadest sense, is "exerting one's utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of disapprobation". Shias in particular emphasize the "greater jihad" of striving to attain spiritual self-perfection while the "lesser jihad" is defined as warfare. When used without a qualifier, jihad is often understood in its military form. Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against illegal works, terrorists, criminal groups, rebels, apostates, and leaders or states who oppress Muslims. Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare. Jihad only becomes an individual duty for those vested with authority. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a general mobilization. For most Twelver Shias, offensive jihad can only be declared by a divinely appointed leader of the Muslim community, and as such, is suspended since Muhammad al-Mahdi's occultation in 868 CE.

Daily and family life

See also: Adab (Islam), Islamic dietary laws, Islam and children, Marriage in Islam, Women in Islam, and Polygyny in Islam
Islamic veils represent modesty

Many daily practices fall in the category of adab, or etiquette. Specific prohibited foods include pork products, blood and carrion. Health is viewed as a trust from God and intoxicants, such as alcoholic drinks, are prohibited. All meat must come from a herbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, except for game that one has hunted or fished for oneself. Beards are often encouraged among men as something natural and body modifications, such as permanent tattoos, are usually forbidden as violating the creation. Silk and gold are prohibited for men in Islam to maintain a state of sobriety. Haya, often translated as "shame" or "modesty", is sometimes described as the innate character of Islam and informs much of Muslim daily life. For example, clothing in Islam emphasizes a standard of modesty, which has included the hijab for women. Similarly, personal hygiene is encouraged with certain requirements.

A Muslim couple

In Islamic marriage, the groom is required to pay a bridal gift (mahr). Most families in the Islamic world are monogamous. Muslim men are allowed to practice polygyny and can have up to four wives simultaneously. Islamic teachings strongly advise that if a man cannot ensure equal financial and emotional support for each of his wives, it is recommended that he marry just one woman. One reason cited for polygyny is that it allows a man to give financial protection to multiple women, who might otherwise not have any support (e.g. widows). However, the first wife can set a condition in the marriage contract that the husband cannot marry another woman during their marriage. There are also cultural variations in weddings. Polyandry, a practice wherein a woman takes on two or more husbands, is prohibited in Islam.

Muslim girls studying the Quran placed atop folding lecterns (rehal) during Ramadan in Qom, Iran

After the birth of a child, the adhan is pronounced in the right ear. On the seventh day, the aqiqah ceremony is performed, in which an animal is sacrificed and its meat is distributed among the poor. The child's head is shaved, and an amount of money equaling the weight of its hair is donated to the poor. Male circumcision, called khitan, is often practised in the Muslim world. Respecting and obeying one's parents, and taking care of them especially in their old age is a religious obligation.

A dying Muslim is encouraged to pronounce the Shahada as their last words. Paying respects to the dead and attending funerals in the community are considered among the virtuous acts. In Islamic burial rituals, burial is encouraged as soon as possible, usually within 24 hours. The body is washed, except for martyrs, by members of the same gender and enshrouded in a garment that must not be elaborate called kafan. A "funeral prayer" called Salat al-Janazah is performed. Wailing, or loud, mournful outcrying, is discouraged. Coffins are often not preferred and graves are often unmarked, even for kings.

Arts and culture

Main article: Islamic culture See also: Islamic art, Islamic architecture, Islamic literature, Islam in association football, and Cultural Muslims

The term "Islamic culture" can be used to mean aspects of culture that pertain to the religion, such as festivals and dress code. It is also controversially used to denote the cultural aspects of traditionally Muslim people. Finally, "Islamic civilization" may also refer to the aspects of the synthesized culture of the early Caliphates, including that of non-Muslims, sometimes referred to as "Islamicate".

Islamic art encompasses the visual arts including fields as varied as architecture, calligraphy, painting, and ceramics, among others. While the making of images of animate beings has often been frowned upon in connection with laws against idolatry, this rule has been interpreted in different ways by different scholars and in different historical periods. This stricture has been used to explain the prevalence of calligraphy, tessellation, and pattern as key aspects of Islamic artistic culture. Additionally, the depiction of Muhammad is a contentious issue among Muslims. In Islamic architecture, varying cultures show influence such as North African and Spanish Islamic architecture such as the Great Mosque of Kairouan containing marble and porphyry columns from Roman and Byzantine buildings, while mosques in Indonesia often have multi-tiered roofs from local Javanese styles.

The Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar that begins with the Hijra of 622 CE, a date that was reportedly chosen by Caliph Umar as it was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes. Islamic holy days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, meaning they occur in different seasons in different years in the Gregorian calendar. The most important Islamic festivals are Eid al-Fitr (Arabic: عيد الفطر) on the 1st of Shawwal, marking the end of the fasting month Ramadan, and Eid al-Adha (عيد الأضحى) on the 10th of Dhu al-Hijjah, coinciding with the end of the Hajj (pilgrimage).

Cultural Muslims are religiously non-practicing individuals who still identify with Islam due to family backgrounds, personal experiences, or the social and cultural environment in which they grew up.

Influences on other religions

See also: Islam and Druze

Some movements, such as the Druze, Berghouata and Ha-Mim, either emerged from Islam or came to share certain beliefs with Islam, and whether each is a separate religion or a sect of Islam is sometimes controversial. The Druze faith further split from Isma'ilism as it developed its own unique doctrines, and finally separated from both Ismāʿīlīsm and Islam altogether; these include the belief that the Imam Al-Ḥākim bi-Amr Allāh was God incarnate. Yazdânism is seen as a blend of local Kurdish beliefs and Islamic Sufi doctrine introduced to Kurdistan by Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir in the 12th century. Bábism stems from Twelver Shia passed through Siyyid 'Ali Muhammad i-Shirazi al-Bab while one of his followers Mirza Husayn 'Ali Nuri Baha'u'llah founded the Baháʼí Faith. Sikhism, founded by Guru Nanak in late 15th century Punjab, primarily incorporates aspects of Hinduism, with some Islamic influences.

Criticism

Main article: Criticism of Islam See also: Criticism of Muhammad and Criticism of the Quran
John of Damascus, under the Umayyad Caliphate, viewed Islamic doctrines as a hodgepodge from the Bible.

Criticism of Islam has existed since its formative stages. Early criticism came from Jewish authors, such as Ibn Kammuna, and Christian authors, many of whom viewed Islam as a Christian heresy or a form of idolatry, often explaining it in apocalyptic terms.

Christian writers criticized Islam's sensual descriptions of paradise. Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari defended the Quranic description of paradise by asserting that the Bible also implies such ideas, such as drinking wine in the Gospel of Matthew. Catholic theologian Augustine of Hippo's doctrines led to the broad repudiation of bodily pleasure in both life and the afterlife.

Defamatory images of Muhammad, derived from early 7th-century depictions of the Byzantine Church, appear in the 14th-century epic poem Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri. Here, Muhammad is depicted in the eighth circle of hell, along with Ali. Dante does not blame Islam as a whole but accuses Muhammad of schism, by establishing another religion after Christianity.

Other criticisms center on the treatment of individuals within modern Muslim-majority countries, including issues related to human rights, particularly in relation to the application of Islamic law. Furthermore, in the wake of the recent multiculturalism trend, Islam's influence on the ability of Muslim immigrants in the West to assimilate has been criticized.

See also

References

Footnotes

  1. /ˈɪzlɑːm, ˈɪzlæm/ IZ-la(h)m; Arabic: ٱلْإِسْلَام‎, romanized: al-Islām, IPA: [alʔɪsˈlaːm], lit. 'submission '
  2. "Hasan al Basri is often considered one of the first who rejected an angelic origin for the devil, arguing that his fall was the result of his own free-will, not God's determination. Hasan al Basri also argued that angels are incapable of sin or errors and nobler than humans and even prophets. Both early Shias and Sunnis opposed his view.
  3. "In recent years, the idea of syncretism has been challenged. Given the lack of authority to define or enforce an Orthodox doctrine about Islam, some scholars argue there had no prescribed beliefs, only prescribed practise, in Islam before the 16th century.
  4. Some Muslims in dynastic era China resisted footbinding of girls for the same reason.

Quran and hadith

  1. Quran 2:117
  2. Quran 1:4;
  3. Quran 6:31;
  4. Quran 101:1

Citations

  1. Center, Pew Research (30 April 2013). "The World's Muslims: Religion, Politics and Society". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. Archived from the original on 25 October 2023. Retrieved 20 March 2024.
  2. "The Spread of Islam in West Africa: Containment, Mixing, and Reform from".
  3. Welch, Alford T.; Moussalli, Ahmad S.; Newby, Gordon D. (2009). "Muḥammad". In John L. Esposito (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 11 February 2017.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  4. Bausani, A. (1999). "Bāb". Encyclopedia of Islam. Leiden, The Netherlands: Koninklijke Brill NV.
  5. Van der Vyer, J.D. (1996). Religious human rights in global perspective: religious perspectives. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 449. ISBN 90-411-0176-4.
  6. Yazbeck Haddad, Yvonne (2014). The Oxford Handbook of American Islam. Oxford University Press. p. 142. ISBN 9780199862634.
  7. ^ "Religious Composition by Country, 2010-2050". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 21 December 2022. Archived from the original on 28 January 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2024.
  8. "English pronunciation of Islam". Cambridge Dictionary. Archived from the original on 22 January 2021. Retrieved 19 December 2023.
  9. "Muhammad: Biography, Prophet, Founder of Islam". Biography. 10 April 2024. Retrieved 29 November 2024.
  10. ^ "Pew-Templeton Global Religious Futures Project - Research and data from Pew Research Center". 21 December 2022. Archived from the original on 5 February 2023. Retrieved 27 November 2023.
  11. ^ Schimmel, Annemarie. "Islam". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 4 May 2015. Retrieved 17 September 2021.
  12. "Definition of Islam | Dictionary.com". www.dictionary.com. Archived from the original on 9 May 2022. Retrieved 9 May 2022.
  13. Haywood, John (2002). Historical Atlas of the Medieval World (AD 600 - 1492) (1st ed.). Spain: Barnes & Noble, Inc. p. 3.13. ISBN 0-7607-1975-6.
  14. "Siin Archived 7 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine." Lane's Lexicon 4. – via StudyQuran.
  15. Lewis, Barnard; Churchill, Buntzie Ellis (2009). Islam: The Religion and The People. Wharton School Publishing. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-13-223085-8.
  16. "Muslim." Lexico. UK: Oxford University Press. 2020.
  17. Esposito (2000), pp. 76–77.
  18. Mahmutćehajić, Rusmir (2006). The mosque: the heart of submission. Fordham University Press. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-8232-2584-2.
  19. Gibb, Sir Hamilton (1969). Mohammedanism: an historical survey. Oxford University Press. p. 1. ISBN 9780195002454. Modern Muslims dislike the terms Mohammedan and Mohammedanism, which seem to them to carry the implication of worship of Mohammed, as Christian and Christianity imply the worship of Christ.
  20. Beversluis, Joel, ed. (2011). Sourcebook of the World's Religions: An Interfaith Guide to Religion and Spirituality. New World Library. pp. 68–9. ISBN 9781577313328. Archived from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 15 January 2023.
  21. "Tawhid". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 7 November 2021. Retrieved 17 September 2021.
  22. Gimaret, D. "Tawḥīd". In Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.) (2012). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_7454
  23. Ali, Kecia; Leaman, Oliver (2008). Islam : the key concepts. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-39638-7. OCLC 123136939.
  24. Campo (2009), p. 34, "Allah".
  25. Leeming, David. 2005. The Oxford Companion to World Mythology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-195-15669-0. p. 209.
  26. "God". Islam: Empire of Faith. PBS. Archived from the original on 27 March 2014. Retrieved 18 December 2010.
  27. Burge (2015), p. 23.
  28. ^ Burge (2015), p. 79.
  29. "Nūr Archived 23 April 2022 at the Wayback Machine." The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. – via Encyclopedia.com.
  30. Hartner, W.; Tj Boer. "Nūr". In Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.) (2012). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0874
  31. Elias, Jamal J. "Light". In McAuliffe (2003). doi:10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00261
  32. Campo, Juan E. "Nar". In Martin (2004).. – via Encyclopedia.com.
  33. Fahd, T. "Nār". In Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.) (2012). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0846
  34. Toelle, Heidi. "Fire". In McAuliffe (2002). doi:10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00156
  35. McAuliffe (2003), p. 45
  36. Burge (2015), pp. 97–99.
  37. Esposito (2002b), pp. 26–28
  38. Webb, Gisela. "Angel". In McAuliffe (n.d.).
  39. MacDonald, D. B.; Madelung, W. "Malāʾika". In Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.) (2012).doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0642
  40. Çakmak (2017), p. 140.
  41. Burge (2015), p. 22.
  42. ^ Buhl, F.; Welch, A.T. "Muhammad". In Encyclopaedia of Islam Online (n.d.).
  43. Watt, William Montgomery (2003). Islam and the Integration of Society. Psychology Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-415-17587-6. Archived from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 15 June 2021.
  44. Esposito (2004), pp. 17–18, 21.
  45. Al Faruqi, Lois Ibsen (1987). "The Cantillation of the Qur'an". Asian Music (Autumn – Winter 1987): 3–4.
  46. ^ Ringgren, Helmer. "Qurʾān". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 5 May 2015. Retrieved 17 September 2021. "The word Quran was invented and first used in the Quran itself. There are two different theories about this term and its formation."
  47. "Tafsīr". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 19 October 2021. Retrieved 17 September 2021.
  48. Esposito (2004), pp. 79–81.
  49. Jones, Alan (1994). The Koran. London: Charles E. Tuttle Company. p. 1. ISBN 1842126091. Its outstanding literary merit should also be noted: it is by far, the finest work of Arabic prose in existence.
  50. Arberry, Arthur (1956). The Koran Interpreted. London: Allen & Unwin. p. 191. ISBN 0684825074. It may be affirmed that within the literature of the Arabs, wide and fecund as it is both in poetry and in elevated prose, there is nothing to compare with it.
  51. Kadi, Wadad, and Mustansir Mir. "Literature and the Quran." In Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an 3. pp. 213, 216.
  52. ^ Esposito (2002b), pp. 4–5
  53. ^ Peters (2003), p. 9
  54. Buhl, F.; Welch, A.T. "Muhammad". In Encyclopaedia of Islam Online (n.d.).
  55. Hava Lazarus-Yafeh. "Tahrif". In Encyclopaedia of Islam Online (n.d.).
  56. Teece (2003), pp. 12–13
  57. Turner (2006), p. 42
  58. Bennett (2010), p. 101.
  59. "BnF. Département des Manuscrits. Supplément turc 190". Bibliothèque nationale de France. Archived from the original on 9 September 2023. Retrieved 7 September 2023.
  60. Esposito (2003), p. 225
  61. Reeves, J. C. (2004). Bible and Qurʼān: Essays in scriptural intertextuality. Leiden: Brill. p. 177. ISBN 90-04-12726-7. Archived from the original on 19 April 2023. Retrieved 21 August 2019.
  62. Esposito, John L. 2009. "Islam." In The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World , edited by J. L. Esposito. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530513-5. (See also: quick reference Archived 10 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine.) "Profession of Faith...affirms Islam's absolute monotheism and acceptance of Muḥammad as the messenger of Allah, the last and final prophet."
  63. Peters, F. E. 2009. "Allāh." In The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World , edited by J. L. Esposito. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530513-5. (See also: quick reference Archived 26 September 2020 at the Wayback Machine.) "he Muslims' understanding of Allāh is based...on the Qurʿān's public witness. Allāh is Unique, the Creator, Sovereign, and Judge of mankind. It is Allāh who directs the universe through his direct action on nature and who has guided human history through his prophets, Abraham, with whom he made his covenant, Moses/Moosa, Jesus/Eesa, and Muḥammad, through all of whom he founded his chosen communities, the 'Peoples of the Book.'"
  64. Martin (2004), p. 666
  65. J. Robson. "Hadith". In Encyclopaedia of Islam Online (n.d.).
  66. D.W. Brown. "Sunna". In Encyclopaedia of Islam Online (n.d.).
  67. Goldman, Elizabeth (1995). Believers: Spiritual Leaders of the World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-19-508240-1.
  68. al-Rahman, Aisha Abd, ed. 1990. Muqaddimah Ibn al-Ṣalāḥ. Cairo: Dar al-Ma'arif, 1990. pp. 160–69
  69. Awliya'i, Mustafa. "The Four Books Archived 12 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine." In Outlines of the Development of the Science of Hadith 1, translated by A. Q. Qara'i. – via Al-Islam.org. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
  70. Rizvi, Sayyid Sa'eed Akhtar. "The Hadith §The Four Books (Al-Kutubu'l-Arb'ah) Archived 12 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine." Ch 4 in The Qur'an and Hadith. Tanzania: Bilal Muslim Mission. – via Al-Islam.org. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
  71. Glassé (2003), pp. 382–383, "Resurrection"
  72. Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.) (2012), "Avicenna". doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_DUM_0467: "Ibn Sīnā, Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAbd Allāh b. Sīnā is known in the West as 'Avicenna'."
  73. Gardet, L. "Qiyama". In Encyclopaedia of Islam Online (n.d.).
  74. Esposito, John L. (ed.). "Eschatology". The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Archived from the original on 13 September 2010. Retrieved 18 April 2017 – via Oxford Islamic Studies Online.
  75. Esposito (2011), p. 130.
  76. Smith (2006), p. 89; Encyclopedia of Islam and Muslim World, p. 565
  77. Afsaruddin, Asma. "Garden". In McAuliffe (n.d.).
  78. "Paradise". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
  79. "Andras Rajki's A. E. D. (Arabic Etymological Dictionary)". 2002. Archived from the original on 8 December 2011. Retrieved 13 November 2020.
  80. Cohen-Mor (2001), p. 4: "The idea of predestination is reinforced by the frequent mention of events 'being written' or 'being in a book' before they happen": Say: "Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us..."
  81. Karamustafa, Ahmet T. "Fate". In McAuliffe (n.d.).: The verb qadara literally means "to measure, to determine". Here it is used to mean that "God measures and orders his creation".
  82. Gardet, L. "al-Ḳaḍāʾ Wa 'l-Ḳadar". In Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.) (2012). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0407
  83. "Muslim beliefs – Al-Qadr". Bitesize – GCSE – Edexcel. BBC. Archived from the original on 15 November 2020. Retrieved 13 November 2020.
  84. ^ "Pillars of Islam | Islamic Beliefs & Practices | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 3 May 2023. Archived from the original on 5 September 2015. Retrieved 16 December 2021.
  85. ZAROUG, ABDULLAHI HASSAN (1985). "THE CONCEPT OF PERMISSION, SUPEREROGATORY ACTS AND ASETICISM [sic] IN ISLAMIC JURISPRUDENCE". Islamic Studies. 24 (2): 167–180. ISSN 0578-8072. JSTOR 20847307. Archived from the original on 7 December 2022. Retrieved 7 January 2023.
  86. Nasr (2003), pp. 3, 39, 85, 270–272.
  87. Mohammad, N. 1985. "The doctrine of jihad: An introduction." Journal of Law and Religion 3(2):381–97.
  88. Kasim, Husain. "Islam". In Salamone (2004), pp. 195–197.
  89. Galonnier, Juliette. "Moving In or Moving Toward? Reconceptualizing Conversion to Islam as a Liminal Process1". Moving In and Out of Islam, edited by Karin van Nieuwkerk, New York, US: University of Texas Press, 2021, pp. 44-66. https://doi.org/10.7560/317471-003 Archived 28 December 2023 at the Wayback Machine
  90. Esposito (2002b), pp. 18, 19
  91. Hedayetullah (2006), pp. 53–55
  92. Kobeisy (2004), pp. 22–34
  93. Momen (1987), p. 178
  94. Mattson, Ingrid (2006). "Women, Islam, and Mosques". In R. S. Keller and R. R. Ruether (eds.). Encyclopedia of Women and Religion in North America. Volume 2, Part VII. Islam. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press. pp. 615–629. ISBN 978-0-253-34687-2. Archived from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2021.
  95. Pedersen, J., R. Hillenbrand, J. Burton-Page, et al. 2010. "Masd̲j̲id ." Encyclopedia of Islam. Leiden: Brill. Retrieved 25 May 2020.
  96. "Mosque". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 28 September 2021. Retrieved 17 September 2021.
  97. Ahmed, Medani, and Sebastian Gianci. "Zakat." p. 479 in Encyclopedia of Taxation and Tax Policy.
  98. Ariff, Mohamed (1991). The Islamic Voluntary Sector in Southeast Asia: Islam and the Economic Development of Southeast Asia. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. pp. 55–. ISBN 978-981-3016-07-1. Archived from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 7 October 2017.
  99. Esposito (2010), p. 109-110: This is not regarded as charity because it is not really voluntary but instead is owed, by those who have received their wealth as a trust from God's bounty, to the poor.
  100. Ridgeon, Lloyd (2003). Major World Religions: From Their Origins to the Present. United Kingdom: RoutledgeCurzon. p. 258. ISBN 9780415297967. Aside from its function of purifying believers' wealth, the payment of zakat may have contributed in no small way to the economic welfare of the Muslim community in Mecca.
  101. "A faith-based aid revolution in the Muslim world". The New Humanitarian. 1 June 2012. Archived from the original on 14 January 2021. Retrieved 27 August 2023.
  102. Said, Abdul Aziz; et al. (2006). Contemporary Islam: Dynamic, Not Static. Taylor & Francis. p. 145. ISBN 978-0-415-77011-8. Archived from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 7 October 2017.
  103. Stefon (2010), p. 72.
  104. Hudson, A. (2003). Equity and Trusts (3rd ed.). London: Cavendish Publishing. p. 32. ISBN 1-85941-729-9.
  105. "Ramadan". www.britannica.com. Archived from the original on 9 October 2023. Retrieved 16 August 2023.
  106. Ramadanali (2006). Fasting In Islam And The Month Of Ramadan. United States: Tughra Books. p. 51. ISBN 9781597846110.
  107. Goldschmidt & Davidson (2005), p. 48
  108. Farah (1994), pp. 145–147
  109. "Hajj". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
  110. Peters, F.E. (2009). Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians. Princeton University Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-1-4008-2548-6. Archived from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
  111. Cornell, Vincent J. (2007). Voices of Islam: Voices of tradition. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-275-98733-6. Retrieved 26 August 2012.
  112. Glassé (2003), p. 207
  113. Michigan Consortium for Medieval and Early Modern Studies (1986). Goss, V. P.; Bornstein, C. V. (eds.). The Meeting of Two Worlds: Cultural Exchange Between East and West During the Period of the Crusades. Vol. 21. Medieval Institute Publications, Western Michigan University. p. 208. ISBN 0918720583. Archived from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 15 January 2023.
  114. Trofimov, Yaroslav. 2008. The Siege of Mecca: The 1979 Uprising at Islam's Holiest Shrine. Knopf. New York. ISBN 978-0-307-47290-8. p. 79.
  115. Aboo Yahyaa (2013). Foundation of Tajweed (2 ed.). p. 1.
  116. Stefon (2010), p. 42–43.
  117. Nigosian (2004), p. 70.
  118. Armstrong, Lyall (2016). The Quṣṣāṣ of Early Islam. Netherlands: Brill. p. 184. ISBN 9789004335523.
  119. "alhamdulillah". Lexico. Archived from the original on 27 February 2020. Retrieved 16 October 2021.
  120. Esposito (2010), p. 6.
  121. Buhl, F.; Welch, A.T. "Muhammad". In Encyclopaedia of Islam Online (n.d.).
  122. "Muhammad". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
  123. "Ottomans : religious painting". Retrieved 1 May 2016.
  124. Rabah, Bilal B. Encyclopedia of Islam.
  125. Ünal, Ali (2006). The Qurʼan with Annotated Interpretation in Modern English. Tughra Books. pp. 1323–. ISBN 978-1-59784-000-2. Archived from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 7 October 2017.
  126. Holt, Lambton & Lewis (1977), p. 36
  127. Serjeant (1978), p. 4.
  128. Peter Crawford (16 July 2013), The War of the Three Gods: Romans, Persians and the Rise of Islam, Pen & Sword Books Limited, p. 83, ISBN 9781473828650, archived from the original on 28 December 2023, retrieved 5 August 2022.
  129. Peters (2003), pp. 78–79, 194
  130. Lapidus (2002), pp. 23–28
  131. Buhl, F.; Welch, A.T. "Muhammad". In Encyclopaedia of Islam Online (n.d.).
  132. Melchert, Christopher (2020). "The Rightly Guided Caliphs: The Range of Views Preserved in Ḥadīth". In al-Sarhan, Saud (ed.). Political Quietism in Islam: Sunni and Shi'i Practice and Thought. London and New York: I.B. Tauris. pp. 70–71. ISBN 978-1-83860-765-4. Archived from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 17 February 2022.
  133. Esposito (2010), p. 40.
  134. Holt & Lewis (1977), p. 57
  135. Hourani (2002), p. 22
  136. Lapidus (2002), p. 32
  137. Madelung (1996), p. 43
  138. Ṭabāṭabāʼī (1979), pp. 30–50
  139. Esposito (2010), p. 38.
  140. Holt & Lewis (1977), p. 74
  141. ^ Gardet & Jomier (2012)
  142. J. Kuiper, Matthew (2021). Da'wa: A Global History of Islamic Missionary Thought and Practice. Edinburgh University Press. p. 85. ISBN 9781351510721.
  143. Lapidus, Ira M. (2014). A History of Islamic Societies. Cambridge University Press. pp. 60–61. ISBN 978-0-521-51430-9.
  144. Holt & Lewis (1977), pp. 67–72.
  145. Harney, John (3 January 2016). "How Do Sunni and Shia Islam Differ?". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 11 May 2020. Retrieved 4 January 2016.
  146. Waines (2003), p. 46.
  147. Ismāʻīl ibn ʻUmar Ibn Kathīr (2012), p. 505.
  148. Umar Ibn Abdul Aziz By Imam Abu Muhammad Abdullah ibn Abdul Hakam died 214 AH 829 C.E. Publisher Zam Zam Publishers Karachi, pp. 54–59
  149. Noel James Coulson (1964). History of Islamic Law. King Abdulaziz Public Library. p. 103. ISBN 978-0-7486-0514-9. Archived from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
  150. Houtsma, M.T.; Wensinck, A.J.; Lévi-Provençal, E.; Gibb, H.A.R.; Heffening, W., eds. (1993). E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936. Volume V: L—Moriscos (reprint ed.). Brill Publishers. pp. 207–. ISBN 978-90-04-09791-9. Archived from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 19 September 2021.
  151. Moshe Sharon, ed. (1986). Studies in Islamic History and Civilization: In Honour of Professor David Ayalon. BRILL. p. 264. ISBN 9789652640147. Archived from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
  152. Mamouri, Ali (8 January 2015). "Who are the Kharijites and what do they have to do with IS?". Al-monitor. Archived from the original on 6 March 2022. Retrieved 6 March 2022.
  153. Blankinship (2008), p. 43.
  154. ^ Esposito (2010), p. 87.
  155. Puchala, Donald (2003). Theory and History in International Relations. Routledge. p. 137.
  156. Esposito (2010), p. 45.
  157. Al-Biladhuri, Ahmad Ibn Jabir; Hitti, Philip (1969). Kitab Futuhu'l-Buldan. AMS Press. p. 219.
  158. Lapidus (2002), p. 56.
  159. Lewis (1993), pp. 71–83.
  160. Lapidus (2002), p. 86.
  161. ^ Schimmel, Annemarie. "Sufism". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 17 September 2021.
  162. Lapidus (2002), pp. 90, 91.
  163. Blankinship (2008), pp. 38–39.
  164. Omar Hamdan Studien zur Kanonisierung des Korantextes: al-Ḥasan al-Baṣrīs Beiträge zur Geschichte des Korans Otto Harrassowitz Verlag 2006 ISBN 978-3447053495 pp. 291–292 (German)
  165. Blankinship (2008), p. 50.
  166. Esposito (2010), p. 88.
  167. Doi, Abdur Rahman (1984). Shariah: The Islamic Law. London: Ta-Ha Publishers. p. 110. ISBN 978-0-907461-38-8.
  168. Lapidus (2002), p. 160
  169. Waines (2003), pp. 126–127
  170. Holt & Lewis (1977), pp. 80, 92, 105
  171. Holt, Lambton & Lewis (1977), pp. 661–663
  172. Lapidus (2002), p. 56
  173. Lewis (1993), p. 84
  174. King, David A. (1983). "The Astronomy of the Mamluks". Isis. 74 (4): 531–55. doi:10.1086/353360. ISSN 0021-1753. S2CID 144315162.
  175. Hassan, Ahmad Y. 1996. "Factors Behind the Decline of Islamic Science After the Sixteenth Century." Pp. 351–99 in Islam and the Challenge of Modernity, edited by S. S. Al-Attas. Kuala Lumpur: International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015.
  176. "Contributions of Islamic scholars to the scientific enterprise" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 May 2023. Retrieved 13 December 2022.
  177. "The greatest scientific advances from the Muslim world". TheGuardian.com. February 2010. Archived from the original on 13 December 2022. Retrieved 13 December 2022.
  178. Jacquart, Danielle (2008). "Islamic Pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Theories and Substances". European Review (Cambridge University Press) 16: 219–227.
  179. David W. Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (August 2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine", Heart Views 4 (2).
  180. "Abu Bakr Mohammad Ibn Zakariya al-Razi (Rhazes) (c. 865-925)". sciencemuseum.org.uk. Archived from the original on 6 May 2015. Retrieved 31 May 2015.
  181. Alatas, Syed Farid (2006). "From Jami'ah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian–Muslim Dialogue". Current Sociology. 54 (1): 112–132. doi:10.1177/0011392106058837. S2CID 144509355. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 September 2017. Retrieved 12 September 2019.
  182. Imamuddin, S.M. (1981). Muslim Spain 711–1492 AD. Brill Publishers. p. 169. ISBN 978-90-04-06131-6.
  183. Toomer, G. J. (December 1964). "Review Work: Matthias Schramm (1963) Ibn Al-Haythams Weg zur Physik". Isis. 55 (4): 464. JSTOR 228328. Schramm sums up achievement in the development of scientific method.
  184. Al-Khalili, Jim (4 January 2009). "The 'first true scientist'". BBC News. Archived from the original on 26 April 2015. Retrieved 24 September 2013.
  185. Gorini, Rosanna (October 2003). "Al-Haytham the man of experience. First steps in the science of vision" (PDF). Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine. 2 (4): 53–55. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 July 2019. Retrieved 25 September 2008.
  186. Koetsier, Teun (May 2001). "On the prehistory of programmable machines: musical automata, looms, calculators". Mechanism and Machine Theory. 36 (5): 589–603. doi:10.1016/S0094-114X(01)00005-2.
  187. Katz, Victor J.; Barton, Bill (18 September 2007). "Stages in the History of Algebra with Implications for Teaching". Educational Studies in Mathematics. 66 (2): 185–201. doi:10.1007/s10649-006-9023-7. S2CID 120363574.
  188. Ahmed (2006), pp. 23, 42, 84
  189. Young, Mark (1998). The Guinness Book of Records. Bantam. p. 242. ISBN 978-0-553-57895-9.
  190. ^ Brague, Rémi (2009). The Legend of the Middle Ages: Philosophical Explorations of Medieval Christianity, Judaism, and Islam. University of Chicago Press. p. 164. ISBN 9780226070803. Neither were there any Muslims among the Ninth-Century translators. Amost all of them were Christians of various Eastern denominations: Jacobites, Melchites, and, above all, Nestorians... A few others were Sabians.
  191. Hill, Donald. Islamic Science and Engineering. 1993. Edinburgh Univ. Press. ISBN 0-7486-0455-3, p.4
  192. Rémi Brague, Assyrians contributions to the Islamic civilization Archived 2013-09-27 at the Wayback Machine
  193. Meri, Josef W. and Jere L. Bacharach. "Medieval Islamic Civilization". Vol. 1 Index A–K Archived 28 December 2023 at the Wayback Machine. 2006, p. 304.
  194. Saliba, George. 1994. A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 0-8147-8023-7. pp. 245, 250, 256–57.
  195. Holt, Peter Malcolm (2004). The Crusader States and Their Neighbours, 1098–1291. Pearson Longman. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-582-36931-3. Archived from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 2 February 2023.
  196. Levi, Scott Cameron; Sela, Ron, eds. (2010). Islamic Central Asia: an anthology of historical sources. Indiana University Press. p. 83.
  197. Neue Fischer Weltgeschichte "Islamisierung in Zentralasien bis zur Mongolenzeit" Band 10: Zentralasien, 2012, p. 191 (German)
  198. Glubb, John Bagot. "Mecca (Saudi Arabia)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 6 May 2020. Retrieved 18 September 2021.
  199. Andreas Graeser Zenon von Kition: Positionen u. Probleme Walter de Gruyter 1975 ISBN 978-3-11-004673-1 p. 260
  200. Arnold (1896), pp. 227–228.
  201. "Why are many Indian Muslims seen as untouchable?". BBCnews. 10 May 2016. Archived from the original on 7 October 2022. Retrieved 6 October 2022.
  202. "Islam in China". BBC. Archived from the original on 22 November 2018. Retrieved 10 August 2011.
  203. Lipman, Jonathan Newman (1997). Familiar Strangers, a history of Muslims in Northwest China. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. p. 33. ISBN 978-0-295-97644-0.
  204. Arnold (1896), pp. 125–258.
  205. "The Spread of Islam" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 November 2013. Retrieved 2 November 2013.
  206. "Ottoman Empire". Oxford Islamic Studies Online. 6 May 2008. Archived from the original on 10 June 2022. Retrieved 26 August 2010.
  207. Adas, Michael, ed. (1993). Islamic and European Expansion. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. p. 25.
  208. Metcalf, Barbara (2009). Islam in South Asia in Practice. Princeton University Press. p. 104.
  209. Peacock (2019), p. 20–22.
  210. Çakmak (2017), pp. 1425–1429.
  211. Farmer, Edward L., ed. (1995). Zhu Yuanzhang and Early Ming Legislation: The Reordering of Chinese Society Following the Era of Mongol Rule. BRILL. p. 82. ISBN 9004103910. Archived from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 19 February 2023.
  212. Israeli, Raphael (2002). Islam in China. p. 292. Lexington Books. ISBN 0-7391-0375-X.
  213. Dillon, Michael (1999). China's Muslim Hui Community. Curzon. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-7007-1026-3.
  214. Bulliet (2005), p. 497
  215. Subtelny, Maria Eva (November 1988). "Socioeconomic Bases of Cultural Patronage under the Later Timurids". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 20 (4): 479–505. doi:10.1017/S0020743800053861. S2CID 162411014. Archived from the original on 13 August 2020. Retrieved 7 November 2016.
  216. "Nasir al-Din al-Tusi". University of St Andrews. 1999. Archived from the original on 6 October 2018. Retrieved 27 August 2023.
  217. "Ghiyath al-Din Jamshid Mas'ud al-Kashi". University of St Andrews. 1999. Archived from the original on 4 January 2022. Retrieved 29 December 2021.
  218. Drews, Robert (August 2011). "Chapter Thirty – "The Ottoman Empire, Judaism, and Eastern Europe to 1648"" (PDF). Coursebook: Judaism, Christianity and Islam, to the Beginnings of Modern Civilization. Vanderbilt University. Archived from the original on 26 December 2022. Retrieved 21 April 2020.
  219. Peter B. Golden: An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples; In: Osman Karatay, Ankara 2002, p. 321
  220. Gilbert, Marc Jason (2017), South Asia in World History, Oxford University Press, p. 75, ISBN 978-0-19-066137-3, archived from the original on 22 September 2023, retrieved 15 January 2023
  221. Ga ́bor A ́goston, Bruce Alan Masters Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire Infobase Publishing 2010 ISBN 978-1-4381-1025-7 p. 540
  222. Algar, Ayla Esen (1 January 1992). The Dervish Lodge: Architecture, Art, and Sufism in Ottoman Turkey. University of California Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-520-07060-8. Archived from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 29 April 2020 – via Google Books.
  223. "CONVERSION To Imami Shiʿism in India". Iranica Online. Archived from the original on 7 October 2022. Retrieved 6 October 2022.
  224. Tucker, Ernest (1994). "Nadir Shah and the Ja 'fari Madhhab Reconsidered". Iranian Studies. 27 (1–4): 163–179. doi:10.1080/00210869408701825. JSTOR 4310891.
  225. Tucker, Ernest (29 March 2006). "Nāder Shāh". Encyclopædia Iranica. Archived from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 9 March 2021.
  226. ^ Mary Hawkesworth, Maurice Kogan Encyclopedia of Government and Politics: 2-volume set Routledge 2013 ISBN 978-1-136-91332-7 pp. 270–271
  227. Esposito (2010), p. 150.
  228. Richard Gauvain Salafi Ritual Purity: In the Presence of God Routledge 2013 ISBN 978-0-7103-1356-0 p. 6
  229. Spevack, Aaron (2014). The Archetypal Sunni Scholar: Law, Theology, and Mysticism in the Synthesis of al-Bajuri. SUNY Press. pp. 129–130. ISBN 978-1-4384-5371-2. Archived from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 10 December 2018.
  230. Donald Quataert The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922 Cambridge University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-521-83910-5 p. 50
  231. ^ Ga ́bor A ́goston, Bruce Alan Masters Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire Infobase Publishing 2010 ISBN 978-1-4381-1025-7 p. 260
  232. ^ Musa, Shahajada Md (23 August 2022). The Emergence of a Scholar from a Garrison Society: A contextual analysis of Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhāb's doctrine in the light of the Qur'ān and Hadīth (masters thesis). University of Wales Trinity Saint David. Archived from the original on 2 May 2023. Retrieved 19 December 2023.
  233. "Graves desecrated in Mizdah". Libya Herald. 4 September 2013. Archived from the original on 3 November 2013. Retrieved 2 November 2013.
  234. Esposito (2010), p. 146.
  235. Nicolas Laos The Metaphysics of World Order: A Synthesis of Philosophy, Theology, and Politics Wipf and Stock Publishers 2015 ISBN 978-1-4982-0102-5 p. 177
  236. Rubin, Barry M. (2000). Guide to Islamist Movements. M.E. Sharpe. p. 79. ISBN 0-7656-1747-1. Archived from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  237. Esposito (2010), p. 147.
  238. Esposito (2010), p. 149.
  239. Robert L. Canfield (2002). Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective. Cambridge University Press. pp. 131–. ISBN 978-0-521-52291-5. Archived from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2018.
  240. Sanyal, Usha (23 July 1998). "Generational Changes in the Leadership of the Ahl-e Sunnat Movement in North India during the twentieth Century". Modern Asian Studies. 32 (3): 635–656. doi:10.1017/S0026749X98003059 (inactive 1 November 2024). Archived from the original on 17 March 2020. Retrieved 23 February 2020 – via Cambridge Core.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
  241. Lapidus (2002), pp. 358, 378–380, 624.
  242. Buzpinar, Ş. Tufan (March 2007). "Celal Nuri's Concepts of Westernization and Religion". Middle Eastern Studies. 43 (2): 247–258. doi:10.1080/00263200601114091. JSTOR 4284539. S2CID 144461915.
  243. Lauziere, Henri (2016). The Making of Salafism: Islamic Reform in the Twentieth Century. New York, Chichester, West Sussex: Columbia University Press. pp. 231–232. ISBN 978-0-231-17550-0. Beginning with Louis Massignon in 1919, it is true that Westerners played a leading role in labeling Islamic modernists as Salafis, even though the term was a misnomer. At the time, European and American scholars felt the need for a useful conceptual box to place Muslim figures such as Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, Muhammad Abduh, and their epigones, all of whom seemed inclined toward a scripturalist understanding of Islam but proved open to rationalism and Western modernity. They chose to adopt salafiyya—a technical term of theology, which they mistook for a reformist slogan and wrongly associated with all kinds of modernist Muslim intellectuals.
  244. "Political Islam: A movement in motion". Economist Magazine. 3 January 2014. Archived from the original on 4 January 2014. Retrieved 1 January 2014.
  245. Smith, Wilfred Cantwell (1957). Islam in Modern History. Princeton University Press. p. 233. ISBN 0-691-03030-8.
  246. ^ Esposito, John L. (ed.). "Mecelle". The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Archived from the original on 17 August 2023. Retrieved 17 August 2023 – via Oxford Islamic Studies Online.
  247. "New Turkey". Al-Ahram Weekly. No. 488. 29 June – 5 July 2000. Archived from the original on 4 October 2010. Retrieved 16 May 2010.
  248. الوطن, جريدة; webmaster (5 May 2020). "«مملكة الحجاز».. وقــصـــة الـغــزو المـســلّـــح". جريدة الوطن (in Arabic). Archived from the original on 16 May 2023. Retrieved 19 December 2023.
  249. Bani Issa, Mohammad Saleh (1 November 2023). "Factors of stability and sustainable development in Jordan in its first centenary 1921–2021 (an analytical descriptive study)". Heliyon. 9 (11): e20993. Bibcode:2023Heliy...920993B. doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e20993. ISSN 2405-8440. PMC 10623165. PMID 37928029.
  250. ^ والخلفاء, قصص الخلافة الإسلامية (31 March 2023). قصص الخلافة الإسلامية والخلفاء. Austin Macauley Publishers. ISBN 978-1-3984-9251-6. Archived from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 26 December 2023.
  251. Doran, Michael (1999). Pan-Arabism before Nasser: Egyptian power politics and the Palestine question. Studies in Middle Eastern history. New York Oxford: Oxford university press. ISBN 978-0-19-512361-6.
  252. Landau, Yaʿaqov M. (1994). The politics of Pan-Islam: ideology and organization ( paperback (with additions and corr.) ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-827709-5.
  253. "Organization of the Islamic Conference". BBC News. 26 December 2010. Archived from the original on 28 June 2018. Retrieved 24 September 2013.
  254. Haddad & Smith (2002), p. 271.
  255. Zabel, Darcy (2006). Arabs in the Americas: Interdisciplinary Essays on the Arab Diaspora. Austria: Peter Lang. p. 5. ISBN 9780820481111.
  256. ^ The Future of the Global Muslim Population (Report). Pew Research Center. 27 January 2011. Archived from the original on 9 February 2011. Retrieved 27 December 2017.
  257. Bulliet (2005), p. 722
  258. "Are secular forces being squeezed out of Arab Spring?". BBC News. 9 August 2011. Archived from the original on 4 November 2022. Retrieved 10 August 2011.
  259. Slackman, Michael (23 December 2008). "Jordanian students rebel, embracing conservative Islam". New York Times. Archived from the original on 4 November 2022. Retrieved 15 August 2011.
  260. Kirkpatrick, David D. (3 December 2011). "Egypt's vote puts emphasis on split over religious rule". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 4 November 2022. Retrieved 8 December 2011.
  261. Lauziere, Henri (2016). The Making of Salafism: Islamic Reform in the Twentieth Century. New York, Chichester, West Sussex: Columbia University Press. p. 237. ISBN 978-0-231-17550-0. Prior to the fall of the Ottoman Empire, leading reformers who happened to be Salafi in creed were surprisingly open-minded: although they adhered to neo-Hanbali theology. However, the aftermath of the First World War and the expansion of European colonialism paved the way for a series of shifts in thought and attitude. The experiences of Rida offer many examples... he turned against the Shi'is who dared, with reason, to express doubts about the Saudi-Wahhabi project... . Shi'is were not the only victims: Rida and his associates showed their readiness to turn against fellow Salafis who questioned some of the Wahhabis' religious interpretations.
  262. G. Rabil, Robert (2014). Salafism in Lebanon: From Apoliticism to Transnational Jihadism. Washington DC, US: Georgetown University Press. pp. 32–33. ISBN 978-1-62616-116-0. Western colonialists established in these countries political orders... that, even though not professing enmity to Islam and its institutions, left no role for Islam in society. This caused a crisis among Muslim reformists, who felt betrayed not only by the West but also by those nationalists, many of whom were brought to power by the West... Nothing reflects this crisis more than the ideological transformation of Rashid Rida (1865–1935)... He also revived the works of Ibn Taymiyah by publishing his writings and promoting his ideas. Subsequently, taking note of the cataclysmic events brought about by Western policies in the Muslim world and shocked by the abolition of the caliphate, he transformed into a Muslim intellectual mostly concerned about protecting Muslim culture, identity, and politics from Western influence. He supported a theory that essentially emphasized the necessity of an Islamic state in which the scholars of Islam would have a leading role... Rida was a forerunner of Islamist thought. He apparently intended to provide a theoretical platform for a modern Islamic state. His ideas were later incorporated into the works of Islamic scholars. Significantly, his ideas influenced none other than Hassan al-Bannah, founder of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt... The Muslim Brethren have taken up Rida's Islamic fundamentalism, a right-wing radical movement founded in 1928,..
  263. "Isis to mint own Islamic dinar coins in gold, silver and copper". The Guardian. 21 November 2014. Archived from the original on 4 November 2022. Retrieved 31 July 2022.
  264. "Huge rally for Turkish secularism". BBC News. 29 April 2011. Archived from the original on 29 May 2012. Retrieved 6 December 2011.
  265. Saleh, Heba (15 October 2011). "Tunisia moves against headscarves". BBC News. Archived from the original on 29 May 2012. Retrieved 6 December 2011.
  266. "Laying down the law: Islam's authority deficit". The Economist. 28 June 2007. Archived from the original on 6 March 2016. Retrieved 15 August 2011.
  267. Bowering, Gerhard; Mirza, Mahan; Crone, Patricia (2013). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton University Press. p. 59. ISBN 9780691134840.
  268. "Ultraconservative Islam on rise in Mideast". MSNBC. 18 October 2008. Archived from the original on 4 November 2013. Retrieved 24 September 2013.
  269. Almukhtar, Sarah; Peçanha, Sergio; Wallace, Tim (5 January 2016). "Behind Stark Political Divisions, a More Complex Map of Sunnis and Shiites". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 4 November 2022. Retrieved 6 January 2016.
  270. Thames, Knox (6 January 2021). "Why the Persecution of Muslims Should Be on Biden's Agenda". Foreign Policy Magazine. Archived from the original on 11 February 2022. Retrieved 5 February 2022.
  271. Perrin, Andrew (10 October 2003). "Weakness in numbers". Time. Archived from the original on 24 September 2013. Retrieved 24 September 2013.
  272. Beydoun, Khaled A. "For China, Islam is a 'mental illness' that needs to be 'cured'". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 10 December 2018. Retrieved 5 February 2022.
  273. Mojzes, Paul (2011). Balkan Genocides: Holocaust and Ethnic Cleansing in the Twentieth Century. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 178. ISBN 978-1-4422-0663-2.
  274. Oliver Holmes (19 December 2016). "Myanmar's Rohingya campaign 'may be crime against humanity'". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 6 January 2017. Retrieved 5 January 2017.
  275. "Rohingya abuse may be crimes against humanity: Amnesty". Al Jazeera. 19 December 2016. Archived from the original on 22 September 2023. Retrieved 21 February 2023.
  276. "Report of Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Myanmar". ohchr.org. 27 August 2018. Archived from the original on 19 October 2018. Retrieved 14 August 2019.
  277. Slackman, Michael (28 January 2007). "In Egypt, a new battle begins over the veil". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 3 May 2019. Retrieved 15 August 2011.
  278. Nigosian (2004), p. 41.
  279. "Islamic televangelist; holy smoke". The Economist. Archived from the original on 4 September 2013. Retrieved 5 February 2022.
  280. Esposito (2010), p. 263.
  281. V. Šisler: The Internet and the Construction of Islamic Knowledge in Europe p. 212
  282. Esposito (2004), pp. 118–119, 179.
  283. Rippin (2001), p. 288.
  284. Adams, Charles J. (1983). "Maududi and the Islamic State". In Esposito, John L. (ed.). Voices of Resurgent Islam. Oxford University Press. pp. 113–4. when religion is relegated to the personal realm, men inevitably give way to their bestial impulses and perpetrate evil upon one another. In fact it is precisely because they wish to escape the restraints of morality and the divine guidance that men espouse secularism.
  285. Meisami, Sayeh (2013). "'Abdolkarim Soroush". Oxford Bibliographies. Archived from the original on 5 November 2013. Retrieved 12 October 2021.
  286. Abdullah Saeed (2017). "Secularism, State Neutrality, and Islam". In Phil Zuckerman; John R. Shook (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Secularism. p. 188. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199988457.013.12. ISBN 978-0-19-998845-7. Archived from the original on 3 September 2021. Retrieved 7 August 2023.(subscription required)
  287. Nader Hashemi (2009). "Secularism". In John L. Esposito (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530513-5. Archived from the original on 6 December 2022. Retrieved 7 August 2023.(subscription required)
  288. "Muslim Population by Country 2023". worldpopulationreview.com. Archived from the original on 31 October 2022. Retrieved 14 August 2021.
  289. "The Future of the Global Muslim Population". 27 January 2011. Archived from the original on 30 September 2023. Retrieved 26 October 2022.
  290. "Muslims and Islam: Key findings in the U.S. and around the world". 9 August 2017. Archived from the original on 8 November 2022. Retrieved 19 December 2022.
  291. Lipka, Michael, and Conrad Hackett. 6 April 2017. "Why Muslims are the world's fastest-growing religious group Archived 14 May 2019 at the Wayback Machine" (data analysis). Fact Tank. Pew Research Center.
  292. David B. Barrett, George T. Kurian, and Todd M. Johnson, World Christian Encyclopedia: A comparative survey of churches and religions in the modern world, Vol. 1: The world by countries: religionists, churches, ministries 2d ed. (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2001), 4.
  293. ^ Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life. April 2015. "The Future of World Religions: Population Growth Projections, 2010–2050 Archived 11 December 2020 at the Wayback Machine." Pew Research Center. p. 70 Article Archived 7 December 2020 at the Wayback Machine.
  294. ^ Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life (2009), p. 1. "Of the total Muslim population, 10–13% are Shia Muslims and 87–90% are Sunni Muslims."
  295. Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life (2009), p. 11.
  296. Ba-Yunus, Ilyas; Kone, Kassim (2006). Muslims in the United States. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 172. ISBN 978-0-313-32825-1.
  297. "Muslim Majority Countries 2021". worldpopulationreview.com. Archived from the original on 1 January 2022. Retrieved 25 July 2021.
  298. The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life. December 2012. "The Global Religious Landscape: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Major Religious Groups as of 2010 Archived 23 March 2018 at the Wayback Machine." DC: Pew Research Center. Article Archived 26 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine.
  299. "Islam in Russia". Al Jazeera. Anadolu News Agency. 7 March 2018. Archived from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 15 June 2021.
  300. "Book review: Russia's Muslim Heartlands reveals diverse population", The National, 21 April 2018, archived from the original on 14 January 2019, retrieved 13 January 2019
  301. Pew Forum for Religion and Public Life. April 2015. "10 Countries With the Largest Muslim Populations, 2010 and 2050 Archived 7 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine" (projections table). Pew Research Center.
  302. "Secrets of Islam". U.S. News & World Report. Archived from the original on 22 January 2011. Retrieved 24 September 2013. Information provided by the International Population Center, Department of Geography, San Diego State University (2005).
  303. Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life (2009), pp. 15, 17.
  304. Pechilis, Karen; Raj, Selva J. (2013). South Asian Religions: Tradition and Today. Routledge. p. 193. ISBN 978-0-415-44851-2. Archived from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 3 May 2019.
  305. Margaret Kleffner Nydell Understanding Arabs: A Guide For Modern Times Archived 28 December 2023 at the Wayback Machine, Intercultural Press, 2005, ISBN 1931930252, page xxiii, 14
  306. Richard Eaton (8 September 2009). "Forest Clearing and the Growth of Islam in Bengal". In Barbara D. Metcalf (ed.). Islam in South Asia in Practice. Princeton University Press. p. 275. ISBN 978-1-4008-3138-8.
  307. Meghna Guhathakurta; Willem van Schendel (30 April 2013). The Bangladesh Reader: History, Culture, Politics. Duke University Press. p. 50. ISBN 978-0822353188. Archived from the original on 7 July 2023. Retrieved 7 November 2016.
  308. Gandhi, Rajmohan (2013). Punjab: A History from Aurangzeb to Mountbatten. New Delhi, India, Urbana, Illinois: Aleph Book Company. p. 1. ISBN 978-93-83064-41-0..
  309. "Explore All Countries – China". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 13 February 2021. Retrieved 15 September 2009.
  310. "China (includes Hong Kong, Macau, and Tibet)". Archived Content. U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on 10 July 2019. Retrieved 24 September 2013.
  311. "Muslims in Europe: Country guide". BBC News. 23 December 2005. Archived from the original on 29 September 2009. Retrieved 1 April 2010.
  312. Hackett, Conrad (29 November 2017), "5 facts about the Muslim population in Europe", Pew Research Center, archived from the original on 5 January 2019, retrieved 17 January 2023
  313. "Conversion". The Future of the Global Muslim Population (Report). Pew Research Center. 27 January 2011. Archived from the original on 24 December 2018. Retrieved 12 May 2020. there is no substantial net gain or loss in the number of Muslims through conversion globally; the number of people who become Muslims through conversion seems to be roughly equal to the number of Muslims who leave the faith
  314. "Cumulative Change Due to Religious Switching, 2010–2050, p.43" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 April 2015. Retrieved 4 May 2016.
  315. "The Changing Global Religious Landscape". Pew Research Center. 5 April 2017. Archived from the original on 18 February 2022. Retrieved 17 December 2022.
  316. "Fast-growing Islam winning converts in Western world". CNN. Archived from the original on 15 October 2018. Retrieved 6 May 2016.
  317. "British Muslims Monthly Survey for June 2000, Vol. VIII, No. 6". Women convert. Archived from the original on 14 February 2008. Retrieved 28 September 2020.
  318. "Conversion To Islam One Result Of Post-9/11 Curiosity". HuffPost. 24 August 2011. Archived from the original on 11 January 2021. Retrieved 26 November 2020.
  319. Bindel, Julie (26 April 2010). "Why do Western Women Convert?". Standpoint. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 8 May 2016.
  320. Lipka, Michael; Hackett, Conrad (6 April 2017). "Why Muslims are the world's fastest-growing religious group". Pew Research Center. Archived from the original on 14 May 2019. Retrieved 21 November 2022.
  321. "Sunni". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 30 April 2015. Retrieved 17 September 2021.
  322. Esposito, John L., ed. (2014). "Sunni Islam". The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 5 October 2018. Retrieved 10 January 2010.
  323. Denny, Frederick. 2010. Sunni Islam: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 3. "Sunni Islam is the dominant division of the global Muslim community, and throughout history it has made up a substantial majority (85 to 90%) of that community."
  324. Yavuz, Yusuf Şevki (1994). "Ahl as-Sunnah". Islam Ansiklopedisi (in Turkish). Vol. 10. Istanbul: Turkish Diyanet Foundation. pp. 525–530. Archived from the original on 28 December 2021. Retrieved 28 December 2021.
  325. John Richard Thackrah (2013). Dictionary of Terrorism (2, revised ed.). Routledge. p. 252. ISBN 978-1135165956.
  326. Nasir, Jamal J., ed. (2009). The Status of Women Under Islamic Law and Modern Islamic Legislation (revised ed.). Brill. p. 11. ISBN 978-9004172739.
  327. George W. Braswell (2000). What You Need to Know about Islam & Muslims (illustrated ed.). B&H Publishing Group. p. 62. ISBN 978-0805418293.
  328. An Introduction to the Hadith. John Burton. Published by Edinburgh University Press. 1996. p. 201. Cite: "Sunni: Of or pertaining sunna, especially the Sunna of the Prophet. Used in conscious opposition to Shi'a, Shi'í. There being no ecclesia or centralized magisterium, the translation 'orthodox' is inappropriate. To the Muslim 'unorthodox' implies heretical, mubtadi, from bid'a, the contrary of sunna and so 'innovation'."
  329. ^ "sharia". Lexico. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 22 January 2020.
  330. Esposito (2003), pp. 275, 306
  331. Hadi Enayat Islam and Secularism in Post-Colonial Thought: A Cartography of Asadian Genealogies Springer Publishing, 30 June 2017 ISBN 978-3-319-52611-9 p.48
  332. Rico Isaacs, Alessandro Frigerio Theorizing Central Asian Politics: The State, Ideology and Power Springer Publishing 2018 ISBN 978-3-319-97355-5 p. 108
  333. Esposito (1999), p. 280.
  334. Richard Gauvain Salafi Ritual Purity: In the Presence of God Routledge 2013 ISBN 978-0-7103-1356-0 page 8
  335. ^ Svante E. Cornell Azerbaijan Since Independence M.E. Sharpe ISBN 9780765630049 p. 283
  336. Robert W. Hefner Shariʻa Politics: Islamic Law and Society in the Modern World Indiana University Press 2011 ISBN 978-0-253-22310-4 p. 170
  337. "Field Listing :: Religions". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 6 July 2010. Retrieved 25 October 2010. Sunni Islam accounts for over 75% of the world's Muslim population." ... "Shia Islam represents 10–15% of Muslims worldwide.
  338. "Sunni". Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs. Archived from the original on 14 June 2020. Retrieved 24 May 2020. Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam, comprising about 85% of the world's over 1.5 billion Muslims.
  339. Newman, Andrew J. Shiʿi. Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 20 July 2019. Retrieved 28 December 2021.
  340. Tayeb El-Hibri, Maysam J. al Faruqi (2004). "Sunni Islam". In Philip Mattar (ed.). The Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and North Africa (2nd ed.). MacMillan Reference.
  341. John Corrigan, Frederick Denny, Martin S Jaffee, Carlos Eire (2011). Jews, Christians, Muslims: A Comparative Introduction to Monotheistic Religions. Cambridge University Press. 978-0205026340.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  342. Dakake, Maria Massi (2007). The Charismatic Community: Shi'ite Identity in Early Islam. State University of New York Press. ISBN 9780791470336.
  343. Veccia Vaglieri, L. (2012). "G̲h̲adīr K̲h̲umm". Encyclopaedia of Islam. Brill. ISBN 9789004161214. Archived from the original on 14 July 2023. Retrieved 14 July 2023.
  344. Campo (2009), pp. 257–258.
  345. Foody, Kathleen (September 2015). Jain, Andrea R. (ed.). "Interiorizing Islam: Religious Experience and State Oversight in the Islamic Republic of Iran". Journal of the American Academy of Religion. 83 (3). Oxford: Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Academy of Religion: 599–623. doi:10.1093/jaarel/lfv029. eISSN 1477-4585. ISSN 0002-7189. JSTOR 24488178. LCCN sc76000837. OCLC 1479270. For Shiʿi Muslims, Muhammad not only designated Ali as his friend, but appointed him as his successor—as the "lord" or "master" of the new Muslim community. Ali and his descendants would become known as the Imams, divinely guided leaders of the Shiʿi communities, sinless, and granted special insight into the Qurʾanic text. The theology of the Imams that developed over the next several centuries made little distinction between the authority of the Imams to politically lead the Muslim community and their spiritual prowess; quite to the contrary, their right to political leadership was grounded in their special spiritual insight. While in theory, the only just ruler of the Muslim community was the Imam, the Imams were politically marginal after the first generation. In practice, Shiʿi Muslims negotiated varied approaches to both interpretative authority over Islamic texts and governance of the community, both during the lifetimes of the Imams themselves and even more so following the disappearance of the twelfth and final Imam in the ninth century.
  346. Foody, Kathleen (September 2015). Jain, Andrea R. (ed.). "Interiorizing Islam: Religious Experience and State Oversight in the Islamic Republic of Iran". Journal of the American Academy of Religion. 83 (3). Oxford: Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Academy of Religion: 599–623. doi:10.1093/jaarel/lfv029. eISSN 1477-4585. ISSN 0002-7189. JSTOR 24488178. LCCN sc76000837. OCLC 1479270. For Shiʿi Muslims, Muhammad not only designated Ali as his friend, but appointed him as his successor—as the "lord" or "master" of the new Muslim community. Ali and his descendants would become known as the Imams, divinely guided leaders of the Shiʿi communities, sinless, and granted special insight into the Qurʾanic text. The theology of the Imams that developed over the next several centuries made little distinction between the authority of the Imams to politically lead the Muslim community and their spiritual prowess; quite to the contrary, their right to political leadership was grounded in their special spiritual insight. While in theory, the only just ruler of the Muslim community was the Imam, the Imams were politically marginal after the first generation. In practice, Shiʿi Muslims negotiated varied approaches to both interpretative authority over Islamic texts and governance of the community, both during the lifetimes of the Imams themselves and even more so following the disappearance of the twelfth and final Imam in the ninth century.
  347. Daftary, Farhad (2013). "A History Of Shi'i Islam". Internet Archive. Retrieved 22 July 2024.
  348. Lalani, Arzina R. (2000). Early Shi'i Thought: The Teachings of Imam Muhammad al-Baqir. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 1850435928.
  349. Amir-Moezzi, Mohammad Ali (2014). "Ghadīr Khumm". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Stewart, Devin J. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (Third ed.). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_27419. ISBN 9789004269613.
  350. Mavani, Hamid (2013). Religious Authority and Political Thought in Twelver Shi'ism: From Ali to Post-Khomeini. Routledge. ISBN 9780415624404.
  351. Armajani, Jon (2020). Shia Islam and Politics: Iran, Iraq, and Lebanon. Lanham (Md.): Lexington Books. p. 11. ISBN 978-1-7936-2136-8.
  352. Kohlberg, Etan (1976). "From Imāmiyya to Ithnā-'ashariyya". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 39 (3): 521–534. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00050989. S2CID 155070530. Archived from the original on 14 July 2023. Retrieved 14 July 2023.
  353. Tucker, Spencer C.; Priscilla Mary Roberts, eds. (2008). The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social and Military History. ABC-CLIO. p. 917. ISBN 978-1-85109-842-2. Archived from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
  354. Wehrey, Frederic M. (2010). The Iraq Effect: The Middle East After the Iraq War. Rand Corporation. p. 91. ISBN 978-0-8330-4788-5. Archived from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
  355. Peterson, Daniel (2011). "Zaydiyya". Islamic Studies. doi:10.1093/obo/9780195390155-0153.
  356. Newman, Andrew J. (2013). "Introduction". Twelver Shiism: Unity and Diversity in the Life of Islam, 632 to 1722. Edinburgh University Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-7486-7833-4. Archived from the original on 1 May 2016. Retrieved 13 October 2015.
  357. Escobar, Pepe (24 May 2002). "Knocking on heaven's door". Central Asia/Russia. Asia Times Online. Archived from the original on 3 June 2002. Retrieved 12 November 2006. our sixth imam, Imam Sadeg, says that we have five definitive holy places... first is Mecca... second is Medina... third belongs to our first imam of Shia, Ali, which is in Najaf. The fourth belongs to our third imam, Hussein, in Kerbala. The last one belongs to the daughter of our seventh imam and sister of our eighth imam, who is called Fatemah, and will be buried in Qom.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  358. Robert Brenton Betts (31 July 2013). The Sunni-Shi'a Divide: Islam's Internal Divisions and Their Global Consequences. Potomac Books. pp. 14–15. ISBN 978-1-61234-522-2. Archived from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 7 January 2015.
  359. Hoffman, Valerie Jon (2012). The Essentials of Ibadi Islam. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press. pp. 3–4. ISBN 9780815650843.
  360. ^ Upal, M. Afzal (2021). "The Cultural Genetics of the Aḥmadiyya Muslim Jamāʿat". In Cusack, Carole M.; Upal, M. Afzal (eds.). Handbook of Islamic Sects and Movements. Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion. Vol. 21. Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers. pp. 637–657. doi:10.1163/9789004435544_034. ISBN 978-90-04-43554-4. ISSN 1874-6691.
  361. ^ Turner, Richard Brent (2003). "The Ahmadiyya Mission to America: A Multi-Racial Model for American Islam". Islam in the African-American Experience (2nd ed.). Bloomington, Indiana and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press. pp. 109–146. ISBN 9780253216304. LCCN 2003009791.
  362. ^ Drover, Lauren (2020). "The Ahmadiyya Muslim Jamaat: A New Religious Movement Derived from Islam?". In Kim, David W. (ed.). New Religious Movements in Modern Asian History: Socio-Cultural Alternatives. Ethnographies of Religion. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 21–36. ISBN 978-1-7936-3403-0. OCLC 1220880253.
  363. Korbel, Jonathan; Preckel, Claudia (2016). "Ghulām Aḥmad al-Qādiyānī: The Messiah of the Christians—Peace upon Him—in India (India, 1908)". In Bentlage, Björn; Eggert, Marion; Krämer, Hans-Martin; Reichmuth, Stefan (eds.). Religious Dynamics under the Impact of Imperialism and Colonialism. Numen Book Series. Vol. 154. Leiden: Brill Publishers. pp. 426–442. doi:10.1163/9789004329003_034. ISBN 978-90-04-32511-1.
  364. Balzani, Marzia. Ahmadiyya Islam and the Muslim Diaspora: Living at the End of Days. Abingdon, Oxon. pp. 6–8. ISBN 978-1-315-19728-9. OCLC 1137739779.
  365. "What are the Signs of the Second Coming of the Messiah?". Review of Religions. 23 March 2016. Retrieved 23 June 2020.
  366. Paracha, Nadeem F. (21 November 2013). "The 1974 ouster of the 'heretics': What really happened?". DAWN.COM. Archived from the original on 13 June 2015. Retrieved 19 March 2024.
  367. Uddin, Asma T. (2014). "A Legal Analysis of Ahmadi Persecution in Pakistan". In Kirkham, David M. (ed.). State Responses to Minority Religions. Ashgate Inform Series on Minority Religions and Spiritual Movements. Farnham, U.K. and Burlington, Vermont: Ashgate Publishing/Routledge. pp. 81–98. ISBN 978-1-4724-1647-6. LCCN 2013019344 – via Google Books.
  368. "Constitution (Second Amendment) Act, 1974". pakistani.org. Archived from the original on 17 July 2017. Retrieved 19 March 2024.
  369. Algar, Hamid (15 December 1989). "Bektāšīya". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Archived from the original on 10 September 2015. Retrieved 13 February 2019.
  370. Jorgen S Nielsen Muslim Political Participation in Europe Edinburgh University Press 2013 ISBN 978-0-748-67753-5 page 255
  371. John Shindeldecker: Turkish Alevis Today: II Alevi Population Size and Distribution Archived 30 November 2016 at the Wayback Machine, PDF-Datei, See also Encyclopaedia of the Orient: Alevi Archived 13 June 2021 at the Wayback Machine, consulted on 30 May 2017.
  372. Musa, Aisha Y. (2010). "The Qur'anists". Religion Compass. 4 (1). John Wiley & Sons: 12–21. doi:10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00189.x.
  373. Musa, Aisha Y. (2010). "The Qur'anists". Religion Compass. 4 (1): 12–21. doi:10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00189.x. ISSN 1749-8171. Archived from the original on 28 January 2022. Retrieved 8 June 2021.
  374. Brown, Daniel W. (4 March 1999). Rethinking Tradition in Modern Islamic Thought. Cambridge University Press. pp. 7–45, 68. ISBN 978-0-521-65394-7.
  375. Juynboll, G. H. A. (1969). The Authenticity of the Tradition Literature: Discussions in Modern Egypt,... G.H.A. Juynboll,... Brill Archive. pp. 23–25.
  376. "Why the name change?" (PDF). Submission Perspective. 57: 1. September 1989. Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 July 2021. Retrieved 29 August 2022.
  377. Benakis, Theodoros (13 January 2014). "Islamophoobia in Europe!". New Europe. Brussels. Archived from the original on 31 January 2016. Retrieved 20 October 2015. Anyone who has travelled to Central Asia knows of the non-denominational Muslims—those who are neither Shiites nor Sounites, but who accept Islam as a religion generally.
  378. Pollack, Kenneth (2014). Unthinkable: Iran, the Bomb, and American Strategy. Simon and Schuster. p. 29. ISBN 978-1-4767-3393-7. Although many Iranian hardliners are Shi'a chauvinists, Khomeini's ideology saw the revolution as pan-Islamist, and therefore embracing Sunni, Shi'a, Sufi, and other, more nondenominational Muslims
  379. Burns, Robert (2011). Christianity, Islam, and the West. University Press of America. p. 55. ISBN 978-0-7618-5560-6. 40 per cent called themselves "just a Muslim" according to the Council of American-Islamic relations
  380. Tatari, Eren (2014). Muslims in British Local Government: Representing Minority Interests in Hackney, Newham and Tower Hamlets. BRILL. p. 111. ISBN 978-90-04-27226-2. Nineteen said that they are Sunni Muslims, six said they are just Muslim without specifying a sect, two said they are Ahmadi, and two said their families are Alevi
  381. Lopez, Ralph (2008). Truth in the Age of Bushism. Lulu.com. p. 65. ISBN 978-1-4348-9615-5. Many Iraqis take offense at reporters' efforts to identify them as Sunni or Shiite. A 2004 Iraq Centre for Research and Strategic Studies poll found the largest category of Iraqis classified themselves as "just Muslim."
  382. ^ "Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation". The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity. Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 9 August 2012. Retrieved 4 September 2013.
  383. Esposito (2003), p. 302
  384. Malik & Hinnells (2006), p. 3
  385. Turner (1998), p. 145
  386. Trimingham (1998), p. 1
  387. Ibn-ʿAǧība, Aḥmad Ibn-Muḥammad; Aresmouk, Mohamed Fouad; Fitzgerald, Michael Abdurrahman; Ibn-ʿAǧība, Aḥmad Ibn-Muḥammad (2011). The Book of ascension to the essential truths of Sufism: a lexicon of Sufic terminology = Miʿrāj al-tashawwuf ilā ḥaqāʾiq al-taṣawwuf. Louisville, KY: Fons Vitae. ISBN 978-1891785849.
  388. Andani, Khalil. "A Survey of Ismaili Studies Part 1: Early Ismailism and Fatimid Ismailism." Religion Compass 10.8 (2016): 191–206.
  389. Aminrazavi, Mehdi. 2016. "Mysticism in Arabic and Islamic Philosophy." The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by E. N. Zalta. Retrieved 25 May 2020.
  390. Knysh, Alexander. 2015. Islam in Historical Perspective. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-34712-5. p. 214.
  391. Haviland, Charles (30 September 2007). "The roar of Rumi – 800 years on". BBC News. Retrieved 10 August 2011.
  392. "Islam: Jalaluddin Rumi". BBC. 1 September 2009. Retrieved 10 August 2011.
  393. ^ Chittick (2008), pp. 3–4, 11.
  394. Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (1993). An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. SUNY Press. p. 192. ISBN 978-0-7914-1515-3. Retrieved 17 January 2015.
  395. Peacock (2019), p. 24,77.
  396. Cook, David (May 2015). "Mysticism in Sufi Islam". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.51. ISBN 9780199340378. Archived from the original on 28 November 2018. Retrieved 15 January 2023.
  397. "tariqa | Islam". Britannica.com. 4 February 2014. Retrieved 29 May 2015.
  398. Bowker, John (2000). The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. doi:10.1093/acref/9780192800947.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-280094-7.
  399. Sanyal, Usha (1998). "Generational Changes in the Leadership of the Ahl-e Sunnat Movement in North India during the Twentieth Century". Modern Asian Studies. 32 (3): 635–656. doi:10.1017/S0026749X98003059 (inactive 1 November 2024).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
  400. Esposito (2003), "Ahl al-Sunnah wa'l-Jamaah" – via Oxford Reference.
  401. Alvi, Farhat. "The Significant Role of Sufism in Central Asia" (PDF).
  402. Johns, Anthony H (1995). "Sufism in Southeast Asia: Reflections and Reconsiderations". Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. 26 (1): 169–183. doi:10.1017/S0022463400010560. JSTOR 20071709. S2CID 154870820.
  403. Babou, Cheikh Anta (2007). "Sufism and Religious Brotherhoods in Senegal". International Journal of African Historical Studies. 40 (1): 184–186.
  404. Esposito (2002b), pp. 17, 111–112, 118.
  405. Esposito (2010), p. 96
  406. ^ Vikør, Knut S. 2014. "Sharīʿah." In The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics, edited by E. Shahin. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 4 June 2014. Retrieved 25 May 2020.
  407. A.C. Brown, Jonathan (2009). Hadith: Muhammad's Legacy in the Medieval and Modern World (Foundations of Islam). Oneworld Publications. p. 277. ISBN 978-1851686636.
  408. Bharathi, K. S. 1998. Encyclopedia of Eminent Thinkers. p. 38.
  409. Weiss (2002), pp. 3, 161.
  410. ^ Esposito, John L. (ed.). "Islamic Law". The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Archived from the original on 3 February 2017 – via Oxford Islamic Studies Online.
  411. Esposito, John L.; DeLong-Bas, Natana J. (2001). Women in Muslim Family Law. Syracuse University Press. pp. 2–. ISBN 978-0-8156-2908-5. Quote: ", by the ninth century, the classical theory of law fixed the sources of Islamic law at four: the Quran, the Sunnah of the Prophet, qiyas (analogical reasoning), and ijma (consensus)."
  412. "illah". Oxford: Oxford University Press. Retrieved 1 October 2024.
  413. Fairak, A. (2014). Analogy (Islamic) (2014 ed.). Boston: Springer. p. 56. ISBN 978-1-4614-6085-5.
  414. Fairak, A. (2014). "Analogy (Islamic)". Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion. 74 (4): 531–55. doi:10.1086/353360. ISSN 0021-1753. S2CID 144315162.
  415. ^ Mayer, Ann Elizabeth. 2009. "Law. Modern Legal Reform." In The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World, edited by J. L. Esposito. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  416. An-Na'im, Abdullahi A. (1996). "Islamic Foundations of Religious Human Rights". In Witte, John; van der Vyver, Johan D. (eds.). Religious Human Rights in Global Perspective: Religious Perspectives. BRILL. pp. 337–359. ISBN 978-90-411-0179-2.
  417. Hajjar, Lisa (2004). "Religion, State Power, and Domestic Violence in Muslim Societies: A Framework for Comparative Analysis". Law & Social Inquiry. 29 (1): 1–38. doi:10.1111/j.1747-4469.2004.tb00329.x. JSTOR 4092696. S2CID 145681085.
  418. "Imam". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 15 January 2023.
  419. Radtke, B.; Lory, P.; Zarcone, Th.; DeWeese, D.; Gaborieau, M.; Denny, F. M.; Aubin, F.; Hunwick, J. O.; Mchugh, N. (2012) . "Walī". In Bearman, P. J.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E. J.; Heinrichs, W. P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). Leiden: Brill Publishers. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_1335. ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4.
  420. Iqbal, Zamir, Abbas Mirakhor, Noureddine Krichenne, and Hossein Askari. The Stability of Islamic Finance: Creating a Resilient Financial Environment. p. 75.
  421. Schacht, Joseph. "Riba". In Encyclopaedia of Islam Online (n.d.).
  422. Foster, John (1 December 2009). "How Islamic finance missed heavenly chance". BBC. Retrieved 13 February 2022.
  423. Domat, Chloe (20 October 2020). "What Is Islamic Finance And How Does It Work?". Global Finance magazine. Retrieved 13 February 2022.
  424. Merchant, Brian (14 November 2013). "Guaranteeing a Minimum Income Has Been a Utopian Dream for Centuries". VICE. Retrieved 3 June 2019.
  425. Al-Buraey, Muhammad (1985). Administrative Development: An Islamic Perspective. KPI. pp. 252–. ISBN 978-0-7103-0059-1.
  426. Akgündüz, Ahmed; Öztürk, Said (2011). Ottoman History: Misperceptions and Truths. IUR Press. pp. 539–. ISBN 978-90-90-26108-9. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
  427. Al-Jawzi, Ibn (2001). The Biography and Virtues of Omar Bin Abd al-Aziz – The Ascetic Caliph. IUR Press. p. 130.
  428. ^ Firestone (1999), pp. 17–18.
  429. ^ Afsaruddin, Asma. "Jihad". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 17 September 2021.
  430. Brockopp (2003), pp. 99–100
  431. Esposito (2003), p. 93
  432. ^ Firestone (1999), p. 17.
  433. ^ Tyan, E. "D̲j̲ihād". In Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.) (2012).. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0189
  434. Habeck, Mary R. Knowing the Enemy: Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror. Yale University Press. pp. 108–109, 118.
  435. Sachedina (1998), pp. 105–106.
  436. Nasr (2003), p. 72.
  437. Fahd Salem Bahammam. Food and Dress in Islam: An explanation of matters relating to food and drink and dress in Islam. Modern Guide. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-909322-99-8.
  438. Curtis (2005), p. 164
  439. Esposito (2002b), p. 111
  440. Francesca, Ersilia. "Slaughter". In McAuliffe (n.d.).
  441. De Sondy, Amanullah (28 January 2016). "The relationship between Muslim men and their beards is a tangled one". The Guardian. Retrieved 7 March 2022.
  442. Legge, James (1880). The religions of China: Confucianism and Tâoism described and compared with Christianity. London: Hodder and Stoughton. p. 111. Retrieved 28 June 2010. mohammedan.(Original from Harvard University)
  443. "Are Muslims Allowed to Get Tattoos?". Retrieved 7 March 2022.
  444. Glassé, Cyril (2001). The New Encyclopedia of Islam. AltaMira Press. p. 158.
  445. Zine, Jasmin; Babana-Hampton, Safoi; Mazid, Nergis; Bullock, Katherine; Chishti, Maliha. American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 19:4. International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT). p. 59. Retrieved 4 June 2020.
  446. Esposito, John. "Oxford Islamic Studies Online". Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 14 November 2016. Retrieved 3 May 2013.
  447. Waines (2003), pp. 93–96
  448. Esposito (2003), p. 339
  449. Esposito (1998), p. 79
  450. Newby, Gordon D. (2002). A concise encyclopedia of Islam. Oxford: Oneworld. p. 141. ISBN 978-1-85168-295-9.
  451. Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2001). Islam : religion, history, and civilization. New York: HarperOne. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-06-050714-5.
  452. Ratno Lukito. Legal Pluralism in Indonesia: Bridging the Unbridgeable. Routledge. p. 81.
  453. "IslamWeb". IslamWeb. 7 February 2002. Retrieved 13 September 2011.
  454. Eaton, Gai (2000). Remembering God: Reflections on Islam. Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society. pp. 92–93. ISBN 978-0-946621-84-2.
  455. "Why Can't a Woman have 2 Husbands?". 14 Publications. Archived from the original on 23 December 2015. Retrieved 27 December 2015.
  456. Campo (2009), p. 106.
  457. ^ Nigosian (2004), p. 120.
  458. "Khitān". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 2014. Archived from the original on 27 January 2020. Retrieved 27 May 2020.
  459. Anwer, Abdul Wahid; Samad, Lubna; Baig-Ansari, Naila; Iftikhar, Sundus (January 2017). "Reported Male Circumcision Practices in a Muslim-Majority Setting". BioMed Research International. 2017. Hindawi Publishing Corporation: 1–8. doi:10.1155/2017/4957348. PMC 5282422. PMID 28194416.
  460. "Islam: Circumcision of boys". Religion & ethics—Islam. Bbc.co.uk. 13 August 2009. Archived from the original on 12 November 2012. Retrieved 27 May 2020.
  461. Campo (2009), p. 136.
  462. Mathijssen, Brenda; Venhorst, Claudia; Venbrux, Eric; Quartier, Thomas (2013). Changing European Death Ways. Austria: Lit. p. 265. ISBN 9783643900678.
  463. Stefon (2010), p. 83.
  464. Rahman, Rema (25 October 2011). "Who, What, Why: What are the burial customs in Islam?". BBC. Retrieved 28 January 2022.
  465. Melikian, Souren (4 November 2011). "'Islamic' Culture: A Groundless Myth". The New York Times. Retrieved 25 November 2013.
  466. Esposito (2010), p. 56.
  467. Lawrence, Bruce (2021). Islamicate Cosmopolitan Spirit. United Kingdom: Wiley. p. xii. ISBN 9781405155144.
  468. Ettinghausen, Richard; Grabar, Oleg; Jenkins-Madina, Marilyn (2003). Islamic Art and Architecture 650-1250 (2nd ed.). Yale University Press. p. 3. ISBN 0-300-08869-8.
  469. Suarez, Michael F. (2010). "38 The History of the Book in the Muslim World". The Oxford companion to the book. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 331ff. ISBN 9780198606536. OCLC 50238944.
  470. Salim Ayduz; Ibrahim Kalin; Caner Dagli (2014). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam. Oxford University Press. p. 263. ISBN 978-0-19-981257-8. Figural representation is virtually unused in Islamic art because of Islam's strong antagonism of idolatry. It was important for Muslim scholars and artists to find a style of art that represented the Islamic ideals of unity (tawhid) and order without figural representation. Geometric patterns perfectly suited this goal.
  471. T. W. Arnold (June 1919). "An Indian Picture of Muhammad and His Companions". The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs. 34 (195). The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs, Vol. 34, No. 195.: 249–252. JSTOR 860736.
  472. Isichei, Elizabeth Allo (1997). A history of African societies to 1870. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 175. ISBN 978-0-521-45599-2. Retrieved 6 August 2010.
  473. Tjahjono, Gunawan (1998). Indonesian Heritage-Architecture. Singapore: Archipelago Press. pp. 88–89. ISBN 981-3018-30-5.
  474. "Islamic calendar". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 8 August 2022.
  475. Esposito, John (2004). The Islamic World: Past and Present. Oxford University Press. pp. 75–76. ISBN 9780195165203.
  476. Aitchison, Cara; Hopkins, Peter E.; Mei-Po Kwan (2007). Geographies of Muslim Identities: Diaspora, Gender and Belonging. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 147. ISBN 978-1-4094-8747-0. Retrieved 30 June 2013.
  477. Rassool, G. Hussein (2015). Islamic Counselling: An Introduction to theory and practice. Routledge. p. 10. ISBN 9781317441250. The label 'Cultural Muslim' is used in the literature to describe those Muslims who are religiously unobservant, secular or irreligious individuals who still identify with the Muslim culture due to family background, personal experiences, or the social and cultural environment in which they grew up... For Cultural Muslim the declaration of faith is superficial and has no effect of their religious practices.
  478. De McLaurin, Ronald (1979). The Political Role of Minority Groups in the Middle East. Michigan University Press. p. 114. ISBN 978-0-03-052596-4. Theologically, one would have to conclude that the Druze are not Muslims. They do not accept the five pillars of Islam. In place of these principles, the Druze have instituted the seven precepts noted above...
  479. Hunter, Shireen (2010). The Politics of Islamic Revivalism: Diversity and Unity: Center for Strategic and International Studies (Washington, D.C.), Georgetown University. Center for Strategic and International Studies. University of Michigan Press. p. 33. ISBN 978-0-253-34549-3. Druze – An offshoot of Shi'ism; its members are not considered Muslims by orthodox Muslims.
  480. R. Williams, Victoria (2020). Indigenous Peoples: An Encyclopedia of Culture, History, and Threats to Survival . ABC-CLIO. p. 318. ISBN 978-1-4408-6118-5. As Druze is a nonritualistic religion without requirements to pray, fast, make pilgrimages, or observe days of rest, the Druze are not considered an Islamic people by Sunni Muslims.
  481. D. Grafton, David (2009). Piety, Politics, and Power: Lutherans Encountering Islam in the Middle East. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-63087-718-7. In addition, there are several quasi-Muslim sects, in that, although they follow many of the beliefs and practices of orthodox Islam, the majority of Sunnis consider them heretical. These would be the Ahmadiyya, Druze, Ibadi, and the Yazidis.
  482. Poonawala, Ismail K. (July–September 1999). "Review: The Fatimids and Their Traditions of Learning by Heinz Halm". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 119 (3). American Oriental Society: 542. doi:10.2307/605981. ISSN 0003-0279. JSTOR 605981. LCCN 12032032. OCLC 47785421.
  483. Bryer, David R. W. (1975). "The Origins of the Druze Religion (Fortsetzung)". Der Islam. 52 (2): 239–262. doi:10.1515/islm.1975.52.2.239. ISSN 1613-0928. S2CID 162363556.
  484. Foltz, Richard (7 November 2013). "Two Kurdish Sects: The Yezidis and the Yaresan". Religions of Iran: From Prehistory to the Present. Oneworld Publications. p. 219. ISBN 978-1-78074-307-3.
  485. House of Justice, Universal. "One Common Faith". reference.bahai.org. Retrieved 1 April 2017.
  486. Elsberg, Constance (2003), Graceful Women. University of Tennessee Press. ISBN 978-1-57233-214-0. pp. 27–28.
  487. "St. John of Damascus's Critique of Islam". Writings by St John of Damascus. The Fathers of the Church. Vol. 37. Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press. 1958. pp. 153–160. Retrieved 8 July 2019.
  488. Fahlbusch et al (2001), p. 759.
  489. Christian Lange Paradise and Hell in Islamic Traditions Cambridge University Press, 2015 ISBN 978-0-521-50637-3 pp. 18–20
  490. Reeves, Minou, and P. J. Stewart. 2003. Muhammad in Europe: A Thousand Years of Western Myth-Making. NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-7564-6. p. 93–96.
  491. ^ Stone, G. 2006. Dante's Pluralism and the Islamic Philosophy of Religion. Springer Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4039-8309-1. p. 53-54.
  492. Friedmann, Yohanan (2003). Tolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith Relations in the Muslim Tradition. Cambridge University Press. p. 18, 35. ISBN 978-0-521-02699-4.
  493. Modood, Tariq (6 April 2006). Multiculturalism, Muslims and Citizenship: A European Approach (1st ed.). Routledge. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-415-35515-5.

Sources

Encyclopedias and dictionaries

Further reading

Islam topics
Outline of Islam
Beliefs
Five Pillars
Religious texts
Denominations
Economics
Hygiene
Other aspects
 Islamic studies
Arts
Medieval science
Philosophy
Other areas
 Other
Other religions
Apostasy
Related topics
Religion
Religious groups and denominations
Western
Abrahamic
Judaism
Christianity
Islam
Other
Iranian
Zoroastrian
Kurdish
Other
Eastern
East Asian
Chinese
Japonic
Korean
Vietnamese
Indian
Hinduism
Buddhism
Other
Ethnic
Altaic
Austroasiatic
Austronesian
Native
American
Tai and Miao
Tibeto-Burmese
Traditional
African
North African
Sub-Saharan
African
Other ethnic
New
religious
movements
Syncretic
Modern
paganism
De novo
Historical religions
Topics
Aspects
Theism
Religious
studies
Religion
and society
Secularism
and irreligion
Overviews
and lists
Religion by country
Africa
Asia
Europe
North America
Oceania
South America
Portals: Categories: